The Flower World of Old Uto-Aztecan Author(s): Jane H. Hill Source: Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 48, No.

2 (Summer, 1992), pp. 117-144 Published by: University of New Mexico Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3630407 Accessed: 14/12/2010 10:20
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THE FLOWER OF WORLD OLDUTO-AZTECAN

JaneH. Hill of AZ of Tucson, 85721 University Arizona, Department Anthropology,
to A ritualsystem reference flowersis reconstructed an early for phaseof development of also The is a the Uto-Aztecan of speech community. complex attested in Tzotzil, Mayan in and evidence occurs other communities contact for speech language Chiapas, limited of the withUto-Aztecan. system includes association flowerwithsongand theflower The of and stand spiritual Flowers as a symbol thespiritworld. for power for its manifestation of with are and Flowers associated fireandaredeployed in theheart,blood, eyes. symbolically and in genderdifferentiation. Alternative of for explanations thesignificance distribution thiscomplex evaluated. are

centeredon IN THIS PAPERI proposethat a complexsystem of spirituality of of flowersis partof the cultural repertoire manyof the prehistoric metaphors andhistoricpeoplesof the SouthwestandMesoamerica, especiallyspeakers occur of of Uto-Aztecan (Table1).1 Metaphors the FlowerWorld languages The songs portray in with specialfrequency songs aboutbeautiful landscapes. the SpiritLandwithsymbolsthatLevi-Strauss (1969)has called"chromatic." the occurs throughout Americas,songs about Whilechromaticism probably the that chromatic andthe specialized metaphor constitutes Flower landscape FlowerWorld and found inMesoamerica the Southwest. World are Specific only This and are metaphors foundas farsouthas Chiapas as farnorthas Arizona. at in Uto-Aztecan communities speech originated system probably metaphoric indicates wide zone a but an early stage of theirramification, its distribution of contact. of and I willfirstreviewthe system of "chromaticism" the evocation the I the SpiritLandin songs aboutthe beautyof landscape. willthen enumerate and metaphors concludewith a briefassessmentof the majorFlowerWorld distribution. of historical significance theirgeographical

CHROMATICISM
natural and colored iridescent flowersandotherbrightly Colored phenomena, and butterflies othercoldawnandsunset, rainbows, hummingbirds, including orfulandiridescent insects, shells, crystals,andcoloredlightsandflames,are SouthAmerica,L6vi-Strauss chromatic (1969)found symbols.In Amazonian the standsfor a varietyof mediations, that chromaticism including passage are widelyused in fromlife to death. Experiencesof the chromatic system and states used in curing otherritual.Chroto the Americas validate spiritual the maticvisions are soughtthrough use of hallucinogenic drugsthat cause
vol. Research, 48, 1992) (Journal ofAnthropological
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OF RESEARCH JOURNAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL TABLE 1 Uto-Aztecan Languages and Their Neighbors

I. TheUto-Aztecan Family A. Northern Uto-Aztecan California) (South-Central Tiibatulabal Numic Basin) (Great Takic California) (Southern Arizona) (Northeastern Hopi B. Southern Uto-Aztecan (Arizona, Sonora, Tepiman Durango) Sonora) (Chihuahua, Opatan Taracahitan Sinaloa) Chihuahua, (Sonora, Tubar (Sonora)
Corachol Jalisco) (Nayarit, Aztecan(Central Mexico)

in II. Neighboring Language Groups theSouthwest A. Yuman River Colorado Basin) (Southern California,
B. Zuni(Western New Mexico)

C. Keresan New Rio (Western Mexico, Grande) D. Tanoan Grande) (Rio the user to experienceflashesof brightlight,halosaround ordinary objects, or enhancement ordinary of colors.They canbe obtained dreams,but also in in through wakingexperienceof the beautyof chromatic phenomena nature. The use of chromaticism the construction spirituality so widespread in of is that it must representa very ancientlevel of religiousthought.AmongUtoAztecangroupsin the SouthwestandMesoamerica, chromatic symbolism apin pears with specialfrequency song, where the glitterof iridescencein the and and stones and butterflies, dragonflies in precious wingsof hummingbirds,
shells is a significanttheme. Special qualitiesof light, such as blue or crimson,

are also oftensung. Sapir(1910)published Southern a Paiutesong thatopens recitativeswhen Lizard Woman speaksin myths: wave (1) While lyingin the sun, likegravel[lizard] changescoloras sunbeams over [her].
While lying in the sun, like gravel [lizard]changes color as sunbeams wave

over [her]. JohnWesley Powellcollecteda Shoshonesong in whichthe foamon the Colorado Riveris said to be like drifting feathers(FowlerandFowler1971). Chromaticism of appearsclearlyin Hopiritualandsong, where the brilliance flowers, butterflies, brightfeathers,andpreciousstones andshellsis an imtheme.InPima Tohono and the chromatic portant O'odham, sunsetis a favored becauseof its mostevocativecolor,wepegiomi, whichRuth symbol,especially Underhill as The of (1951)translated 'crimson'. seyaania, the FlowerWorld

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the Yaqui,is a worldof brilliant colors, where "the lightglittersand shines throughthe water"(Evers and Molina1987:60),especiallyin the color tolo the Wirikuta, worldof the 'lightblue',the lightof the earlydawn.In Huichol, withelaborate chromatic and is represented symbolism is said peyotejourney, Tato be full of spiritual The Aztecs sang of chromatic afterworlds: light. where flower trees stand filledwith gloriousbirds;Tlalocan,a moanchan, waters, waterslike paradiseof gardens;andthe Sun'sHeaven,withpainted at the House of Dawn(Bierhorst 1985). quetzalfeathers, Manynon-Uto-Aztecan groupsseem to have sharedthe complex.Among a the Zuni,Barbara Tedlock aestheticsystem (1980, 1983)identified chromatic withanaestheticof mudcolorsandblacksandwhites. calledco'ya,contrasted Kroeber(1976[1925]:757) describedthe dreamsongs of the Mohaveas "a
style of literature . .. as franklydecorative as a patterned textile, . . . [with] color and intricacy, . . . fineness or splendor, . . . gorgeously pleasing." Eva

Hunt(1977), starting the withthe symbolof the hummingbird, explored chroIn maticsystem throughout Mesoamerica. DennisTedlock's translation the of to SevenMacaw, Quich6 PopolVuh,a falsecreator, attempts elevatehis status chromatic rhetoric: through I am theirsun andI am theirlight,andI amalso theirmonths.So be it: and of my lightis great. I am the walkway I am the foothold the people, because my eyes are of metal. My teeth just glitterwithjewels, and turquoiseas well; they standout blue with stones like the face of the like sky. Andthis nose of mineshineswhiteintothe distance the moon. is metal, it lightsup the face of the earth. (D. Tedlock Since my nest 1985:86) SONG AND THE SPIRIT LAND of Amongthe Uto-Aztecan peoples, song is the domain excellence chropar In matic symbolism. song, chromatic symbolsare often deployedin detailed of bothof waking of representation landscape, experiences beauty,whichpermit ordinary to glimpsethe SpiritLand,andof dreamsandvisionsof people the beauty of the SpiritLand.Such landscape seem to be representations associatedwith the supremeplace of song in a hierarchy "power" of among the genres of verbalart. In an essay on verbalart amongPiman-speaking with song peoples, Bahr (1975) distinguished song, oratory,and narrative, the most powerful spiritual the three genres. These genres are and of being not force, but also by formal criteria,by distinguished only by theirspiritual the subjectmatterappropriate each, by mechanisms representation, to of and the ways in whichauthorship acquired. is by
I have examined published texts for many of the Uto-Aztecan languages, includingespecially the great creation stories and parts of the coyote cycle, also associated with creation. These great narrative texts (admittedly often

