International Journal of Applied Glass Science 1 [1] 118129 (2010) DOI:10.1111/j.2041-1294.2010.00004.

Glass in Architecture
Mehran Arbab* and James J. Finley
Glass Research & Development, PPG Industries Inc., Cheswick, Pennsylvania 15024

Flat glass admits natural daylight, provides unique design options, and improves the quality of indoor life. For these reasons as well as the technical advances in its production and large area coating technologies, glass produced by the oat process has become a distinct and pervasive building material in modern architecture. Esthetic choices reect the unique design concept of the architect; on the other hand, the energy performance of the window glass, which is well understood and measurable, allows the builder to identify the optimum product for different regional climates. This article will review the state of art in at glass and coated glass technology and will discuss the esthetic and optical characteristics of commercial glasses. It will also provide a phenomenological account of heat transfer across glazings. Finally, several recent trends in architectural glass technology will be presented.

Introduction In the introduction to Philip Johnson, The Glass House,1 Kipnis quotes the late architect Le Corbusier: the history of architecture was the history of struggle for the window. Natural lighting and physical connection to our environment are integral to the design of functional residential and commercial buildings. However, as Kipnis notes in the same article, a driving force in architecture is [for Philip Johnson] rst, foremost, and nally a visual art. These dual demands of art and function have challenged the glass maker for centuries.

arbab@ppg.com Retired fellow, PPG Industries Inc. r 2010 PPG Industries, Inc. Journal compilation r 2010 The American Ceramic Society and Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The Glass House uses glass boldly as a building material to create a continuum of space between the outdoor and the living space. Several more examples in South Western Pennsylvania, where the present authors live, can illustrate the varied use of glass in architecture. Frank Lloyd Wright designed his masterpieceFallingWaterwith noticeably low ceilings, in part to guide the eye toward the large windows that frame the beautiful natural surroundings of the house. The ALCOA headquarters in Pittsburgh is an example of open facade in commercial buildings, where the all-glass wall of the six-story building is open to the Allegheny River and the surrounding city environment, creating visibility in both directions. The architects2 intent is to create an open, casual, serendipitous, impromptu interaction; spontaneous communication, ubiquitous access for all to all at all times environment for collaborative, nonhierarchical teamwork in the building.

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The PPG Place in Pittsburghanother building that bears Philip Johnsons signature, represents a monumental building, where the visual effect is dominant. Here, neogothic architecture and modern materials oat glass and structural aluminumcombine to present a constant visual message to the public, which unlike Johnsons glass house cannot be pierced through by the stare of the observer.1 In the case of the FallingWater house, the glass should be minimally encumbering as it is only a barrier to the elements and otherwise unnecessary to the architects purpose. At the same time, if designed in more recent years, the need for eco-friendly and energy-efcient construction would have almost certainly been on the architects mind. The ALCOA building was designed at a time when modern technology could meet both design and energy requirements, although the use of intrusive shades reminds us that the glass in that building is still in need of perfection. The PPG Places monumental purpose on the other hand, requires glass that appears as a shimmering wall that focuses the eye on the building and not into it. Here, while energy efciency remains important, color and gloss are predominant. We wonder if Johnson would have chosen a window glass that also provided more daylighting, if that were available to him at the time of his work. Contemporary tools available to the manufacturer of architectural glass enable product design to meet many of todays needs of art and function. New modications to the glass furnace and process development have enabled a wide range of glass colors and performance attributes. Developments in glass coater and coating technologies have resulted in exciting capabilities in the optical design of new glass products. Advances in the construction of durable insulated glass windows have made energy-efcient fenestrations affordable and commonplace. The optical properties of glass, the construction of the insulated glass unit (IGU), and the development of materials used in the window and sash are important parameters in dening the thermal performance of a window. In spite of its visual and psychological indispensability, and its direct energy saving and human productivity benet as a source of daylighting, the window contributes signicantly to the thermal management of buildings. Heat can be gained by transmission of solar energy through glass. In warmer climates and seasons, this will result in unwanted heat gain that in afuent societies is normally countered by air condi-

tioning. In colder climates, solar heat gain can be benecial as it complements the heating system, but indoor heat can be lost through the window by radiative, conductive, and convective modes of heat transfer. Absorption and reemission of the indoor heat by the glass and its conduction along the edges of the IGU or through the sash and window frame are the major loss processes. As a result, the annual space-conditioning energy consumption of 2006 residential and commercial window stock in the United States alone was estimated to be about 2.24 1015 and 1.39 1015 BTU, respectively.3 Meeting the requirements to simultaneously save energy, provide a comfortable and productive environment, while encompassing the esthetic desires of the architect is challenging, and selecting the right glazing system will ultimately depend on a balance of energy savings, environmental impact, and esthetics. In this paper, the principles behind the performance of window glass and the critical parameters for evaluating and comparing glazing systems will be highlighted. Then, the technologies and the assortment of high-performance (HP) glasses and coatings that are in use today to meet both the visual and energy efciency expected of valueadded glazing products will be reviewed. Finally, there will be a discussion of future possibilities and trends. Heat Flow and Glazing Performance Parameters The basic requirement for an energy-efcient glazing system is to control the ow of energy that enters a space. The sources of energy ow through a glazing system are solar energy, reradiated thermal energy by matter that absorbs solar energy, and conductive and convective heat transfer due to the indooroutdoor temperature difference. The solar-thermal radiant energy spectral distribution, shown in Fig. 1, illustrates these two distinct regions. The solar is represented by the spectral irradiance at the earths surface, Et (BTU/h ft2 nm), ranging from about 280 to 2150 nm4; the thermal is represented by a blackbody emission spectrum at room temperature (721F, 221C), ranging from about 3 to 50 mm with peak energy at 10 mm. The total ow of energy through a glazing system is conveniently expressed in terms of the individual solar and thermal components given by Q Qth Qsol 1

where Q is the total ow in BTU/h, and Qth and Qsol are the thermal and solar components, respectively. The

