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I 4-5979-SRdO

UC-3 and UC-66c

775

Issued: February 1977

Rapid Excavation by Rock Melting

==

LASL Subterrene Program -=

September 1973- June 1976
Compiled by

R. J. Hanold
Contributors

J. H. Altseimer P. E. Armstrong
H. N. Fisher

M. C. Krupka

scientific laboratory
of the University of California
LOS A L A M O S , NEW MEXICO 8 7 5 4 5

a$

ffirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer

U N I T E D STATES E N E R G Y RESEARCH A N D D E V E L O P M E N T A D M I N I S T R A T I O N C O N T R A C T W-7405-ENG. 3 6

dSTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT I UNLlMlTED S

DISCLAIMER This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.

DISCLAIMER Portions of this document may be illegible in electronic image products. Images are produced from the best available original document.

This work was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation, Research Applied to National Needs (NSF-RA") and by the US Energy Research and Development Administration, Division of Geothermal Energy.

Printed in the United States of America. Available from National Technical Information Service U.S. Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Road Springfeld, VA 22161 Price: Printed Copy $5.00 Microfiche $3.00

CONTENTS ABST~CT I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY

1
2

A. B.
C.

Objectives Technical Approach Sumnary

2 2=
2

11.

PROTOTYPE DESIGN AND TEST

6 6 6 6 7 7 8 9 10

A.

Consolidation Penetrator Development

1.
2.
B.

Introduction S i g n i f i c a n t Technical Achievements Introduction 84-mn-diam Extended Surface Penetrator High Advance Rate Extruder (HARE) M e l t Flow Augmented Extruder S i g n i f i c a n t Achievements Penetration Rate Paradox

Extruding Penetrator Development

1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. C.

Coring Penetrator Development Thermal Stress Rock F r a c t u r i n g Tool

D. E. F.

G1ass-Formi ng Techno1ogy
D i r e c t M e l t Heating

1.
2. G.

Introduction Me1t-Heating Experiments

11 12 13 14 15 17 17
17 19 20

S a l t Borehole Plugging by M e l t i n g

H. Plasma Arc Experiments

I. Rock Laboratory Test F a c i l i t y 111.
POWER SOURCE DESIGN AND DIRECTED RESEARCH

A.

E l e c t r i c Power Sources

1.
2.

Intyoduction Heater Development f o r Penetrator Research

B.

.'
C.

3. A l t e r n a t i v e s t o Graphite Resistance Heating M a t e r i a l s Sc.ience and Technology 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n 2. Refractory A l l o y Rock Melt I n t e r a c t i o n s 3.. Power Source M a t e r i a l s 4. S t r u c t u r a l Glass L i n e r Results Refractory A l l o y F a b r i c a t i o n 1. Introduction-6eneral F a b r i c a t i o n Problems 2. High-Temperature Braze Development

3.
D.

Si1 i c o n Carbide Conversion Coatings Introduction Me1t i n g Range Experiments Molten Rock Property Studies Directed Research
I '

Geosciences 1. 2. 3.

4.

.i i

DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT ISUNLIMITED

.$"r

IV.

FIELD TEST AND DEMONSTRATIONS A. Field-Demonstration Units 1. Introduction 2. Tunnel L i n i n g Experiment B. Public Demonstrations 1. Washington, DC 2. Denver, CO 3. Tacma, blA C. Mobile Experimental Field U n i t 1. Introduction 2. Stem Design and Performance 3. Proof-of-Concept Field Experiment
A.

40 40 40 40 41 41 42 43 43 43 44 45 47 47 47 47 50 52 53 53 53 56 57 59 59 61 66 69 70 77 78 80 80 81 83

V.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS Geothermal Well Technology 1. Introduction 2. Current Technological and Cost Status 3. Conceptual Applications of Subterrene Devices t o Geothermal W11s e 4. Contacts Made t o Discuss Geothermal Well Drilling Problems B. Geothermal Well Systems and Cost Analysis 1. Introduction 2. System Model 3. Study Results 4. Cost Analyses C. Mathematical Modeling and Analysis 1. Introduction 2. The Thrust-Velocity Relationship for Extruding Penetra tors 3 . Liquid Basalt Thermal Conductivity Investigation 4. Stem Cooling w i t h Particle Transport 5. M1 t-Heating Analysis e 6. Power Transmission Analysis of Subterrene Stem D. Applications and Technology Transfer

