SPH4U-B TTT) {UNIT | | / | KL) Modern Physicsopp 92011 he Ontario ucatoslCrmmuncatons Aha. Alright eered Nop of these ‘mates maybe eroded n whol orn part any form ory ay mens ectonicor mecha "luding photocopying, rearing ostoredin an formation oes systen mou he ‘waten prmsion The Ona fduestonal Coruna thy, very reasonable cane hasbeen takento race nd acknowledge ones of copyright mater Thelndependet Leaming Corre wlemesifamaton hat might ety any sor soarsa ra Introduction Sir Tsauc Newton dreamed ofa clockwork universe, where evrything behaved acording ‘o well-defined rules and laws and where, given enough information, you could accurately predict what would happen in the worl, Atthe beginning ofthe twentieth century, a group, ‘of physicists, including Albert Einstein, made sare of discoveries that shattered Newton's ‘dream forever. Two of Einsteins discoveries went onto become tw ofthe most successful theories in the history of science: the theory of relativity and quantum theory, Both ofthese theories have had an impact on the world and the society we live i, but most of ws don't ‘understand them or don't even think about them Albert Einsteins discoveries, which have been tested over and over again, describe a world that Is unpredictable and, n some way, impossible to measure. These theories ave advanced our understanding of the univers and the atom. Recently a particle aceleratr called the Large Hadron Collider was completed so that physicist could begin running tests, in arder to test out theory of atomie structure and our understanding of where the force of gevity originates, This unit explores thes ideas. Attheend of the unit, there isa Practice Tes. wil help you prepave forthe Final Test, After you have studied your course materials and reviewed the Key Questions, you should try to answer all the questions ina two-hour period, ‘The Practice Testis on your course page onthe ILC website, along with Practice Test Suggested ‘Answers, s0 that you can mark ic yurselE Instructions willbe given athe end of Lessa 20 Overall Expectations After completing this unit, you willbe able to + explain Einsteins two postulates for the special theory of relativity and describe evidence supporting the theory + analyze how the development of relativity as changed scientific thought + analyze the development of quantum mechanics and assess how Ithas changed scenic thought + solve problems related to the photoelectric effet + describe experimental evidence that supports a wave made! of matter + describe the standard model of elementary particles ona 207 Te rn ts aang ay Mich itcorgPrysies SHAS Table of Contents Unit 1: Dynamics Lesson 1: Relative Motion Lesson 2: Projectile Motion Lesson + Forces and Motion Lesson 4 revlar Motion Suggested Answers to Support Questions Unit 2: Energy and Momentum Lesion: Workand Energy Lesson 6: Hlastie Potential Energy Lesson 7: Impulse and Momentum in One Dimension Lesson &; Impulse and Momentum in Two Dimensons ‘Suggested Answers to Support Questions Unit 3: Gravitational, Electric, and Magnetic Fields Lesson Universal Gravitation and Grvitational Fields Lesson 10: Coulomb's Law and Electric Fells Lesson it: Eletrie Potential Energy and Bletre Potential Lesson 12: Magnetic Fields Suggested Answers to Support Questions Unit 4: The Wave Nature of Light Leston 13: Properties of Waves and Wave Interference Lesson Id: Interference of Light Waves Lesson 15: Other Wave Behaviors of Light Lesson 16; Polarization, Electromagnetic Radiation, nd Light Suggested Anewers to Support Questions necrosis [nah iain aay Leston 18: Implications of Relativity ‘Lesson 19: Introduction to Quantum Mechantes Lesson 20;- Implications of Quantum Mechanics Suggested Answers to Support Questions Heong op 21 Townace AIntroduction to RelativityIntroduction ‘The physical las developed by Galle and Sir Isaac Newton work very wel at low speeds, compared tothe speed of light. Fortwo hundred years, physi sed these laws and felt thet, ‘hey adequately explained the world around them. However, when physicists began performing ‘experiments in which particles acelerated to velocities close tothe speed of ight these laws ‘began to show thei ge In this lesson, you will tudy the special theory of relativity, which cals with the laws of physics relating o objects approaching the speed o light, ‘The special theory of relativity is not only interesting, but is also surprising and counterintuitive. n other words, predictions made about the nature ofthe universe that are ‘based on relativity are quite different to what people would normally expect to observe. Time and space behave in surprising ways. Many ofthe elt predict by relativity at fist seem shsurd, butan abundance of experimental evidence exist that supports these predictions. The applications of relativity invelve particle accelerstors, GPS tracking devices, and nuclear power Some ofthese applications wl be covered in the nex lesson Planning Your Study "You may in tht rid pin planing when nd how yo wl wrk though hie ton Sugesed Ting or Ti aton our ers z Tad pea Rwy ie Fin Dilton 3 ey Questn TI What You Will Learn Aer completing this eson, you will beable to + identify Einsteins two postulates forthe special theory of relativity and describe evidence supporting the theory + solve problems related tothe special theory of relativity + analyze how the development of relativity has changed scientific thought org anh 21 ects Sara Commins tet MendBen ross Frames of Reference ‘Usually when solving physics problems, you choose the earth as statlonary frame of reference an pica particular position on the earth to ac asthe origin You then measureal other ‘positions fom thisone, and all motion is relative to this position. However, you could choose ‘other positions forthe origin and they need not be anchored on the earth For example, ifyou are fying in plane, you wil probably we the lanes your frame of reference, or ifyou are inside a rocket, you will use the rocket as your fame of reference. Whatever reference frame ‘you use, it must be one of two types an inertial frame of reference ora non-inertial frame of Feference. Inan inertial frame of reference, Newton's first aw holds. In other words, inthis frame of reference ifthe net force on any object is zero, the abject wl remain at rest or move with a ‘constant velocity. Infact al avs of physice including gravity--old tue for any inertial frame of reference. Por example, imagine sitting at a table while you are ona tain thats ‘moving with a constant velocity. You place a drink onthe tableand observe that iit rest, with respect othe tai, so you correctly state that the net force on the drink is zero. An ‘observer on the platform observes the drink pas by with «constant velocity andl she also ‘lam thatthe net fore acting onthe drink i zero, since the drink isnot ecelrating. In both ‘cases the laws of physics corsectly predict the behaviour ofthe drink, eventhough the inertial reference frames have been changed However ifyou switch toa non-inestil reference fame, the laws of physis start to run into some difficulties. For example, i you are siting on a similar train that is now accelerating forwards and you place a ball on the table, intially atest you wil observe the ball accelerate brckowards, Ima case lke this, our bliin the laws of physics isso frm that we will invent a fiettions force to explain the ball’ behaviour. We will claim that there must be a force pushing backyards on the bal to explain why it accelerates towards the back of the train. From the inertial reference frame ofthe earth, the bal will appear stationary and an observer will correctly claim that the net force onthe ball is zero, asthe rain accelerates forward. (Obviously it is much simpler to study motion from an inertial reference frame that is consistent with Newton’ avs. The following thee statements wil help to clarify the rules for studying ‘motion in diferent reference frames: 1. Iman inertial frame of ference, an object with ane force of zero wil remain at rest or _move with a constant velocity. 