Introduction to Biostatistics

-statistics are simply a collection of tools that researchers employ to help answer research questions INTRODUCTION

Statistics plays a vitally important role in the research. Health information is very often explained in statistical terms Many decisions in the Health Sciences are created through statistical studies It enables you: o to read and evaluate reports and other literature o to take independent research investigations o to describe the data in meaningful terms

DEFINITIONS 1. Statistics: is the study of how to collect, organizes, analyze, and interpret data. 2. Data: the values recorded in an experiment or observation. 3. Population: refers to any collection of individual items or units that are the subject of investigation. 4. Sample: A small representative sample of a population is called sample. 5. Observation: each unit in the sample provides a record, as a measurement which is called observation. 6. Sampling: getting sample from a population 7. Variable: the value of an item or individual is called variable 8. Raw Data: Data collected in original form. 9. Frequency: The number of times a certain value or class of values occurs. 10. Tabulation: can be defined as the logical and systematic arrangement of statistical data in rows and columns. 11. Frequency Distribution: The organization of raw data in table form with classes and frequencies. 12. Class Limits: Separate one class in a grouped frequency distribution from another. The limits could actually appear in the data and have gaps between the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of the next. 13. Class Boundaries: Separate one class in a grouped frequency distribution from another.

14. Cumulative Frequency: The number of values less than the upper class boundary for the current class. This is a running total of the frequencies. 15. Histogram: A graph which displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to represent frequencies. 16. Frequency Polygon: it is a line graph. The frequency is placed along the vertical axis and the class midpoints are placed along the horizontal axis. These points are connected with lines. 17. Pie Chart: Graphical depiction of data as slices of a pie. The frequency determines the size of the slice. The number of degrees in any slice is the relative frequency times 360 degrees. 18. Central tendency - a typical or representative value for a dataset. VARIABLES

The value of an item or individual is called variable. Variables are of two types: o Quantitative: a variable with a numeric value. E.g. age, weight. o Qualitative: a variable with a category or group value. E.g. Gender (M/F), Religion (H/M/C), Qualification (degree/PG) Quantitative variable are two types: o Discrete /categorical variables o Continuous variables

Variables can be o Independent Are not influenced by other variables. Are not influenced by the event, but could influence the event. o Dependent The variable which is influenced by the others is often referred as dependent variable.

E.g. In an experimental study on relaxation intervention for reducing HTN, blood pressure is the dependent variable and relaxation training, age and gender are independent variable.

SAMPLING

Sampling is the process of getting a representative fraction of a population. Analysis of the sample gives an idea of the population. Methods of sampling: o Random Sampling or Probability sampling Simple random sampling Stratified random Sampling Cluster sampling o Non-random sampling Convenient Sampling Purposive Sampling Quota Sampling In Simple Random sampling, each individual of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Two methods are used in simple random sampling: Random Numbers method Lottery method In stratified random sampling, the population is divide in to groups or strata on the basis of certain characteristics. In cluster sampling, the whole population is divided in to a number of relatively small cluster groups. Then some of the clusters are randomly selected. Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is selected because it is readily available and convenient. Purposive sampling is a type of non-probability sampling in which researcher selects participants based on fulfillment of some criteria. E.g. schizophrenia treatment naive.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
o o

Four measurement scales are used: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Each level has its own rules and restrictions.

Nominal Scale of measurement

Nominal variables include categories of people, events, and other phenomena are named. Example: gender, age-class, religion, type of disease, blood groups A, B, AB, and O. They are exhaustive in nature, and are mutually exclusive.

These categories are discrete and non-continuous. o Statistical operations permissible are: counting of frequency, Percentage, Proportion, mode, and coefficient of contingency.

Ordinal Scale of measurement

It is second in terms of its refinement as a means of classifying information. It incorporates the functions of nominal scale. The ordinal scale is used to arrange (or rank) individuals into a sequence ranging from the highest to lowest. Ordinal implies rank-ordered from highest to lowest. Grade A+, A, B+, B, C+, C 1st , 2nd , 3rd etc

Interval scale of Measurement

Interval scale refers to the third level of measurement in relation to complexity of statistical techniques used to analyze data. It is quantitative in nature The individual units are equidistant from one point to the other. The interval data does not have an absolute zero. E.g. temperature is measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit.

