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SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid,H2 SO4 is not just a common chemical used in school laboratoties. It has many industrial uses. Our batik industry, for

example, requires the use of sulphuric acid, H2 SO4 in manufacturing of the dye used. Used of sulphuric acid

Sulhuric acid, H2 SO4 is used in manufacturing of almost all products for example: a) Manufacture of detergents b) Production of fertilizer c) Manufacture of artificial fibres d) Manufacture of paint e) Leather tanning f) As electrolyte in car batteries

Sulphuric acid, H2 SO4 is also used to remove sulphur compound in crude oil and to produce other chemical.

Manufacture of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid H2 SO4 does not occur naturally. manufactured.

It has to be

More sulphuric acid, H2 SO4 is produced each year as

compare to any other chemical.

Sulphuric acid, H2 SO4 is manufactured in industry through contact process. The raw materials used are sulphur, air and water. This

process consists of three stages.

Stage 1

In the furnace, molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2. The gas produced is purified and cooled. SO2(g)

S(l) + O2(g)

Stage 2

In the converter, sulphur dioxide, SO2 and excess oxygen gas, O2 are passed over a few plates of vanadium (V) oxide, V2 O5 catalyst at 450 Cto produce sulphur trioxide, SO3.

2SO2(g) + O2(g)

2SO3(g)

About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3 through this revesible reaction.

Stage 3

In the absorber, the sulphur trioxide, SO3 is first reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to form a product called oleum, H2S2O7.

SO3(g) + H2SO4(l)

H2S2O7(l)

The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities.

H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)

2H2SO4(l)

The two reactions in the third stage are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide, SO3, directly to water.

SO3(g) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(l)

However, this is not done in industry because sulphur trioxide, SO3 reacts too violently with water. This produces a lot of heat and a The mist is corrosive,

large cloud of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 mist. pollutes the air and is difficult to condense. Sulphur dioxide and environment pollution

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 is one of the by-products of the Contacts Process. It can cause environmental pollution. Almost all sulphur dioxide, SO 2

in the air comes from the burning of fossil fuels containing sulphur. Inhaling sulphur dioxide, SO2 causes coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, bronchitis and lung diseases.

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 can causes acid rain. of about 5.4. 5.0.

Natural rainwater has a pH

Acid rain occurs when pH of the rain is between 2.4 and

This is due to the reaction of sulphur dioxide, SO2 with rainwater. 2H2SO4(aq)

2SO2(g) + O2(g) +2H2O(l)

AMONIA AND ITS SALTS

Uses of ammonia Each year, more than 140 million tones of ammonia, NH3 is produced around the world. fertilizers. plants. Most of the ammonia, NH 3 is used to make

Fertilizers provide nitrogen for the healthy growth of

Ammonia, NH3 has many other uses apart from manufacturing fertilizers. acid, HNO3. Large quantities of ammonia, NH3 are converted into nitric The acid is then used to make synthetic fibres, explosive,

wood pulp, paints, varnishes, lacquers and rocket propellants. The properties of ammonia a) Is alkaline b) Is a colourless gas c) Has a pungent smell d) Is less dense than air e) Burn in oxygen gas

Manufacture of ammonia Ammonia, NH3 is manufactured in industries through Haber Process. This process combine nitrogen gas, N2 from the air with hydrogen gas, H2 derived mainly from natural gas to form ammonia, NH3.

The ratio of one volume of nitrogen gas, N2 to three volumes of hydrogen gas, H2 is passed through the reactor. The mixture is

compressed to a high pressure of 200 atmosphere at a temperature of about 450C. It is then passed through layers of iron catalyst to speed

up the rate of reaction.

N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

Ammonia, NH3 formed is then liquefied and separated to get a better yield. The production of ammonia, NH3 give out heat.

Preparation of ammonia fertilizers Ammonia fertilizers are one of the chemical fertilizers added to soil to replace the element used up by plants. The major plants nutrients

include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium.