2 Newton’ laws are only valid in inertial frames of reference, 3. Newtnl laws apply equally tal inertial reference frames In other word, all inertial reference frames are equivalent as fr as Newton’ laws are concerned. oor 201 Then ol Coin ay Mare iteorgBow mss Solution 8) Asan observer on the tain, you will conclude that gravity act tsight dowaveards, ‘accelerating the ball t 98 mu. You wil conclude tis because the ball wil fal vertically downwards 1b) In this case the ball wil move horizontally with a constant velocity while accelerating ‘downwards along a parabolic path. The observer will alo canchude that gravity i 9.8 mi down} ©) Gravity ats the same way in different inertial reference frames. Example 3 Acaris moving ata constant speed in circle 4) Can the inside ofthe car be considered an inertial ceference frame? Explain your reasoning. 1) Can you perform any experiment inside the cat to determine which typeof reference frame's? Explain, Solution 4) Nott cant. Objects that appear at rest inside the car are actualy accelerating towards the ‘entre of the etl, Inthe ears ame of reterence, Another object that sides across @ ‘smooth level surface inside the car wil appear to accelerate when no net force acts on it In the inertial frame ofthe earth te object will move with a constant veloc, showing that the net force on the sliding object is zero, 1b) Yes you can, ifyou placea round object on level surfice with no forces acting on it other ‘than gravity ad the normal fore, which wil be equal in magnitude and opposite in irection. I the ball tarts to accelerate, i means that the car sa non-inertial reference frame, areas ‘Do not send your answers in for evaluation. 1. Imagine tht you wake up ina train with lased blinds at all the windows. Without looking outside, is there any way for you to tell whether the tein ie moving with « ‘constant velocity or whether itis at res? (Assume that you are on a Maglev train that experiences no bumps and makes no nals, while moving) 2. Your friend isin an accelerated frame of reference, but does not realize it. 1) Using a mass and string how can you demonstrate to your frend that he isin an accelerated reference fame? Explain your reasoning, nT Orin con Conn hay raeSince all inertial reference frames are eqully vl, there i no absolute velocity fr an object, Alleloctes are relative toa frame of reference. Conversly, this also suggests that there i no bsolute reference fame that canbe considered at rest. f ne reference frame is moving with respect to another, theres no way to determine which ones actually at res, since both are equally valid In fac, the question, “Which ofthese two reference feemesis really moving?” ‘ow has no meaning, since both reference frames obey all ofthe laws of physi To putt simply there is no physis experiment that can be performed to determine which reference frame is actually moving so there sno point in discussing which one ofthe two isthe stationary eference frame. Example 1 Imagine that you relying in a commeriljetthat is moving with a constant velocity, with respect tothe earth 2) Explain why the jet sa perfectly valid inertial reference fame 1b) A passenger sys, "tTooks aif the planes stationary and the earth is moving” I ths point of view valid? Explain your reasoning ©) Ifthe windows ae all covered, how can you tell whether the plane is moving without uncovering them, there ie no turbulence? Solution 8) The planeis moving with «constant velocity, which means that objects with no net force ‘on them wil rain a est or move with constant velocity, 1) Yes Alinertial reference frames ae equally valid €)_Thereismo way to tell whether the plane is moving, since all reference frames are equally valid. In fact, the question is irelevant because there is no absolutely “at rst reference frame Example 2 trains moving forward with a constant velocity Whileon the wa, you perform an ‘experiment investigate gravity by dropping tall. 2) Asanobserve on the tai, wha conclusion wll you make about gravity? Explain your resroning ) _Anobserver onthe ground watches the same ballon he ein fall What condsions wil he observer on the ground make about the grevity ating on the ball? Explain your reasoning ©) Whatcan you concue about gravity in diferent inert reference ames? pc 27 Tn ttn Conmanato hay Aes roerss nn ') Ifyou friend is stubborn and remains unconvinced, how will he explain the behaviour of the mass and string? Using bal, describe another way in which you can try to convince you friend, 4) Why does Newron's fest aw appear to fil ina non-inertial fame of reference? 3. While you are on bus, just as you theow bal straight up, the bus change its motion. 4). Relative to you, describe what the ball will do ifthe bus speeds up. Explain your reasoning. 'b) Relative to you, describe what the ball will do if the bus slows down, Exp reasoning your Serena oer neat Introduction to Special Relativity Recal thatthe velocity ofan object depends on the inertial frame of reference. For example if you ate standing on a train thats moving at 20 ms) and you rola ball across the Floor at 10 mis E), you wil se the ball move at 10 mus [E) However, an observer on the ground wil ee ‘he ball moving at 20 mus [E+ 10 mus | = 30 mvs [This demonstrates that the speed of the ball depends onthe reference fame Inthe early 1900s, physicists wondered whether light would also obey the same rules as moving ‘objects. For example, flight were directed out ofa flashlight a speed of towards the front ‘of rocket moving atc, would an observer on the earth see the light moving at 4/3? For that mater, flight were fied backwards in the rocket, would an observer on the earth se the light moving at 23? James Clerk Maxwell actually derived the speed of light mathematically, using his theory of tlectromagnetism. Strangely his derivation made no mention of any inertial reference frame, He found thatthe speed of ight ina vacuum was c= 3.00 x 10" ms, but didn refer to any frame of reference when deriving this umber. Many physicist assumed that there must be some absolte reference ame in the universe and that this epesd was calculated according to that reference frame, In fact, since other types of waves required a medium through which they could move, Physicists believed that there must he some medium through which ight (an electromagnetic wave could move, aswell. They ssimed that this medium, which they called the ether, was ‘an absolute frame of reference and that ll other objets, including light, moved with respect to this medium, Since they could not directly detect the ether, they accepted that all