6 Chapter The clashofthe Tltams:

the nracno-ideologies

we lcave for a while the ldious ways ofdnabsing ideologics and do\c to suwey the forms thar Political ideologies have adoptcd, Throughout much ofthc 2oth century the prevailing idcologies havc been o!rarching, inclusive netllorks ofided that havc ofitrcd solutions, delibdaiely or by default, to a.ll the imlortdt political issues confronting a socieb. Those m&ro ideoiogics have soughi social and political acclain md dominance on both Dational dnd inrdnational lr'els. in recogniing their centality wc are defefing to the po$r of iradition and convention d cldsiliers of idcologies, not forglting that other classifications could be retrospectivebpossible.Libenlism, consendtish,socialism, facism, communisn, dd other major families, have been virrualli eified 6 loliti@l actos in their osn risht. Indeed, nuch ofthe pst century @! be viewcd s a generally vitriolic, dnd frequcntly bl@dn battleground among drem. Far liom being narginal efipl-.nomar:.ideo,gi^ l'a.F trcoed\e noli ,t "scn"n."

Most noderD ideolosies havc adopted an insiitutional sd.b, in rhc fom of a political movement or pa$y. This js hardb surprising if $t recall thal ideologi ar .ompctitions 01. Providins plars for public policy, Yet it s!!ld still be a mistake to 6sume that @nservatism or libe, alisd &c absohtely identi@l to what Conservative or Liberal partics stand fol Ideolosres are rarely

formllated by political parties.The tunction of pdrties in .elation to fon aDd ideologiesis io presentthen nr immdiateiy consumable Partiesoperateat the to disseminate t}enr {ith optimal effrciency. production line. mds production of the lons ideological end g.oups sithin a pa.tyor outside it. ldeologies m./Ae among of Thosegoups rnay @nsistof nrtellectualsor slilled rhetoricians, who thenselves&e frequeDtb articulatins nx,.e ropular or inchoatebcliels or coneseiy, wate.nrg do\w comple{ phiiosophicaL posirions. It is comnon to describeideologis N ransins 6 om the left to the righl in a contjnuun of beliefsftom communism,th.olgh $cia]isn, iiberalism, consenatism, fascism. drd io Recently, dttenpts nare bccn madcto challenge this ordering. Greenpolitical thjnkeN hdvcfamouslydescribedthenNehes6 Dejthef lell nof right. but in front; somerersions of fdcisnr hale also.blt niore t dubioudr:,claituedlo bc ncither leit Dor nshti and the 1990s obsession {ith thi.d wa)s' lE proffered a srrrthesisof a dialecric vie* ofideological lolirics- The advantaseofthese cldsifications is that an attraclive cld.itr dcscends the lnrketplace ofpolirical on ideas- a veir useful illusion $den mlste ng suppo|t. The left risht @ntinuum, howcvc! is itself largely ideological.It seNesthe pu,TJose ndical or e\rn ofbestowinSa tuod.rate or, rspectively, that to mo! among dangerousaura on m idcology; it suggests ideol{rsies be a gradul lrocessldd it indicaies ideologics cdn that are nutually dclusive ard hcnceoller cleaFclt alternative

N{rneofthese itulli.ations ls correct,but sr needboth micro- drd macro'anal$is in oder lo rcncdy them. The rnido aralysis is providedby th tuorphologicalapproachto ideologiesthat oltcN a $ ay of dsemblir1gthed and cxlloriDg their inter- and inl.a The mactu da\sis is lro\ided by looking at relatioDships. ideolosiesastradirins over timc dd slace. whoscjmaglincd dpects thenselvesbecomepart of political rcali[l Lhc t$ o to approaches complementary:thcy oller altcrnarirc acccss are
79