Ammonia

fertilizers can be prepared from the reaction between ammonia, NH3 and an acid.

ALLOYS Pure aluminium is not enough to withstand the great stress put on the wings of an aeroplane when its flying. Arrangement of atoms in metals Most metal are solid. Pure metals are made up of the same type of The arrangement of the atoms in

atoms and are of the same size.

metal gives the metal their ductile and malleable properties. There are some imperfections in the orderly arrangement of atoms in metal that allow some empty spaces in between the atoms. metal is knocked, atoms slide. can be shaped. What are alloys? Two soft metals can metalcalled alloy. be mixed together to make a stronger When a

This is why metals are malleable or

An alloy is a mixture of two or more element with

a certain fixed composition in which the major component is a metal. Most pure metal are weak and soft. The properties of pure metal can The aim of making alloys is

be improved by making them into alloys.

to make them stronger, harder, resistant to corrosion, have a better furnish and luster. Alloy such as bronze, brass, steel, stainless steel, duralumin and pewter are commonly used in our daily live. The uses of each

different type of alloys depend on the properties of the alloy.

ALLOY Bronze

COMPOSITION 90% copper 10% tin

PROPERTIES Hard and strong

USES In the building of monument

Does not corrode easily In making medal or sword Has shiny surface Harder copper than In making of musical instrument and kitchenware In the building of the body of car In constructing bridges the

Brass

70% copper 30% zinc

Steel

99% iron 1% carbon

Hard and strong

Stainless steel

74% iron

Shiny

In

making

of

8% carbon 18% chromium

Strong Does not rust

cutlery In making surgical instruments of

Duralumin

93% aluminium 3% copper 3% magnesium 1% manganese

Light strong

In making of the body of aeroplanes and bullet train

Pewter

96% tin 3% copper 1% antimony

Luster Shiny strong

In making sourvenirs

of

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS What are polymers? Polymers are large molecule made up of many identical repeating subunits called monomers which are joined together by covalent bond. Monomers are joined into chains by a process of repeated linking known as polymerization. A polymer may consist of thousands of monomers. occur naturally. Some polymers

Starch, cellulose, wool, protein, silk and natural

rubber are some examples of naturally occurring polymers. On the other hand, synthetic polymers are man-made polymers. The

monomers used are usually obtained from petroleum after going

through the refining and cracking processes.

Examples of synthetic

polymers are polythene, polyvinyl chloride or PVC, polypropene,

Monomers in synthetic polymers

Synthetic polymer Polythene polypropene

Monomer Ethene propene

Uses Plastic bags, and electrical wiring for

Piping, bottle crate, carpets, car batteries and ropes. Artificial leather, water pipes and record Safety glass, reflectors, traffic signs and lens Clothing, sails and ropes 4-

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC perspex Terylene

Chloroethene methylmethacrylate Hexane-1, 6 diol Benzene-1,

dicarboxylic acid Nylon Hexane-1, 6- diamine Hexane-1, 6- dioic acid Ropes, carpets clothing and

Should we continue using synthetic polymers?

Synthetic polymers are widely used today.

One of the great

advantages of synthetic polymers is that they can be made to have special properties required for their uses. easy to be moulded and can also be coloured. Synthetic polymers are very stable and do not corrode or decay. However, this also means that they are very difficult to dispose. Hence they may cause pollution, blockage of drainage systems and flash flood. They are relative cheap,

Although synthetic polymers pose environmental problems, we can still continue use them but in a wise manner. We should reduce, reuse

and recycle synthetic polymers as much as possible.

GLASS AND CERAMICS Glass is made from sand. Evidence has shown that glass has been Ceramics are made from clay.

used for more than 3000 years.

Piece of broken ceramics that are more than 6000 years old have been found by archeologist. Glass

The major component of glass is silica, SiO2.

Among all different type It is

of glass used in our daily lives, fused glass is the simplest glass.

mainly silica, SiO2.