objects could passthrough it freely that ithad no density or mass, and that i illed al of space, allowing light to reachusfrom distat galaxies, itcorg a0 non ommend. ross this ether existed, the speed of light would dif slighty, fit were travelling withthe ethes, compared to moving against. Thnk of light as a swimmer in a river Ifthe swimmer swims against the curren, se will move moe slowly, with respect to the ground, Ise sviras perpendicular to the eurent, she will mave more quickly fhe swims withthe current, she ‘will move as fst as possible Physicists hypothesized thatthe same would be tue of light moving through the ether, when the source oflight was anchored on the earth. As the earth orbis the sun (which s also _moving),the speed ofthe earth with respect tothe ether mst change with the seasons, 5 shown inthe diagram that follows, Since the earth moves relative tothe ether, there should bean “ether wind” that would change withthe seasons. This difference in speed would then fect the speed of light, with respect tothe ether. The difference in speed woul be smal, since lights so fst. Several physicists attempted to detect this difference in speed, using some very lever experiments. The most famous ofthese experiments was performed by two American ‘physicists, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley, ‘The results ofthe Michelson-Morley experiment are too complicated to flly explain here, s0 4 brief outline follows. The experiment used a device called an interferometer to detect these small expected changes in the speed of light. This device geneated an interference pattern by splitting a beam of ight into two perpendicslar directions The two separate beams were reflected off two separate mirors back onto the incident beam, causing interference. A simple diagram ofthe apparatus is shown onthe next page yg 21 Ot nen Cmts Atty. Mc onMichelson-Morley Equipment Halesvered miror Light source Detector (telescope) ‘This entire apparatus could be rotated to allow the light fom the beams to travel in any Aivection, in an attempt to detect small changes in the interference pattera, These small. changes would result if the two separate beams experienced any change in speed, A change in speed would result ifone beam was directed parallel tothe ether wind, while the other was irected perpendicula 0 ‘Michelson and Morley attempted the experiment many times during different times ofthe year: but finally gave up after never having detected any changes inthe interference pattern ‘This meant that, no matter which way the beams were directed light didnot change its sped, "eseemed thatthe speed of light was constant and completly independent ofthe direction of \ravel. How, then, could the relative velocity of che earth moving through the ther, as well asthe relative velocity flight moving through the ether, have no eect n the speed of ight? Many explanations were offered to tr to explain thie result, but the simplest one was proposed by Albert Binstein in 1905. He simply decide that there was no ether Einstein explained the result with hs special theory of relativity, which is based on the following two postulates 1. The relativity principle: Alf the laws of physics ae valid in llinertial reference frames 2 The constancy ofthe speed of ight: Light travels through empty space (a vacuum) ata speed of = 3.00 x 10" mis, relative tall neti reference frames. iteorg eho 201 Tonal Commute‘The firs postulates just an extension of wha ou earned earn this son. Hee, latin ‘sproposing that al ofthe les of physics not jst Newton's laze he same inal neti reerence ames, However, the cond postulate seems stage, fyou have not stdied the ‘esl ofthe Michelon-Morey experiment tis commen sense to expect an observer who is ‘moving aconstantsped tovardsa beam oflight o measure diferent peed fo he peed oflight than an observer who moving iecty aay rom the same bean light. However, Einsteins pointing out that common sens ts down, when dslng wit ight, and that both moving observers will measuze the same speed: ~ 300% 10" ‘The second postulate aso solves the dilemma that arose from James Maxwell's caleulation of the speed of light. Maxwell didnot need 10 use reference frame to calculate te sped of light because the speed oflight i the same in every inertial reference fame. This notion of doing way with an absolute reference frame had other consequences that you will learn about ater in tis unit. In fact, these two postulates had incredible and surprising implications that, at frst, wore resisted bythe selene community, but ae now considered 1o be as much apart of physics as Newton's ws, Simultaneity First, consider the implications of Einsteins theory of elativity for something that often taken for granted: time. Newtonian mechanics assume that there in absolut frame of ‘ference, at walle abealte ime Thie mente that one observer meatured the tine inlerval {nvwhich an event took place, anther observer in a different inertial reference frame woud also measure the same time interval. You wil find, however, that according tthe theory of relativity this snot the eat, ‘Tohelp you understand this, consider the concept of simultanlty.Simulkanelty s when two or more evens acer atthe same time. In the following experiment, yo wl ee that simultancty ia relative concept. In other words, ian observer in one reference frame sees twa events ‘occurring tthe same time, an observer ina different reference frame might not see these ‘events occurring a the same time, ‘Asan example, take look st the fllowing thought experiment, Observer A stands between ‘wo lights, L, and Las shown ona platform (the dlagram that fllows shows atop view). These lights, when tuned on, emia shor flash flight and then immediatly go out. They are also connected tothe same switch so that, in the reference fame of the earth, wien one is turned on, the other one wll ome on simultaneously. Note that observer A i positioned right inthe ‘middle ofthe two lights, Since light travels atthe same speed from both sources, when the lights returned on the light from each source will ariveat observer As postion atthe same time and he will eport that the lights came on simaltancously. He can reach this conclusion because fhe calculates the time when the lights came on by dividing the distance bythe speed flight, he wil get the same answer for bath of them. tend mma hoy gram Acorgmse ny Observer Observers ‘What if there were another stationary observer, , standing right beside observer A? Will she see the lights come on atthe same time? Of course fr the sme reason thet did, she wll also ‘conclude thatthe light came on simultaneously. Both observer A and B will se the flashes of light atthe same time, Since the distance to each source isthe same, they will both conclude that the lashes were simultaneous, Ina new thought experiment, observer B moves with «constant velocity tothe right, but ‘everything else inthe experiment is kept the same. Now, when the lights come on and the ight travels towards observer B, she is moving tothe righ, with respect to the earth, This means ‘that she will se L, come on first fllowed by L, Since the distances are equal and igh travels at the same speed in any reference frame, she wll be forced to conclude that L, came on first and thatthe lights were not simultaneous. ‘The diagram