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or at recordedin impoverished versions)attendhardly all to landscape "scethat was, nery"in anyaspect. Sapir(1910)discovered "narrative" in its indigenous contexts, a mixedgenre. In the winter,as the storytellersand their of the audiences performed creation the world,figuresin the mythscouldsing with"recitaor speakas orators,andthe narrative sequencewas elaborated in Woman example(1). But in the narrative tive," songs suchas thatof Lizard and sentencesthemselves,the landvirtually disappears, the focusis onevents, in the deeds of the creation-time beings, not on the beautyof the landscape whichthese occur.2 withsong. Not onlyare songs performed is The situation entirelydifferent of the winterrecitations the creationstories, they are also parts of during and collectiveritual,shamanistic spiritual quest. Songsare practice, individual for are"flowers the ears"(Ofelia valued theirbeauty; for personal Zepeda, they of In communication). all these contexts,rightacrossthe Uto-Aztecan family of flowers, becomesvisibleinexquisite sungdescriptions landscape languages, bluemist in the snowflakes, grass in the wind,featherson the water,drifting butterfliesover the pond, or the youngdeer againstthe dawn.The valley, it worldthat is sung is not preciselythe worldbefore us, although may be in this world:it is the timelessSpiritLand. glimpsed Becausethe voice of a singeris especially songcanaffectspiritual powerful, curers sing of the beautyof spirit O'odham beings and landscapes.Tohono disease fromhuman animals orderto makethem contentedandwithdraw in cite a Shoshone song beings(Bahret al. 1974).FowlerandFowler(1971:124) this collectedby Powellthatillustrates notion: (2) Oursong willenter that distantland land thatgleaming that gleaming land androllthe lakein waves. The singercan explorethe beautyof the SpiritLandfromevery possible elements are deployedexclusivelyin a perspective.In narrative, landscape items that lie of i.e., the inventory usefullandscape trope that I call "path," on time,andlandforms which alongthe waystravelled beingsof the creation by appears: large-scale they left theirmark.But, in song, the tropeof the "view" for celebrated theirbeautyare madevisible.RobFranklin imagesof landscape and Pam Bunte (1988) recordeda SanJuanPaiuteRoundDancesong from constituted such AnnaWhiskers incorporates a view, a visionnecessarily that froma distance: (3) Yahaiyaheyayaheyaheya
Streams should begin running

Streamswillbeginrunning

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Downfromthe mountain Streamswillbeginrunning Yahaiyaheyayaheyaheya of Roscinda Nolasquez,a speakerof Cupefio,a Uto-Aztecan language the SouthernCalifornia Takicbranch,sang of a movingview on a hot day in the San Diego Mountains andNolasquez1973): (Hill (4) Tewam,tewam3 Tanpenay pepuwaxinuk Na itewam tukvalpete Lameesa'qax Tewam,tewam Tanpenay pepuwaxinuk Na itewam Look,look Howdancing there the land'sface divides Now look Pete fromLa Mesa UponTukval Look,look How dancing there the land'sface divides Now look.

in as O'odham Imagesof landscape appear occasionally oratory, inthe Tohono andPimaoratory discussedby Bahr(1975)andUnderhill al. (1979).In such et speeches the voice of the oratoris said to be powerful.One subgenreof orationsis called"Mockingbird Speeches,"in referenceto the powerof their voice: a mockingbird orates in a spiritRainHouse to release the rain. In shamanistic oration voice is ElderBrotherShaman, the in journeying the creation of the worldalongthe path of the sun, the "flowery road,"a Flower World to whichI willreturn.The shaman's andhairandface are image eyes often coveredwith tanhadag, dust andleaves drivenon the windbefore the the summer so of rainfall. The thunderstorm, he speaksin a moment imminent shamanis transformed the beautyof the SpiritLand,as in an orationby by the PimaoratorThinLeather,collectedby FrankRusselland published by Bahr(1975): mountains and (5) Ouropposite-standing they reddened stoodup, thatwas the kindof thinghe wishedto see, andsoftlyinsidehimselfhe laughed Songs of landscapeare foundin some other Southwestern groups. For includea subgenreof songs that celebratethe first instance,Navajosongs view of MountTaylor exiledNavajos as returned theirhomeland to fromFort Sumner. areextremely among rare Yuman InHinton's Landscape songs groups. of nature (1988)recentcollection Havasupai songs, the onlytexts thatcontain are from"circledance"songs, thoughelsewhereshe gives a single imagery
"medicine song" about the red rocks at Supai (Hinton 1980). These are very recent borrowings, most of which originate with a single singer who went to

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the learned songs Utahto learnthe GhostDancereligion who apparently and of fromPaiutepeoplethere. In confirmation the claimthat song is the most Uto-Aztecan peoples, this manconsidered powerful genre for Southwestern and the circledancesongs to be dangerous thoughtthat they hadmadehim sick (Hinton 1988:17). THE FLOWERWORLD is Chromatic symbolism most developedamongspeakersof Uto-Aztecan The FlowerWorld,the centralconcern languagesin songs aboutlandscape. that has emergedas a furtherspeof this paper,is a system of metaphors rhetorical of cialization this genre. In this specialized system, the floweris a of in dominant (1967);evocation the floweropens symbol the sense of Turner and of a multitude meanings,uniting biological ethicalpoles. Fullydeveloped exhibitsall of the following rhetoric FlowerWorld properties: of the verbal 1. Songis the appropriate genreforinvoking symbol the flower, refers to aspectsof the FlowerWorld. but oratoryoccasionally 2. The flower standsfor the SpiritLandin generaland for the spiritual aspect of humanbeings. The SpiritLandis a floweryregionwith flowery houses, paths, and patios;these are the spiritual aspects of houses, paths, or as and patiosin this world.To sing or to speak of something a "flower" evokes its spiritual aspect. "flowery" 3. At the biological pole, the flowersstandfor literalflowers, for human and for other aspects of vital force, such as blood, and organs of hearts, perception.Rarely,the flowermay standfor the vagina.In this aspect, the and flowersymbolexhibitsthat unityof spiritual-ethical biological poles that Turner(1967)has called"condensation." and associatedwith fire: fire "blossoms," 4. The flower is symbolically into flowers"burst flame." 5. The flower is associatedwith gender identity.Flowers can stand for but femalebeautyandfecundity, the flowersymbolis even more frequently associatedwithmalestrengthandspirituality. in Uto-Aztecan is TheFlowerWorld mostelaborated the southern languages, in in withcloselysimilar poeticsystems involved its evocation bothAztecand formamongPimangroupsandamong It Yaqui. is also foundin an elaborated It Uto-Aztecan the Hopi(anorthern among developed group). wasonlypartially Numic-speaking peoplessuchas the PaiuteandShoshone.Songsof landscape are foundamongTakic-speaking California, Uto-Aztecan groupsin Southern also and betweenburning blooming appears,together where the association flowernamesthatare also attestedin Tohono witha smallset of metaphoric O'odham.
Some aspects of the Flower Worldcomplex can be found among non-UtoAztecan Pueblo groups, such as Taos, and amongthe Navajo. Bunzel's (1932a, 1932b) work on Zuni ceremonialismincludes extensive texts of prayers and

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these mightbetterbe compared oratory with thanwithsong. chants,although Flower World is not attested in Bunzel'stranslations, the imagery although B. Tedlock(1983)is clearlypresent, as is "chromatic" imageryreportedby attentionto sacred landscapes.Songs of landscapes and metaphors the of FlowerWorld apparently are absentamong Yuman TheFlowerWorld speakers. is very wellattestedamong Tzotzilof Chiapas, thereis some evidence the and that it is ancientamongMayan-speaking peoples.This patternof distribution of elementsin a zone of contact suggests some development FlowerWorld the between the SouthwestandMesoamerica period. during prehistoric

