ASSIGNMENT SET 1

Q 1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the following types of research, explaining why a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c) Diagnostic research d) Evaluation research. Ans.: Research may be classified crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research may be classified as:

Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as: y y y y How did the universe begin? What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of? How do slime molds reproduce? What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all branches of science is needed in order for progress to take place. In other words, basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. As Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only did applied research, we would still be making better spears."

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

y y y

Improve agricultural crop production Treat or cure a specific disease Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's natural resources.

a ) Exploratory Research Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist. Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with upto-date information; major search engine search results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time by services such as Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to attract worldwide feedback on any subject. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many." Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large..

b) Descriptive Research Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how.

Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.

The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.

In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the life of the people around you. For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a healthy life. c) Diagnostic Study It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance. d) Evaluation Studies It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

Q2. In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the difference between a) Null and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1 and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one tailed test d) Parametric and non parametric test. Ans:- Some basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses are explained below a) Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk null and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior, it is alternative hypothesis. Symbolically presented as: Null hypothesis = H0 and Alternative hypothesis = Ha Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean is equal to the hypothesis mean ( H0) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypotheses are that the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolical we can express as: H0: = H0=100 If our sample results do not support these null hypotheses, we should conclude that something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then we are accepting Ha. For H0: = H0=100, we may consider three possible alternative hypotheses as follows: Alternative HypoTo be read as follows thesis (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not equal Ha: H0 to 100 i.e., it may be more or less 100) (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is greater Ha: > H0 than 100) (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is less than Ha: < H0 100) The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before the sample is drawn (the researcher must avoid the error of deriving hypothesis from the data he collects and testing the hypothesis from the same data). In the choice of null hypothesis, the following considerations are usually kept in view:
y

Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which wishes to prove and the null hypothesis are ones that wish to disprove. Thus a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to reject, the alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities. If the rejection of a certain hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, it is taken as null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it when it is true is (the level of significance) which is chosen very small. Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state about or approximately a certain value.

Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on the basis of null hypothesis, keeping the alternative hypothesis in view. Why so? The answer is that on assumption that null hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different possible sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis (at times also known as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.

b. Type I error and type II error. In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors that researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept H0 when it is not true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other words, Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted & Type II error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is donated by (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error is donated by (beta). Decision Accept H0 Reject H0 Correct decision Type I error ( error) Type II error ( error) Correct decision

H0 (true) Ho (false)

The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is understood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5%, it means there are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We can control type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%, we will say that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01. But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced simultaneously. There is a tradeoff in business situations, decision-makers decide the appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both types of errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for type I error in ones testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of hypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I & Type II error.

c. One tailed and two tailed test

In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the population. Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0: = H0 and Ha: H0 which may > H0 or < H0. If significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied, the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as 0.025) and that of the acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take = 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from , in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis. But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean in either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value. Two-Tailed Test A two-tailed t-test divides a in half, placing half in the each tail. The null hypothesis in this case is a particular value, and there are two alternative hypotheses, one positive and one negative. The critical value of t, tcrit, is written with both a plus and minus sign ( ). For example, the critical value of t when there are ten degrees of freedom (df=10) and a is set to .05, is tcrit= 2.228. The sampling distribution model used in a two-tailed t-test is illustrated below:

One-Tailed -Test There are really two different one-tailed t-tests, one for each tail. In a one-tailed t-test, all the area associated with a is placed in either one tail or the other. Selection of the tail depends upon which direction tobs would be (+ or -) if the results of the experiment came out as expected. The selection of the tail must be made before the experiment is conducted and analyzed. A one-tailed t-test in the positive direction is illustrated below:

The value tcrit would be positive. For example when a is set to .05 with ten degrees of freedom (df=10), tcrit would be equal to +1.812. A one-tailed t-test in the negative direction is illustrated below:

The value tcrit would be negative. For example, when a is set to .05 with ten degrees of freedom (df=10), tcrit would be equal to -1.812. Comparison of One and Two-tailed t-tests 1. If tOBS = 3.37, then significance would be found in the two-tailed and the positive one-tailed ttests. The one-tailed t-test in the negative direction would not be significant, because placed in the wrong tail. This is the danger of a one-tailed t-test. 2. If tOBS = -1.92, then significance would only be found in the negative one-tailed t-test. If the correct direction is selected, it can be seen that one is more likely to reject the null hypothesis. The significance test is said to have greater power in this case. The selection of a one or two-tailed t-test must be made before the experiment is performed. It is not "cricket" to find a that tOBS = -1.92, and then say "I really meant to do a one-tailed t-test." Because reviewers of articles submitted for publication are sometimes suspicious when a onetailed t-test is done, the recommendation is that if there is any doubt, a two-tailed test should be done. d) Parametric and non parametric test The hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between the conflicting hypotheses about the value of the population hypothesis about the value of the population of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to secede on the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population was

is likely to be true or false. Statisticians have developed several tests of hypothesis (also known as tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypothesis which can be classified as:
y y

Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis ; Non Parametric test or distribution free test of the hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw samples. Assumption like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large, assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variants etc must hold good before parametric test can be used. But there are situation when the researcher cannot or does not want to make assumptions. In such situations we use statistical methods for testing hypothesis which are called non parametric tests because such tests do not depend on any assumption about the parameters of parent population. Besides, most non-parametric test assumes only nominal or original data, where as parametric test require measurement equivalent to at least an interval scale. As a result non-parametric test needs more observation than a parametric test to achieve the same size of Type I & Type II error. Q3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship & correlation ,with an example of each. What are the possible reasons for correlation between two variables? Ans:- Economic & business variables are related. For instance, demand & supply of a commodity is related to its price. Demand for a commodity increases as price falls. Demand for a commodity decreases as its price rises. We say demand & price are inversely related or negatively correlated. But sellers supply more of a commodity when its price rises. Supply of the commodity decreases when its price falls. We say supply & price are directly related or positively corelated. Thus, correlation indicates the relationship between two such variables in which changes in the value of one variable is accompanies with a change in the value of other variable.

According to L.R.Connor, if two or more quantities vary in sympathy so that movements in the one tend to be accompanied by corresponding movements in the others(s) they are said to be correlated.

W.I.King defined Correlation means that between two series or groups of data, there exists some casual connection.

The definitions make it clear that the term correlation refers to the study of relationship between two or more variables. Correlation is a statistical device, which studies the relationship between two variables. If two variables are said to be correlated, change in the value of one variable results in a corresponding change in the value of the other variable. Heights & weights of a group of people, age of husbands & wives etc., are examples of bi-variant data that change together.

Correlation and Causation

Although, the term correlation is sued in the sense of mutual dependence of two or more variable, it is not always necessary that they have cause & effect relation. Even a high degree of correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate a cause & effect relationship between them

There are a number of different ways in which correlation and causation can become confused. One is called the "Neglect of Common Cause." Also sometimes called "Joint Effect," this occurs when someone assumes that one event caused another when, in fact, they are both really effects of some third event. This third event is the "common cause" of the other two. For example: 1. Every time I eat chocolate, it gives me acne. The speaker above observes a strong correlation between eating chocolate and suffering from acne, drawing the conclusion that the former causes the latter. What is ignored, however, is the possibility that both are caused by something else - perhaps this person suffers from anxiety and stress. The stress causes him to eat chocolate, but at the same time causes acne to break out. This will lead to the two occurring very close in time, even though one isn't actually causing the other. Many times a fallacy like the one in the statement above occurs in assertions based upon statistical evidence, for example: 2. Recent studies have proven that watching too much violence on television leads to people being violent in real life. Although it may indeed be true that viewing acts of violence can make a person more susceptible to committing violence, the above statement ignores crucial factors which might have a causal influence on both. For example, both increasing violence on television and increasing violence in society might be caused by changing economic circumstances or something else entirely. Thus, the above cannot be regarded as a sound position until other such possible common causes have been ruled out first (which, incidentally, may have indeed been done as part of the study, but this would have to be made explicit for the statement to be valid). Here is another, more amusing instance where such an error can be made:

3. Researchers at the Aabo Akademi found that Finns who speak the language of their Nordic neighbors were up to 25 percent less likely to fall ill than those who do not. Should we conclude from this that learning how to speak Swedish will help improve our health? Or perhaps that it is only Finns who can receive health benefits from speaking Norwegian? Nonsense - there is nothing about the Swedish language which can make a person healthier. What we need to look for are common causes of both being multilingual and of having better health at least in Finland. The neglect of Common Cause can be found in many political debates as well: 4. Most drug use occurs among the poor - this is because poverty causes people to engage in risky behavior, like abusing narcotics. Now, perhaps the above position is true or at least has a grain of truth in it, but it fails to address the possibility that a third factor is responsible for both of those listed. One might be able to effectively argue that racial discrimination makes a person feel hopeless - this, in turn, may not only increase the chances of that person being poor, but might also incline them to seek escape in drugs. This fallacy has also found a home in quite a few religious debates: 5. Morality in this nation has worsened at the same time that adherence to traditional Christian beliefs has declined. Obviously, the latter has caused the former, so encouraging Christianity will ensure a return to traditional moral standards. In the above example, it is assumed that the correlation between dropping standards of morality and weakening adherence to traditional Christianity means that the latter is the cause of the former. This position ignores, however, the possibility of some third event being the cause for both. Thus, for example, it may be that growing diversity in society has weakened the bonds of all traditional institutions - including both religion and moral standards. Simplistic explanations like the above make it easy to propose simplistic solutions, but they cannot be accepted until alternatives like possible common causes have been addressed. Correlation between two variables can be due to following reasons:

Cause & effect relationship: Heat & temperature are cause & effect variable. Heat is the cause of temperature. Higher the heat, higher will be the temperature.