V I . TECHNICAL REPORTS AND PRESENT~TIONS A. Completed L S Technical Reports AL B. Technical Presentations and Journal Articles C. Reports Related t o Subterrene Technology Published by Other Organizations

iv

RAPID EXCAVATION B ROCK MELTING Y

-- LASL SUBTERRENE PROGRAM -September 1973

- June

1976

Compi 1ed by

R. J. Hanold
Contributors
J. H. Altseimer P. E. Armstrong H. N. Fisher M. C. Krupka

ABSTRACT Research has been d i r e c t e d a t establishing the technical and economic feasi b i 1i y o f excavation systems based upon the rock-me1 t i n g (Subterrene) t concept. A series o f e l e c t r i c a l l y powered, small-diameter prototype me1ti n g penetrators has been developed and tested. Research a c t i v i t i e s i n clude optimizing penetrator configurations, designing high-performance heater systems, and improving r e f r a c t o r y metals technology. The properties o f the glass l i n i n g s t h a t are a u t o m a t i c a l l y formed on the melted holes have been investigated f o r a v a r i e t y o f rocks and s o i l s . Thermal and f l u i d mechanics analyses o f the m e l t flows have been conducted w i t h the o b j e c t i v e o f optimizing penetrator designs. F i e l d t e s t s and demonstrations o f the prototype devices continue t o be performed i n a wide range o f rock and s o i l types. Primary emphasis has been placed on the development o f a penetrator designed f o r more economical e x t r a c t i o n o f geothermal energy and o f smalldiameter penetrators which can be u t i l i z e d i n support o f geothermal energy exploration programs. The conceptual design o f a geothermal energy rockm e l t i n g system w i l l d e f i n e the surface equipment, the stem, hole-forming. assembly, and debris removal subsystems.. Optimization o f we1 1 design, the t r a d e - o f f o f advance r a t e w i t h operating l i f e , the advantages o f using the melt-glass hole casing f o r well-bore seal-off, r i g automation, and the b e n e f i t s which r e s u l t from the i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f rock m e l t i n g t o formation temperatures and geologic v a r i a t i o n s have also been studied. Subsystem hardware development has been d i r e c t e d toward r e s o l u t i o n o f c r i t i c a l technical questions r e l a t e d t o penetrators f o r dense rock, debris handling, e l e c t r i c a l heater configuration, and e s t a b l i s h i n g penet r a t o r l i f e . Laboratory experiments and f i e l d t e s t s provide data f o r f i n a l system design o p t i m i i a t i o n s and i n d i c a t e proof o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the concept t o a geothermal w e l l hole-forming system. A f i e l d t e s t u n i t t o fonn r e l a t i v e l y shallow v e r t i c a l holes f o r heat f l o w surveys i n support o f geothermal exploration studies has been designed, fabricated, and f i e l d tested. Experience w i t h t h i s u n i t i s intended t o provide a basis f o r technology t r a n s f e r t o the d r i l l i n g industry. P r a c t i c a l applications t o deep geothermal d r i l l i n g w i l l r e q u i r e an extensive development program i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the d r i l l i n g industry. progressive steps v i a smaller systems can p o t e n t i a l l y speed the transfer process.

..

I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY A.

Objectives The technical e f f o r t s and resources o f the LASL rock-me1 t i n g (Subterrene) program have been d i s t r i b uted t o y i e l d a balance o f prototype hardware o f i n creasing complexity and size, l a b o r a t o r y experiments, p r a c t i c a l f i e l d - t e s t experience, design and economic analyses, e l e c t r i c heater development, mat e r i a l s development and applications, and t h e o r e t i c a l studies. The r e s u l t s o f these technical a c t i v i t i e s were planned t o y i e l d : The demonstration o f the basic f e a s i b i l i t y of rock m e l t i n g as a new excavation t o o l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s up t o 400 mn (16 i n . ) i n diameter. Operational and f i e l d - t e s t data f r o m prototype devices o f a range o f sizes and configurations, and the v e r i f i c a t i o n o f prel i m i n a r y t h e o r e t i c a l modeling needed t o scale t o l a r g e r diameters, p r e d i c t p e r f o r mance, make cost estimates, and optimize advance r a t e and r e l i a b i l i t y . Refractory m a t e r i a l s technology s u f f i c i e n t l y established t o permit p r e d i c t i o n s o f component l i f e and t o generate m a t e r i a l s select i o n c r i t e r i a f o r prototype development needs and p r o j e c t i o n s o f service l i f e f o r systems i n p r a c t i c a l applications. F i e l d - t e s t experience and operational demons t r a t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t t o e x h i b i t the potent i a l u t i l i t y o f smaller diameter prototype devices and t o p r o j e c t commercial use i n t h e important p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s o f geothermal energy e x p l o r a t i o n programs, economi c a l e x t r a c t i o n o f geothermal energy, and shallow h o r i z o n t a l hole emplacements i n loose o r unconsolidated materials.
0