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SHGC and Visible Light to Solar Gain (LSG) Ratio

SHGC is a measure of the ability of glass to block or transmit solar heat both directly transmitted or absorbed and subsequently released inward. SHGC differs from direct solar transmittance, which does not include the contribution of the reemitted absorbed heat. The SHGC is related to the heat ow by Equation 3 and is given by SHGC Tsol N Aabs
Fig. 1. Solar-thermal radiant energy spectral distribution. The solar is represented by the spectral irradiance, Et, in BTU/h ft2 nm (W/m2 nm) at the earths surface (airmass 1.5),4 ranging from 280 to 2150 nm; the thermal is represented by a blackbody emission spectrum at room temperature (721F, 221C), ranging from about 3 to 50 mm with peak energy at 10 mm. Note the log scale of the wavelength axis.

where Tsol the direct solar transmittance, Aabs the solar absorptance, and N the inward fraction of reemitted absorbed radiation, are all dimensionless parameters. As the transmittance and absorptance are wavelength dependent, the SHGC is evaluated by integrating over the entire wavelength range of the solar spectrum such that R Et lTsol l N l Aabs ld l R 5 Et ld l As an example, the solar portion of SHGC for these glazings can be visualized graphically by summing the product of the spectral irradiance curve (Et), referred to in Fig. 1, and the ideal cold or warm climate transmittance curve at each wavelength over the solar wavelength range. The ideal cold climate curve transmits maximum solar energy and rejects 100% of the thermal infrared energy. The ideal warm region curve transmits in the visible and rejects 100% of the solar and thermal infrared energy. The ultimate transmittance will depend on the region, with lower visible transmittance in warmer climates. The preferred method of rejecting energy is by reection as this reduces the inward fraction reemitted absorbed radiation. The signicance of this distinction will become clear in the description of coated glazings. Spectral selectivity is dened in terms of the LSG as LSG VLT=SHGC 6

amount of heat loss or gain by the glazing system is dictated by conductive, convective, and radiative transfer processes. The solar and thermal components contain coefcients or performance indices that have been established5 to characterize these heat transfer properties. The coefcient of thermal heat transfer, or the U-factor, is related to the heat ow by the expression Qth U A to ti 2
2

where U denotes the U-factor in units of BTU/h ft 1F (W/m2 1C), A is the window area in ft2 (m2), and to and ti are the outdoor and indoor temperatures in 1F (1C), respectively. The solar heat gain coefcient (SHGC), is related to the heat ow through the expression Qsol SHGC A Et 3

where SHGC is a dimensionless quantity, Et is the incident spectral irradiance expressed in BTU/h ft2. Both SHGC and U-factor are calculated for standardized ambient conditions (winter and summer) using Window 5.2 to determine the overall performance of various glazing products.6 To simplify the discussion, the solar and thermal properties will be described separately, as indicated by Equations 2 and 3. As the focus is on the glazing, only the center-of-glass, that is, ignoring the effects of the edge, will be considered.

where VLT is the visible light transmittance. This is shown in Fig. 1 as the spectral region between 380 and 780 nm. Glass with an LSG of 1.25 or more is considered to be spectrally selective.7 High LSG is important where maximum daylighting along with minimum solar heat load is desirable. Reduction of energy costs due to air-conditioning and lighting can be realized by an appropriate selection of the glazing system.

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U-Factor
Compared with opaque construction materials used in the buildings facade, glass alone does not provide ad equate insulation. As a result, there are increased thermal losses via convective, conductive, and radiative transfer. To minimize thermal losses due to convective and conductive heat transfer, an insulated glazing unit, or IGU, is constructed by arranging two, or sometimes three panels of glass with their plane surfaces parallel and separated by gaps. Todays energy-efcient windows use a separate IGU consisting of a spacer to maintain the gap, and an adhesive to attach the glass to the spacer. To reduce convective thermal transfer across the IGU, a low conductance gas is used to ll the gap. Argon, having a larger molecular size than both nitrogen and oxygen (air) is preferred; krypton, an even heavier but more expensive gas, is used mostly in triple glazing systems for optimum performance in cold climates. The U-factor is related to heat ow by Equation 2 as discussed in the last section. For an IGU, the coefcients that determine the center-of-glass U-factor are given by U 1 1=ho 1=hi 1=ht 7