Both the correlated variables are being affected by a third variable. For instance, price of rice & price of sugar are affected by rainfall. Here there may not be any cause & effect relation between price of rice & price of sugar. Related variable may be mutually affecting each other so that none of them is either a cause or an effect. Demand may be the result of price. There are cases when price rise due to increased demand. The correlation may be due to chance. For instance, a small sample may show correlation between wages & productivity. That is higher wage leading to lower productivity. In real life it need not be true. Such correlation is due to chance. There might be a situation of nonsense or spurious correlation between and two variables. For instance, relationship between number of divorces & television exports may be correlated. There cannot be any relationship between divorce & exports of television.

The above points make it clear that correlation is only a statistical relationship & it does not necessarily signify a cause & effect relationship between the variable.

Q4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a sampling technique. What are the characteristics of a good sample? Ans:- The decision process of sampling is complicated one. The researcher has to first identify the limiting factor or factors and must judiciously balance the conflicting factors. Factors that affect choice of sample y The size of the population: If the population to be studied is quite large, sampling is warranted. However, the size is a relative matter. Whether a population is large or small depends upon the nature of the study, the purpose for which it is undertaken, and the time and other resources available for it. Amount of funds budgeted for the study: Sampling is opted when the amount of money budgeted is smaller than the anticipated cost of census survey. Facilities: The extent of facilities available staff, access to computer facility and accessibility to population elements in another factor to be considered in deciding to sample or not. When the availability of these facilities is limited, sampling is preferable.

Time: The time limit within the study should be completed in another important factor to be considered in deciding the question of sample survey. This, in fact, is a primary reason for using sampling by academic and marketing researchers.

Characteristics of a good sample

The characteristics of a good sample are described below:

Representative ness: A sample must be representative of the population. Probability sampling technique yield representative sample. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population. Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by standard error. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable

Q5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary sources to gather the required information. Ans:- For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources of data collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data related to human beings consist of: 1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the household life style etc. 2. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc. 3. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth. 4. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and the nation.

The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for any research studies. The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources. Primary Sources of Data Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.

Advantage of Primary Data y y y y It is original source of data It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher. Extensive research study is based of primary data

Disadvantage of Primary Data y y y y Primary data is expensive to obtain It is time consuming It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled. It is difficult to administer.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data: Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to

be directly gathered from the primary sources.In such cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc. There are various methods of data collection. A Method is different from a Tool while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing,(c)mail survey,(d)experimentation,(e) simulation and (f) projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the later chapters.

Secondary Sources of Data: These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.

Features of Secondary Sources

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have certain common characteristics.

First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them.

Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.

Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

Use of Secondary Data

The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state.

Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.

Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major data sources for such research studies

Advantages of Secondary Data Secondary sources have some advantages:

Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space and time reach. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.

The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be different. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we need to know how the data were collected. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census data are published tow or three years later after compilation, and no new figures will be available for another ten years. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of researchers based in far off places.

Evaluation of Secondary Data When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before deciding to use them.

1. Data Pertinence The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions should be considered.

What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent ? What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research? What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this coverage fit the needs of our research?

On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data. 2. Data Quality If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. What is the authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualified investigators? The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the cautionary ands other comments that were made in the original source. 3. Data Completeness

The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the methodology sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate? Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to promote the organizations own interest? How the study was conducted? These are important clues. The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the researchers study. Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain reader habits and interests. Develop a title for the study, define the research problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the study. Ans:- Generally, there is a significant relationship between the race or ethnic group and the language medium of the newspapers. Generally, Kannada newspapers are mostly read by the kannadigas respondents, Tamil newspapers by the tamilians etc. However, there is no significant relationship in the readership of English newspapers whereby they are read by all the ethnic groups.

Title: Readers habits and interests in Bangalore Research Problem: To ascertain the reader habits and interests and to increase news paper circulation in Bangalore City Objectives or questions to be answered:

1. Have you read an entire book in the last 12 months? a. Yes. b. No. 2. How much time do you spend reading web pages each day? a. I dont read web pages.

b. Less than two hours. c. Two to four hours. d. Five or more hours. 3. Where do you read? Check all that apply. a. In school. b. On the bus. c. In a car or truck. d. In bed. e. At the computer. f. In the bathroom. g. In the kitchen or family room. h. At the library. 4. Have you ever pretended that you read a book when you hadnt? a. Yes. b. No. 5. Why do you usually read a book? a. Because I think I should. b. Because it was assigned to me. c. Because I am interested in the topic or author. d. I dont read books. 6. Have you ever pretended that you read a web page when you hadnt? a. Yes. b. No. 7. What is the last book that you read? If you havent read a book, write Not Applicable.

a. Yes. b. No. 8. Is being able to read is important? a. Yes. b. No

ASSIGNMENT SET 2 Q 1.Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents of a study.

Ans:-There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They are: (1) Personal delivery: (2) Attaching questionnaire to a product (3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine, and (4) News stand insets 1) Personal delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to the potential respondents, with a request to complete them at their convenience. After a day or two, the completed questionnaires can be collected from them. Often referred to as the self-administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview and the mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in person and the respondents may return the completed questionnaires through mail.

2) Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test marketing a product may attach a questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm. A gift or a discount coupon usually rewards the respondent. 3) Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or a magazine: The questionnaire with the instructions for completion may be advertised on a page of a magazine or in a section of newspapers. The potential respondent completes it, tears it out and mails it to the advertiser. For example, the committee of Banks Customer Services used this method for collecting information from the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for large-scale studies on topics of common interest. 4) News stand insets: This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire and self addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a newspaper or magazine. The significance of questionnaire method is that it affords great facilities in collecting data from large, diverse, and widely scattered groups of people. It is used in gathering objective, quantitative data as well as for securing information of a qualitative nature. In some studies, questionnaire is the sole research tool utilised but it is more often used in conjunction with other methods of investigations. In questionnaire technique, great reliance is placed on the respondents verbal report for data on the stimuli or experiences which is exposed as also for data on his behavior. Advantages of Questionnaires The advantages of mail surveys are:

y y y y y y y

They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same through out the country, irrespective of distance. They can cover extensive geographical areas. Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are difficult to reach in any other way. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their convenience. Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal interviews. Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewers bias, as there is no personal contact between the respondents and the investigator. Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in an unsigned mail questionnaire.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires The disadvantages of mail surveys are: 1. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the percentage of literacy is very low. 2. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence, the resulting sample will not be a representative one. Distinction between schedules and questionnaires Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent whereas schedules are carried by the investigator himself. Questionnaires can be filled by the respondent only if he is able to understand the language in which it is written and he is supposed to be a literate. This problem can be overcome in case of schedule since the investigator himself carries the schedules and the respondents response is accordingly taken. A questionnaire is filled by the respondent himself whereas the schedule is filled by the investigator. Q 2. In processing data, what is the difference between measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion? What is the most important measure of central tendency and dispersion?

Ans:- Measures of Central tendency: Arithmetic Mean The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population. The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below: m= X

N Where X is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and N is the number of numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers 1+2+3+6+8= 20 5 =4 regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the population.

The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below. m= X N = 634 31 =20.4516 37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20 20 19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15 14 14 14 12 12 9 6

Table 1: Number of touchdown passes Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometric mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic mean, the geometric mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean.

Median The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same number of scores is above the median as below it. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile.

Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2. Student You John's Maria's Shareecia's Luther's Dataset 1 3 3 3 3 3 Dataset 2 3 4 4 4 5 Dataset 3 3 2 2 2 1

Table 2: Three possible datasets for the 5-point make-up quiz

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution.

Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers 2, 4, 7, 12 is 4+7

2 =5.5.

Mode The mode is the most frequently occurring value. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same (see discussion of continuous variables). Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650). Range 500-600 600-700 700-800 800-900 900-1000 1000-1100 Frequency 3 6 5 5 0 1

Table 3: Grouped frequency distribution

Measures of Dispersion: A measure of statistical dispersion is a real number that is zero if all the data are identical, and increases as the data becomes more diverse. It cannot be less than zero. Most measures of dispersion have the same scale as the quantity being measured. In other words, if the measurements have units, such as metres or seconds, the measure of dispersion has the same units. Such measures of dispersion include:
y y y y

Standard deviation Interquartile range Range Mean difference

y y y

Median absolute deviation Average absolute deviation (or simply called average deviation) Distance standard deviation

These are frequently used (together with scale factors) as estimators of scale parameters, in which capacity they are called estimates of scale. All the above measures of statistical dispersion have the useful property that they are locationinvariant, as well as linear in scale. So if a random variable X has a dispersion of SX then a linear transformation Y = aX + b for real a and b should have dispersion SY = |a|SX. Other measures of dispersion are dimensionless (scale-free). In other words, they have no units even if the variable itself has units. These include:
y y y

Coefficient of variation Quartile coefficient of dispersion Relative mean difference, equal to twice the Gini coefficient

There are other measures of dispersion:

y y

Variance (the square of the standard deviation) location-invariant but not linear in scale. Variance-to-mean ratio mostly used for count data when the term coefficient of dispersion is used and when this ratio is dimensionless, as count data are themselves dimensionless: otherwise this is not scale-free.

Some measures of dispersion have specialized purposes, among them the Allan variance and the Hadamard variance. For categorical variables, it is less common to measure dispersion by a single number. See qualitative variation. One measure that does so is the discrete entropy. Sources of statistical dispersion In the physical sciences, such variability may result only from random measurement errors: instrument measurements are often not perfectly precise, i.e., reproducible. One may assume that the quantity being measured is unchanging and stable, and that the variation between measurements is due to observational error. In the biological sciences, this assumption is false: the variation observed might be intrinsic to the phenomenon: distinct members of a population differ greatly. This is also seen in the arena of manufactured products; even there, the meticulous scientist finds variation.The simple model of a stable quantity is preferred when it is tenable. Each phenomenon must be examined to see if it warrants such a simplification.