Power Source Design and Directed Research F i e l d Test and Demonstrations Systems Analysis and Applications. The s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s and achievements i n t h e research and development program are summarized f o r each o f these f o u r technical a c t i v i t i e s i n f o u r major sections o f t h i s r e p o r t f o r the period September 1973 t o June 1976. C. Summary During the research p e r i o d covered by t h i s stat u s report, a r e d i r e c t i o n o f technical e f f o r t was i n i t i a t e d a t the request o f the programlsponsoring organizations. E f f o r t s d i r e c t e d toward the appl icat i o n o f rock m e l t i n g t o large-diameter tunneling systems were suspended. A vigorous research and development program leading t o d e e p - d r i l l i n g capabili t y f o r geothermal energy systems was i n i t i a t e d i n -

c l u d i n g intermediate development o f equipment f o r shallow exploratory holes, development of h o l e stab i l i z a t i o n t o o l s , development and t e s t o f h o t rock penetrators f o r magma taps, and development o f l a r g e r diameter shallow-hole devices f o r a v a r i e t y o f pot e n t i a l applications. Extruding penetrator systems have demonstrated the basic features o f rock-melt f l o w handling w i t h debris produced i n the form o f chiTled glass pellets, glass rods,.or rock wool and c a r r i e d out of t h e stem Two l a r g e r diameter (84by the coolant gas flow.

and 86-mm), higher advance rate,molybdenum extruding penetrator systems were designed, fabricated, and extensively tested i n both laboratory and f i e l d t e s t s . The f i r s t o f these designs incorporates mult i p l e heater stacks, m u l t i p l e m e l t f l o w passages, and a penetrator configuration u t i l i z i n g extended surfaces f o r enhanced heat t r a n s f e r surface area. This penetrator was used w i t h t h e new Experimental F i e l d U n i t (EFU) t o produce a 30m-deep hole i n a b a s a l t 1edge near Los Alamos as a proof-of-concept experiment. The second design incorporates a more convent i o n a l me1t i n g body capable o f producing t h i c k e r glass l i n i n g s i n dense rock, a s i n g l e annular r e s i s tance heater which d e l i v e r s a higher leading edge, heat flux, and m e l t removal e n t i r e l y through t h e cent r a l e x t r u s i o n p o r t . S i g n i f i c a n t improvements have been achieved i n extruding penetrators, i n c l u d i n g i m proved c o a x i a l - j e t debris removal systems, higher

Theoretical models and a n a l y t i c a l techniques needed t o describe t h e heat- t r a n s f e r and f l u i d mechanics o f the rock-melting and penetration processes f o r the purposes o f o p t i m i z i n g configurations, and p r e d i c t i n g performance.

B.

Technical Approach The technical e f f o r t i s organized i n t o f o u r

technical a c t i v i t y areas whose functions are: Prototype Design and Test

strength extractors, improved high-temperature operai o n and s t a b i l i t y , and "designed i n " instrumentation qapability

was d i r e c t e d toward the r e s u l t i n g physical properties of the plugs prepared i n t h i s manner. Another techn i c a l approach investigated for Subterrene penetrators involves the a p p l i c a t i o n o f plasma arc heating t o i n crease penetration r a t e s and handle the highest melting-point rocks. While the observation has been noted t h a t a plasma t o r c h r e a d i l y melts a rock sample, l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been given t o the task o f prov i d i n g a debris removal system for such a penetrat i o n device. R e s i s t i v e l y heated, pyrolytic-graphi t e heater elements, which r a d i a t e energy t o the r e f r a c t o r y metal penetrator body, have proven t o be most s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r the development e f f o r t s . With heater c a v i t i e s f i l l e d w i t h helium t o enhance the r a d i a l heat transfer, heat f l u x e s of up t o 2 MW/m ments.