Fortunately, emittance is a surface effect that can be changed by creating a new surface by depositing a low emissivity coating on glass. The coating is normally located on an inside surface of the IGU and is protected from indoor and outdoor exposure. GlassProcesses and Products The oat process was rst introduced about 50 years ago and has since become the predominant method of at glass production.9 The advent of this process has resulted in commercial availability of high quality and affordable glass as a primary building material. Large area glass is now routinely produced with excellent thickness uniformity and optical quality as well as consistent strength and residual stress. In more recent years, emphasis on esthetics and energy conservation have resulted in the development of glasses with selective spectral properties, that is, various colors and absorptive properties in the nonvisible portion of the solar spectrum. Figure 2 displays typical examples of many of the colors available to the architect. The tinted glass color pallet has evolved over time as a result of both the architectural communitys preferences and the glass manufacturers ability to respond to them. An examination of Fig. 2 suggests a preference for green,

where ho and hi are the outside and inside heat transfer coefcients, respectively, and ht is the heat transfer coefcient of the glazing unit. The values of ho and hi are calculated for standard winter and summer conditions.5 The coefcient for the IGU, ht, incorporates the conductive properties of the glass, along with the conductive and convective transfer in the gas space, and radiative transfer across the gas space. Conductance through the glass is proportional to its thermal conductivity and inversely proportional to its thickness; across the gap, heat transfer depends on the properties of the gas, that is, thermal conductance, density, viscosity, and the width of the gap. Radiative heat transfer depends on the emissivity of the glass surfaces enclosing the space and the temperatures of the surfaces, which emit or radiate thermal radiation (see Fig. 1Blackbody spectrum). A good emitter, that is, high emissivity surface, is a good absorber (according to Kirchhoffs law8 and, as a consequence, absorbs and reradiates thermal radiation resulting in indoor to outdoor heat loss in cold weather. Conversely, a low emittance surface reects, rather than emits thermal radiation, thus preventing heat loss. A oat glass surface with an emissivity of 0.84 is an efcient thermal radiator, resulting in signicant energy loss through radiant thermal transfer.

Fig. 2. Typical examples of commercially available transmitted glass colors. Color is designated in the a and b coordinates.30 Along the a axis, moving to the left or the right of the origin indicates increasing green or red hues, respectively. Similarly, along the b axis, respective hues above or below the origin are increasingly yellow or blue. A third dimension of color, L (not shown here)describing intensityis necessary for the complete denition of color.

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blue, and neutral (grouped in the shaded region) colors, in an increasing order. With one exception (the so-called bronze in the upper right quarter of this chart), hues that are predominantly purple, red, or yellow have not created the popularity that would encourage their commercial production. It is useful to note that in the absence of a coating, the transmitted color of glass, which is shown in Figs. 2 and 3, essentially denes the reected appearance of glass color. On the other hand, optically thin lm coatings on either surface of glass can impart distinct colors to glass with complementary transmitted and reected effects. The distinction is important, most visibly from the so-called curb-side view of the building (we will return to this subject below). Bamford10 has given a comprehensive account of glass colorants. Oxides of iron, cobalt, chromium, manganese as well as selenium and some of the rare-earth metal oxides have strong absorption in the visible (380 780 nm) range of the spectrum and, therefore impart color to glass. The concentration of these colorants also determines the percent transmittance of visible light through the nal product, that is, in addition to producing more saturated colors, adding more colorants reduces the total amount of light that enters the indoors spaces by absorption, thus resulting in less direct solar (Tsol) heating and less natural daylighting. Except for

Fig. 3. Calculated transmitted color of sodalimesilicate (SLS) window glass as a function of the total concentration of total iron oxide (weight percent, as Fe2O3) and glass redox, calculated as the ratio of the weight percents of FeO over total iron oxides. Color was calculated for an SLS composition free from other colorants. Each curve corresponds to the indicated redox for a range of total iron oxide concentration of 0.01 (near the origin) to 1.6% by weight.

oxides of iron, the other colorants used in architectural glasses absorb essentially only in the visible range of the solar spectrum, which constitutes nearly half of terrestrial solar energy.11 Ferrous oxide (FeO) is unique in its strong, relatively broad absorption in the solar infra-red range with a tail extending into the visible. At the same time, ferric oxide (Fe2O3) absorbs the blue and ultraviolet wavelengths. As transmitted color is dened by the unabsorbed wavelengths, these two oxides function as blue and yellow colorants, respectively. In glass, both oxidation states of iron exist in relative concentrations dened by the concentration of total iron oxide in glass and the fraction of the total that is present as FeO (a measure of glass redox). Thus, depending on the relative concentrations of these two species, and in the absence of any other colorant, a range of glass colors from yellowish green to bluish green is possible (Fig. 3). It is important to note that, for a given total iron concentration, higher glass redox, or higher FeO concentration, results in a more infrared-absorbing glass that reduces the direct solar energy transmittance (Tsol) through the window.12 At the same time, Fig. 3 demonstrates that the preferential increase of the FeO concentration drives the glass color toward blue, independent of the total concentration of iron oxide. This has been the basis of several HP blue13 that are also displayed in the lower left quadrant of Fig. 2. This is an important aspect of spectral selectivity; controlling the FeO concentration, particularly by increasing the redox ratio of glass, can result in products that admit more visible light and relatively less solar infrared heat into the building. In addition to the choice of color, a carefully chosen combination of total concentration of iron oxide, redox ratio, and other colorants can result in optimizing the product attributes including color, SHGC, and visible transmittance; when all the above attributes are signicant, it may become necessary to prioritize their importance. For example, minimizing SHGC, while maintaining a high visible transmittance, limit the range of possible colors. There are several limitations to the design of spectrally selective compositions. From a manufacturing point of view, the increased concentration of ferrous oxide also reduced heat transfer through the glass melt. In most oat glass furnaces, heat is delivered to the batch and the melt by overhead combustion of natural gas or oil.14 Increasing the FeO concentration reduces the radiative heat transfer coefcient of the melt; this necessitates adjustments to the furnace operating conditions.

