NETWORKING NOTES

Synchronous communication is direct communication where the communicators are time synchronized. This means that all parties involved in the communication are present at the same time. This includes, but is not limited to, a telephone conversation (not texting), a company board meeting, a chat room event and instant messaging. Asynchronous communication does not require that all parties involved in the communication to be present at the same time. Some examples are e-mail messages, discussion boards, blogging, and text messaging over cell phones. In distance (specifically online) education asynchronous communication is the major (sometimes the only) method of communication. Usually, we use different discussion boards in each class with each having its own purpose. An Asynchronous Communication is where there is 'variable bit rates' at the send and receive ends, in other words the send and receive clock generators are not sycnhronized as in a Sysnchronous Communication. Synchronous communication is direct communication where the communicators are time synchronized. This means that all parties involved in the communication are present at the same time. This includes, but is not limited to, a telephone conversation (not texting), a company board meeting, a chat room event and instant messaging. Asynchronous communication does not require that all parties involved in the communication to be present at the same time. Some examples are e-mail messages, discussion boards, blogging, and text messaging over cell phones. In distance (specifically online) education asynchronous communication is the major (sometimes the only) method of communication. Usually, we use different discussion boards in each class with each having its own purpose. I would define data communication as the transfer of information between two points, either via an analogue (sine wave) electrical signal. or digital (binary ) signal via electrical pulses or optically via light pulses
Question: What is (Wireless / Computer) Networking?

Answer: In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software. Area Networks
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.

Network Design
Computer networks also differ in their design. The two types of high-level network design are called client-server and peer-to-peer. Client-server networks feature centralized server computers that store email, Web pages, files and or applications. On a peer-to-peer network, conversely, all computers tend to support the same functions. Client-server networks are much more common in business and peer-to-peer networks much more common in homes. A network topology represents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow. In so-called bus networks, for example, all of the computers share and communicate across one common conduit, whereas in a star network, all data flows through one centralized device. Common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring and mesh.

Network Protocols
In networking, the communication language used by computer devices is called the protocol. Yet another way to classify computer networks is by the set of protocols they support. Networks often implement multiple protocols to support specific applications. Popular protocols include TCP/IP, the most common protocol found on the Internet and in home networks.

Wired vs Wireless Networking

Many of the same network protocols, like TCP/IP, work in both wired and wireless networks. Networks with Ethernet cables predominated in businesses, schools, and homes for several decades. Recently, however, wireless networking alternatives have emerged as the premier technology for building new computer networks.

A computer network is an interconnected group of computers. Networks may be classified by the network layer at which they operate according to basic reference models considered as standards in the industry, such as the five-layer Internet Protocol Suite model. While the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is better known in academia, the majority of networks use the Internet Protocol Suite (IP).

By scale
Computer networks may be classified according to the scale: Personal area network (PAN), Local Area Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan area network (MAN), or Wide area network (WAN). As Ethernet increasingly is the standard interface for networks, these distinctions are more important to the network administrator than the user. Network administrators may have to tune the network, to correct delay issues and achieve the desired performance level.

By connection method
Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware technology that is used to connect the individual devices in the network such as Optical fibre, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, HomePNA, or Power line communication. Ethernets use physical wiring to connect devices. Often they employ hubs, switches, bridges, and/or routers. Wireless LAN technology is built to connect devices without wiring. These devices use a radio frequency to connect.

By functional relationship (Network Architectures)

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist between the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architecture.

By network topology
Main article: Network Topology Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Starbus network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc. Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout.

By protocol
Computer networks may be classified according to the communications protocol that is being used on the network. See the articles on List of network protocol stacks and List of network protocols for more information. For a development of the foundations of protocol design see Srikant 2004[1] and Meyn 2007[2]

Types of networks:
Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Main article: Personal area network A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that may be used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs or scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically within about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 metres). Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB[3] and FireWire. A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as IrDA and Bluetooth.

Internetwork
Main article: Internetwork Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork. In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them:

Intranet Extranet Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Basic Hardware Components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the

form of galvanic cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.11) or optical cable ("optical fiber").

Network Interface Cards

Main article: Network card A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a lowlevel addressing system through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or wirelessly.

Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is wireless, and is commonly associated with a telecommunications network whose interconnections between nodes is implemented without the use of wires, such as a computer network (a type of communications network).[1] Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented with some type of remote information transmission system that uses electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, for the carrier and this implementation usually takes place at the physical level or "layer" of the network.[2]

Types
Wireless LAN
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is similar to other wireless devices and uses radio instead of wires to transmit data back and forth between computers on the same network.