Q 3. What are the characteristics of a good research design? Explain how the research design for exploratory studies is different from the research design for descriptive and diagnostic studies. Ans:- Characteristics of a Good Research Design 1. 2. 3. 4. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction. It reduces wastage of time and cost. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study deepens. 5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants. 6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits Different Research Designs Research design in case of exploratory research studies Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about: 1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in ones area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be looked into by the researcher. 2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected

as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This, survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research. 3. Analyses of insight-stimulating examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if nay, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights. Now, what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut answer to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of insight-stimulating cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, where as diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are the example of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group of situation are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under this category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population he wants to

study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize reliability. With due concern for the economical completion of the research study, the design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Formulating the objective of the study Designing the methods of data collection Selecting the sample Collecting the data Processing and analyzing the data Reporting the findings.

In a descriptive / diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may not provide the desired information. Then comes the question of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained. While designing data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Which ever method is selected, questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour. More often than not, sample has to be designed. Usually, one or more forms of probability sampling or what is often described as random sampling, are used. To obtain data, free from errors introduced by those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely the staff of field workers as they collect and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure that the data collecting staffs performs their duty honestly and without prejudice. The data collected must be processed and analyzed. This includes steps like coding the interview replies, observations, etc., tabulating the data; and performing several statistical computations. Last of all comes the question of reporting the findings. This is the task of communicating the findings to others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner. Q 4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business Research? Give two specific examples of how the case study method can be applied to business research. Ans:- Case Study as a Method of Business Research In-depth analysis of selected cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities. For instance, an in-depth study of a firms top sales people and comparison with the worst sales people might reveal characteristics common to stellar performers. The exploratory investigator is best served by the active curiosity and willingness to deviate from the initial plan, when the finding suggests new courses of enquiry, might prove more productive A case is written description of a business related problem or situation and often contains organizational and financial data specific to the situation or problem. This may also have external data

and facts about social, economic or other micro economic circumstances impinging upon that business situation. Case offers student highest possible realism in management study (as compared to experimentation or hands-on projects in engineering or science) as it brings before student real situation and facts surrounding it. How things actually happen in business. Example to illustrate above points: Let us consider example of a currently popular topic of real estate business in India that is undergoing complex situation of demand recession, high costs and public criticism. A company XYZ Developer is faced with the situation of 3 projects under various stages of completion. In the nearing-completion project out of the three with a cost of Rs 20 lacs per flat, only 25% flats could be booked so far while other two projects have attracted only 10% bookings, each. The two remaining projects are scheduled for completion in 2012 and 2013 respectively, subject to cash flow availability as projected in previous year i.e. 2008 for next 5 years. There are 40 similar projects competing in market, which are at various stages of execution with average booking status of 40%. Obviously the XYZ Company is lagging behind the industry average. The company has raised debt from financial institutes @ 14% floating rate PA and the repayment plan is enclosed with this write up. All the three projects have considerably slowed down and may affect the possession schedule of even the booked customers. Company is finding it difficult to carry on construction work and make repayments as per schedule. There are several options for Company to follow. The HODs of various functions like marketing, finance and land acquisition have obviously different objectives and conflicting goals. The Board of Directors have called for an elaborate meeting of all concerned to evolve a plan of action which may include several possibilities including drastic rebates in the prices. Should it be done or not and in what mode and over what time frame could be one major decision problem. The real estate industry outlook over short term of next 13 years is not clear with Union general elections due after 4 months. The financial year is closing after two months. The complexity of above situation is very clear and the limited information available in the case as well as in real business situation especially on macro-economic front as far as real estate industry is concerned. Any decision to slash prices may severely affect the profitability of the company and may not yield expected outcomes. These outcomes desired are yet to be defined in the proposed meeting. Hence we can seer that a number of factors have to be evaluated, various options have to be listed and defined and their financial consequences and the effect on company reputation and goodwill also have to be factored in. The company's future projects may also get affected. The main point is when company can expect a turn around of demand situation and how company can control costs. Forecasting of both price and demand factors is a difficult proposition in current macro-environmental situation. What solutions can the Financial and Marketing heads offer and what the Project managers have to say?

Q 5. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing would be more appropriate.( 10 marks). Ans:- Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon on its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study.

The prerequisites of observation consist of: y Observations must be done under conditions, which will permit accurate results. The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly the objects to be observed. The distance and the light must be satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in good working conditions and operated by skilled persons. Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the cases. Recording should be accurate and complete. The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain number of cases can be observered again by another observer/another set of mechanical devices as the case may be. If it is feasible two separate observers and set of instruments may be used in all or some of the original observations. The results could then be compared to determine their accuracy and completeness.

y y y

Advantages of observation y The main virtue of observation is its directness it makes it possible to study behavior as it occurs. The researcher needs to ask people about their behavior and interactions he can simply watch what they do and say. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality into the researched situation for instance in interview the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is no such artificiality in observational studies especially when the observed persons are not aware of their being observed. Observations in more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate meaningfully e.g. studies of children, tribal animals, birds etc. Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of behavior. Furthermore verbal resorts can be validated and compared with behavior through

observation. The validity of what men of position and authority say can be verified by observing what they actually do. Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example only observation can be providing an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management representatives. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their conduct than questioning. It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning. Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate data and also of making continuous observations over longer periods.