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In addition to the manufacturing issues, there are other compositional constraints from the nal product perspective. Several major limitations include: (1) The addition of iron oxide usually requires the addition of other colorants to produce the desired color. As increasing the total concentration of colorants rapidly darkens the glass, reducing the SHGC by increasing its FeO concentration becomes increasing less feasible. In particular, for very high VLT requirements (e.g., the ALCOA Building or the FallingWater house), adding large concentrations of FeO is not an option. (2) The mechanism for reducing the solar heat gain via the composition route is absorption. In the absence of strong convective cooling (e.g., cool and windy outdoor air), the glass temperature increases and the hot glass reradiates the heat, about 50% of which enters the indoor space. Reecting solar energy does not pose a similar problem. (3) Insulation in cold winter weather requires the reection of the thermal heat (721F, 221C) back towards the room. Infrared reectivity is a surface phenomenon that occurs due to free-electrons in metal-like surfaces.15 Oxide glasses, independent of their color are highly insulating materials. (4) High visible gloss (e.g., the PPG Place) cannot be attained via composition alone. As the bulk composition of glass constitutes soda lime silicate (SLS), the real index of refraction remains essentially unchanged at about 1.5 at 550 nm, with the relatively small concentration of colorants (e.g., o2% of the total composition by weight). To counter these limitations, the architectural glass industry and some of its suppliers have developed advanced large area glass coating technologies. Thin optical lms can tailor the spectral reectance, absorbance, and transmittance of glass with signicantly more degrees of freedom. The next sections will include examples of these possibilities and provide an overview of two major large area coating technologies deployed by glass manufacturers today. Coated Glazing Products To ll the need of art and function as outlined in the introduction, the visible properties of glazing products range from low transmitting, and possibly highly reecting, with LSG values o1.0, to highly transmitting in the visible, while blocking the solar and thermal

heat with LSG values of 1.4 or greater. These products are produced by applying coatings either on the glass ribbon (on-line) by chemical vapor deposition (CVD)12, or off-line by sputter deposition16 of specialized coatings. In this section, three types of coatingsreective dielectrics, transparent conductive oxides (TCO), and multilayer-metal dielectric stacks are combined with clear and tinted glasses to illustrate the broad range of possibilities, as well as the limitations of todays glazing systems. The benets in energy savings, when considering the U-factor and SHGC of a glazing system for a particular climate region, are also illustrated. The rst type includes highly reective products, which use either single high refractive index17 or multilayer coatings on clear or tinted glasses. Absorbing metal oxide coatings, in particular, the spinel coatings18,19 have unique esthetic properties, while providing a degree of solar control. The CoCrFeO spinel was the rst architectural coated product,20 which still enjoys commercial success today. Having visible transmittance of 34% and reectance of 37% on 3-mm clear glass, and an LSG of 0.65, this coating provides shading in the visible region of the spectrum. Spinel coatings are also as durable as the glass surface, allowing ease of handling by glass fabricators. The second type consists of passive solar Low-E products (dened to have a SHGC of 40.4021), mainly comprising TCOs, having high visible transmittance around 82% on 3-mm glass, and emissivity around 0.20. Fluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO2:F), in particular, is deposited by CVD over the glass surface as it moves along the oat line in the glass-forming chamber.12,22 As the index of refraction of tin oxide is much higher than the glass substrate, the visible reectivity and color of the nal product require optical layers below it to meet the requirements of highly transparent window applications, for example residential housing. Although the nal coating is thin (% 300 nm), SnO2:F, like the spinel coatings are as durable as the glass surface. The nal type encompasses a new generation of multilayer, spectrally selective coatings, with high visible light transmittance (VLT), a range of SHGCs, and LSG values 41.40. These coatings rst appeared in the early 1980s when the sputter deposition process16 was introduced as a manufacturing process. This enabled large volume commercial production of multilayer coatings with silver layers. The rst of this generation consisted of a single silver layer surrounded by metal