ANDSONG FLOWER
of The first propertyof the flowercomplexis the association the flower genre of verbalart andthe one that is symbolwith song, the most powerful and and of for mostappropriate representation landscape forevoking influencing the SpiritLand. and genre. To be a poet, Amongthe Aztec, song was a privileged powerful to Le6n-Portilla (1982), was one of the three honoredways (the according and othersbeingthatof the calendrical expertor diviner thatof the warrior). from was Aztec"poetry" almostcertainly surviving the early sung;manuscripts and that notations set drumming include Colonial rhythms, the marginal period but vocables, sequences of written lines includenot only ordinary words, lines in the sung meaninglesssyllablesthat must have filledout rhythmic of the association flowerandsong not In the Nahuatl language performance. of mention flowersinsongandthe absence by onlycanbe deduced the frequent of such mentionin other genres, but also is madeexplicitin the well-known 'the ceremonial "poetry, coupletin cuicatlin x6chitl song, the flower',meaning In of (6) song."Poets were oftencalled"singers flowers." example below,the has use of xdchitl'flower' at least a doublemeaning.It standsfor the song, withtheirshortandglorious of the "weavings" the poet, andfor the warriors weaverof grass,"since all lives. The poet says thathe is merelya "humble the flowersthathe mightsing are fallenin battle. all "You livedas songs,"a song of Tochihuitzin Coyol(6) Cuicatlanyolque', 1978:130): (Le6n-Portilla chiuhqui As songs you lived, As flowersyou bloomed, Youprincesover the people, weaverof grass, am I, Tochihuitzin, a humble For they have already fallen, Flowergarlands. Evers and of The association flowerandsong is also very clearfor Yaqui. deer songs, and of an Molina(1987)published extensivetreatment the Yaqui

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of deer songs represent they note the similarity these to Aztec poetry.Yaqui the FlowerWorld a level of detailthatcloselycorresponds thatfoundin at to FlowerWorld, seyaania, is sungbydeer singers the Nahuatl poetry.The Yaqui who animate dancerwho becomesthe magical a of deer, the "flower person" the FlowerWorld.(Seyaincludesthe root for "flower"; refers to one of ania a system of parallel "worlds.") "Wash Flower," Yaqui the a deer dancesong (Evers and (7) Seata Valumai, Molina1987:93): ne Overthere, I, in the center Ayaman seyewailo of the flower-covered wilderness huyatanaisukuni machiau kuaktekai I turnedtowarddawn. Sea mochala awaka Witha clusterof flowersin my antlers, I walk. weyekai Tane seata valumai But I am washedby the flower, sea mochala awaka witha clusterof flowersin my antlers, I walk. weyekaiii. In TohonoO'odham Pima,flowersare mentioned alltypes of songs, and in for including songs in narrative, songs in curing,andprivate"singing power." Russell(1975[1904]) gives a curingsong in whichthe "spirit way"of Gopher is evokedby the mention flowers: of (8) In the crimson na-a; evening,I go following This roadmadeof my manycrimson flowersna-a to to Speaking, my burrow, my landI go na This song is sung to cure GopherSickness, one of the Piman"staying sicknesses."JuanGregorio to explained DonaldBahrandDavidLopezthat, whichare pronounced hearingsongs trulyandtell trulyof their spiritways, the spiritanimals pleasantly are stimulated withdraw sickness (Bahr and the et al. 1974). fromthe story of the creationof corn andis Example(9) is a "recitative" Manto makehis gardenfertile. sung by Corn O'odham (9) Corn's Songfromthe Tohono storyof "Where PeopleGotCorn" andSaxton1973): (Saxton Overthere beneaththe sunrise, the cornerof the earthis my garden, In it flowersongs go forthin every direction... The evocationof the Flower Worldis also foundin a Pimaorationfirst

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the here published Russell(1975[1904]); translation is fromBahr(1975:41). by The orator,who speaksas ElderBrotherShaman, followsthe flowerypath, the "sun'scenter-lying road": (10) Its south-lying road, all beaded, all earringed,wing featherbowstring downfeatherbowstring sided, sided, cut woodfloweredsided ... Its north-lying road, all beaded, all earringed,wing featherbowstring sided, downfeatherbowstring sided, cut woodfloweredsided.... The image of the floweryroad, with its prototypein the pathof the sun across the heavens, is one of the most widelydiffused FlowerWorld metaphors.Flowers,alongwithshells, preciousstones, birds,andotherchromatic in elements,linethe waysof the HolyPeople Navajo song.No metaphors of the FlowerWorld, flowersandfire, are attested except thatassociating for contemporary California Uto-Aztecanverbal art. However, Wallace (1978:643)gives a dreamsong text fromthe Wintuof north-central California,collectedby DorothyDemetracopoulou (Lee), whichmentionsthe it floweryroad combining with a mentionof the MilkyWay,a composite thatis also attestedamongSouthern California Uto-Aztecans: image (11) It is abovethatyou andI shallgo; Alongthe MilkyWayyou andI shallgo ... It is aboveyou andI shallgo; Alongthe flowertrailyou andI shallgo... flowerson our way you andI shallgo. Picking The presenceof these imagesin Wintu reminds of Nichols' us (1981)proposal that Uto-Aztecan were partof a multilingual languages system in "OldCalifornia." The association between flowerand song is also foundamongthe Hopi, where songs commonly invokeflowerimages,as in (12). (12) First verse of TwelfthSongfromthe Oraibi HopiPowamuyu Ceremony and (Voth1901; orthography translation EmorySekaquaptewa): by Hark!my mother Ha'o!ingu'u Hark!my mother Ha'o!ingu'u takuri sukwiningya ingu'u Directlynorthwest,yellowcorn, my mother haahaatsiw siiutatkya Directlysoutheast, the Desert Lilyis blooming si'yta Ourfaces are of beautiful itamuyu' pitsangwatoya'a countenance Ourfaces, give us the moistureof itamuyu' sineevelatoya'a flowers

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put'avinur pitsangwa'ykyango put'avinor sineevela'ykyango tuuhiyongwani'yta, tuuhiyongwani'yta ha'o!ingu'u.

Withthatmayit be thatI, while thatbeautiful countenance having Withthatmayit be thatI while havingthatmoistureof the flower Willkeep everyone will delighted, keep everyone delighted. Hark!my mother.

Numicpeopleslike the PaiuteandShoshonedo not appearto have the full for FlowerWorld but Dance subject Round complex, flowersareanappropriate as in the examplein (13). songs, Dancesong (Liljeblad ShoshoneRound 1986:648): (13) A Northern the The largesunflower, fullyyellowflower out spreading root Fromthe water-clear Heena! the Among Numic peoples,thereis muchevidencethatsongsare a powerful aboutthe meaning genre. Nonetheless,there is a long-standing controversy of NumicRoundDance songs, a genre whichmost authorities agree is the oldestGreatBasinsonggenre, andone whichis confined the Basinpeoples to into (exceptfor diffusion the Plainswiththe 1889-1890GhostDance).Sapir, have held thatthese songs seem to be Steward,andmost recentlyLiljeblad rather than"sacred," that"theRound and Danceandthe related "entertaining," the secular" 1986:647)even during GhostDance. songs remained (Liljeblad in Sapir (1910) felt that recitativesof the type illustrated (1) above were of embellishments narratives. "meaningless" Liljeblad proposesthatthe mood of RoundDancesongs (suchas example13) is "intuitive ratherthancontemor no 1986:647). plative, involving conscious symbolism personification" (Liljeblad A positioncontrary thatof Sapir,Steward,andLiljeblad represented to is that Danceswere heldwhenpeople by Park(1941), who emphasized Round was needed to prayandthattheirsignificance sacred.Crum(1980),a native of speakerof Shoshone,has also arguedfor recognition the deepermeaning of RoundDance songs. In discussinga smallcollectionof four such songs chosento be accessibleto whitechildren, observesthatthese songs are she in ... with form of language usually"composed an elevatedand figurative several levels of meaning" (Crum1980:5). Vander(1988) foundthat Wind RiverShoshonesingersbelievedthe RoundDanceandrelatedgenres to be spiritually powerful.
The present demonstrationof the spiritualpurpose of the flower song complex supports the position taken by Park, Crum, and Vander.Thus the "meaningless" attention to the beautifuliridescence of the baskinglizardin (1) draws