Interviews are a crucial part of the recruitment process for all Organisations. Their purpose is to give the interviewer(s) a chance to assess your suitability for the role and for you to demonstrate your abilities and personality. As this is a two-way process, it is also a good opportunity for you to ask questions and to make sure the organisation and position are right for you. Interview format Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance what format the interview will take.
y

Competency/criteria based interviews - These are structured to reflect the competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a particular job, which will usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The interviewer is looking for evidence of your skills and may ask such things as: Give an example of a time you worked as part of a team to achieve a common goal. The organisation determines the selection criteria based on the roles they are recruiting for and then, in an interview, examines whether or not you have evidence of possessing these.

Technical interviews - If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge, it is likely that you will be asked technical questions or has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus on your final year project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove yourself, but also to admit to what you do not know and stress that you are keen to learn. Do not worry if you do not know the exact answer - interviewers are interested in your thought process and logic. Academic interviews - These are used for further study or research positions. Questions are likely to center on your academic history to date.

y y

Structured interviews - The interviewer has a set list of questions, and asks all the candidates the same questions. Formal/informal interviews - Some interviews may be very formal, while others will feel more like an informal chat about you and your interests. Be aware that you are still being assessed, however informal the discussion may seem. Portfolio based interviews - If the role is within the arts, media or communications industries, you may be asked to bring a portfolio of your work to the interview, and to have an in-depth discussion about the pieces you have chosen to include. Senior/case study interviews - These ranges from straightforward scenario questions (e.g. What would you do in a situation where?) to the detailed analysis of a hypothetical business problem. You will be evaluated on your analysis of the problem, how you identify the key issues, how you pursue a particular line of thinking and whether you can develop and present an appropriate framework for organising your thoughts.

Specific types of interview The Screening Interview Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates. (This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume center for help.) Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have honed skills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position. Remember-they does not need to know whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps in your employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will want to know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company. Some tips for maintaining confidence during screening interviews:
y y

y y

Highlight your accomplishments and qualifications. Get into the straightforward groove. Personality is not as important to the screener as verifying your qualifications. Answer questions directly and succinctly. Save your winning personality for the person making hiring decisions! Be tactful about addressing income requirements. Give a range, and try to avoid giving specifics by replying, "I would be willing to consider your best offer." If the interview is conducted by phone, it is helpful to have note cards with your vital information sitting next to the phone. That way, whether the interviewer catches you sleeping or vacuuming the floor, you will be able to switch gears quickly.

The Informational Interview On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Job seekers ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. Employers that

like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During an informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one another better without reference to a specific job opening. This takes off some of the performance pressure, but be intentional nonetheless:
y y y y

Come prepared with thoughtful questions about the field and the company. Gain references to other people and make sure that the interviewer would be comfortable if you contact other people and use his or her name. Give the interviewer your card, contact information and resume. Write a thank you note to the interviewer.

The Directive Style In this style of interview, the interviewer has a clear agenda that he or she follows unflinchingly. Sometimes companies use this rigid format to ensure parity between interviews; when interviewers ask each candidate the same series of questions, they can more readily compare the results. Directive interviewers rely upon their own questions and methods to tease from you what they wish to know. You might feel like you are being steam-rolled, or you might find the conversation develops naturally. Their style does not necessarily mean that they have dominance issues, although you should keep an eye open for these if the interviewer would be your supervisor. Either way, remember:
y y

Flex with the interviewer, following his or her lead. Do not relinquish complete control of the interview. If the interviewer does not ask you for information that you think is important to proving your superiority as a candidate, politely interject it.

The Meandering Style This interview type, usually used by inexperienced interviewers, relies on you to lead the discussion. It might begin with a statement like "tell me about yourself," which you can use to your advantage. The interviewer might ask you another broad, open-ended question before falling into silence. This interview style allows you tactfully to guide the discussion in a way that best serves you. The following strategies, which are helpful for any interview, are particularly important when interviewers use a non-directive approach:
y

Come to the interview prepared with highlights and anecdotes of your skills, qualities and experiences. Do not rely on the interviewer to spark your memory-jot down some notes that you can reference throughout the interview.

Remain alert to the interviewer. Even if you feel like you can take the driver's seat and go in any direction you wish, remain respectful of the interviewer's role. If he or she becomes more directive during the interview, adjust. Ask well-placed questions. Although the open format allows you significantly to shape the interview, running with your own agenda and dominating the conversation means that you run the risk of missing important information about the company and its needs.

Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey on behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain reader habits and interests. What type of research report would be most appropriate? Develop an outline of the research report with the main sections.(10 marks).

Ans:- There are four major interlinking processes in the presentation of a literature review: 1. Critiquing rather than merely listing each item a good literature review is led by your own critical thought processes - it is not simply a catalogue of what has been written. Once you have established which authors and ideas are linked, take each group in turn and really think about what you want to achieve in presenting them this way. This is your opportunity for showing that you did not take all your reading at face value, but that you have the knowledge and skills to interpret the authors' meanings and intentions in relation to each other, particularly if there are conflicting views or incompatible findings in a particular area. Rest assured that developing a sense of critical judgment in the literature surrounding a topic is a gradual process of gaining familiarity with the concepts, language, terminology and conventions in the field. In the early stages of your research you cannot be expected to have a fully developed appreciation of the implications of all findings. As you get used to reading at this level of intensity within your field you will find it easier and more purposeful to ask questions as you read:
o o o o o o o o o o o

What is this all about? Who is saying it and what authorities do they have? Why is it significant? What is its context? How was it reached? How valid is it? How reliable is the evidence? What has been gained? What do other authors say? How does it contribute? So what?