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oxide layers on a glass substrate (glass/metal oxide silvermetal oxide).23,24 The high refractive index metal oxide layers antireect the low index silver layer in the visible spectrum.25 The silver layer is highly reective in the solar and thermal infrared and has low absorbance in the visible region of the spectrum. The individual layers measure only tens of nanometers in thickness. The market for this product is primarily for use as passive Low-E glass in IGUs, providing a low U-value and a high light transmittance. Continuing with the progression of adding silver layers, it was with the introduction of the double silver layer coating (glass/metal oxidesilvermetal oxide silvermetal oxide), rst commercialized in the automotive industry in the late 1980s26,27 that solar control Low-E glazing (dened to have a SHGC of o0.407,21) with enhanced spectral selectivity was realized. The additional silver layers increase both the solar infrared and thermal reectivity with a corresponding reduction in SHGC and emissivity (and consequently U-factor), respectively. Visible transmittance remains high due to the low absorption of the silver layer, leading to LSG values approaching 1.8 or greater. Today, the drive to reduce energy consumption in buildings and meet environmental standards has increased demand for double silver layer-coated glass in solar Low-E glazing products. A nearly optimized coating for spectrally selectivity, that is, approaching the ideal curve for the warm climate regionwhen considering a combination of performance, neutrality, and cost effective processingis the triple silver layer coating (glass/metal oxidesilver metal oxidesilvermetal oxidesilvermetal oxide) with an LSG value approaching 2.4. The triple silver layer coating has been shown to reduce capital equipment costs for HVAC systems and annual energy savings returns, and dramatically reduced the level of CO2 emissions associated with the heating and cooling of commercial buildings.28 The physical properties that account for the behavior of these three types of coatings are illustrated in Fig. 4 in terms of percent transmittance (%T) versus wavelength (nm) in the visible and solar infrared region of the spectrum. The spectral selectivity is clearly indicated for F:SnO2, and the single (1), double (2), and triple (3) silver layer coatings. These coatings are essentially spectral lters that reect, rather than absorb the solar infrared, while transmitting the visible. Therefore, within certain design and materials constraints (e.g., the complex index of refraction and thickness of the indi-

Fig. 4. Percent transmittance (%T) versus wavelength (nm) in the visible and solar infrared region of the spectrum of the low emissivity coatings F:SnO2, and single (1), double (2), and triple (3) layer silver coatings, and highly reective spinel coating. The coatings are on 3-mm clear glass.

vidual layer), they can be formulated to impart specic reected color (and the complementary transmitted color) to the glass substrate. In most residential and many commercial building applications, the esthetic preference is for neutrality of colorthat is, no color at all, which is also often consistent with a high amount of natural daylighting. The silver layer coatings show a progressively sharper cutoff in the solar infrared with less relative attenuation in the visible as the number of silver layers increases, thus approaching the behavior of the ideal lter for warm climate curve, as shown in Fig. 1. The triple silver layer and F:SnO2 coatings approximate the warm and cold climate curves, respectively, while the single and double silver layer coatings fall between these limits. This assures a range of coatings that can suit most performance requirements for a glazing system. The spinel coating shows the opposite trend, with low transmittance in the visible and a degree of solar infrared rejection. This coating provides visible light shading and a metallic reectance, which conveys a shimmering appearance. This coating is used in combination with HP tinted glasses to provide additional attenuation in the solar infrared, while producing a tinted gloss esthetic. Although numerous coating and glass combinations meet a wide range of functional and esthetic conditions in glazing systems, there are limits to their properties. Figure 5 depicts a landscape of the physical properties for glazing systems in terms of VLT and LSG as a function of SHGC.7,29 The physical limit curve marks the boundary outside of which no physical glazing system can be realized, and can be understood in

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Fig. 5. Optical properties landscape for double-glazed IGUs in terms of VLT and LSG as a function of SHGC. The IGUs have outer lights with 6 mm clear, and tinted and (high-performance [HP]) tinted glasses; and one-, two-, and three-layer silver and F:SnO2 coatings on clear; and three-layer silver coating on tinted and (HP) tinted glasses. The coating, when present, is on the #2 surface, the gap is 6 mm and the gas is 90% Ar10% air. The inner light is 6 mm ultraclear. The physical limit curve marks the boundary outside of which no physical glazing system can be realized.7 The portion of the curve in the solar infrared (7802150 nm) is formed by reducing the bandwidth of the cold climate curve (see Fig. 1), while keeping the transmittance constant. The portion of the curve in the visible is optimized for LSG (maximum photopic response wavelength)30 by further decreasing the bandwidth of the curve in the visible centered around 550 nm, while keeping the magnitude of the visible transmittance constant (see Finley and Heithoff29). Ultraclear glass (6 mm) is used in a double-glazed IGU conguration to model the Physical Limit curve. The neutral limit line denes the boundary for neutral color. The region to the left of the line has color; the region to the right can be neutral or have color, depending on the shape of the transmittance or reectance curve of the coating or glass. The line is formed by reducing the magnitude of the visible transmittance (380780 nm), while keeping the bandwidth in the visible wavelength constant. The LSG lines are the slope of the VLT versus SHGC. Glazing with LSV values of 1.25 or greater are spectrally selective.7

terms of the ideal curves in Fig. 1. By narrowing the bandwidth of the cold climate curve, starting at the long wavelength limit of the solar infrared (2150 nm) and moving towards the visible (780 nm), while keeping the magnitude of the transmittance constant, there is a corresponding decrease in the SHGC, with VLT remaining constant. This is indicated by the at line section of the curve. Then, by further narrowing the cold climate curve in the visible spectrum around the center point wavelength at 550 nm to optimize LSG (maximum photopic response wavelength),30 VLT decreases along with SHGC, as indicated by the steep falloff of the curve