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and attentionto the system of chromaticism thus evokes the spiritual aspect In of Lizard worlds-the FlowerWorld, Woman. the Uto-Aztecan the parallel loose women landof the dead,the Sun'sheaven-frivolityanddance,beautiful and with their hair decoratedin flowers, dizzy spinning flashingcolors, all of appear.Thus the "frivolity" the RoundDancemaybe deeplyserious,and a realmof Dancesongs mayconstitute complex the "concreteness" Round of whichis ultimately Indeed,RoundDance songs highly"abstract." metaphor for portrayed mayhavebeenparticularly appropriate the visionof thenewworld in the GhostDance. In a study of the song repertoiresof five WindRiverShoshonewomen, Vander(1988) published seventy-fiveShoshonesongs. These includesongs and RiverShoshonewiththe GhostDancereligion are thatcameto the Wind Round Dancesongs. They are called relatedto the WesternShoshone clearly to narayasongs andare saidto cometo singersin dreams.According Vander these songs constitute sort of relic;onlythe oldestShoshone a singthemand felt of them. One consultant that narayasongs had rememberperformances of been abandoned whenwinterperformances themseemed to bringon sickDancesongsandthink ness. Younger singersuse a genrethatthey callRound of them as being very "Shoshone." However,like most of the songs in the fromPlains which clearly are derived culture Wind RiverShoshone repertoires, or fromthe modernPowwowcomplex,these are sungentirelyin vocables. Narayasongs are in Shoshone,not in vocables.They containrichimages ofnature,especially water-related water, imagessuchas fog, snow,andrunning butalso lightsourcessuchas the sunandstars, andmanyreferencesto color. One song published Vander(1986:45)developsa theme of a "pinetree by in the flickering darknessunderneath shadeof pines, a chromatic butterfly," butterflies of (Bahr 1983).Plants reminiscent Piman songsabout imagestrongly a one songincludes referenceto a medicinal canalso be sungin naraya songs; the celebrates pinetree. The songsalsodescribethe release root, andanother the of the soul after death. Vanderdistinguishes "nature" complexand the combut these two complexesmustbe related;the "nature" "soul" complex, Land.Indeed,Vander concludes evokes the Spirit almostce--tainly (1986) plex that narayasoigs are closely relatedto GhostDance songs, with theirprewith World. However,noneof the naraya songspublished occupation the Spirit Vander includereferencesto flowers.This maybe due to a splitin a pair by of images, flowersandfeathers,that are bothpartof the chromatic system; the usualimageof the soul for the Shoshoneis a feather,a pointthatwillbe discussedin more detailbelow. THE FLOWERWORLDAS THE SPIRITLAND
The Flower Worldis the place where the spiritualaspects of living things are found. This is a timeless world, parallelto our own. It is often called the

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" of SpiritLand,or "paradise,andis oftenthought as a landof the dead.Among the variousUto-Aztecan of peoples,the SpiritLandoftensplitsintoa number subworlds theirownunique with as specialized properties, inthe severalAztec heavensor the severalYaqui worlds.But amonggroupswhichexhibitthe full of development the FlowerWorld complex,the spiritual aspect of anything that has vitalforce or spiritual can to importance be captured referring it by as a flower or flowery.The Flower Worldis the realmof heroes in their creativeaspect,andthe spirit which roads." waysalong theytravelare"flowery severalparadises: the Amongthe Aztec, flowersembellish Tamoanchan, e.g., and gardenworldof incarnation the tree of flowersandlife, whichlies in the the west, andTlalocan, earthlyparadise,where those who die by drowning wanderamongflowers.Flowers, birds,andbutterflies also foundin the are Sun'sheaven,where the spiritsof men who die in battleandof womenwho die in childbirth escort the sun on his flowerypath. In Huichol,the Flower World the Wirikuta the peyote hunt,the landof ultimate is of beauty,where the spiritsof deer and corn are immanent whichis entered by human and a involvesa language "reof beings through peyotejourney.This pilgrimage " in whichthe moonbecomesthe coldsun, duskbecomesdawn,sleep versals, becomeswaking, the sacred and "flower" 1974:159). peyoteis called (Meyerhoff the Amongthe Yaqui seyaania is the landof the dead,andthe deer dancer associations flowersin Yaqui of are helps spiritsto reachit. The metaphorical diverse. WhenChristwas crucified, blood,striking ground,turnedto his the can flowers,andmanyotherobjectsinYaqui be giventhe spiritual aspectwhich is dominant seya aniaby beingreferredto as "theflower."For instance, in the red ribbonstied through antlersof the deer dancer's the headdressrepresent the spiritual of the vitality the deer andare called"flower"; instruments used by musicians accompany deer singeranddancerare referredto who the " in theirspiritual and drum," the like (Evers aspectas "flower rasper, "flower andMolina1987). the is northward, FlowerWorld foundamongthe Pimans.This Continuing is seen in songs (8) and (9) andthe orationfragment (10), above. In Piman, as in Yaqui, mere mentionof flowerscan transform worldevokedby the the the singeror orator the immanent into realmof the spiritandof creation. Ofelia states thattodaya favorite of O'odham communication) Zepeda(personal song women sings of 'auppaheosig'cottonwood flowers'.This song evokes the in the cottonydowndrifting dizzily the sunandbreezeand"transforms" scene from the mundane the spiritual. O'odham, to (In spinning,drifting, shining and of and objectsevoke the FlowerWorld the "dizziness" shamans, warriors, those whodrink saguaro the wineto bring rain.The deadare saidto enjoy the foreverthe pleasuresof spinning the dance.)The "transformative" of in use flower symbolsin orationcan be seen when the O'odham leaderopens war the path to war by speakingof the "flowery that he will smoke cigarettes" (Russell 1975 [1904]:337).The cigarettesin the house of a spiritwho will guide a war leaderburnin the cornersof piles of Apachehair,"smoking in

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flowers,dirtyflowflowers,glittering manyflowercolors,whiteflowers,black flowers"(Russell1975[1904]:359). ers, yellow of The FlowerWorld alsofound a wayof speaking anafterworld is as paradise the Hopi. For the forthcoming of among Dictionary Hopi, KennethHilland have land'.The root EmorySekaquaptewa collectedthe termsiitalpu 'flowery forth'are combined, with the element sii- 'flower'and the root tal- 'shining the illustrative suffixes,as inthefollowing permitting stemto acceptlocative -pu sentencein-thedictionary: pa nu' mookye' Pas "Just think, suyansiitdlpumini, when I die, I willsurelygo to the floweryland." The FlowerWorld clearly is invokedin ritualssuch as the Powamuyu Oraibi, at reportedby Voth(1901). I have given a Powamuyu song at (12) above. The flower symbolis deployedvisuallyin several sand paintings the in Powamuyu ceremony.These depictsacredspaces, suchas the Sun'shouse, which is decoratedwith many symbolsfor blossoms, as can be seen in a sandpainting Sun'shousereproduced Voth(1901:76).These of Powamuyu by are of of Hopi dry paintings reminiscent representations the sun's flowery in paradisein Aztec frescos. (Livingflowers can be used in dry paintings as in some of the largedrypaintings madeof Nahuatl-speaking regionstoday, flowerpetalsat Huamantla, for Tlaxcala, the Augustfestivalof the Assumption of the Virgin.) Flowersare also used as decorative elementsin dancecostumesamong the where the dancersare spiritbeings.In otherPuebloan flowers Hopi, groups, are usuallyattachedto masks and are worn on the head, close to the face. These uses of flowersymbolism are They are also used as altardecorations. ancient.At Sunflower Caveinnorthern in dated Arizona, depositssubsequently as PuebloIII(A.D.1250-1300),Kidder Guernsey and (1919)founda cacheof carvedfromwood andtwo additional twenty-sixpainted"sunflowers" yellow flowers made of cut and paintedtannedskin.4Twenty-oneof the wooden flowerswere painted white.Theartificial flowers, yellow,andfivewerepainted woodenbirdandtwenty-five "varnished conealongwitha carvedandpainted woodenobjects," werecarefully storedina largeolla.Thecacheobjects shaped were most likelymaterials ritual for costumes.A similar five cache, including flowersmadeof agavewoodandcottonstring(twoof the flowers multipetalled were painted,one blueandone green), was foundin a cave at BonitaCreek, of Arizona,slightlynortheast Safford (Wasley1962). The cachealso included wooden cones, a simplebird carving,and tablas, terracedwooden shapes clouds)used in dancecostumesandaltardecorations. (perhaps representing thatthe BonitaCreekcave site is associated witha groupof Wasleysuggests who migrated the areain the last quarter the thirteenth to of people century. between the Sunflower Cave and BonitaCreek Pointingout the similarity used in essentiallythe same materials,he arguesthat they were "probably
way in virtuallyidentical ceremonies performed by closely related groups of people sharing the same ceremonialbeliefs" (Wasley 1962:393). Althoughflowers are part of sung representations of the Spirit Landamong