below shows the star ofthe new experiment at the point where the lights have just comeon, : | : on QO Oo Gr comers ene pre ree ee : cern : o- O_O "Note that, in the second thought experiment, observer A wil till conchide tha the lights came ‘nat the same time. Therefore, the following conclusion must be reached: wo events that ace simultaneous in on frame of reference are, in general, not simultaneous with second frame of reference that is moving wit respect tothe fest Simaltaneity is not an absolute concep fieorg Cony 207 eC cn Conk try Mig meYou might wonder, "Whois actully correct here?” or “Which observer is ight about the simultenety?" The strange answer to these questions that both observers ae corect! One reference frame isnot better than anothe for judging simultaneity- In everyday life, you dont notice any ofthese differences because you dest move fast enough, with respect othe earth, to do so. However, the difference becomes obvious at higher specds Example ‘Imagine that you have «boat that can move at 4.0 ms with respect to the water. You pt the boat ina river witha current of 0 ms [ 8) Whatisthe sped ofthe boat relative tothe ground, ithe boat heads Dest 3) west 1b) Fora moment, pretend that the ether does exist. Now Imagine light moving with respect t0 the ether. What wll happen to the velocity of the light, with respect to the earth, it moves 4) ina diecton opposite otha ofthe motion ofthe ether? 1H) inthe same direction atthe motion ofthe ether? ©) Explain why the Michelson-Morley experiment forced Einstcin to conchude that there is no ther Solution 8) 40ms [2] +3.0mi5(E} =7.0ms(E) 1B) 0.m/s[W] +3.0 mis] = 10 mls [E) 1b) 1) Light will appear to move more slowly, wit respect othe cath 4) Light will appear to move more quickly with respect to the earth, ©) Light travels ata constant speed, regadles ofthe dtetion in which tis aimed. flight ‘were to move through ether asa medium, his would not happen. Therefore, there is 10 ther ah te nse anna ty gad orgmeni coon BB ROT iaeer ett 4. Baplain why physicists orginally tried to introduce ether into their model of the 5. Consider the Michelson-Morey experiment. 1) What was this experimen trying to show? Why was the experiment initlly considered a failure? By In what way can the experiment actualy be considered a success? ‘The first postulate ofthe special theory of elativit snot unusual, while the second) Postulteis more dificult to accept Explain the validity ofthis statement. 7. Examine the following diagram of person shining flashlight, while on a train ‘moving forward ‘An observer onthe train and another on the ground both messut the sped of ight ‘coming from the Mashligh ‘Using Newtonian mechanics, how would etch observer's measurement differ from that of the other? Explain your reasoning. 1b) How will the measurements actually compare? 1s tpossible for two events tobe simltancous in two different reference frames that are ‘moving with respect to eachother? Explain your reasoning. ilcorg ns 2201 Tr encom ue sereBen rss Time Dilation ‘You know now that two events that ar simultaneous in one reference frame are not generally simultaneous in another reference frame. Now, you will onsier time intervals in two diferent reference frames. You might ask “ls there such a thing as absolute time?” It would seem unlikely since simulteneitys not absolte. You might assume that ime intervals are also relative to the observer. The following thought experiment will sow tha this is the case Consider rocket that is moving horizontally ta low altitude at speed of. Inside the rocket, An astronaut performsan experiment in which she fires laser (ligh) from the floor up to ‘the ceiling, and then measures the timeit takes forthe ight to go from the floor up to the cling. The time she measures can be called, because when she does the experiment, the ‘equipment is stationary with respect to her frame of reference. Using the height ofthe celing, asthe distance you have h=cAf, This equation gives the height of the calling inside the rocket because the astronaut in the rocket views the light move straight up tothe ceiling. he path thet the ight wl follow, with respect oan astronaut inside the rocket, shown in the diagram below. ‘An observer outside the rocket, inthe earth's frame of reference, wil see the light move along At, This means that the timeit takes forthe light to ¥ise up and hit roo 01 aon amas aot AerBe meses ‘the ceiling inthe rocket i diferent, iit s measured ina reference fame within which the rocket is moving. To be more specific a person outside the rocket inthe earth’ reference frame ‘measures more time fr the event than person insde the rocket. Foran astronaut who ses the events occurring atthe same pce time measured i called the proper time. The fact that an observer who i moving with respect tothe sequence of events ‘measures more time, i called time dilation. This means thal an observer outside the rocket will ‘see clocks running sll, while someone inside the rocket will se them running normally. “The person inside the rocket experiences les time, while the petson outslde the rocket, in the ‘earths reference frame, experiences more time. Notice that the denominator ofthe above equation sa real number and only ifthe expression 1 -y'/¢ isposiive Therefore, you hve: “This s the famous speed limi imposed bythe special theory of relativity. No material abject can havea speed greater than, or equal othe speed of light in a vacuum, ‘Many different experiments have been done to verify time dilation. One ofthese experiments, performed in 1971, used four extremely accurate atomic clocks, Two clocks were left at rest in a Tab, one was put ona plane fying west around the world twice, andthe other was put on a plane flying eas around the world. As predicted by eelaiity, bath clocks were expected to lose a very small amount of time (e small ration ofa secon), duet their motion with respect to the clocks on the earth. As predicted, after two trips around the world at high speed, both clocks lost time and time dilation was verified, Another experiment used subatomic particles called muons to test time dilaton, Muons are similar to heavy electrons, but they are unstable and decay into other particles after 2.2 ws, [At the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), these muons ar accelerated to almost the speed of light. Usinga time of2.2 you would likely predict that the muons, at this speed, would lst about 15 laps around the circular accelerator. However, they lsted for ‘more than 400 laps, which means that they lasted, nthe earth's eference frame, over 30 times Jonger than they doa rest. From your point of view, in the moving reference frame the muons last longer than they do when they area est. The fllowing scenario wl hep to clarify the concepts involved with time dilation. (One famous thought experiment i called the twin paradox. Imagine twin brothers: one an ‘sions, and th ather a sciente, Te astronaut lesves to goon along epace voyage thigh velocity while istwin, the scientist, stays on earth, As you might expect, the twin whois on the rocket experiences es time. When he returns home, he has aged less than his twin, who stayed on earth (as shown inthe diagram that follows) the trip were long enough and the speed ofthe rocket were fast enough, the difference in the