Ratio Scale of Measurement

Equal distances between the increments This scale has an absolute zero. Ratio variables exhibit the characteristics of ordinal and interval measurement E.g. variable like time, length and weight are ratio scales and also be measured using nominal or ordinal scale.

[The mathematical properties of interval and ratio scales are very similar, so the statistical procedures are common for both the scales.]

Introduction to Biostatistics

-statistics are simply a collection of tools that researchers employ to help answer research questions PROCESSING OF DATA

The first step in processing of data is classification and tabulation. Classification is the process of arranging data on the basis of some common characteristics possessed by them. Two approaches in analysing data are: o Descriptive statistics o Inferential statistics Descriptive statistics are concerned with describing the characteristics of frequency distributions. The common methods in descriptive analyses are: o Measures of central tendency o Measures of dispersion o Tabulation, cross-tab, contingency table o Line diagram, bar diagram, pie diagram. o Histogram, frequency polygon, frequency curve o Quantile, Q-Q plot o Scatterplot The inferential statistics helps to decide whether the outcome of the study is a result of factors planned within design of the study or determined by chance. Common inferential statistical tests are: o T-tests o Chi-squire test o Pearson correlation

Frequency Distribution

Simple depiction of all the data Frequency distribution is a statistical table containing groups of values according to the number of times a value occurs. The data collected by an investigator is called raw data. Raw data is ungrouped data. It is not in order. Raw data is arranged in order called array. The data arranged in ascending order or descending order

Frequency Distribution with Classes

It is constructed with class intervals. It is a frequency distribution of continuous series. Raw data arranged as array data. Then the data is divided in to groups called classes. The first class and the last class are fixed by seeing the lowest and highest values.

Lowest and highest numbers of each class are called class limits (upper & lower). The class limit may be made in two methods: 1. Inclusive methods 2. Exclusive method

PRESENTATION OF DATA 1. Tabular presentation 2. Diagrammatic Presentation 3. Graphical Presentation A. Tabular Presentation of Data 1. Arranging values in columns is called tabulation. 1. E.g. The amount of oxygen content in water samples Water samples 1 2 3 4 Amount of O2 in mL 4.5 6.9 6.2 5.3

B. Diagrammatic Presentation of data 1. It is a visual form of presentation of statistical data in which data are presented in the form of diagrams such as bars, lines, circles, maps 2. Advantages of diagrammatic presentation of data: 1. It more attractive 2. It simplify complex information 3. It saves time 4. It helps to make comparison. 3. Rules for drawing diagrams 1. It should have a title 2. Proper scaling should be used. 3. Index must be given for better understanding of diagrams 4. Common Types 1. Line Diagram 2. Pie diagram 3. Bar diagram Line diagram E.g. A traffic survey shows the following vehicles passing a particular bus

stop during a hour Frequency Vehicles Cars Lorries Motor Cycles Buses Total Pie Diagram 45 22 6 3 76

Example: blood group of 50 students Group A B AB O Students 5 20 10 15

Bar Diagram

Example: yield of various vegetables from a garden.

B. Graphical Presentation of data 1. Presenting data in the form of graphs prepared on a graph. 2. The graph has two axes: X & Y 3. Usually, Independent variable is marked on the X-axis and dependent variable on the Y-axis.

4. Common Types: 1. Histogram 2. Frequency Polygon 3. Frequency curve Histogram 1. Histogram is a graph containing frequencies in the form of vertical rectangles. 2. It is an area diagram 3. It is the graphical presentation of frequency distribution. 4. X-axis is marked with class intervals 5. Y-axis is marked with frequencies 6. Histogram differs from bar diagram. The bar diagram is one dimensional, whereas histogram is two-dimensional. 7. Uses of histogram 1. It gives a clear picture of entire data 2. It simplifies complex data 3. Median and mode can be calculated. 4. It facilitates comparison of two or more frequency distributions on the same graph.

Category Systolic Number BP of (mmHg) Persons7 1 100-109 7 2 110-119 16 3 120-129 19 4 130-139 31 5 140-149 41 6 150-159 23 7 160-169 10 8 170-179 3 Frequency Polygon

Frequency Curve