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to some Numicpeoples, I have not foundany Numicexpressionequivalent FlowerWorld "flowery norhaveI found Numicsongs whereobjects or land," No of or thatare not flowersare referredto as "flowers" "flowery." mention flowersoccursin Takic Land,andthese groupsseem largely songsof the Spirit ritual communities to lackFlowerWorld Takic practice emphasized symbolism. the the around use of toloache, hallucinogenic Daturameteloides. plant centering the In relatively recenttimesthey adopted cultof Chinigchinich. Chinigchinich from dancesanda fire danceandincorporates cult practiceincludeswhirling infusions the toloachecult the searchfor sacredvisionsobtained drinking by made fromdaturaleaves andflowers. I have been unableto findany flower itself(it has a very conspicuous motifsin Chinigchinich ritual, exceptfordatura to like the flower);I consider use of hallucinogens datura be partof the system but of spirituality chromaticism, notto be necessarily of the Flower part through are World plants.Instead,in system, even whenthe hallucinogens flowering source is symbolism the most important thought,astronomical Chinigchinich the The wanawut, anthropomorphized Way,stands of chromatic Milky glitter. for the soul. WhenChinigchinich he rose intothe sky andbecamea star. died, turnedinto stars, not intoflowers,birds, Amongthe Luisefio,dead"nobles" of whileordinary andbutterflies, peoplewentto the paradise the dead,telmok of the starsmaybe a reflexof the system The 1978[1933]). glitter (Harrington color.Kroeber ritual of chromaticism, Chinigchinich failsto emphasize but (1976 ritualcontrastswith [1925]:666)notes that the relativedrabnessof Luisefio California. the brightcolorsused in Kuksuritualin Central FLOWERS,SOULS, AND HEARTS for In addition standing the "flowery to realm,flowers world,"a spiritual of human and certainbiological spiritual beings.It is in this aspects represent a that the flowersymbolexhibitswhatTurnercalled"condensation," aspect whichgives thempowerby uniting of dominant fundamental symbols property of the an ethicalwitha biological pole. Among Aztec, the maledivinity flowers " 'FlowerPrince',who is personified of was the "Lord Souls, Xochipilli (with who stands Aztec excess) in the naked,flayedcaptivewarrior literal-minded fall skin(Sejournd for the freedsoul, releasedfromits earthly 1960).Warriors meet in battleas flowers,an imageseen in (6) above. The souls of warriors the new Sunin the dawnandescortit to the zenithas flowers,bright-feathered of had Aztecreligion as its goalto causethe "flower the birds,andbutterflies. in a deathwhichyieldeda new lightin the world. body [the heart]to bloom" in that aspect of life that continues death, can 1960:144).Tey6ll6, (Sejournm flowersstandfor bloodshed in war be representedby a flowersymbol,and andsacrifice(Ortizde Montellano 1989).
The most famous discussion of the metaphorassociating humanhearts with the germinative power of plants is that of Whorf, for Hopi:

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The subjectiveor manifesting comprisesall that we wouldcall future,

it BUTNOTMERELY all THIS; includes equally and indistinguishably that

or that we callmental--everything appears exists in the mind,or, as the not wouldpreferto say, in the HEART, onlythe heartof man,but Hopi the heart of animals,plants,and things,and behindand withinall the of formsand appearances naturein the heartof nature,andby an imand extensionwhichhas been felt by more thanone anthroplication of ever be spoken bya Hopihimself, charged so hardly pologist,yet would and is the ideawithreligious magical awesomeness,in the very heartof the Cosmos,itself. (Whorf in 1956:59-60;emphasis original) WhileWhorfsstatementsuggeststhatthe Hopiassociatethe heartandthe germinative powerof plants,andwhilethe Hopiclearlyassociateflowerswith Land withsong, EmorySekaquaptewa the Spirit and communication) (personal states that for the Hopi,the "soul," spiritual the elementof human beings,is like a feather.Featherscarrymessages in Hopiprayeras well. Images of feathersappearin the chromatic system in Nahuatl poetry.Sometimesthese are closely associatedwith the flowerepithet,as in the Cantares Mexicanos flowersstandforthe singer'scomwherebothprecious feathersandbeautiful and havefurther (Bierhorst position 1985).5Andof coursebothflowers feathers associations:flowers with the preciouswater, and featherswith lightness, (See motility,andthe highflightof birds,who cancarryprayersto divinities. 1962 andHultenkrantz also Laughlin 1951.) FLOWERSAND FIRE of in The metaphoric association flowersandflamesis verywidespread UtoAztecanlanguages.The metaphor the blooming of floweras "bursting into as flame"can be reconstructed a lexicalitem meaning'blossom,bloom'for Attestations include Nahuatl Uto-Aztecan. sew-ta, proto-southern xo-tla,Yaqui andO'odham 'flower, hio-ta,wherethefirstelementis the rootmeaning bloom', of and the second is the root for 'fire, flame'.The metaphoric association notes thatnot flowersandflamesis very clearin Aztec. Karttunen (1983:331) only did the verb x6tlameanboth 'to catchfire'and 'to bloom',but that the verb cuep6ni'to bloom'couldalso mean 'to explode,give off a glow'. The is heart, seat of tey6ll6,the eternal'soul-light', associatedwith the flowerin flameimagery the Aztec.Heartsarerepresented Aztecartas bloomamong in or as in flames.The codicesare oftenambiguous theirrepresentation; ing of The bothbloomandflameare implied probably simultaneously. association in the Aztecideathathumans were especially who the heartwithflameis seen in for art, "distinguished theirbrilliance the fieldsof divination, or imagination" in fire"as burned the heartsof the gods were said to have the same "divine (LopezAustin1980:256).

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do The northern Uto-Aztecan lexical languages not have the flower-flame item for 'bloom'.Instead,they have a verb whichis derivedfromthe word for 'flower'(or, moreprobably, versa). However,whilethe flower-flame vice as languages,the metaphoris not lexicalized in the southernUto-Aztecan is whichotherwisedo not have association attestedfor the Takiclanguages, the FlowerWorld complex.This is seen in a singleexampleshownbelow, a lines, the heartof Mukat, song (14) where, in the secondandfourth Cupefio " The in is 'bloomburning cremation, saidto "bloom,sewenina. verbsewenina of is ing'(ina sungvariant) the sameas the wordusedforthe blooming flowers in andcontains rootsewe-'flower'. the The songtells of a moment the Cupefio creationstory. Coyotehovers outsidethe circleof mourners, readyto steal heartfromhisfuneral associate bloomthe Creator's clearly pyre.ThusCupefiio in heartof Mukat. with burning the prototypical fire, the blazing spiritual ing Here we also see the association blooming, flowermetaphor, of a with the of vitalforce through cremation. freeing "DeathSong"(HillandNolasquez (14) Cupefiio 1973): Fromthere, fire went on its journey ingaxkut hdisipeyax Fromthere, fire blooming. angaxkut sewenina OldCoyotefromthere isilyaaiyxat aingax listened penaqmacin OldCoyotefromthere isilyaaiyxat dingax it was blooming pesewenina Fromthere, fire went on its journey angaxkut hisipeyax Fromthere, fire blooming. ingaxkut sewenina OldCoyotein thatplace isilya iyxatpete listened peniqmacin In thatplaceit was blooming pesewenina lpte The metaphor the "blooming" of Mukat's of fire heartin its cremation pyre seems to me to attest to the presenceof FlowerWorld rhetoricin Cupefio. This is highlysignificant becauseit suggests that the flower-fire-heart-spiriof in tuality metaphor havebeen partof the repertoire songlanguage the may However,the myth of the cremation proto-Uto-Aztecan speech community. of Mukat nota FlowerWorld is storieswithanepisodeinwhich story.Creation heartfromhis cremation arefound among Coyotestealsthe creator's pyre only Southern California Uto-Aztecans among Colorado and the RiverYuman groups is In the (Morris 1977);the FlowerWorld notpresentamong Yumans. allthese of groupsthe mythof the cremation the creatorlicensesfunerary practices. FLOWERSAND GENDERDIFFERENCES Association flowersymbolism genderdifferentiationfound several of with is in SarahWinnemucca groups.In her autobiography, Hopkins reportsthatmany