ages ofthe twins could be quite eho Oa en cme ty. Ac et iicorg 0, Infact, if > 0, then Wwiich suggests that Z < Zn other words, the length of anything an objector even just the listance between two points—is shorter when observed in an inertial reference frame that is ‘moving, than when observed (rom an inertial reference frame tha at rest, with respect to the object. This phenomenon is called length contraction beeaue lengths decrease when the speed, with respect tothe object, is not ero Keepin ming that his ength contraction occurs when length is measured or observed paral! tothe direction of motion, but has no effect on lengths measured perpendicular othe iretion of motion. For example, considera rocket moving ata spesd of 0.80 past the earth. An observer on the rocket measures the proper length af the racket as 50m, An observe onthe ‘earth measures the length ofthe rocket to be: ‘The diagram that follows shows, fist, how the rockstappeats within the reference frame ofthe rocket self and second, how the rocket appears fom the reference frame ofthe earth Notice that, in reference frame that is moving with respect tothe objec or conversely ifthe rocket is moving with respect othe reference frame), the rocket appears shorter but not thinner as shown inthe bottom pat ofthe following diagram. tory Cnr 201 Thorn cn Caen try A reon rs smart Rocket asitappearsin the ference ame where rocket snot moving k Rocketasitappeasin the ference ame where rockets moving “The next diagram summarizes the properties of time dilation and length contraction that you have studied upto ths point. The top part the diagram shows the point of view of n ‘observer on earth who is watching acocket fly of ta distant planet, planet X. From the frame ‘of reference ofthe earth, the distance between the planets is L, oF the proper length, because the planets are at rest in this reference frame, However, the length ofthe rocket iL because the rocket is moving ta speed, x, with respect othe earth. The time that it takes forthe rocket, to make the voyage it At, because the rocket is moving with respect othe earth [Now consider the point of view of an observer who in the rocket, by looking tthe bottom part ofthe diagram. From the reference frame ofan observer on the rocket, the distance between the planets, Li shorter beeaue the planets are moving within this eference frame. Te length ofthe rocket is the proper length, 1, because the rockets not moving with respect to the observer andi longer, in this efetence frame. The time forthe rocket to make the woyage st, because the rockets tations, within thie reference frame, and the time interval, Isshorter, api TO nimi Athy Ah ileongtne wens BP ———I ones. Example ‘A rocket moving a 0.70 with respect tothe earth i headed directly towards the earth. The rocket is flying tan altitude of 6000 km when it passes space sation that eat rest relative to the earth. 8) Theproper length ofthe rockets 120 m, How longs the rocket, as measured by 1) am observer onthe space station? 11) amobserver onthe rocket? b) How faris the rocket fom the surface of the earth when it passes the space sation, sccording to an observer on the racket? Solution 4) According to an observer on the space station, the rocket is moving and will therefore be contacted, “The rocket i 85:7 m long. ilcorg i020 Te acto Conmutin athty AtoPhysics SPHAL-8 i) Taam observer on the rocket, the rocket wil ook stationary so the observer will measure the proper length, which s 120m. 1) Am observer on the rocket wil se the space station move away from the rocket and the ‘arth move towards the rocket. This means that they wil see the distance tothe surface of the earth as being contracted. 000, 4290 km ‘The rockets 4280 kam from the earth Sea oe Do not send your answers in for evaluation. 8} Complete the fllowing table for different values of vierac aos 1) Now use the table data to answer the following questions. |) Atvwhat speed does the length contract by 20%? ii) At what sped isthe length 50% shorter” First estimate the answer using the table deta, and then caleulate the answer ‘At what speeds dotlativistic effets become noticeable? You may assume that a change in length of about 0.5% i considered noticeable 13, A spaceship passes you at 090 and you measure its length es 40.0 m. What isthe length ofthe spaceship inthe plot's reference frame? 14, When viewed from the earth, a stats dd away from earth when both the earth and the star are at est. A spaceship sats from earth and travels toward thestarat 20» 10° Calelate the distance between the earth and the star (n terms of Ad), according to an observer on the spaceship. siete Relativistic Mass Up to this poin, you have learned that there sno such thing as ebsolute ime or length, Just. by changing from one inertial reference frame another, the amount of time and length ‘measured can change. For both of these concepts, you were able to derive equations that govern how time and length vary from one at rest reference frame to another. What do you think happens tothe mass of an objec fits viewed from a moving reference frame? or this concept, yo wil only learn about the equation that relates est mass to moving or tlativistic ‘mass, asthe derivation is beyond the scope ofthis course. The equation that relates relatviste ‘mass, mi to stationary of rest mas, yi ‘Here, isthe mass ofan object as measured by an observer whois in erence frame that is moving with respect to the mass or conversely, the mass is moving with respect the observer) Also, mis the mas ofthe same object as measured by an observer who iia. a reference frame that i at rest, with respect tothe object. Ths usually called ret mass, or sometimes, proper mass, Rest mas isthe erm forthe mass with which you are already familia. It represents the term 'm, for net fore or momentum, in your equation. It ean be messured by «balance or by hanging itfrom a spring scale. Rest assis nothing new, but telativistic mass is new. This equation suggests thatthe rest mass ofan objet (measured from a reference frame where the object. ‘appears at rest) isnot equal to the relativistic mass of the object the mass ofthe same object measured from a reference frame where the object is moving). Hheorg apy 20 The atl anon ary A aseBow msn tocthen > m,Inaditon, if vis very lose ie very close to zero and the relativistic mass (m,) gets very large. The closer the objsct’s speed ito the speed of ight, the larger the relativistic mas willbe. The ‘elativistic mass is approaching infinity asthe speed of the object approaches the sped of light Although you are only studying special reativty a this point, where objects move with ‘constant velocities, you ean likly appreciate the dilemma: if the relativistic mass approaches {infinity asthe speed ofthe mass approaches the speed of light, then the object can never ‘move faster than the sped of light. The reasoning fr this simmple: you cant accelerate an {infinite mass. Another way to look a Its to ase how you could even have an infinite mas! [Nevertheles, fom this equation, you have further evidence thatthe speed of lights the slyolute maximum speed for any object in the universe ‘What implications des this absolute maximum on the speed of an object have for space travel? [A frst, you might tink thatthe limit on the maxirnim sped iso high that it