studling ihe samething. BeginniDgryith lhe .onceptual structurc, $e may apply the notions of dccontcstation,famjb resembleces, core,adjacent,and pedpheral concepts, dd pemeable boundtuies to someofthe main ideologicalgroupings.Most modern idcoloSies a.e complex.They cannot bc sunmarized in orereimplilied seneralizations$rc,hd: Iibcralism is aboul libelq'i conserlatisn is abolt presening the staxN qtroj ed so on. They all exhibit a cluster ol corecoDcepts, noneof $hi.h can be tudimized without some damageto the othes, and conscqucntlyto the ideologicallrofile $ a whole. As noted abovc,the prcpodiona.lirypnrciple reaches us that, ifone conceptcxpandsto fill up all availablespace, sill end ir by cNshing rhe othcrs or subsuning them rvithin iis donain.

Liberalism
Liberalism consistsofsdral core@ncer)ts,all ofwhich are indislcnsable to irs curent manifestatioDs. The $plosition that humd beings de 'zftozali an insistence on ltlary ofthought and, within some limits, of actionj a beliefin blmd and social p/rArc$; thc dsuhption that the izlrotdzal is the ldme social unit and a udquc .ioice mal,er; the postulation ofsood.tltl!/ and human benc\olen.e a normali an appeal to the gadral izr.fcaf rdther than to particular loyaities; and rc snatiotu abol1t ?otuer t[Iess it is constrained and made ecountable all thse arc rhe mrnimum libcral kit. supeimposed on that kit is a cncial dispositbn: a criticdl .llestionin! of moti\es and actiors thai introdu.es a readines to redrink onet owr coneptual arrangements and pr&ti.es, dd to tolerate tbose ol otheN. As a iradition, liberalism enteftains the idea ofthe open-erded dcvelopment ofhuman beinss tosrds incredingly cn ized stlts ofexistence, epitomized in Jobn Stuan Mill's lvritin8s. That develormert revolvs aroud the liberq' rhat people can practise unfettered, through rot being dominated agairst thei. will, abetted b J . n I n " r e t u , , , Fp @ r , , i r i o n r d r o r m a l i / J r i o 1 w f h u i " , ' l i g h t ! . r a But throushout the 20th century the idea of a fai deal to people 3l

I
I
I

hd grom $ithin the hmily of libdalisns, consistingnot onlr of equal legal protecrion and treatmcnt, blt the equalizing of e@Donic and gender oplortunitics drd .especr for htrltiple and dileNe cultues and faiths $ithin and acfo$ Dations.Human well-being, or wcliirr., have .ome to be p.incipal insredieDts of the package ol bcnciiis that a hmranist polirica.l system pledges to

I I

I
:

Ljberalism'sachicvcmcntshave been quierly momcnrous.I|s vision oftlee leoplcs bo.e fruit in the ehanciration ol coloniesfrom imperjal rule. It contribtrtd djrccdy to tle liberation ofpoliiically marginalized grorps frotu ryranny and discrimiDation: dre verr fact that dcitatcd politicians in libenl democracies srand doxn tiom rathcr than caliing in rhe tanks attests to the rssimilation of !o$cr its lorns oi political tucountabilib' and resloDsibilit! tr has lfonoted socialrcforh on a gred scale,climding with the $-lla -sar - \I r. * rrpl"r.-" ru ,lor old ag.!"n. ..n.. uncnplotmcnt and hedlth insurdnce ofthe Lib.ral govemments in thc UKbcrwccn 1906 and r91a, insd.ed by thc lrogramme ofrhe Dc$ lileralisn ln international relations dre 1.1pointsofAmei@ Prcsident $'oodrow l4rilson for the post-first World War serilcmcntcn sageda new $ orld order rhar initially failed to materializc but that $as echoed in tbe establishing ofthe Unjted Nations and the Universal Declaration of Humd Rights a gcncration later. and js now slo$ ly sp.eading to states fomerl)' nndd toialitarian domination. Every constitution with a bill of rights and a stict demarcation ofgovernmental po*eN thar is honourcd by the authoities and the peopLea.llkc, e\try s'stem thal dcfcrs to the rule ofla\ js a triumph ofthc liberal tradition, Prcsidcnt Roosevelt's 1930sNew Deal w6 onc exampleof liberals aclnorvlcdging the need for governments to intcnene in order to secure lildty and fairness for their citjzeDs. Another strand ofrhe Iiberal tradition, to the contraa:, hG fonnd mccour ir the adlanccmcnt offree mdkers dd e@lomic entrepreneuNhip shiclded 1iotu the susleltd bureauaatic ilclliciency oftle the enginesof hlmaD slfare.