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of Paiutegirls bore the names of flowers. In the Spring"Festival Flowers" ceremonies,the girls who hadthese nameswouldshow theirmaleadmirers of their namesakeflowers, speaking "seeingthemselvesin bloom" (Hopkins 1883:46-47). In the actualceremony,flower-named girls wouldsing about theirnamesake flowers;they wouldbe saidto be "nota girlanymore, she is unmarried womenworetheir a flowersinging" 1883:47).Young Hopi (Hopkins hairtwistedintowhattodayareoftencalled Voth blossoms."' (1901:139) "squash Desert Lily,"that youngHopigirls notes of the haatsi,"Calochortus aureus, wouldcollectthese beautiful blossoms,andthe boys wouldtry to take them of names" appropriate awayfromthem. Parsons(1936)lists a number "flower for womenat Taos Pueblofor their"delicacy"; these includenamesglossed with meaningssuch as 'FlowerWaterCarry','Hummingbird Flower', 'Sun Flower',and 'FlowerDance'.At Taos the namesof men were dominated by sky elements, such as star, sun, andeagle, andalso by elementsassociated withhunting Bothmaleandfemalenamescaninclude elements suchas 'arrow'. forwater.(Alist of personal namescompiled Parsons[1929]at IsletaPueblo by not includesno femaleflowernames,so suchnamesare apparently universal amongthe Pueblos.) of The association flowerswithwomenamong Paiute,Hopi,andat Taos the in narrowsense I symbolism the relatively may not be partof FlowerWorld have developedhere; they have to do insteadwith a different between link and 1978). For instance,in Northern California, femininity flowers(Friedrich is rhetoric not attested, public dances amonggroupsfor whichFlowerWorld at are heldin celebration a girl'spuberty; suchdanceswomenwearflower of crowns, andDriver(1941)reportsthat some tribespermitsexuallicenseon of the last nightof the dance.Certainly association flowerswithwomenis the not universally thatuse Flower World attestedamong symbolism. groups Among the Aztec, flowersstandfor the spiritual of both genders.In Nahuatl aspect of is poetry a particularly way appropriate to speakmetaphorically a warrior as a "flower," with a short andgloriouslife. Whilein Aztec nameswith the stem x6chi-'flower' were oftenwomen'snames,as in the nameof the female 'FlowerQuetzalBird',male deities such as Mdcuilx6chitl deityX6chiquetzal 'FlowerPrince' hadnameswiththis element. also 'FiveFlower'andX6chipilli and Uto-Aztecan groupssuchas the Huichol, Yaqui, Amongothersouthern is or male,being Pimans,the flowersymbol alsoandrogynous even dominantly associated withfemalefecundity agriculture, alsowiththe hunt,a male and but the domain. (1974)has suggestedthatfor Huichol ideaof Wirikuta, Meyerhoff is of the flowery,light-filled SpiritWorld, partof a syncretizing the agricultural with system (the spiritsof corn dwellin Wirikuta) the ancientworldof the in the hunters(symbolized the deer), accomplished through thirdpartof the womencanuse peyote, but the Yaqui deer singingand triad,peyote. Huichol is a women that dancing evokes the FlowerWorld emphatically maledomain;
do neither, and they should not touch the various instruments and costume elements. Male pascola dancers, not female dancers, wear a flower on their

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heads in Yaqui fiestas. The Pimansong (9), in whichCornMansings of his the the "flowery garden," therebypromoting growthof the corn,exemplifies associationwith agriculture. the PimanFlower World,like that of the But and Huichol Yaqui, also associatedwithhunt,andespecially is withthe deer, the prototypical game animal.Huntersgain power by singingof blossoms; Underhill (1976[1938]) gives a hunter'ssong: (15) The red ocotilloflowerThere I foundthe deer; They ran, They brokeit down. The yellowchamiso flowerThere I foundthe deer; They rushedforth, They brokeit down. a (1979)havepublished seriesof Piman Bahr,Giff,andHavier hunting songs whichcontain referencesto flowersandbutterflies to colors.They and many referencesmaycontextualize songsas "daythe suggest thatthese chromatic but it seems likelythat the songs also time"or "nighttime" hunting songs, evoke the floweryworldof the spiritual deer thatis seen more clearlyin the deer song complex. Yaqui A serious problem untangling indigenous in the association between femiand flowers, especiallyin Mesoamerica, the heavy contemporary is ninity influenceof the cult of the Virgin inherits Mary;the latter divinity probably fromAphrodite specialassociation roses andlilies, two of "thegreat her with trioof popular flowers" was (Seaton1989;the third the violet)thatareattested in Europefromthe earliestperiod.Burkhart (1987, 1989)reportsthatearly Christian in missionaries Mexico, especiallythe Franciscan wrote Sahaguin, from psalmsand hymnsin Nahuatl,using a metaphorical system borrowed Nahuatl to in songs of the FlowerWorld locatethe Virgin a flowerygarden. Friedrich communication) (personal reportsa very activeset of flowermetaTarascan to phorsforeroticlove in modern song, buthe admits the probability of European influence this tradition. on THE FLOWERWORLDIN CHIAPAS I have concentrated on of primarily the extensiveattestations the Flower World fromthe Southwest northern and Mesoamerica, especially among speakers of Uto-Aztecan languages.However,an extremelyclear accountof the FlowerWorld fromsouthern Mesoamerica, including every elementreviewed
above, comes from Laughlin's(1962) account of flower symbolism among the Tzotzil Maya of Zinacantan, Chiapas.As elsewhere in Mesoamerica, for certain festivals the decorationof crosses, altars, and ritualobjects with flowers is an

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who task of the mayordomos, must continually changethe flowers important notes the use of flowerofferings so thatthey willbe fresh. Seaton(1989:685) so where theirpaganhistorymadethem controversial, in early Christianity, the and Christian does not by itselfdemonstrate this practice maybe partially cargoitself is complex.However,the religious presenceof the FlowerWorld This of called "the flower of service"in the Tzotzil community Chenalh6. is locution not attestedin European rhetoric,as faras I know,andis strongly "flower" of reminiscent the evocationof spirituality the attribution by among mentioned Tzotzilprayers,and in Flowersare frequently the Uto-Aztecans. it the last lineof anyprayeris usually "May pass underthe flowerabove,may it pass underthe floweryface" (Laughlin 1962:135).Laughlin reports that is referencesto deitiesandsacredobjectsas "flowery" a featureof manyritual of songs and orations,suggestingthe association flowerswith these genres that I have notedabove. Flowersare used in curingin Zinacantan. Indeed,any plantused in curing is ritually 'flower'. Flowersandplantsare boiledin water referredto as nichim to create a "holywater"thatis used to wash sick peopleandis also used in for of for and the preparation cadavers burial for "flowery baths" imagesof the a modemNahuatl-speaking saints.(Among rubbing person peoplesinTlaxcala, with flowersin frontof an altaris referredto as a lavada'washing'.) also Flowersin Zinacantan standfor the soul; the bed of a sick personis that bundles plants(ritually of called"flowers") are said surrounded thirteen by 'soul'(Laughlin to standforthe thirteen 1962:128).Flowers partsof the ch'ulel nichimal 'o'one andthe heartare also associated; reportsa metaphor Laughlin of 'the holyflowerof the heart'.The association flowerswiththe SpiritWorld with shamanic in vision. The term for the can be identified theirassociation to visionin curerin Tzotzilis j'ilol 'see-er', referring his gift of supernatural sat a are dreams;divinities callednichimal 'flowery eyes'. Aguardiente, powwhen it is erfuland mind-altering substance,can be referredto as "flower" a flowersare associatedwith fire in Zinacantan: spark used ritually. Finally, "flower the fire,"and a candleflamecan be of can be calledmetaphorically in of Other familiar called"flower the candle." imagesarefound Tzotzil-speaking that for instance,a finding amongthe Tzotzilof Larcites, groups;Laughlin road." the rainzar, sun is saidto followa "flowery considered that the complexin Zinacantan representeda pre-CoLaughlin the work of J. Eric Thompson,who lumbian survivaland cites particularly of instruments suggestedthatrepresentations flowersat the tipof blood-letting in a Mayavase painting stood for blood(Thompson 1961). Thompson (1932) for observedthat the usualMayaglyphstanding the day or the sun was a flowerwithflourpetals,witha smallholein the center.Rands(1953)analyzed in the symbolic associations Mayaartof flowersthathe tookto be waterlilies; these were associatedwithdeathsymbols,withseveraldeities, withthe face andeyes (reminiscent the Zinacantan of faces"). "flowery eyes" and"flowery not It is possible,however,thatthese imagesare associated, withthe Flower