2. Structuring the fragments into a coherent body through your reading and discussions with your supervisor during the searching and organising phases of the cycle, you will eventually reach a final decision as to your own topic and research design. As you begin to group together the items you read, the direction of your literature review will emerge with greater clarity. This is a good time to finalise your concept map, grouping linked items, ideas and authors into firm categories as they relate more obviously to your own study. Now you can plan the structure of your written literature review, with your own intentions and conceptual framework in mind. Knowing what you want to convey will help you decide the most appropriate structure. A review can take many forms; for example:
o o o

An historical survey of theory and research in your field A synthesis of several paradigms A process of narrowing down to your own topic

It is likely that your literature review will contain elements of all of these. As with all academic writing, a literature review needs:
o o o

An introduction A body A conclusion

The introduction sets the scene and lays out the various elements that are to be explored. The body takes each element in turn, usually as a series of headed sections and subsections. The first paragraph or two of each section mentions the major authors in association with their main ideas and areas of debate. The section then expands on these ideas and authors, showing how each relates to the others, and how the debate informs your understanding of the topic. A short conclusion at the end of each section presents a synthesis of these linked ideas. The final conclusion of the literature review ties together the main points from each of your sections and this is then used to build the framework for your own study. Later, when you come to write the discussion chapter of your thesis, you should be able to relate your findings in one-to-one correspondence with many of the concepts or questions that were firmed up in the conclusion of your literature review. 3. Controlling the 'voice' of your citations in the text (by selective use of direct quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing) You can treat published literature like any other data, but the difference is that it is not data you generated yourself.

When you report on your own findings, you are likely to present the results with reference to their source, for example:
o

'Table 2 shows that sixteen of the twenty subjects responded positively.'

When using published data, you would say:

o o

'Positive responses were recorded for 80 per cent of the subjects (see table 2).' 'From the results shown in table 2, it appears that the majority of subjects responded positively.'

In these examples your source of information is table 2. Had you found the same results on page 17 of a text by Smith published in 1988, you would naturally substitute the name, date and page number for 'table 2'. In each case it would be your voice introducing a fact or statement that had been generated somewhere else. You could see this process as building a wall: you select and place the 'bricks' and your 'voice' provides the mortar, which determines how strong the wall will be. In turn, this is significant in the assessment of the merit and rigor of your work. There are three ways to combine an idea and its source with your own voice:
o o o

Direct quote Paraphrase Summary

In each method, the author's name and publication details must be associated with the words in the text, using an approved referencing system. If you don't do this you would be in severe breach of academic convention, and might be penalized. Your field of study has its own referencing conventions you should investigate before writing up your results. Direct quoting repeats exact wording and thus directly represents the author:
o

'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith 1988, page 27).

If the quotation is run in with your text, single quotation marks are used to enclose it, and it must be an identical copy of the original in every respect. Overuse or simple 'listing' of quotes can substantially weaken your own argument by silencing your critical view or voice. Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own words, with no loss of the author's intended meaning:
o

As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well be indicated by the presence of cloud in the sky.

Paraphrasing allows you to organize the ideas expressed by the authors without being rigidly constrained by the grammar, tense and vocabulary of the original. You retain a degree of flexibility as to whose voice comes through most strongly. Summarizing means to shorten or crystallize a detailed piece of writing by restating the main points in your own words and in the order in which you found them. The original writing is 'described' as if from the outside, and it is your own voice that is predominant: Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather, Smith (1988) predicted the likelihood of rain. o Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation could be expected as the result of clouds in the sky: he has clearly discounted the findings of Jones (1986). 4. Using appropriate language Your writing style represents you as a researcher, and reflects how you are dealing with the subtleties and complexities inherent in the literature.
o

Once you have established a good structure with appropriate headings for your literature review, and once you are confident in controlling the voice in your citations, you should find that your writing becomes more lucid and fluent because you know what you want to say and how to say it. The good use of language depends on the quality of the thinking behind the writing, and on the context of the writing. You need to conform to discipline-specific requirements. However, there may still be some points of grammar and vocabulary you would like to improve. If you have doubts about your confidence to use the English language well, you can help yourself in several ways:
o o o

Ask for feedback on your writing from friends, colleagues and academics Look for specific language information in reference materials Access programs or self-paced learning resources which may be available on your campus

Grammar tips - practical and helpful The following guidance on tenses and other language tips may be useful. Which tense should I use? Use present tense: For generalizations and claims:  The sky is blue. o To convey ideas, especially theories, which exist for the reader at the time of reading:  I think therefore I am. o For authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be compared on equal terms with others:  Smith (1988) suggests that...
o

In referring to components of your own document:  Table 2 shows...