These some are olthe moreDotable lilestones ofthe iibeml rradition that hale changedthe $orld more than the most dmatrc oflolitical revolutions, haveidred 1tulonsel The liberal and t.adition hd alsolaltered notablv in a mmbr ofiNtances: the $atDe$ oftheWennarRelublicin 192os Germanyfailed to prlrnr the rise of Hitlef to powd: dr. mscdnrist bises 01liberals harr beenslowto extendrheir objccrjvcofemanciparioDto wonrnj andelen liberalisDtmuch\altrcd tolerance foundir difiicuitto bas grapplewith nethods ol contemlorary tcrror without desccnding totbe monl levelofitsencrnics, gcnerates dd reTlexiry among liberah she, conffoDledwith non libcral cultures n, u,er own societies. anygivenpoint ii is importantto realize. Ar contra Gnnrsci, dni thereerist morcnon hcgemonic than hegenonic

Socialism
Socialismis anothd of the najor jdeologicalfanrilies.and it $.uld be premaiuf. to aDouncc its demise quit ]rt. Its imlaci on the 2oihcenturyddon inte.secringideologiol famjlies h6 been considerablc. Its corc conceptual .orfiguDtion combrncs the following. First, it sccs the A.dzp as the bdsic social uDit, $hether sociery a a $holc or a snu]le. gbtrp such N a communc or d syndiate. lbr socjalists, hnnan beings are constituted by their relationships with thcir hunan an4 at one rcnrove, their non luman eDvironments. cl6s, howeyc! js an alienatedgroup, A isolated liom rhc marcrial and $cial soods requird for tuU human develolmcnt drd cxprc$ion. lt therefore h6 Degatlve coDnotailons, althotrgh in scvcral non Manist socialisms class'has become a .r1r?d4l sttucture that enfem a welcome idcnriqr on its menbeis. S.cond, jl hs a pdsjon for cqu rirl, for the rcmoval of hierarchical distinctions, md for the redinribution of goods on the basisof human nccd. :l hid, it sinslesout oo?* (also tcrmed labou., c.eatirity, pioducrivit),, or actnif) ds the tundarnental constitftire .. r.,. 1;lJ,h"bri...r.nra .r,.d ii hich social organization must be strtrctu.ed. Fou|th, ir chcrishes