Screenshots of Wi-Fi Network connections in Microsoft Windows. Figure 1, left, shows that not all networks are encrypted (locked unless you have the code, or key), which means anyone in range can access them. Figures 2 and 3, middle and right, however, show that many networks are encrypted.

Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a commonly used wireless network in computer systems which enable connection to the internet or other machines that have Wi-Fi functionalities. Wi-Fi networks broadcast radio waves that can be picked up by Wi-Fi receivers that are attached to different computers or mobile phones. Fixed Wireless Data: Fixed wireless data is a type of wireless data network that can be used to connect two or more buildings together in order to extend or share the network bandwidth without physically wiring the buildings together.

Wireless MAN
Wireless Metropolitan area networks are type of wireless network that connects several Wireless LANs.

WiMAX is the term used to refer to wireless MANs and is covered in IEEE 802.16d/802.16e.

Mobile devices networks

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three major systems which are :the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support system (Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)). The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is transferred where it needs to go (Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)). This is used for cellular phones, is the most common standard and is used for a majority of cellular providers.[3] Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile phones in North America. Sprint happened to be the first service to set up a PCS. D-AMPS: D-AMPS, which stands for Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, is an upgraded version of AMPS but it is being phased out due to advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks are replacing the older system.

Uses

An embedded RouterBoard 112 with U.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Fi card widely used by wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) in the Czech Republic. Wireless networks have had a significant impact on the world as far back as World War II. Through the use of wireless networks, information could be sent overseas or behind enemy lines easily, effieciently and more reliably. Since then wireless networks have continued to develop and its uses have significantly grown. Cellular phones are part of huge wireless network systems. People use these phones daily to communicate with one another. Sending information over seas is possible through wireless network systems using satellites and other signals to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the police department utilize wireless networks to communicate important

information quickly. People and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data quickly whether it be in a small office building or across the world.[4] Another important use for wireless networks is as an inexpensive and rapid way to be connected to the Internet in countries and regions where the telecom infrastructure is poor or there is a lack of resources, like most developing countries. Compatibility issues also arise when dealing with wireless networks. Different components not made by the same company may not work together, or might require extra work to fix compatibility issues. Wireless networks are typically slower than those that are directly connected through an Ethernet cable. A wireless network is more vulnerable because anyone can try to break into a network broadcasting a signal. Many networks offer WEP - Wired Equivalent Privacy - security systems which have been found to be vulnerable to intrusion. Though WEP does block some intruders, the security problems have caused some businesses to stick with wired networks until security can be improved. Another type of security for wireless networks is WPA - Wi-Fi Protected Access. WPA provides more security to wireless networks than a WEP security set up. The use of firewalls will help with security breaches which can help to fix security problems in some wireless networks that are more vulnerable.

Environmental concerns and health hazard

In recent time there are increased concerns and research linking usage of wireless communications with poor concentration, memory loss, nausea, premature senility and even cancer.[5] Questions of safety have been raised, citing that long term exposure to electromagnetic radiation of the sort emitted by wireless networks may someday prove to be dangerous.[6] files.

Hybrids
Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network

A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub. A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

While grid networks have found popularity in high-performance computing applications, some systems have used genetic algorithms to design custom networks that have the fewest possible hops in between different nodes. Some of the resulting layouts are nearly incomprehensible, although they function quite well.

Ethernet
Ethernet was developed by the Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Centre (known colloquially as Xerox PARC) in 1972 and was probably the first true LAN to be introduced. In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) in the United States of America, produced a series of standards for Local Area Networks (LANs) called the IEEE 802 standards. These have found widespread acceptability and now form the core of most LANs. One of the IEEE 802 standards, IEEE 802.3, is a standard known as "Ethernet". This is the most widely used LAN technology in the world today. Although IEEE 802.3 differs somewhat from the original standard (the "blue book" defined in September 1980) it is very similar, and both sets of standards may be used with the same LAN. The IEEE standards have been adopted by the International Standards Organisation (ISO), and is standardised in a series of standards known as ISO 8802-3. ISO was created in 1947 to construct world-wide standards for a wide variety of Engineering tasks. Adoption of ISO standards allows manufacturers to produce equipment which is guarented to operate anywhere it is finally used. ISO standards tend to be based on other standards (such as those produced by the IEEE), the only problem is that the ISO standards tend to be issued later, and are therefore less up to date. The simplest form of Ethernet uses a passive bus operated at 10 Mbps. The bus is formed from a 50 Ohm co-axial cable which connects all the computers in the LAN. A single LAN may have up to 1024 attached systems, although in practice most LANs have far fewer. One or more pieces of coaxial cable are joined end to end to create the bus, known as an "Ethernet Cable Segment". Each segment is terminated at both ends by 50 Ohm resistors (to prevent reflections from the discontinuity at the end of the cable) and is also normally earthed at one end (for electrical safety). Computers may attach to the cable using transceivers and network interface cards.