The r e s u l t s from the successful t e s t i n g

o f these extruding penetrator systems designed t o i n vestigate s p e c i f i c aspects o f heater design, debris removal, and viscous rock-melt f l o w t h a t w i l l lead t o higher penetration r a t e s were analyzed t o provide design considerations f o r future penetrator systems. Laboratory t e s t s i n Dresser b a s a l t heated t o 650

confirmed the a n a l y t i c a l l y predicted enhanced penet r a t i o n rates i n the hot basalt. Density consolidat i o n penetrator designs have been developed t o the stage where compressed-air-cooled, oxidation-resistant, e a s i l y replaceable penetrators a r e i n s a t i s f a c t o r y use f o r both laboratory experiments and f i e l d demonstrations i n a wide v a r i e t y o f porous materials i n c l u d i n g t u f f , alluvium, unconsolidated and layered sediments, saturated ground, and b a s a l t i c gravel. A high-temperature thermal stress rock f r a c t u r i n g probe based on rock-me1 t i n g Subterrene technology has been developed and made a v a i l a b l e f o r rock mechanics and f r a c t u r i n g studies.

2 have been

obtained from p y r o l y t i c - g r a p h i t e radiant-heater eleLarger diameter annular-shaped p y r o l y t i c graphite heaters have been used t o achieve higher leading edge heat fluxes i n extruding penetrators, and heater stacks whose energy generation per u n i t l e n g t h have been c a r e f u l l y matched t o the penetrator requirements through the use of a n a l y t i c a l modeling calculations are now routine. A new single-piece carbon c l o t h composite heater has been developed which allows greater f l e x i b i l i t y i n heater configurat i o n and has been successfully tested i n the thermal stress rock f r a c t u r i n g probe. Investigations o f new designs have been i n i t i a t e d , including high-temperat u r e l i q u i d metal heat pipes, the d i r e c t melt-heating concept, and t h e use o f higher resistance conduction heaters which would lead t o s o l i d penetrators o f very high strength f o r use i n deep wells.

A 114-mm-diam consolidating

corer intended f o r use i n porous a l l u v i a l s o i l s has been designed, constructed, and laboratory tested. The core diameter i s 64 mn,and t h e melting body, which i s vacuum-arc-cgst molybdenum, i s f a b r i c a t e d as a s i n g l e s t r u c t u r a l component. The p o s s i b i l i t y o f arranging the e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t o f a rock-melting penetrator so t h a t c u r r e n t passes through a molten region and deposits most o f the melting power d i r e c t l y i n t h e m e l t l a y e r j u s t adjacent t o the melting i n t e r f a c e has been recognized f o r a long time. This mode o f rock melting has been investigated i n recent laboratory experiments and The success o f

A t the r e l a -

t i v e l y high temperatures encountered by rock-me1 t i n g penetrator systems, most materials react with one another t o some extent, and thermodynamic and k i n e t i c

a n a l y t i c a l modeling calculations.

these preliminary experiments has i n i t i a t e d f u r t h e r experimental and a n a l y t i c a l research t o d e f i n e the d e t a i l s of the heating mechanisms involved and the influence o f the t y p i c a l m e l t r e s i s t i v i t y vs temperat u r e behavior on the process. An experimental study of the f e a s i b i l i t y o f forming borehole plugs i n underground s a l t deposits by m e l t i n g and r e s o l i d i f y i n g s a l t s i m i l a r t o t h a t found i n the formation was conducted on the basis t h a t a plug w i t h physical and chemical properties close t o those o f the format i o n could be formed by t h i s technique. wing Since meltand r e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f rock s a l t causes p r a c t i c a l l y no change i n the chemical properties, emphasis

1i f e t i m e 1i m i t a t i o n s have therefore been investigated.

S t a t i c c o m p a t i b i l i t y laboratory t e s t s have been performed t o determine the corrosion o r d i s s o l u t i o n r e actions o f molybdenum and tungsten w i t h t u f f , Jemez basalt, and g r a n i t i c rocks a t temperatures from 1700 t o 2100

K.