aDidealofhtrnan,"efire or lloudshing based the shortrun o! in the elinination ofpolrry and in the loDgerrur on ihe free particllation ofall in the nate.ial drd inrellccrudl inheitance of humaniq Fifth, it lbsteB a belief in tle prornisc held out by the histai.ul prous rn lthe ability of hlrnan bcingsto dired that proccssto beneficiale!ds- socialism is imporrandy tururc-o ented and hcavif citical ofthe p6t and the presert. Sometwes u socialistdiscours march ofhisto4' is ustolpable and the ihe futurc dults, erasinsall that camebefore (that is th cse sidr oDe 01socialish's mighrr-rriaDls, Manisnt; ai other times r! rs Sradftl, erratiq aDdrequifesthe helpjng hand ofpeople of goodwill. The socialisttrailitioD took oll i! the latc 19th ceni!.}, pronpting jn Eurcpean nations particllar to takehcedofthedemddsofthe risins worknrs cl6s. lndmuch 6 ii is.justified ro rcfer io an ideolosicalfanrily in the plural, jt is cerrainb,justified ro ralk abotrr $cialisms rather than socialism.Severalofits veEiors rver me$ianic aDdutopian. Socialistanarchistsdreant ofthe abolition ofpolitical power aDda spontaneous socialorder b6cd oDaltNisn and niutual interdependerce.SomeManisr-irspircd believers$ent o1lro found comnunes like the early kibbltzim orcr a @ntury ago.iD whidr the family, prilate propeq'. ard the di\isjon oflabourwereabolished orderto create socially in a mhmatc societr no longer fractured through bafiers ofaDy kind. Frcnch and Bilish lroto{ocialists Nch s CharlcsFour-ierand Robeft O$cn principls ofequality. dsigned communitics bscd o! radical SFdicalisrs sished to replaccthe statewjth what they saw d rhe nahrral lolirical an.l economicuit: rhe rvorkrlace.folLo$in8 on F o n i d " n l i i j j r gs o r k - | r \ s e n . o b F , , . B u n r . . . . I' Otler socialistleNions acceprcd institurions of liberal thc democracy, dcclarcdrhcir intcntion to usethe stateto but restructure societl gradually,yct inexorably.Anong thoservere membem ofthclhbie Socieb, Britain.ledby Sidney in ed BeabiceWcbb dd Georgetsernardshaw,$ho, lunching abo'e

d-to-pd,, erhoo.otdi..rr h ,18 "" El,r socialistideolosr-through cheap and polulistlublications. Ther .equisitioled the niaDtle of scierce through the use of statisiicsand the bfe.king doe! ofhnmaD beings into mcsuable utesones ot neediness: povefil. illness,or erfbrced idleness. TheGeman socialistEduard Bernsteinwas the intcllectudl lader oftien contiDental equivalenls, social demooats healily @nnnitted to in elolutionary path of pdticipatott' dcnbcraq and nrcreased ildilidual freedon 6 well d eqraliq,. The innediaie political consequence of the socialist t.aditjon $'d theupsurge of socialist(and irr Britain, Labour) panies {ith a vigorous cl6s agcnda. As a conscqtrcnce, ther prefer.ed to conc.Dtaie on augmcnling thc curcnt porver of exploitedgfoups i . h - r 1 , r ,i . f . r i n g r h , ' : i r l ) . i , J i r - p t r , - J ! p F - . j o n ofprelailiDg sociai addgdncnts. Ihe more e]ledile Frxiciparion of $ofkcis jn social and political ljlc, and resFct fo. their rights, b.canc prjncipal socialistends,promotdbyt.adelnions aswcll s thco.ists. Socialisn send a a rallying crv ofinrmense potencl: s it lbstered grand trdsformative erpectations aDd conrlelled n,ling grotrps to b. on the defensite loliti.alh: Nationalization ofthe 1 . , , . o - r c J ' . i o - . d . r ,b L o , . 1 d , r l J r r - b F . 1 n - r r . r . L i r . political objective that rvds panir.llrr realized nr the prograDmes of node.ate socialist parties rvhen th.I came to power iD the mid2oth celruy. NIotu common\', though, socialists nieryed wirh progressilc liberal ideologis in dcvelopnrs aDd consolidaiing thc Practices ofthe $elfare state. Herc is an apposite e\amplc of lhc inrricate .elationship benveenparry and ideologt Though socjalisr parties .laimed to have bught th. welfare state iDto the $orld, it was cleady a liberal constroct,balancnrspublic and priyatc reslonsibiliF for individual well beins and blendnrg con$&d .hoice $ith state regulatjon. Socialist r)al'iies prolided the nusclc for * hat rvas oisinally a libe.al ideolosical scheDre,and nost ofthe ideolosisrs ofthe slfare state $re htbrid social-lilroals. As wc r\e." . , .h"ll..e" , ln$. "ll h,.T"r',,i F.dr"'' L rt'"..o.i.lisn'or.oatr.,'i5n.