as the wavelength approaches the UV (below 380 nm) at lower values of SHGC. As the bandwidth of the cold climate curve is decreased further, the color becomes greener. If instead, the bandwidth in the visible (380 nm780 nm) is kept constant and the magnitude of the transmittance is decreased, the neutral limit curve is formed, as indicated by the neutral color limit line in Fig. 5. Points to the left of the line will have color; points to the right can be essentially neutral or have color, depending on the detailed shape of the transmittance or reectance curve of the coating or glass. As discussed earlier, the shapes of these curves are designed by the glass maker for a certain performance and esthetic. The data shown in Fig. 5 are for double-glazed IGUs with 6 mm clear and tinted glasses; one, two, and threelayer silver and F:SnO2 coatings on clear; and three-layer silver coating on tinted glasses. The coating, when present, is on the #2 surface, the gap is 6 mm and the gas is 90% Ar 10% air. The inner light is 6 mm ultraclear. Of particular note are the relatively high LSG values of the silver multilayer coatings, increasing as a function of the number of silver layers. Considering Equation 6, with SHGC varying over a wide range (0.560.28), while VLT varies over a narrow range (7864%), LSG ranges from about 1.4 to 2.3. The gure clearly indicates that the highest LSG and lowest SHGC are achieved by the triple silver layer glazing. These coatings are particularly useful for conditions where solar heat load reduction and daylighting are important. Several noteworthy aspects of architectural glass shown in Fig. 2 are indicated in this gure. Data points with SHGC40.35 correspond to uncoated products. In spite of the scatter in data, we can point to two groups of compositions, as suggested by the arbitrary trapezoids drawn about each group. While similar values of SHGC can be identied in the two groupings, there is a distinct difference in ranges of VLT between them. For the group on the lower right of the chart, this ratio is about one or less, while for the higher FeO containing group on the upper right, the ratio is about 1.4, or higher, indicating a selectively higher relative transmission of the visible light. Admitting more visible lightat a given colorallows more daylighting while there is less need for air-conditioning compared with the higher SHGC glasses of similar VLT and color. The performance data for the two groups of product at the lower left of the chart show the reduced SHGC of their uncoated glass counterparts as a highly heat reecting coating is applied to one surface of the

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substrate. While the coating strongly reduces the SHGC, there is less impact on the VLT through the glass pane due to the design of this coating. Also, the tightening of the range of the performance of coated substrates relative to that of their uncoated counterparts, demonstrates the dominating effect of the high performance coating used for this graph. Where additional shading and exibility in esthetic are desirable features, combinations of tinted glasses with the reective and silver layer coatings offer a wider variety of choices and additional benet in solar heat load reduction. The neutral color limit shows the esthetic boundary related to glazing system color. Also noted is the gap between the physical limit and what is currently practiced. The physical limit is based on the cold climate curve, shown in Fig. 1, which assumes no absorption and reectance of solar energy outside of the spectral bandwidth. Without using costly methods to fabricate multilayer bandwidth lters,31 which better approximate a square bandpass lter, approaching the characteristics of the ideal is beyond the current cost-effective processing methods described earlier.16 Silver, having material properties including the lowest absorptance and highest infrared reectance, along with a low index of refraction, outperforms any single thin lm material in a multilayer coating stack. The deposition process using these materials (including low absorbing high index metal oxide layers) allows large area, high volume manufacturing of this type of coating. As a result, silver-based coatings dene the current state-of-the-art technology.

Fig. 6. Center-of-glass U-factor and SHGC for passive21 and solar control7,21 Low-E glazing in double and triple glazed IGUs using 6 mm clear and high-performance tints. The coating is on the #2 surface in the double glazed IGU, and the #2 and #5 surfaces in the triple glazed IGU (note: outside surface is the #1 surface). Each point on the curve represents either a coated or uncoated substrate designated as follows: uncoated (1), F:SnO2 (), single (m 1 Ag (A), (B)), double (~ 2 Ag), triple ( & 3 Ag) silver layer coatings. Each curve represents an IGU conguration designated as Double Glaze Clear Glass and Triple Glaze Clear Glass in the gure. The double glaze IGU has 90% argon-air ll with a 13-mm gap. The triple glazed IGUswith either 95% krypton-air ll and 6 mm gaps, or 90% argon-air ll and 13-mm gapsare equivalent in performance and shown as one curve. Energy Star regulations for residential window and door32 for climate zones in the North, North/Central, South/Central, and South climate zones of the United are indicated by the four boxes. Data are calculated based on NFRC methodology, using LBLs Window 5.2 software.6 Winter nighttime U-factor is given expressed in BTU/h ft2 1F.