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but experience World, withthe moregeneralchromatic systemandchromatic Dobkin Rios (1984) suggestedthat the de throughthe use of hallucinogens. known waterlily,whichcontains alkaloids, mighthavebeen used psychoactive to state appropriate amongthe ancientMayato inducethe dreamy,languid of visionseeking;she notes that Randsfoundthat representations shamanic human waterliliesoftenincluded figures. reclining PROBLEM THE HISTORICAL I have establishedthat a complexmetaphorical system centeringon the in in practice westernNorth symbolof the floweris very widespread religious At group America.7 least some elementsof it are foundin every Uto-Aztecan on for whichwe haveinformation, although the extremewesternandnorthern the distribution, complexseems to be weaklydefringesof the Uto-Aztecan at best. veloped of Because of the very generaldistribution the complexin Uto-Aztecan of and becauseof the possibility reconstructing quite specificmetagroups, for and of such as the association "blooming" "burning" a very early phors, I believethatthe of in the ramification the Uto-Aztecan family, language stage in Flower Worldfirst appeared an "OldUto-Aztecan" speech communitythat communities date to not itself, butcertainly perhaps the protocommunity some Takicgroups, a very earlyperiod,one in whichthe Hopi,andperhaps Uto-Aztecan in were stillassociated contactwitha proto-southern community. between Aztec, Yaqui,and Piman of similarities language The fine-grained as poetry,the presenceof the FlowerWorld a landof the deadin bothYaqui for reconstructible protoandHopi,andthe lexicalized bloom-burn metaphor, as the and Uto-Aztecan tracedamong Cupefiio a nonlexical southern metaphor, stronglysuggest sucha history. Uto-Aztecan of Whileour reconstruction the complexfor proto-southern the northandsouthfromthis community, widerdistriarguesthatit diffused aboutotherpossibilities. invitesspeculation of bution FlowerWorld metaphors in For instance,the complexmighthave originated southernMesoamerica, at into alongwithagriculture anearly community diffusing the OldUto-Aztecan is also possible:a foundational date. An intermediate complex explanation of the basic association flowerswith fire, spiritual power, and the involving Thiswas later landof the deadmayhavedeveloped amongOldUto-Aztecans. south inMesoamerica, elaborated the fullFlowerWorld into spreading complex formas faras the Hopiand as far as the Mayansandnorthin the elaborated of withthe appearance otherapin other Pueblopeople,perhaps association culturein the thirteenth elements in Southwestern Mesoamerican parently
century. It is even possible, althoughunlikely,that the Flower Worldcomplex was spread both north and south in extremely recent times by Christianmissionaries who used the Aztec version of the Flower Worldto advance their evangelical purposes.

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of the evidenceforthe origin the FlowerWorld The main among Uto-Aztecan even at the proto-Uto-Aztecan at a very ancient level, period,possibly peoples is linguistic: least some elements of it are foundin song texts for every at However,the archaeological languagegroupfor whichwe have information. the caches of artificial flowers at Sunflower Cave and evidence, principally BonitaCreek, attests only to a relatively date whichdoes not permitus late to rule out a Mesoamerican Caveis a PuebloIII site, dated origin.Sunflower at aboutA.D. 1250-1300 (Jeffrey This Dean, personalcommunication). is at least one hundred influence years afterevidencefor Mesoamerican beginsto appearin the Southwest. The FlowerWorld attestedon the margins the of complexis onlypartially Uto-Aztecan worldin TakicandNumiclanguages. Thisdistribution mightsugof gest the marginality these groupsto the contexts-perhaps those of Methe soamerican which Flower World and influence-in However, appeared spread. sucha distribution at mightbe duealso to loss of the complex,perhaps a very late period,becauseof replacement the celebration the FlowerWorld of of by new kindsof religiousobservance.In the case of the Takicpeoples, where we have the fortunate attestationof a burn-bloom in metaphor the Cupefio cult or song in (14), the replacing mightbe the Chinigchinich religion the cult of cremation. Cremation, although generalamongrecentYuman peoples, apof pearedamongthe Northern Dieguefio (neighbors Takicgroups)onlyin the sixteenthcentury(McGuire 1982), associatedwith the spreadof a Patayan The culture. relatively recentspread thispractice perhaps of and archaeological of its licensing thatcremation be partof a new cultthat mythssuggests might California UtoreplacedFlowerWorld religious practiceamongthe Southern Aztecans(if it was ever presentthere). Cremation the exclusivefunerary was for identified the Hohokam, practice so its spread the regioncoulddateultimately a period Patayan-Hohokam in to of contact.A high-water markof the Yuman occurred between A.D. expansion 1200 and 1300. At this periodso-calledPatayan ceramics,witha core distributionon the lower Colorado River,are foundeastwardalongthe GilaRiver as fareast as the Phoenix basin,in the areainhabited todayby Piman-speaking the the people, andwustwardaround edges of whatis currently SaltonSea, well into the rangeof the modern Cahuilla (Waters 1982). PaulFish(personal notes that ceramicsconsidered be "Yuman" foundin to are communication) Hohokam area.SinceMesoamerican contextsin the Phoenix in influence, the formof suchtraitsas ballcourtsandcopper for bells, is obvious the Hohokam, Hohokam materialsshouldbe examinedto determinewhetherthere is any evidence for the FlowerWorldcomplex.Such evidencewouldbear on the of for question a possibleMesoamerican provenance FlowerWorld symbolism.8
It might be argued that the single word, "blooming," the Cupefio song in in (14) is insufficientevidence for the presence of a Flower Worldcomplex anciently among speakers of languages of the Takic branch of Uto-Aztecan. However, there is an additionalfragment of linguisticevidence. This consists

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of three sets of namesfor conspicuous springflowers(the springtime display of annuals of flowering and trees is especially associated withthe FlowerWorld in the Southwest9) exhibitmetaphorical contentamongthe TohonoO'odthat for Arizona whichthe Flower ham, a Pimangrouplocatedin south-central and World is attested,andthe Cahuilla Cupefio, complex clearly Takic-speaking California mountains deserts.'0 The three and groupslocatedin the Southern more thancoincidence, sets of names togethersuggest something namelya flowsharedunderstanding how to thinkaboutthe most conspicuous of spring ers.11 We must considerwhetherthe Flower Worldcomplexcouldhave been missionaries familiar with Nahuatl spread at a very late date by Christian Burkhart (1987)has discussedthe extensiveuse of FlowerWorld symbolism. the in Cristiana, composed hymnal, Psalmodia metaphors a Nahuatl-language Bernardino the Franciscan soldiery missionary Sahagtin. Nahuatl-speaking by into in missionaries the earlyperiodof expeditions Sonoraand accompanied and the RioGrande couldalso havebeen sourcesof the systemamonggroups Not in those regions.The evidenceseems to weighagainstsuch a proposal. cacheat Sunflower Caveapparently from date only does the artificial-flower deer song aboutA.D. 1250, but Evers andMolina(1987) considerthe Yaqui World to genre,wherethe imagesof the Flower appear, be partof theaboriginal I influence. am not awareof and system of Yaqui religion not due to Christian in in evidenceof FlowerWorld materials use by Jesuitmissionaries Sonora, missionswere andSpicer(1967)has pointedout thatby the time Franciscan established by against theywere enjoined the Inquisition alongthe RioGrande, in like materials those developed Sahaguin hisPsalmby syncretic usingheavily odia. Insummary, of evidenceonthehistorical beginnings the systemofmetaphors in of the FlowerWorld a zone of origin an OldUto-Aztecan stronglysuggests of Uto-Azto the breakup proto-southern speech community, certainly prior tecan. While distribution the complex alsocompatible an episode of is with the of secondary in Mesoamerica the and elaboration a zone of contactinvolving Southwestas far northas the GreatBasin and as far south as the Maya, does centuries,the distribution not sugperhapsin the twelfthandthirteenth a one-wayspreadout of Mesoamerica insteadattests to the influence but gest of the northern to of contributors the repertoire cultural peoplesas significant elements foundin this zone. The wide distribution a detailed of metaphorical at system of this type impliesmultilingualism, least amongritualadepts,and intensecontactandsympathetic interestin one another's suggests relatively the peopleswhowere involved. Research the complex into should lives among thus constitutea particularly favorable for deepening understanding site our of in westernNorthAmerica. intercultural relationships Researchon the Flower Worldis sharplyconstrained the paucityof by
information. Archaeologists studying ceramic decoration, paintings, petroglyphs, caches of ritualregalia, and other contexts where the complex might