Use present perfect tense for:

o

Recent events or actions that are still linked in an unresolved way to the present:  Several studies have attempted to...

Use simple past tense for:

o

Completed events or actions:  Smith (1988) discovered that...

Use past perfect tense for:

o

Events which occurred before a specified past time:  Prior to these findings, it had been thought that...

Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to:

o

Convey degrees of doubt  This may indicate that ... this would imply that...

Other language tips

o o o o o o o o

Convey your meaning in the simplest possible way. Don't try to use an intellectual tone for the sake of it, and do not rely on your reader to read your mind! Keep sentences short and simple when you wish to emphasise a point. Use compound (joined simple) sentences to write about two or more ideas which may be linked with 'and', 'but', 'because', 'whereas' etc. Use complex sentences when you are dealing with embedded ideas or those that show the interaction of two or more complex elements. Verbs are more dynamic than nouns, and nouns carry information more densely than verbs. Select active or passive verbs according to whether you are highlighting the 'doer' or the 'done to' of the action. Keep punctuation to a minimum. Use it to separate the elements of complex sentences in order to keep subject, verb and object in clear view. Avoid densely packed strings of words, particularly nouns.

The total process

The story of research study

Introduction I looked at the situation and found that I had a question to ask about it. I wanted to investigate something in particular. Review of literature So I read everything I could find on the topic - what was already known and said and what had previously been found. I established exactly where my investigation would fit into the big picture, and began to realise at this stage how my study would be different from anything done previously.

Methodology I decided on the number and description of my subjects, and with my research question clearly in mind, designed my own investigation process, using certain known research methods (and perhaps some that are not so common). I began with the broad decision about which research paradigm I would work within (that is, qualitative/quantitative, critical/interpretive/ empiricist). Then I devised my research instrument to get the best out of what I was investigating. I knew I would have to analyse the raw data, so I made sure that the instrument and my proposed method(s) of analysis were compatible right from the start. Then I carried out the research study and recorded all the data in a methodical way according to my intended methods of analysis. As part of the analysis, I reduced the data (by means of my preferred form of classification) to manageable thematic representation (tables, graphs, categories, etc). It was then that I began to realise what I had found. Findings/results What had I found? What did the tables/graphs/categories etc. have to say that could be pinned down? It was easy enough for me to see the salient points at a glance from these records, but in writing my report, I also spelled out what I had found truly significant to make sure my readers did not miss it. For each display of results, I wrote a corresponding summary of important observations relating only elements within my own set of results and comparing only like with like. I was careful not to let my own interpretations intrude or voice my excitement just yet. I wanted to state the facts - just the facts. I dealt correctly with all inferential statistical procedures, applying tests of significance where appropriate to ensure both reliability and validity. I knew that I wanted my results to be as watertight and squeaky clean as possible. They would carry a great deal more credibility, strength and thereby academic 'clout' if I took no shortcuts and remained both rigorous and scholarly. Discussion Now I was free to let the world know the significance of my findings. What did I find in the results that answered my original research question? Why was I so sure I had some answers? What about the unexplained or unexpected findings? Had I interpreted the results correctly? Could

there have been any other factors involved? Were my findings supported or contested by the results of similar studies? Where did that leave mine in terms of contribution to my field? Can I actually generalise from my findings in a breakthrough of some kind, or do I simply see myself as reinforcing existing knowledge? And so what, after all? There were some obvious limitations to my study, which, even so, I'll defend to the hilt. But I won't become over-apologetic about the things left undone, or the abandoned analyses, the fascinating byways sadly left behind. I have my memories... Conclusion We'll take a long hard look at this study from a broad perspective. How does it rate? How did I end up answering the question I first thought of? The conclusion needs to be a few clear, succinct sentences. That way, I'll know that I know what I'm talking about. I'll wrap up with whatever generalizations I can make, and whatever implications have arisen in my mind as a result of doing this thing at all. The more you find out, the more questions arise. How I wonder what you are ... how I speculate. OK, so where do we all go from here? Three stage of research 1. Reading 2. Research design and implementation 3. Writing up the research report or thesis Use an active, cyclical writing process: draft, check, reflect, revise, redraft. Establishing good practice 1. Keep your research question always in mind. 2. Read widely to establish a context for your research. 3. Read widely to collect information, which may relate to your topic, particularly to your hypothesis or research question. 4. Be systematic with your reading, note-taking and referencing records. 5. Train yourself to select what you do need and reject what you don't need. 6. Keep a research journal to reflect on your processes, decisions, state of mind, changes of mind, reactions to experimental outcomes etc. 7. Discuss your ideas with your supervisor and interested others. 8. Keep a systematic log of technical records of your experimental and other research data, remembering to date each entry, and noting any discrepancies or unexpected occurrences at the time you notice them. 9. Design your research approaches in detail in the early stages so that you have frameworks to fit findings into straightaway. 10. Know how you will analyse data so that your formats correspond from the start. Keep going back to the whole picture. Be thoughtful and think ahead about the way you will consider and store new information as it comes to light.