These experiments are designed t o inves-

t i g a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y the e f f e c t s o f time and temperat u r e on the reactions between r e f r a c t o r y metals and rock-glass me1ts. Techniques

for

rock-glass property

evaluation and optimization are under development w i t h the goal o f establishing rock-melt glass as an

--t u i n si

s t r u c t u r a l element t o serve as the hole 3

support d u r i n g penetration. Laboratory experiments have confirmed a significant increase i n crush strength and decrease i n permeability for rock-glass liners when compared to the original porous materials from which they were formed i n situ. Petrological examinations of parent rock and derived rock-glass samples have been performed. Correlation of petrographic information with physical properties and i t s extension to Subterrene design and performance is the desired goal. The melting ranges of approximately 15 different rock types were measured using hots t a t e microscopy. Penetrator fabrication techno1ogy has been vastly improved, particularly i n the areas of refractory metal forming, the development of moderate-and high-temperature brazing techniques for dissimilar metals, and electron beam welding. The field-test program was expanded w i t h the design, construction, and utilization of two portable, modularized field-demonstration units (FDUs). These easily transportable units provided self-contained systems for demonstrating smal 1-diameter rock-me1 t i n g penetration system capabilities a t locations away from the Los Alamos area and were mobilized for publ i c demonstrations of the rock-melting process before large audiences in Washington, DC; Denver, CO; and Tacoma, WA. Such field evaluations of penetrator systems have served to acquaint excavation technologists with the potential of rock melting and have provided valuable data and experience on reliability and service l i f e . Numerous penetrations into various unconsolidated soil samples, including layered samples formed from different loose materials, have been conducted t o examine the resulting glass liners. The glass liners have been of good quality,and the smooth transition across the layered samples was particularly encouraging. The LASL-designed mobile experimental field unit (EFU) has been delivered, evaluated, and operated in the field on basalt penetration tests. T h i s unit, which can be used with penetrators from 50 to 127 mn i n diameter, consists of a trailer-mounted stem tower, hydraulic power supply, control functions, and a thruster that will support pipe stems 300 m long. The f i r s t field use of the EFU was i n the production of a planned 30-m-deep hole i n a basalt ledge a t Ancho Canyon u s i n g 84-mn-diameter extruding penetrators. The basic concept of Subterrene systems for tunneling and excavating loosely compacted formations was demonstrated by an experiment conducted i n the

field using a field-demonstration unit. A prototype tunnel opening, 2 m h i g h , 2 m deep, and 1 m wide,wa formed i n a loose alluvial d i r t f i l l . The roof and side walls were formed by melting a series of parallel small-diameter horizontal holes i n the loose soil f i l l using density consolidation penetrators. The holes were placed sufficiently close together that the glass linings fused and t h u s produced a double-walled lining reinforced by webs between the individual holes. Efforts have been directed toward the development of new analytical and numerical techniques for analyzing the combined fluid dynamic and heat transf e r performance of melting penetrators and the application of these techniques to specific penetrator designs and concepts. Numerical solutions of the coupled energy equation and the Navier-Stokes equations, including the strong temperature dependence of the rock-melt viscosity, have been obtained. U t i lizing this viscous rock flow computer program, detailed calculations have been performed on a variety of consolidating and extruding penetrator systems. The validity of this powerful analytical tool has been established by comparisons with laboratory data, and design and scaling to larger diameters and different operating conditions can now be accomplished. Analytical techniques have also been extended to study the fluidized debris removal process in extruding penetrators. Calculations performed on extruding penetrator designs have also confirmed the significant penetration rate increases associated with increasing in situ rock temperatures and the general trend toward higher penetrator efficiencies with increasing penetration rate, b o t h effects having been observed in the laboratory. Results from a twodimensional heat conduction program have been instrumental in improving the thermal design of penetrator systems, particularly i n the areas of desired heater performance, thermal control of the coaxial - j e t debris removal zone, thermal control of the glass forming and conditioning zone, and i n evaluating the thermal stress distributions and cooling requirements in critical penetrator regions. The development of analytical models has contributed t o the basic understanding of specific relationships such as the leadi n g edge flux limitations and the thrust-velocity de pendence. O major importance has been the theoretf ical calculation of material properties when the