does really ‘matter In some was this s ru, since, currently, rocket cannot be acelerated anywhere clove ta the speed of light, However, if rocket could be made to travel ata speed close tothe speed of light at some point inthe future the time i would take to gt to distant stars ether in our own galaxy o even in other galaxies, would be very disappointing, From the reference frame ofthe earth, even Proxima Centaurithe closest star to exrth—would take at east several yeas to reach. It would take about 100000 years or more to reach the furthest tr, and billions of years to reach some ofthe visible galaxies. Ofcourse, the time would seem shorter to people on the rocket, ft moved fst enough with respec tothe earth. However, these people ‘would have fo scrfice their ives hereon earth nd possibly never retuen home, ithey went on such a journey, ‘The following example will help o clarify the relationship between rest mss and ratvistc Example A tocket i moving through space at speed of 0.06, with respect to a nearby space station. “The lot checks her computer and finds that the mas ofthe rocket and allo its contents 120 000 kg. Whats the mass ofthe rocket, according to an observer onthe space sation? ony 201 erin ce Commas aay a manesos co Solution ‘The pilot has measuted the rest mas, since the rocket i at resin er frame of reference. The ‘observer on the space tation will measure the relativistic mass, “E 120000 0) 120000 ira 1m = 200000 kg ‘According oan observer onthe space station, the mass of the rocket is 200000 ky. Biers 8, ‘lcorg 9) Find the reatviste mass ofan objet wit a ext mas of 1g that is moving the allowing speeds 1 300m W ose tin 09 i) 0.989996 'b) Sketch a graph ofthe relativistic mass ofthe 10 kg object asa function ofits speed. Use the graph to justify thatthe sped of light isthe absolute maximum speed of any ‘object in the universe, ‘The density of aluminum is 2.70 x 10 kg/m’. A block of aluminum inthe shape of 1.0m x 1.0m 1.0m cube is moving inthe direction shown at 0906. c 8 anh 0201 hr dan Commas tery prBow Physics HAUS 1) Which dimension indicated will be afected by the motion? 1b) Find the relativistic volume ofthe cube Find the relativistic mass of the cube 4). ind the relativistic densty ofthe cube (D= mV). 2) Compare relativistic density to test densty for the cube Mass and Energy ‘sh 201 Te cro xa ommend Aged Ima previous section, you used the fact that when force does work onan objec sit moves across horizontal surface, the change in kinetic energy i equal tothe otal work done “This derivation assumes thatthe mass ofthe object doesnot change when the speed changes. “This allows the mass tobe factored ost asa common factor. You now know that thsi not the ‘ase. The mats of an object changes when the speed ofthe object changes You alo assumed that any Increase inthe object's energy was due only to the inezease in speed, which, in tur, increased the kinetic enezgy. This sa good assumption when the speeds are slow, compared to the speed oflight. However, when the speeds become relativistic, you need to reconsider this concept Einstein sing mathematical techniques beyond the cope of this course, derived the following ‘equation forthe total relativistic energy ofan object moving witha constant sped, v, with respect to an inertial reference frame: 0,50 that you get “This is arguably the mos famous equation ofl time. This equation suggests a surprising resuls that ret mass ia frm of energy. In fact, since the sped of ight isa lange constant (nd itis squared in this equation), any significant amount of rest mas represents a huge amount of ‘nergy. In adlition, Einstein suggested that energy canbe transformed into mass and mass can be tranaformed into energy.Physis SPHAUS exons ‘According to classical mechanics, the total mass in any interaction is conserved, In ation, classical mechanics tate thatthe total energy is also conserved In elatvty mass and energy are differen forms of the same thing and so the two conservation laws must be combined into the conservation of mass-energy Using this new conservation lav kinetic energy is defined a¢ ‘the additional energy of the object duet ts motion. Eat = aa +B "Notice that an object at rest doesnot havea total energy of zero in elativitys it stil has est ‘nergy, and this energy can be converted into athe forms of energy If during a reaction of any kind—chemical or niclear—mass is lost (not because i escaped, but because twas converted ino energy) then the amount of energy produced is given by: al ‘Ame ‘where AE s the energy produced in joules and A i the mass converted into energy in ‘alograms. As you will sein the following examples, a small amount of mass can be converted imo huge amount of energy. Physicists and engineers are always looking for safe and cheap ‘ways of releasing this energy in order to provide energy for homes and businesses. Example 1 Consider a 10 kg mas at et 4) What isthe rest energy of the 10k mass? 1) How much enespy could be obtained from the mas iit were converted into energy? ©) How log could you ran 23 W light bulb using this mount of energy? Solution Aer Ba =(10)(3.0%10")° Eg =9.0%10" J ‘The rest energy of the 10kg masse 90 10” b) You could obtain 90 « 10” ofenergy org i021 Te nao tae Conmunas Any. ABw mpsesease ge 3|2 815 10” 3 ox10"s ‘You could run the lightbulb for 39x 10s. “This number has lite meaning to most people, but fyou conver itinto year (by dividing bby 360 seconds for every hour, 24 hours fr everyday, and 365 days for every year), You. _getan astounding 1.24 illin years of energy to run a single lightbulb, Another way to look at it is that this amount of energy could operat 100 milion light bulbs for 1.4 yeas! Example 2 Find the kinetic energy of an electron moving at 0.90¢ with respect tothe cath, from the ‘arth’ frame of reference. The rest mass ofan electro 9.11 x 10" kg, Solution Eat ~ Ema Da ~(o11x10*)a0xi0"F 13910" : Re ~ 8.199% 10" ue ee R= 10x10") ‘The kinetic energy from the electron is 1.0% 10° ey 0201 or ino muon ry Me, ilcorgsie coo rire 17. proton mows at speed of 099¢in a particle accelerator, The et mass of proton is 1.67107 i 4) Whatis the total energy ofthe proton, wien viewed from the earth’ reference fame? 1) Whats the kinetic energy ofthe proton, when viewed from the earth's reference frame? ‘What implications do the answers to these two questions have for particle accelerators 18. Onaverage, 41 of gas can produce about 1.0 10J of energy, when burned. This nough o move an average car about 3 km Asal tablet of apirin has a mas of 525 mg ths tablet were converted int thermal energy how far could the cargo on one table 19, _Anoclear plant operating 2 5.2 GW is converting a small portion of uranium into ‘energy. For the purposes ofthis calculation, assume that the proces is 100% ecient and thatthe plants always running at fll capacity. How much mass must be converted into ‘energy every yer to run the nuclear plant? ‘As you may have noticed, very little mass can produce alt of energy and this principle is pt to ood use in nuclear reactors In a muclesr reactor, particles are not changed directly nto energy, ‘but when atoms are split uring nuclear fission, 2 small amount of mas Is converted into energy. However, the reverse is alo true: when a particle i accelerated to speeds close tothe speed oflight—as they are