Product ApplicationsIGU Congurations for Climate Zones As shown by Equations 2 and 3, the U-factor and SHGC fully describe the total energy ow across the IG unit. By adjusting these performance indices, glazing systems can be tuned using different combinations of coatings and glass to suit conditions in different climate zones. This is illustrated in Fig. 6, where the centerof-glass U-factor and SHGC are plotted for passive21 and solar control7,21 Low-E glazing systems using clear and high performance tints. Included on the chart are Energy Star requirements for residential window and door32 for climate zones in the United States. The data for the Low-E glazing on clear glass fall along two curves as indicated in the gure, and the data for coated and uncoated HP tints described in the previous section (see

Fig. 5) are shown in two groupings indicated in this gure by the ellipses. The curves represent different IGU congurations, and each data point on the curve represents an IGU glazed with either coated (# 2 surface for double glazed; # 2 and #5 surface for triple glazed) or uncoated glass. The curve labeled Double Glazed IG Unitclear glass shows a signicant decrease in both U-factor and SHGC from the uncoated to the F:SnO2 and single silver layer (1 Ag) congurations. Of note are the data points labeled 1 Ag Layer (B), which has higher SHGC relatively to 1 Ag Layer (A), while maintaining low U-factor. This coating is specically designed to optimize the solar heat gain, while preserving thermal insulation for northern climate regions. In general, these IGUs have SHGC40.40 and are classied as passive Low-E, which are preferred in the northern climate zones. Double (2 Ag) and triple (3 Ag) coatings have

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slightly lower U-factors with SHGCo0.40 and fall into the solar Low-E category. These congurations are preferred in the north/central, south/central, and southern climate zones, respectively. Additional silver layers have a greater effect on reducing SHGC than U-factor, accounting for the attening out of the curve at higher SHGC. The underlying cause of this behavior is the dramatic decrease in solar infrared transmittance (Fig. 4) with a corresponding increase in reectance, as opposed to the fractional increase in thermal infrared reectance, which is already 490% for two and three silver layer coatings. The curve labeled Triple Glazed IG Unitclear glass shows another signicant decrease in U-factor with changes in SHGC primarily due to increases in absorption from the additional coating and glass. The IGUs glazed with a high-performance tint (6 mm) are within specications for all climate zones with a three-layer silver coating. The SHGC is lower than three-layer silver on clear glass with a similar U-factor. These examples illustrate an inherent capability of both multilayer coatings and the manufacturing process discussed earlier to design and produce glazing systems to meet performance criteria. They also demonstrate how far the state of technology in glass coatings has advanced the product performance for IGUs, but they also show the limitations that remain in realizing further improvements in thermal insulation (U-factor) and solar control (SHGC). Technologies, including vacuum glazing where the gap is evacuated, and dynamic glazing (discussed below) are some of the answers that pose future challenges.

anion, O radicals (Arbab et al.12 and cited work 2 therein) that in turn result in the catalyzed oxidation and decomposition of organic species adsorbed on the surface of glass coated with anatase. The removal of hydrophobic organic species from the surface and the inherent photo-induced hydrophilicity of anatase lms result in the sheeting of rainwater on the surface of window glass. This, in turn, helps remove the particles of dust and other loosely adhering inorganic dirt from the surface thus rendering the glass cleaner for long periods of time. Increasing the photoactivity of the coating enhances the self-cleaning activity, and has been demonstrated.

Dynamic Windows A dynamic window can respond to the changing ambient conditions to adjust the amount of light and total solar energy that enters the living space. In spite of their potential as a critical element in zero-energy3 buildings, dynamic windows, and most notably various electrochromic (EC) technologies, it has not yet achieved broad commercial success. The current state of commercialized systems, do not meet all three market requirements of cost, functionality, and esthetic appeal. The cost of the dynamic window to the builder or owner remains very high, ranging from a factor of ve to ten times over existing glazing systems primarily due to complex, low volume manufacturing combined with the additional cost of system installation of power and control hardware. The most successful large area EC system commercialized for windows in buildings include inorganic coloring electrodes, the most common being thin-lm tungsten trioxide (WO3). The esthetics are appealing, but limited usually to a deep blue transmitted color in the darkened state. For low transmittance, low shading conditions this system has an exceptional performance and has applications where it is desirable to reduce direct sunlight during the day, such as skylights. Functionality is good but restricted, as both visible and solar infrared regions of the spectrum change in transmittance simultaneously, and high LSG cannot be realized with this system alone.33 Figure 7 shows the transmittance as a function of wavelength in the clear and darkened state for an EC device using thin-lm WO3 as a coloring electrode.19 The chart illustrates the simultaneous change in transmittance in the visible and solar infrared portions of the spectrum from the lightened to darkened state.

Self-Cleaning Glass This paper has focused on esthetics and energy efciency of glass, that is, the two key attributes of architectural glass that continue to drive the development of new technology. In recent years, based on new insight into the properties of photoactive materials, particularly anatase, a crystalline phase of TiO2, several self-cleaning glass products have been introduced to the market. The valence-conduction band gap energy of anatase (3.2 eV) corresponds to the photon energies within the UV range of solar spectrum (387 nm, or shorter wavelengths). In the presence of moist air, the photoelectric formation of electronhole pairs near the surface of TiO2, results in the formation of highly reactive hydroxyl, OH, and superoxide

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Fig. 7. Transmittance as a function of wavelength in the clear and darkened state for an electrochromic device using thin-lm WO3 as the coloring electrode.19 The chart illustrates the simultaneous change in transmittance in the visible and solar infrared portions of the spectrum from the lightened to darkened state.