Li

I
experimental values were not appropriate or availThe application of these models and techniques U e l o specific designs and the interpretation of t e s t results have received the largest portion of the analysis program effort. Analytical calculations have also provided s u p p o r t for the laboratory experiments investigating new penetration techniques , including . .. direct melt heating and plasma arc heating. The number of novel and conventional potential applications of Subterrene technology that have been investigated continue t o increase and range from deep

hot rock penetrations for geothermal energy exploration and production t o emplacements i n arctic permafrost. The technology dissemination efforts expended by members of the Subterrene program have been extensive in both scope and depth. O particular inf terest to the current program direction is a report entitled, "Geothermal Well Technology and Potential Applications of Subterrene Devices - A Status Review," which has been completed and distributed. This report reviews the past, present, and some future aspects o f the geothermal energy industry w i t h special attention given to geothermal well drilling problems.

11.
A.

PROTOTYPE DESIGN AND TEST

Consol idation Penetrator Development 1. Introduction. For porous rock or soft ground, the density consol idation Subterrene can be used to simplify the excavation process. In these materials, the glass lining formed when the rockmelt cools, i s significantly more dense and therefore occupies a smaller volume than did the original porous rock. B melting out to a diameter larger y than that of the penetrator, the molten debris from the hole can be entirely consolidated i n the dense glass lining, completely eliminating the necessity for removing debris. Density consol idation penetrator designs have been developed t o the stage where compressed-air-cooled, oxidation-resistant, easily replaceable penetrators are used satisfactor i l y for both laboratory experiments and field demonstrations i n a wide variety of porous materials, including tuff, alluvium, unconsolidated and layered sediments, saturated ground,and basaltic gravel. 2. Si gni f i cant Tec h n i ca 1 A h i evemen ts c A prototype tunnel opening (described i n detail i n Sec. IV. A ) was formed in.loose alluvial f i l l using two different 50-mm-diam consolidating penetrator designs. These penetrator designs, which employ replaceable graphite glass formers, are illustrated i n Fig. 11-1. The solidified rock-melt layer which adheres t o the molybdenum penetrator body and provides oxidation resistance i s clearly visible. A considerable amount of operational field experience was obtained i n this t e s t as over 100 m of stabilized hole were formed i n a loose f i l l including both vertical and horizontal penetrations. The a b i l i t y of consolidating penetrators t o produce glass-lined stabilized holes through variable, broken, and d i f f i c u l t rock samples was further verified by extensive testing i n a wide variety of samples. Figure 11-2 i l l u s t r a t e s a hole melted i n a conglomerate of Hanford alluvium. containing basalt i c gravel and large cobbles. Penetration of the largest cobbles without debris removal is achieved by thermal stress fracturing and extrusion of portions of the rock melt into the resulting cracks. The a b i l i t y t o provide a continuous glass lining across nonhomogeneous samples was demonstrated i n tests i n which samples comprised of layers of alluviums, shales, and tuff were penetrated and the

resulting hole liners were removed and examined. A typical result from such a test i s shown i n Fig. 11-3.

Fig.

11-1.

f o r melting prototype tunnel opening i n loose alluvial f i l l .

Consolidating penetrator designs used

F i g . 11-2.

Hole melted i n a conglomerate of Hanfor alluvium containing basaltic gravel and large cobbles w i t h a consolidating penetrator.

L J

Fig. 11-3.

Continuous glass liner produced through a layered sample of unconsolidated alluviums.

A design study was conducted indicating the

feasibility of an integrated 76-mm-diam extruderconsol idator hole-forming system. T h i s proposed system would take advantage of the simplicity of consolidating penetrators, which eliminate the debris removal operation, for use in porous or low-density rocks and soils. If hard rock were encountered, the universal stem would permit changing to an extruding penetrator for hole advancement u n t i l soft ground conditions again prevailed. The emplacement of nearsurface small-diameter u t i l i t y lines represents the main application for such an integrated system. Detailed viscous flow calculations have led t o the development of a penetrator geometry incorporating a parabolic leading edge segment joined t o a cy1 indrical afterbody. The parabolic leading edge

suited for the use of high-te leading edge for en conceptual desi rating these ad oerformance has been extended t o include the effect mechanical compaction of the soil surrounding the melt zone. Calculations employing these methods show the dependence of consolidator penetration rates on