in a particle aceelerator~ lt of energy i equired because the mass ‘ofthe particle will increase. In addition, the particles radiate some of the energy as they move sround in a circular path, making the process even more difficult Pechaps one day we will be able to change mass directly into energy and wll no longer need to use fosil Fels or any other kind of energy, for that matt) As you know, the tremendous amount of energy stored in matter can also cause a deadly «explosion from an atomic bomb, In this typeof bomb, a nuclear reaction quickly converts mass {nto energy and the tremendous energy produced creates the explosion. Thisis one extremely, negative application of nuclear technology that people wil hopefully void exploiting in the future. Heorg ‘ons 201 Tecra aromas bet geneGeneral Relativity Einstein alo developed his general theory of relativity abou 10 yeas afer the special theory ‘of relativity was published, In tis theory, he studied the elects on time and space fom an accelerated reference frame, rather than an inertial one Just she linked mass and energy together in his special theory of relativity, he ao linked time and space togeth theory of relativity. In this body of work, he came tothe conclusion that gravity is nota force ‘exerted by one large mass on another through a gravitational id, but ie rther a warp in spacetime. By this, he means that large masses cause a curvature in spacetime, which make planes orbit around the sun, 2 shown inthe diagram tha follows. A model fr this behavios ‘an be described as fllows in his general Imagine loge, very sft, smooth mattress If large bowling ball were placed in the entre of the mattress, it would curve the surface ofthe mattress. If sll all were rolled across the mattress near the bowing bal, the curvature ofthe mattress would cause the ball t follow a caved path. This ir similar to the curvature of spacetime due toa large mass ike the sun, instin argued that gravity gets weaker with distance, because spacetime i ese curved when are further away from te large mass. Gravity is stronger near a huge mass ike the san because it curves spacetime more, duc tits huge mat. Ifthe mas is very huge and the size Is very small, ast fora blackhole, then spacetime is curved so much that evr ight wil get trapped by the gravitational pul. One ofthe strange predictions made by relativity is that ight will not appear to travel in ight line near a strong gravitational field due to the curvature of spacetime. Light aliays travels ina straight line in a vacuum, but if spacetime is bent, the path of light wil also bend, Tis effet has been observed on more than one occasion and is shown inthe fllowing diagram,Physics SPHAU-B exons BP ‘On. more practical level, consider the GPS devices that people use to tel them where they are located onthe earths surface, and which give them precise dsections to follow to get to theiz destinations. These devices use the physics of general celtvity to increase ther aceurkcy. The «at's mass is large enough to curve spacetime slighty and interfere withthe operation of satellite technology. Without th use of general elaivty, GPS sateltes would not work ty Another key piece of evidence in support of the general theory of relativity i the precession (gradual shifting) of Mercury's oct, a shoven inthe diagram that follows. Newtons gravity redicts a stable elliptical orbit for planets. Even when the gravitational pul ofthe other planets Ss taken into account, the orbit of Mercury cannot be explained using Newtonian gravitation, Using the curvature of spacetime, Einstein calculated haw the orbit of Mercury should change with time (precession) and his calculations matched the astronomical daBrew tits ‘Keep in mind tha special relativity was introduced in 1905, nd general elaivityn 1915. Since then, physicists have advanced the theory and added new ideas and theories to Einstein's original framework. Concepts such as dark matter and dark energy have been proposed to explain the discrepancies between the amount of observed matter and the motion of large ‘asses i the universe, suchas stars and galaxies In addition, many attempts have been made to-combine relativity and quantum mechanics (which ithe topc ofthe next wo lessons), with ‘varying degtees of success. Keepin mind that although there is mach more to leaa in this Held ‘ofstudy, there i even more this yet tobe dacovered. 20, Describe the mat Aiference between the general theory of tlativity andthe specs ‘theory of relativity 21, What evidence is thereto support the general theory of tlativity? ot 20 Te natal Comsat ieSave your answers tothe Key Questions ‘When you have completed the unit, submit them to ILC for marking, (22 marks) 558. The proper length of spaceship A is 60.0 m and the proper length of spaceship Bis 120.0 m. The proper mass of spaceship A i 15 000g. An observer on earth watches the two spaceships fly past ata constant speed and determines that they have the same length. Ifthe speed ofthe lower spaceship is 0.70, find a) thelength of spaceship , relative tan observer on earth (3 marks) ) the speed of spaceship B, relative t an observer on earth, ( marks) 2. the mass of spaceship A, relative tan observer on earth (3 marks) 59. _Anuclear power generating station generates 300 x10" W of power. How much mass oes the plant convert into energy in one month (30 days)? Assume thatthe proces is 100% efficient. (5 marks) 460. a} Calelatethe kinetic nergy required to accelerate single proton fom aes position to 03355. The mas of proton 1.67» 10 kg, @ mark) 1) Find the ratio ofthe kinetic energy to the energy ofa proton at rest (3 marks) Explain why no particle accelerator wil ever be able to accelerate any particle tothe speed of ight. (mark) Now go on to Lesson 19. Do not submit your coursework to ILC until you have ‘completed Unit 5 (Lessons 17 to 20), nec 6201 cna ral Comes etSPH4U-B Introduction to Quantum Mechanicsst wooo Introduction {mths lesson, you wl learn about a new branch of physics called quentumm mechanics. Jus ike relativity, this branch of physics is very interesting and surprising. The fundamental principle ‘of quantum mechanics is used to develop new devices like CCDs and soar panels The charge 10°" kgeml, Example 2 ‘What are the equivalent mass and momentum of photon with frequency of 3.0 x 10° 2? Solution Fist, you need t ind the energy af the photon Bey B= (663x10~)(30x10") Be 1969x105 ileorg igh Ye Ono ave Communes ty Aes andvon toms Now find the equivalent mass: E 1.989310" (Gox10'f r= 22110 hg ‘Tefind the momentum, you need the wavelength. To find the wavelength, use the wave equation with _ oxi “30x10 = 10107 m ‘Now you can find the momentum: A a a0 p= 663x109 {photon with frequency of 3.0 10" hasan equvalen mass of2.21 x10 ganda momentum of 6.6310" kgomis. on Tm ra unalone aay Mg an ileorgrosso oom prensa Do not send your answers in for evaluation, 38, Show thatthe quantity” has the same wits as momentum, 34, Calculate the equivalent mass and momentum ofthe fllowing photons: 4) A photon with a wavelength of 520 nm 1) A photon with frequency of 43 x 10" Hz 35. photon has wavelength of250 nm, and the same momentum as an electron. Find the rao ofthe kinetic energy ofthe electron tothe energy of the photon, 36. Examine the following graph, showing the ate of photosynthesis sa