l, 'r',,e-.d

Consefvatism
thid major wsrern ideologicatfamity is coNcratism. Despire its fte$ent djsclaimes that ir isnt an iileoto$/, it too is a parricular vieF of the political $ortd and insitabty containsa sercs or concepBst.uctured i! a specificretarionship.The re6on why consenativesmi$ead the narrue of thcif beliefsystem,dd why adveNtuisofconseraatismhaveseenit 6 oppofiunistic, ties in a peculiar corceptuai pronte rhar h6 disglised its intemal coDsislcncy. How wd it, 6ked ttre critics, that conseNatives could betaternalist and iDtcrvenrionkt jn rhe 19rhcentu.f, ssumins the vocationofprotectors and Sovemorsofsociat order, whered iD the laie 2oth centurythey atignedthernsetvs lvirh advootes of the fi ee markct and minimum stareintewention? One hisroricaly orienred aDswcrmight be that the conserari\ tradition netamorphoseil into someihingquirc djffercntj thar it had no fl\cd substantive position, and merell .eflectedthe policiesof the insritutions rhat ated in its name,Ac.o.dingb! jn Bdtain the Consemrive partt, movcd fi om a complaenr ro a pro&tive role in the tuce of nrdustrial strifedd the spiralingcosts ofweifare. the On d contineri, the Christian Dcmocratsemergcdfroh religiousty ldtisa! roots, predomiDantiyCathotic.They thctr founil ir heaw gorrg d denominationallotitic recededin importance,so rhat consenativrs had to realign on rhe basisofnationalisr aseDda!. That wd eslecially problcmdtic sincethe cortinenta.i nariondtkr tradition had to a considerabie enent beentaken over bJ the enrde right leaviDs,nortual,cohsrarives sith little space for 'l he

Bui there is dnorhersolurion ro rhe osteDsibte clusivene$ of conserative ideolos/_Its citic mal havebeentooking nt the Mona placeldr irs ore concepts ed thereforefailed to conr u! lrith a dnrabie holdinE panem. t.hey havebeensear.nhg lbr ihe @nsemtil counterpartsto iiberat and sociatistided @ncerniDg hnhaD nature, disrributi!jusrice, aDdrhe relationship beh\eeD staie and individual, and they ha\ d.aM a blank. In conserarive

discou$e those ided do nor disPlaya staue coDtinuitv .nd onDot thereforebe candidatesfo. core@ncepts.Yet there @,"su.i @ndidates.One commonthread running through all conses'.tive arsunent is an diery abdut changeaDdthe urge to distinguish betweer unnatural and @rzrdJ .ioaAc. The latter is modelcd on continuousorgdic grosth, raiher than on disjointed, planncd mechdicai leapsand bounds.Only changes groilh is legitinate. safe,dd steadl Another commonihrad is the conviction that the socialorder b founded on lawsthat are insulated fiom hund a co;trolj it is thereforeimperviousto humd $'i11, will that .d onlv tamler with it harmlirllt ovd time, and d dplmatory Paradigms origna oJa ?ffianent 4h ditrerenr a-human oforderhavealtered, rooral orda havebeeniNoked: God. nature, histor]', biologv,and e@nomicsare someof the more commonancho$ to which