Fused glass is a highly heat-resistant glass.

It

can be heated to an extremely high temperature and then can be plunged into icy, cold water without cracking. It is expensive, yet it

is still widely used because of its great purity, high temperature and chemical durability as well as resistance to thermal shock.

The most common glass found around the house is the soda-lime glass. It is made by heating sand limestone, CaCO 3 or sodium Soda-lime glass can be melted at a relative low

carbonate, Na2CO3. temperature. durability.

Thus, it is easy to be shaped and has a good chemical It also has a high thermal expansion coefficient. It

expands a lot when it is heated and contracts a lot too when it is cooled. However, it does not withstand heat. Soda-lime glass is

used to make flat glass, electrical bulbs, mirrors and all kind of glass.

When boron oxide, B2O3 is added to soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass is formed. coefficient. glass. Borosilicate glass has a lower thermal expansion It is about three times as heat-resistant as soda-lime

It is also more resistant to chemical attacks compared to

soda-lime glass because it contains less alkali.

Lead crystal glass is normally called crystal or lead glass.

It is made

by substituting lead oxide, PbO or calcium oxide, CaO and often for part of the silica, SiO2 used in soda-lime glass. soft and easy to melt. Lead crystal glass is

It is more expensive than soda-lime glass.

Ceramics

Clay pot, brick, tiles and mugs are example of ceramics.

Ceramics

are made of clay, for example kaolin, a hydrated aluminiumsilicate, A12 O3.2SiO2.2H2O. when the clay is heated to a very high temperature,

they undergo a series of chemical reactions and are hardened permanently to form ceramics.

Unlike glass, ceramics can withstand high temperature and do not melt easily. They are also very hard, brittle, chemically inert, do not They are good

corrode and have a very high melting point. insulators of electricity and heat.

Their properties make them

suitable for making abrasive, construction materials. and refractories.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS Since the old day, human beings have been using clay, wood, stone or metals as building materials. decay easily. These substances either corrode or

Otherwise, they are too heavy, bulky or carved.

Many of our modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of properties that cannot be met by the conventional

metal alloys, ceramics and polymeric materials.

Therefore,

continuous research and development have been done in search of new structural materials. To fulfill the needs, these buildings

materials must have properties like low density, strong and resistance to heat and corrosion. What are composite materials? A composite materials is a structural materials that is formed by combining two or more different substance such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers. The resulting material has properties Composite

that are superior than those of the original components. material are created for specific application.

Superconductors are capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to extremely low

temperature. of metal oxide.

Most of them are alloy of metal compound or ceramics However, some superconductors are made from Superconductors are used in the bullet trains

composite materials.

in Japan and medical magnetic-image device like MRI. A fibre optic cable consists of a bundle of glass or plastics threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding. Fibre optic is a composite

material that is able to transmit data, voice and images in a digital format. It is used to replace copper wire in long distance telephone

lines, in mobile phones, video cameras and to link computer.

Glass is hard, strong, and has a relatively high density. is also relatively brittle. not as strong as glass.

However, it

Plastic is elastic, flexible with low density but When glass fibre are used to reinforce plastic, Fibre glass

we get a strong composite material called fibre glass.

has high tensile strength, can be easily coloured and low in density. It can be made into thin layers, yet very strong. A photochromic glass can be produced by embedding photochromoc substances like silver chloride, AgC1 crystal in glass or transparent polymers. When it is exposed to light, silver chloride, AgC1 is The photochromic glass

converted to silver and the glass darkens.

becomes transparent again when silver is converted back to silver chloride, AgC1 when the light dims.

Advanced materials and the future A lot of time and resources have to be invested through a series of research and tests to produce a new composite material. This is

essentials to fulfill the ever expanding needs especially to help Malaysia to achieve a status of developed country in years 2020. With the abundant natural resources, dynamic workforce and

advanced infrastructure that we have, we are certain that Malaysia will produce outstanding materials of worlds standard.