function ofthe wavelength of ight [Sr] xen Sc i fi . i i 3 8 3 = i 3 [eee ‘Wavelength of igh (nm) Using the graph, aswel as what you have earned about interactions of photons with ‘matte, explain the following 9) Why leaves containing chlorophyll appear green under white light 'b) Why monochromatic green light does nat produce photosynthesis ©) Why low-temperature ight bubs are unable o praduce photosynthesis when white light from the sun ean do so sere iets nc 6201 Cr er Coma: ey Aegonod Pyles SPH Wave-particle Duality =P Go to your course page and watch the video called "The Challenge of Quantum Reality” under Lesson 20, for an intodction to tis topic Before the particle nature of light was discovered twas wll known that light wil difact ‘wen sent through a narrve single sit The diffraction patra, if projected ont a sereen, has ‘bright, wide central maximum and dimmer, smaller secondary maxima. In 1910, British ‘Physicist Geoffrey Taylor did an interesting experiment in which he limited the amount of ight assing through the slit to one photon a ime, He wanted to see ifthe photons would act like particle ora wave, when they passed through singe slit To record the results, he used ‘photographic pate. took moaths to develop pattern, because the photons were produced ‘one at time, When he developed the picture, he found the interference pattern predicted by the wave theory bu produced by photons which are particles of ight, Te results ofthis experiment were very confusing, because they seemed to support bth the particle theory of Tight and the wave theory of ight, simultaneously. |When the photographic plate is developed, i makes a small dot only in those places where photons have struck the plate, but remains undeveloped where no photons have struck the plate This i clear evidence that light ig composed of particles (known a photons). However, {dividual photons form an interference pattern ona screen that can only be predicted with the wave theory of light “To bung these two concept together, physicists introduced the math of probably. An interference pattern in which the light Is brighter represents a high probability that photon ‘wll strike this region Ifthe region «node, there i low probability that a photon will strike ‘the region. The behaviour of photons is governed by these probabilities. “The problem i further complicated by the interference patter formed by two slits. the same experiment i performed using one photon a time, eventually the double sit interference pattern willbe formed on the photographic pete. Irthe photon passes through one slit and ‘ot the other, why do you think it forms the interference pattern fr two slits and ot justo Interference patterns of one ait superimposed on each ather? Obviously, you cant think of lights just bunch of particles tavlling through epace, landing according tothe rules of probability, but you cant think af ita just a wave ether Physicists were forced to conclude tat light hasa wave-particle duality This means that light has bth a wave nature and a particle nature. To help clarify this dual nature, you can use the principle of complementary Inorder to understand spelfic experiment, you must us iter the wave theory or the photon theory, but not both, To understand how light can produce an interference patter for tsa sits, you mast use th wave theory and to understand how ligt can create photoelectrons ‘you must us the photon theory. As. general rule, when light pases through & medium or free spac, its behaviour is best explained by the wave theory. When light interacts with matter, tis best explained by a particle photon) theory Is very difficult for people to understand how Tight can have this dual nature, especially because there ie no direc evidence of what ight “looks ike," when passing through space. Quantum mechanics doesnot attempt to answer this qestion; instead, i proposes a mathematica! mode! forthe behaviour of igh rather than a visual model forthe appearance of light oi 201 aac man har Meer coryrss on The Wave Nature of Matter Iflight—which previously was thought to bea wave-—haspartcle-tike qualities when Jnteracting with matte, do you think that matter—which previously was thought to bea Partcle—coald also have wave-like qullties? This idea was frst proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1926, He proposed tat since the momentum afa photon i given by the relationship h a ‘ny moving particle witha non-zero mass, such as an electron, proto, neutron, or any other ‘object with mass, should also have an associated wavelength, He suggested that the wavelength ‘ofthese particles could be calculated by using the following equation, originally derived by Compton: A x h > ae ‘The wavelength that results from this calculation isknown as the de Broglie wavelength The ‘equation suggests that particles witha non-zero mas also have a wavelength when moving. ‘These are called “matter waves" The following examples wil help o clarity when the de Broglie wavelength will have an effect on the particle's behaviour Example 1 ‘An lectron is accelerated from a est position through a potential diffrence of 30 V. Find the {de Broglie wavelength ofthe electron afer it has passed through the potential diference Solution ‘You first need to find the final speed ofthe electron, keeping in mind that stars from a est postion: an =4av By By el Base Jin? = eaV 2 9x10" 2510" mis Heorg nsp20 Reon rl Commanatrs ay AhmadBn» rou [Now you can find the wavelength ofan electron thats moving at this speed: ant SSRI (irxi07 V325x10°) R= 224K10" m ‘As you can see, although the wavelength ofthis electron i small itis comparable to the wavelength of non-visible light. You might expect that since light can diffact with a short ‘wavelength like this, maybe electrons can also diffract. You will revisit this idea ater the next ‘example. Example 2 Find the de Broglie wavelength of 010g ball thrown at 20 mi. Solution eee _ 665% “[ox10\20) Ae aaxu%m ‘This wavelength is extemal small, much smaller than the diameter ofthe smallest (hydrogen) stom, You might expect this wavelength tobe foo small to have any effect on the motion of the ‘all, and be unable to cause diffraction in any detectable wy. ‘The preceding two examples show two important concepts about de Broglie wavelengths: + Larger objects like balls cas, planes, and soon have extremely short wavelengths that will othave any observable effects on the motion ofthe abject. ‘+ Smaller partis ike electrons have wavelengths comparable o light and these ‘wavelengths could likely have an effet on the motion ofthe particles. For many years, clntsts didn’ notie the effet ofthese small wavelengths because they were shorter than visible light (bat comparable in size to X-ray) In fact, when X-rays are diffracted from the surface of crystal circular difraction pater is formed on a photographic pat. Calculations show that I de Broglie wavelengths exis, ‘ectrons should forma similar dffaction patter if they difract from the same erysal, as ‘shown in the following digram, When the experiment wae performed by firing electrons Instead of light tthe surface of the crystal, the same diffraction patter formed on the photographic plate. This was considered very strong evidence that electrons had an associated de Broglie wavelength Conn Te notated Communes hy igh eee