An Ethernet LAN consisting of three computers joined by a shared coaxial cable Frames of data are formed using a protocol called Medium Access Control (MAC), and encoded using Manchester line encoding. Ethernet uses a simple Carrier-Sense Multiple Access protocol with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to prevent two computers trying to transmit at the same time (or more correctly to ensure both computers retransmit any frames which are corrupted by simultaneous transmission). 100 Mbps networks may operate full duplex (using a Fast Ethernet Switch) or half duplex (using a Fast Ethernet Hub). 1 Gbps networks usually operate between a pair of Ethernet Switches. (N.B. It is not possible to have a dual-speed hub, since a hub does not store and forward frames, however a number of manufacturers sell products they call "dual-speed hubs". In fact, such devices contain both a 10 Mbps and a 100 Mbps hubs, interconnected by a store-and-forward bridge.) Ethernet LANs may be implemented using a variety of media (not just the coaxial cable described above). The types of media segments supported by Ethernet are:

10B5 Low loss coaxial cable (also known as "thick" Ethernet) 10B2 Low cost coaxial cable (also known as "thin" Ethernet) 10BT Low cost twisted pair copper cable (also known as Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), Category-5) 10BF Fibre optic cable 100BT Low cost twisted pair copper cable (also known as Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), Category-5) 100BF Fibre Fast Ethernet 1000BT Low cost twisted pair copper cable (also known as Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), Category-5) 1000BF Fibre Gigabit Ethernet 10000BT Category 6 (Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), Category-6) 10000BT Fibre 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The network design rules for 10 Mbps using these types of media are summarised below:
Segment type Max Number of systems per cable Max Distance of a cable segment

segment 10B5 (Thick Coax) 10B2 (Thin Coax) 10BT (Twisted Pair) 10BFL (Fibre Optic) 100 30 2 2 500 m 185 m 100 m 2000 m

Network Design Rules for Different types of Cable There is also a version of Ethernet which operates fibre optic links at 40 Gbps and at 100 Gbps. Many LANs combine the various speeds of operation using dual-speed switches which allow the same switch to connect some ports to one speed of network, and other ports at another speed. The higher speed ports are usually used to connect switches to one another.

The OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model specifies standards for describing "Open Systems Interconnection" with the term 'open' chosen to emphasise the fact that by using these international standards, a system may be defined which is open to all other systems obeying the same standards throughout the world. The definition of a common technical language has been a major catalyst to the standardisation of communications protocols and the functions of a protocol layer.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model showing a connection between two end systems communicating using one intermediate system. The structure of the OSI architecture is given in the figure above, which indicates the protocols used to exchange data between two users A and B. The figure shows bidirectional (duplex) information flow; information in either direction passes through all seven layers at the end points. When the communication is via a network of intermediate systems, only the lower three layers of the OSI protocols are used in the intermediate systems.