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be attested have not, as far as I know,noted it as a coherentsystem. The attention includes on literature Southwestern onlythe most minimal languages of to flowernamesor to song language; earlycollections songs were usually and made by people who did not know the pertinent languages includeonly at information all. More the most cursoryglosses wherethereis anylinguistic on researchis needed,especially the precisecontentanddates ethnohistorical in of use of material employedby earlymissionaries Sonora,the Rio Grande of On andChiapas. the ethnographic investigations ritual side, practice region, in difficult the Southwest,but it seems likelythat are of course notoriously in that older sources containinformation will have new meaning the lightof of investigation, Evenat thispreliminary the presentproposal. however, stage of to a deeperunderstanding the history it is happily clearthatimportant keys can of westernNorthAmerica be gainedfromresearchintoa realmof beauty and and spiritual depth,a realmof bothfrivolity power,that willdeepenour of historical not problems,but more generally understanding only of specific of the Americas. the thoughtof the indigenous people NOTES
for 1. This paperwas originally Meetingof prepared a session of the 86th Annual Association the American Ill.) (Chicago, in honorof ProfessorDavid Anthropological fromReed College:"Language, Frenchuponthe occasionof his retirement Culture, " DavidFrench, organized RobertBrightA andEthnosemantics: MilangeHonoring by I ScienceFoundation. was man.Workon TohonoO'odham supported the National by wouldliketo thankDonBahr,EllenBasso, LouiseBurkhart, Evers, DickFord, Larry Wick Vander, Judith Miller, KelleyHays,LeonLorentzen, KayFowler,PaulFriedrich, on andOfeliaZepedafor theircomments earlierversionsof this manuscript. narrative is 2. This absenceof attentionto landscape foundalso in life-history by in of evocations landscape the work in NativeAmericans the Southwest.The brilliant a and as authors N. ScottMomaday LeslieSilkorepresent major of suchcontemporary Basso (1988) discusses the "potent literature. in innovation NativeAmerican genre the in discourses of shorthand" mentioning Apache; among Western place-names moral thanare are is descriptive my impression thatApacheplace-names moreelaborately but most Uto-Aztecan place-names, even in these stories we do not findrhetorical of of to attention the description placebeyondthe mention the names. she this did 3. Miss Nolasquez not feel thatshe couldtranslate songproperly; said that it was abouthow prettythe placewas when you lookedout on it. I hadalways of was assumedthattewam the plural imperative tewa'see, look'.However,Margaret has recentlypresenteda Mesa GrandeDieguefiotext, "TheFlute (1990) Langdon " 'on tewam andon andon tewam tewam the Player, whichcontains expressiontewam and betweenMesaGrande contact andon'. Therewas considerable Dieguefio Cupefio, and other loanwordsoccur,so it is possiblethatMiss Nolasquez's song is partlyin for meaningful speakersof bothlanguages, Dieguefio,or that tewamis "multivocal," effectivefor the manybilinguals. andespecially to Fordfor drawing attention this referenceandto to 4. I am indebted Richard my out JeffDean, who also pointed the BonitaCavereference,for the dating.

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"reve5. Bierhorst himselfbelievesthatflowersalwaysstandfor ghost warriors, of in and nants," thatflowersymbols thissense arepartof the rhetoric anearlycolonial revitalization movement.I concurwith Ortizde Montellano (1989)andmanyothers has of of that this is a most unlikely reading the symbolism the songs that Bierhorst is moresense iftheirflower The imagery readas suggested published. songsmakemuch review. here andin Ortizde Montellano's rigorous Whorl." LeonLorentzen called "Butterfly a 6. I havealsoseen thishairstyle (personal a fromeasternArizona has and communication) identified photographed rockpainting there is no evidenceof potteryin whichshows a femalefigurewith sucha hairstyle; wield and the rockshelterwherethe painting appears, the malefiguresin the painting not may spear-throwers, bows.Thissuggeststhatthe painting dateto the Basketmaker of at IIIperiod,beforeA.D.1000. However,the symbolism the hairstyle this remote date mighthavehadnothing allto do withflowersor butterflies. at in on 7. I havelargely here the literature flowersymbolism the OldWorld. neglected Friedrich (1970, 1978) has discussedtree and flower symbolism amongthe Indous A recentreviewby BeverlySeaton(1989)permits to conclude Europeans. valuable Seatonproposes that the floweris a dominant thought,although symbolin European and that at least one of the "biological" "social" poles was often suppressedin any semiotic foundation reviewsuggeststhatwhilea universal era. clearly particular Seaton's in contentin flowermetaphors the European motivates gooddealof sharedsymbolic a it as andAmerican cases, the FlowerWorld complex I haveoutlined hereis inits details a distinctly American phenomenon. to lack 8. Note thatthe Pimans, heldby someauthorities be Hohokam descendants, In RiverShoshone, and cremation havethe FlowerWorld complex. the case of theWind the new observancesincludethe PlainsSun Dance, also a very late manifestation. whichused songsof the Round Vander (1988)observesthatthe GhostDancereligion, in of has Dancetradition included that evocations the FlowerWorld, been abandoned of RiverShoshone within lifetimes living the Wind favorof othertypes of ceremonialism singers. and annuals the lupines,penstemons, the Desert Lily like 9. Whilespring-flowering trees such as the Palo Verde(Cercidium (Calochortus spp.) are spp.) andflowering (personal especiallyassociatedwith the Flower Worldin the Southwest,Friedrich flowersthat grow on has communication) pointedout that in Mesoamerica parasitic tree orchidis called'Soul-Flower' in one trees may be of greatimportance; parasitic the Tarascan. (1962) reportsthat in Zinacantan most favoredfloweris the Laughlin Nahuatl (andall over Mexico),the marigold, de flor geranium. Amongcontemporary is associated withthe feast of All a flowernativeto the Americas, especially muerto, is Souls'Day; since the FlowerWorld so oftenthe Landof the Dead, this suggests a centralplacefor this species. 10. The metaphors (1) Lupinussp.: TohonoO'odham ma:hag'Sun'sHand are: tas 'SunRays';(2)Penstemon Tohono tamitmeh'a O'odham Cahuilla Outstretched'; parryii: 'Wind's (forCirsium alsotalland Pet' hewele'es'Wind's Cahuilla he'ash ya'i Crop'; sp., ho:hoie'es 'Dove's Crop',Cupefio pink);and (3) Escholtziaspp.: TohonoO'odham 'Dove'sPet'. maxdca'a 11. See Bean andSaubel(1972). The only sourcefor flowernamesin Yuman landoes not give com(1985) ethnobotanical study of the Havasupai, guages, Whiting's names.Thus,it is likelythatthe namescomefroman OldUto-Aztecan cultural parable horizon predatethe Yuman and However,the evidencedoes not preclude expansion.

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or that anotherexplanation, these flowernames are a residueof "Patayan" Yuman at since they appear the margins the Patayan of butnowhereelse in range, influence, Uto-Aztecan.

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