Many consemtisms employ religion s a mainstayofthe moral and dd politi.al beliefsthel espouse, usethe sanctionof relisron to imposepoliti@l ordci Inded,the rclationship bet\tten the major religions dd @nsen'atismis problematic insmuch asthoservho hold to their beliefsmost strongly,particuldly amongsome Christids, Mlslidq and Jews,wish to alrply a freezeli-amein which thc statewould becone rhe lolitr@l instnment of fdith Nature, d alreadyobseNed,is a favounte ideologicalatifice for coDdoningwhat alreadyexists,or for cloaliing rhe clumsv transpdcncy ofsocial dangeinents. llist ry advs in the form of tadition - aptealed to 6 the cumulativewisdom ofthe past which dd cconomis are rwo the lresent is fortunate to inherit. Biolog-v q.ian.P, Jons.rviliv"' e1r"8' in *l-or |!hior' ol minirpsrario". truth. A1l their seNiceiD order to acquirethe statusof a secuLar thesedevicesdeflect diticisd a$'ayftom human beings,esPeciallv rulirs groups.They can simPlt disoM responsibiliryfor the deficiencicsof society,d the lattcr are alparently ofdained bt a meta-Politicalfi amcso*. to it is CoDseNarism a powerful lolitical tradition because apPeals

hlmd ineria. lt also condons rhc goodfortunes of thosc atready in positions political, of ecoDomic, socia.t dd porvcrs.hoare nndeBtandably reluctant to lart with ttreir gaiDs,whether earned, inheited, or acquiredby force. Fcar is thus a spur m conscNaiNm. ConseNative theo.izing hr-salsonot unduly t oublco 16 $pponers It ha not req red rhe great inrellc.tuat aDdimaginative cfo.t rhat all prosressivcand reformins ideolosiesdcmaDd:ro conjureup a world hetter thd the existnrgonc. ILstechnique ha beenlaBelX rea'cti!,and thdt in t]ro ways.FiBt, dtthoughirs ideologl is nornaliy dorman| ir awdkens $,hcn conftonted by the principles ard policies opposing of ideologics. confrontation bnitrinto is conseratisn, $ienercr it is cha.Uensed d prcjcct t rcgards bll both d humanly conhived aDdbreaking wjth acceptablc, organic chanse.EqMlilr is then makhed by larudt hieE.u,); a dcvelopmend nrdividualib, by the sob.ierr of existnrgctrltural norms; a rcgnrabry state by a retrcat iDro civil ssociarions_ f Revotutionis criminalized, uropianism ridicuted. secondfeatue of.onseNative rechrique is ro 4sembte a + counter-setol conccptualconfiguratioDs, dirtcicd againstwhatever j s seenrryconsemrives 4 most threateDinsto rhe social order WleD dtusical libera.ts p.omored roliricat emd.iparion jn the 19tl ceDtury@nscryatives lccdlled rhe dtrtiesofrhe arisrocracydnd .alled in rhe coDcelt ofinequatiqa when ercialisrslruNred sooar relOnn and natjonalizatior tioh tire trrrn ofthc tgttr centtrryand throughout mlch ofthe 2oth, conseNarives hauled proleq, riglts to the ceDtrcoftheir ideologicalroonr.When fscisrs cmployedvioleDce the strccts in the 1930s,conseNarives on fell backon |he rule oflaw and rlc constirution. WhensocHr democ.atsad\ocatcd plaDDcd ecoDomics, Tharctre.iredd Rea8anitc@Dser1'arives applaudedthe liee choi.e ofcitizens, delibentch redefined6 consuneE. Note rhar in eachcale rhcse conserlat've reactionsemplo)d conccprsand ides sharedBjrh other idcologies(this beaB out tne point ofideotosical permeabilib), but noi with the ideologi/they regardeddf ,re ft,u. asthe most rneDacins the corecoDs.natne prirciptes. Flelibitib, to 'lhe