Services provided by each Protocol Layer

The OSI layers may be summarized by: 1. Physical layer: Provides electrical, functional, and procedural characteristics to activate, maintain, and deactivate physical links that transparently send the bit stream; only recognizes individual bits, not characters or multi character frames. 2. Data link layer: Provides functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and (possibly) correct transmission errors; provides for activation, maintenance, and deactivation of data link connections, grouping of bits into characters and message frames, character and frame synchronization, error control, media access control, and flow control (examples include HDLC and Ethernet) 3. Network layer: Provides independence from data transfer technology and relaying and routing considerations; masks peculiarities of data transfer medium from higher layers and provides switching and routing functions to establish, maintain, and terminate network layer connections and transfer data between users. 4. Transport layer: Provides transparent transfer of data between systems, relieving upper layers from concern with providing reliable and cost effective data transfer; provides end-to-end control and information interchange with quality of service needed by the application program; first true end-to-end layer. 5. Session layer: Provides mechanisms for organising and structuring dialogues between application processes; mechanisms allow for two-way simultaneous or two-way alternate operation, establishment of major and minor synchronisation points, and techniques for structuring data exchanges. 6. Presentation layer: Provides independence to application processes from differences in data representation, that is, in syntax; syntax selection and conversion provided by allowing the user to select a "presentation context" with conversion between alternative contexts. 7. Application layer: Concerned with the requirements of application. All application processes use the service elements provided by the application layer. The elements include library routines which perform interprocess communication, provide common procedures for constructing application protocols and for accessing the services provided by servers which reside on the network. The communications engineer is concerned mainly with the protocols operating at the bottom four layers (physical, data link, network, and transport) in the OSI reference model. These layers provide the basic communications service. The layers above are primarily the concern of computer scientists who wish to build distributed applications programs using the services provided by the network. "Hop-by-Hop" "Network-wide" and "End-to-End" Communication The two lowest layers operate between adjacent systems connected via the physical link and are said to work "hop by hop". The protocol control information is removed after

each "hop" across a link (i.e. by each System) and a suitable new header added each time the information is sent on a subsequent hop. The network layer (layer 3) operates "network-wide" and is present in all systems and responsible for overall co-ordination of all systems along the communications path. The layers above layer 3 operate "end to end" and are only used in the End Systems (ES) which are communicating. The Layer 4 - 7 protocol control information is therefore unchanged by the IS in the network and is delivered to the corresponding ES in its original form. Layers 4-7 (if present) in Intermediate Systems (IS) play no part in the end-to-end communication.

spiders

A program that automatically fetches Web pages. Spiders are used to feed pages to search engines. It's called a spider because it crawls over the Web. Another term for these programs is webcrawler. Because most Web pages contain links to other pages, a spider can start almost anywhere. As soon as it sees a link to another page, it goes off and fetches it. Large search engines, like Alta Vista, have many spiders working in parallel. A web crawler (also known as a web spider or web robot or - especially in the FOAF community - web scutter[1]) is a program or automated script which browses the World Wide Web in a methodical, automated manner. Other less frequently used names for web crawlers are ants, automatic indexers, bots, and worms.[2] This process is called web crawling or spidering. Many sites, in particular search engines, use spidering as a means of providing up-to-date data. Web crawlers are mainly used to create a copy of all the visited pages for later processing by a search engine that will index the downloaded pages to provide fast searches. Crawlers can also be used for automating maintenance tasks on a website, such as checking links or validating HTML code. Also, crawlers can be used to gather specific types of information from Web pages, such as harvesting e-mail addresses (usually for spam). A web crawler is one type of bot, or software agent. In general, it starts with a list of URLs to visit, called the seeds. As the crawler visits these URLs, it identifies all the hyperlinks in the page and adds them to the list of URLs to visit, called the crawl frontier. URLs from the frontier are recursively visited according to a set of policies.

IEEE 802.3

IEEE 802.3 is a collection of IEEE standards defining the physical layer, and the media access control (MAC) sublayer of the data link layer, of wired Ethernet. This is generally a LAN technology with some WAN applications. Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by various types of copper or fiber cable. 802.3 is a technology that can support the IEEE 802.1 network architecture. The maximum packet size is 1518 bytes, although to allow the Q-tag for Virtual LAN and priority data in 802.3ac it is extended to 1522 bytes. If the upper layer protocol submits a protocol data unit (PDU) less than 64 bytes, 802.3 will pad the data field to achieve the minimum 64 bytes. The minimum Frame size will then always be of 64 bytes. Although it is not technically correct, the terms packet and frame are often used interchangeably. The ISO/IEC 8802-3 and ANSI/IEEE 802.3 standards refer to MAC sub-layer frames consisting of the destination address, the source address, length/type, data payload, and frame check sequence (FCS) fields. The preamble and start frame delimiter (SFD) are (usually) together considered a header to the MAC frame. This header and the MAC frame constitute a packet. The original Ethernet is called Experimental Ethernet today. It was developed by Robert Metcalfe in 1972 (patented in 1978) and was based in part on the wireless ALOHAnet protocol. It is not in use anywhere, but is thought to be the only Ethernet by some purists. The first Ethernet that was generally used outside Xerox was the DIX Ethernet. However, as DIX Ethernet was derived from Experimental Ethernet, and as many standards have been developed that are based on DIX Ethernet, the technical community has accepted the term Ethernet for all of them. Therefore, the term Ethernet can be used to name networks using any of the following standardized media and functions