the manufacturing method of choice for architectural glass. The past 20 years have witnessed signicant advances in three areas of: heat-absorbing glass manufacturing, low-emissivity CVD coatings, and multilayer physical vapor deposited low-emissivity solar heat rejection glass coatings. These products have in turn allowed the designation of different climate zones relative to the thermal performance of window glass, resulting in more energy-efcient building facades. When current trends in the development of dynamic window and building integrated sources of renewable energy technologies translate into new cost-effective products, the concept of zero-energy buildings will become possible; until then, a signicant investment in research and development of these products remains necessary. Acknowledgements

Some EC systems have been successfully commercialized for nonbuilding window applications, such as dye-based systems for dimmable aircraft cabin windows and automotive mirrors. This system is simple in construction, requiring only an EC dye between transparent conductive electrodes, but technical hurdles remain for large-scale applications. Organic ECs, which claim to have the potential to become the lowest priced system with low cost materials and processing, have been explored in recent years. However, as with all organic systems, there are issues not only with stability upon exposure to sunlight, but with cycling between light and dark states during exposure at elevated temperature.33 New materials and technologies, combining EC and photovoltaic functions to create windows that supply their own power to control transmittance, are now being explored in R&D labs, but they are at the concept stage.34 Finally, liquid crystal-based or suspended particle device (SPD) technologies, which effectively scatter visible light in the off-state and are clear in the energized state act as a visible light shade and opacity for privacy. SPD has been on the market for several decades, but has only seen limited commercialization.

One of us (M. A.) would like to thank K. Arbab for bringing Kipnis1 to his attention. References
1. D. Whitney, and J. Kipnis eds. Philip Johnson, The Glass House. Pantheon Books, New York, 1993, xixxxiii. 2. Rusli Associates. Available at http://www.rusli.com/alcoa.html (accessed January 14, 2010). 3. D. Arasteh, S. Selkowitz, J. Apte, and M. LaFrance, Zero Energy Windows, ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efciency in Buildings. ACEEE, Pacic Grove, CA, 2006. 4. ASTM G173-03e1. Standard Tables for Reference Solar Spectral Irradiances: Direct Normal and Hemispherical on 371 Tilted Surace. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999, doi: 10.1520/G0173-03E01. 5. ASHRAE Handbook (I-P Edition). Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Inc., Atlanta, 2009. 6. Energy and Environmental Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Energy and Environmental Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Window 5.2. Energy and Environmental Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkley, CA, 2003. 7. Department of Energy (DOE). Spectrally Selectively Glazings, DOE/ EE-0173, 1998. Available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/fta_ glazings.pdf (accessed January 14, 2010). 8. R. Siegel and J. R. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, DC, 1992. 9. F. V. Tooley, ed. The Handbook of Glass Manufacture, Vol. II. Ashlee Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1984. 10. C. R. Bamford, Colour Generation and Control in Glass. Elsevier Publishing Co., New York, 1977. 11. American Society of Testing Materials ASTM/E 891 - 87, reapproved. American Society of Testing Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992. 12. M. Arbab, L. J. Shelestak, and C. S. Harris, Value-Added Flat-Glass Products for the Building, Transportation Markets, Part 2, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 84, 3437 (2005). 13. L. J. Shelestak and G. A. Pecoraro, Transparent Infrared Absorbing Glass and Method of Making, 4,792,536 US, December 20, 1988. 14. M. Arbab, L. J. Shelestak, and C. S. Harris, Value-Added Flat-Glass Products for the Building, Transportation Markets, Part I, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 84, 3035 (2005).

Conclusion Although the range of choice is limited by glass chemistry and the physics of thin lms, different combinations of various glass tints and coatings offer a widerange of architectural possibilities. The oat process is

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15. N. W. Ashcroft and D. N. Mermin, Solid State Physics. IBSN 0-03-049346-3. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1976. 16. D. M. Mattox, Handbook of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Processing. Noyes Publication, Park Ridge, NJ, 1998. 17. J. J. Finley and J. P. Thiel, Article having ans aesthetic coating, 7,588,829 USA, September 15, 2009. 18. C. B. Greenberg, Enabling Thin Films for Solar Control Transparancies: A Review, J. Electrochem. Soc., 104, 33323337 (1993). 19. C. B. Greenberg, Thin Films on Float Glass: The Extraordinary Possibilities, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 40, 2632 (2001). 20. R. J. Hill and S. J. Nadel, Coated Glass Applications and Markets. BOC Coating Technology A Division of The BOC Group Inc, Faireld, 1999. 21. Masterspec (Arcom). Changes to Masterspec. American Institute of Architects, Salt Lake City, UT, 2002. 22. P. R. Athey, D. S. Dauson, D. E. Lecocq, G. A. Neuman, J. F. Sopko, and R. L. Stewart-Davis, 5, 356,718 USA, October 18, 1994. 23. J. J. J. Fan and F. J. Bachner, Transparent Heat Mirrors for Solar-Energy Applications, Appl. Opt., 15, 10121017 (1976). 24. F. H. Gillery, Sputtered lms of metal alloy oxides and methods of preparation thereof, 4,610,771 USA, September 9, 1986. 25. J. A. Dobrownski, Handbook of Optics. Ch.42, Vol. I, 2nd edition, eds., M. Bass, E. W. Van Stryland, D. R. Williams, and W. L. Wolfe. McGrawHill, New York, 42.342.130, 1995. 26. J. J. Finley, Low emissivity lm for automotive heat load reduction, 4,898,789 USA, February 6, 1990.

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