in arranging thcir adjacentconceptshelped consenativesto protect their corc rolions ol sate change and the need to shield the socialorder ffon thc lagaries ofthe hun.D Fill. $'lnt seemedto its Gtisators an opporiunistic ideolo$r was in liict a highly @ n sisteDt o ne. Even thc o stc nsj bl! radical social t.ansrornatroD ensasedinby lhatch.rircs s'd irtendedto fe-establishthe kiDd of natural orsanic.hangc thal, iD their !ie$i, had been undcmined bv over-senerous rveliirrc rrcasures and by tnde uDion politics. $'lile @nsnatism wd cngagedir a psycholosicala wcll da loliti@l struggle $ith thc ideologies ol noderate and llanncd reform liberulism dnd socialism the latter two $'.re also at losserheadswith each othcr'lhet rehfi'e !rcximily lriggcrcd ofi rhe hostili\, ofnvo gtuups competiDgover a sinjlar clicnrclc,lbrced d a consequencetocaricaturc the difieferces bet\iren ihcm. T|ue, N1alnstve$hrs ofsocialism and libertdiaD reNions oi iibdalism sharedlittle comnrn ground. btrithe nain bodlofrh. rs. r'smilies orc awed oD issuesofdemodacti constiturionalism 3nd 1n. Ncldthcle$, fecosnition ofthe plight of thc disadvantagcd. liberals depicted socialisms burcancratic and utcalistici socialists retaliated by danning liberalism tr'ith crdosing an instNmental es.ism that most liberals had alrcady discardcd. NoDe of this, hosever, could naich thc morral combat bctrvccn two newcomersj frscisn dnd commlnism, and the resi ot thc ideological field in lhe iddlc lhird ofthe 2oth centurir lfa!),ihirg. the energence of tlese toralilarian ideologies reinlbrced thc widespreadview ofideoloBl d docbinairc, dognatic, closcd, and inllicted on an unsilling lopulacc.

. ! !

Thetotalitarian ideologies
The Italian fascistdictdror, Bcnito M$solini, cmploycdthc norion 'totalitadan' favourablr: asindicaftrg a brcadth &d s$eepofsocial concernand tolitical miry. trlore comnonly, fotalifazdl/lrln Ns | L n d - A t o o d & r l - , - n r r o f . ' r i J . o o C \a . l l n o r o , l humanactilirl and e\cd thought.lt untnmedjD penet.ating

collapsedthe space bet\rce! the public and p.ivate sphercs, iNisting that the statews entitled to regulateall ared ofsociat and iDdividual life- Hannah Arendt sawit 6 brcakins doM rhe distinction belveen legalitt and illesaiiql so that ordinary citizens neverknew on w}ich sidc ofthe larr they were,a law .tranged ai the whin of the ruleN. That itselflerpetuated a stdteofteror and disorientation,through which compliance$'s ertracted f.om the bodypolitic. Facism combinedz fier@ nnd agscssite tutionatism at thc disposalof the state and irs henchmen,a cult ofthc lzdder (Il Duce), tdrlr and physical iolence,^Ddah.sth ofrugetututian that resnnectedthe psr glories of Romedd promised national rebirth. The Germanvaidt, national socialisn, \ru more methodicalboth in its ideolosl dnd its pnciical realization.ri addednJthe abovea /tutal u.qrn, to be achieved the unjncation by of the pure Aryar raceunder a thousand-ycarcenno Reich, paalleled bJ the dmoapattrz o/./c@s strbhunan and the d strbsequent annihilation millions.lhis absrraction m6s of fiom rcal Jews.to which thc mrth bore no rsemblance. wd m idcolosi@l cont vdcc ne.essary bold togetherthe dispdate and to incohercnt featues of a preposte.ousdoctrine with catatrophic consequences. Irader woship for De. Fiihrcr $,8, if dlthins, more Pronounced than in ltabr Conmunisn, on the other hand, 16 a more elusne ideoto$aFor a long lvhile it played on its ideational derivation i:on rhc sociaiisr lani\, ard {ioo the lingdistic interchangeabilib berweensocialism and communjsms the idea.lsocieq,held out by Marxisrs_ Instead, it becamea peNefted olibhoot ofthe socialisrttudtjon. (:t hat usaEe of locialism'16 happily accepted anti-sociaiistsin rhc wst, by rhougb not by social-democrarsJ cltsf dd t'ordlra?taDfeatlres Irs emergedin the SovietUnion under IDin an4 no.e dmmarica|y, under Stalin, when vst ntrhbeN ofoppoDenrswere murdered in the nameofthe re\olution- After the SecoDd world Wtu, wirb its sprcadto Edtem Eurolc, communismbecme nore blreaucratic dd .oa@ar"e. Irs discoursestill urilized the idea of a gzza?l dr , thousn no loDgera democraticone.rcpresertedtlrcusn the