A set of network standards developed by the IEEE. They include: IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management. IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI Reference Model. The IEEE divides this layer into two sublayers -- the logical link control (LLC) layer and the media access control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer varies for different network types and is defined by standards IEEE 802.3 through IEEE 802.5. IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the basis of the Ethernet standard. Also see the Ethernet Designations chart in the Quick Reference section of Webopedia. IEEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a tokenpassing mechanism (token bus networks). IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks. IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs).

token-ring network
Last modified: Friday, August 16, 2002

(1) A type of computer network in which all the computers are arranged (schematically) in a circle. A token, which is a special bit pattern, travels around the circle. To send a message, a computer catches the token, attaches a message to it, and then lets it continue to travel around the network. TOKEN PASSING A type of CAM. Token passing uses a token, or series of bits, to grant a device permission to transmit over the network. Whichever device has the token can put data into the network. When its transmission is complete, the device passes the token along to the next device in the topology. System rules in the protocol specifications mandate how long a device may keep the token, how long it can transmit for and how to generate a new token if there isn't one circulating. modem Last modified: Friday, September 10, 2004

(mdem) (n.) Short for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or

program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms. Fortunately, there is one standard interface for connecting external modems to computers called RS-232. Consequently, any external modem can be attached to any computer that has an RS-232 port, which almost all personal computers have. There are also modems that come as an expansion board that you can insert into a vacant expansion slot. These are sometimes called onboard or internal modems. While the modem interfaces are standardized, a number of different protocols for formatting data to be transmitted over telephone lines exist. Some, like CCITT V.34, are official standards, while others have been developed by private companies. Most modems have built-in support for the more common protocols -- at slow data transmission speeds at least, most modems can communicate with each other. At high transmission speeds, however, the protocols are less standardized. Aside from the transmission protocols that they support, the following characteristics distinguish one modem from another: bps : How fast the modem can transmit and receive data. At slow rates, modems are measured in terms of baud rates. The slowest rate is 300 baud (about 25 cps). At higher speeds, modems are measured in terms of bits per second (bps). The fastest modems run at 57,600 bps, although they can achieve even higher data transfer rates by compressing the data. Obviously, the faster the transmission rate, the faster you can send and receive data. Note, however, that you cannot receive data any faster than it is being sent. If, for example, the device sending data to your computer is sending it at 2,400 bps, you must receive it at 2,400 bps. It does not always pay, therefore, to have a very fast modem. In addition, some telephone lines are unable to transmit data reliably at very high rates. voice/data: Many modems support a switch to change between voice and data modes. In data mode, the modem acts like a regular modem. In voice mode, the modem acts like a regular telephone. Modems that support a voice/data switch have a built-in loudspeaker and microphone for voice communication. auto-answer : An auto-answer modem enables your computer to receive calls in your absence. This is only necessary if you are offering

some type of computer service that people can call in to use. data compression : Some modems perform data compression, which enables them to send data at faster rates. However, the modem at the receiving end must be able to decompress the data using the same compression technique. flash memory : Some modems come with flash memory rather than conventional ROM, which means that the communications protocols can be easily updated if necessary. Fax capability: Most modern modems are fax modems, which means that they can send and receive faxes.

A transceiver
A transceiver is a combination transmitter/receiver in a single package. The term applies to wireless communications devices such as cellular telephones, cordless telephone sets, handheld two-way radios, and mobile two-way radios. Occasionally the term is used in reference to transmitter/receiver devices in cable or optical fiber systems. In a radio transceiver, the receiver is silenced while transmitting. An electronic switch allows the transmitter and receiver to be connected to the same antenna, and prevents the transmitter output from damaging the receiver. With a transceiver of this kind, it is impossible to receive signals while transmitting. This mode is called half duplex. Transmission and reception often, but not always, are done on the same frequency. Some transceivers are designed to allow reception of signals during transmission periods. This mode is known as full duplex, and requires that the transmitter and receiver operate on substantially different frequencies so the transmitted signal does not interfere with reception. Cellular and cordless telephone sets use this mode. satellite communications networks often employ full-duplex transceivers at the surface-based subscriber points. The transmitted signal (transceiver-to-satellite) is called the uplink, and the received signal (satellite-to-transceiver) is called the downlink.