,rars a.t?loter ofthe people support ofegalirdidsm and conmual lrojects. connu st rhetodc wd ho$cver shorn ofirs original grand social vjsioD, \ile rcrainiDg L'ittdl nethotl' of ??7?sslon and a s)ternatic alruse ofhumd rjghls, libeq,. ard individulit}l Commmismtmostpowerlitl currcntmanifstation, ln Chjna, rcscscd a ccrbal guidirg role 1br political elites nr lbsicrin8 a lcsant rcvolrtion and cultural chang!, thoush it is no$ *lcrimcnling rvith Limitcd flee markcts. ln the tertuinolosr ofidcological morphology, the meaninss ofthe concepts Ncd by tLcsc totalitdian ideologics, &d the lroximities among thc conccprsj wdc .igidly and itrllcxibly nailed dom. Aurhoriry ws only dsociared $irh thc state; the leader rvith sole knowledge and le8itimdcyi libcr.y a.lwals heant emancipation from the falsehooG ofthe othcr idcoiogiesi and sode .oncepts. such 6 a..ountdbjlity, righrs, dd roldturce, wdc forcibry remoled lionr pdodied b)' GeoEe O$di the politi.a.l lexicon. this ws brillidtb in llis no\el Nineteen EigllttJ lazr: wd is leace; liedom js slavery j lgnorance is sirength'. A-sone ofits characters put it: Itt r beartinrlthnrs,the destmclio.ofxlrds . . . Don'irlu see l][t ile wlole aim ofNe\sleak is to narro$ rhe ranseoflhousll? Ir dE erd rc shail nate drolsht cinre inrlosible, becNse ther sil Ie no rvordsin \'lich to eiTre$ ir. ldeolos/ bad become. now more than cver, the war of the sords. Thr.ush it, .itizens had a std.k choicc: ther could eitber find fien 1ru' political voice orbe silen.ed. The expansionar_vends of N&ism dd facism, as rvell 6 theif Epukive beliefs and actbns, occaioned a sorld war that, more than most $trs, was co$ciously seen * an ideological struggle to r l - - o - " . l ' b F . e - n B r . n J . J . n r . ' F r r J L r | a r l - p , r ' : t l e i.. d l laDglage ofgood and evil. This epic confrontation N6 erteDded to

tire@ld $'d ofthe 19tosand r96os,$jth commuDism rcplacins liscisrn 6 the imrla@ble errmy oflvestern lalues. The moderate ideologles$ere encolraged to rcject the epirh.r ldeologt for themscNcs, becalsethcy sarvideologiess iitusory on the not Marxist interyretatioD, but beca$e to thc contr!ry rhet pefceilcd them asrey real dd denacnrg. ln retrospecr_ rhe domindt mid 2oti-ceDrury vje$ of ideology li,eled br ws t}e intimate asociation of idcology$itl totaiitaianjsm. Throngtr 5 i . n . r . o \ J . l i r r o r . I p d a n a r o f ' l e . o r - t i r1 , - e 8 i h . . r entailed e.adicatioD idcology the ol itsel( dd prolided a'nrnunition for the end of idcolos: school.Br coDtr6t. clnent anabErs ideologyhalf a cennrrylater are beginnnrs to of regard totalitanan ideologicsasexce ioDatrather rlun nonnal maniftstatiors of idologli obscurins the bona-fideidcologiesthar are far more fl)oted in socialthousht and practice.