soil density and mechanical compaction. Results i n dicate an extremely sharp drop i n penetration rate w i t h increasing soil density i n the range of densit i e s between 1.7 and 1.8 Mg/m 3 . Penetration of s o i l s w i t h b u l k densities greater than 1.8 by consolidating penetrators is very slow,and there i s l i t t l e possib i l i t y of significant mechanical compaction. Successful laboratory tests were conducted w i t h a 50-nnn-diam parabolic penetrator and a 60-mndiam penetrator with a parabolic leading edge prof i l e joined t o a short cylindrical afterbody. Significant performance data were obtained from these tests,and penetration rates almost double the previous rates for the double cone configuration were achieved . During the research period covered by t h i s status report, technical effort was redirected a t the request of the program-sponsoring organization. Efforts directed toward the development of density consol idation penetrators were terminated, and the program emphasis was placed on the development of hard rock extruding penetrator systems that could be applied t o the exploration and production of geothermal energy. B. Extruding Penetrator Development 1. Introduction. Extrusion penetrators are required i n dense materials and are designed to continuously remove the debris from the borehole. As i n dicated in Fig. 11-4, the melt flow, confined by the unmelted rock and the hot melting face of the penetrator, i s continuously extruded through a nozzle in the melting face. T h i s material is chilled and freezes shortly a f t e r the circulating cooling fluid impinges upon the extrudate exiting from the melt orifice. The flowing coolant then carries these small fragments up the stem t o the exhaust section. E x t r u d i n g penetrator systems have demonstrated the basic features of rock-melt flow handling w i t h debris produced in the form of chilled glass pellets, glass rods, or rock wool. These penetrators have been operated in the laboratory and in the field, i n vertical and horizontal orientations, and i n both hard igneous rocks and porous tuffs and alluviums. Three larger diameter (84-to 89-mm) , higher advance rate, molybdenum extruding penetrator systems were designed, fabricated, and tested. Significant improvements have been achieved i n current extruding penetrators, including improved coaxial-jet debris removal systems,
7

rDEBRlS REMOVAL ZONE

MOLYBDENUM

Fig. 11-5.
DENSE ROCK'

Cross section of the 84-m-diam extended surface penetrator me1 t i n g body.

Fig. 11-4.

Extruding penetrator concept i l l u s t r a t ing debris removal technique.

improved high-temperature operation and stability, and "designed-in" instrumentation. A maximum penetration rate of 0.28 m / s (3.31 f t / h ) in dense'bas a l t has been demonstrated in the laboratory. 2. 84-mn-diam Extended Surface Penetrator. This design introduced the concepts of mu1 t i p l e heater stacks, multiple melt flow passages, and a penetrator configuration using extended surfaces for enhanced heat transfer surface area. Based on the enhanced surface area, greater heater power, reduced operating melt layer thickness, and high thrust capability, this penetrator has melted hard rock a t a significantly faster (- 3X) rate than the earlier 66-mn design i t replaces. Figure 11-5 illustrates the major components of this penetrator design. The heater consists of three separate stacks of pyrographite resistance heater pellets and includes higher power density pellets near the leading edge to provide a higher heat flux in this critical region. Electrical power i s supplied to the heaters by three tungsten electrodes. Energy distribution throughout the penetrator is accomplished by radiation from the surface of the heater stacks t o the graphite receptors and then by conduction through the h i g h thermal conductivity molybdenum melting body. Molten rock enters the rock nozzle from the axial and radial rock flow passages and is rapidly chilled by the high-veloc ty cooling gas exiting
8

from the gas nozzle. The chilled debris is removed through the debris carry-off tube and transported to the surface by the gas stream. A portion of the cooling gas flow enters the debris carry-off tube through the gas orifices which provide a boundary layer of cool gas along the tube surface reducing i t s temperature and minimizing any tendency for the cooling rock melt to adhere t o i t s surface. Actual 84mm-diam hardware i s illustrated i n Fig. 11-6. The upper penetrator i s unused,whereas the lower u n i t was tested in basalt and retains its protective

Fig. 11-6.

Extended surface penetrator hardware comparing an as-fabricated melting body with an assembly that was tested in basalt.

l a y e r o f s o l i d i f i e d b a s a l t melt.

The f l u t e d o r ex-

u e n d e d surface c o n f i g u r a t i o n and t h e mu1t i p l e m e l t removal passages are c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n t h i s photograph. This 84-mm-diam extended surface penetrator was used t o produce a 30-m-deep f i e l d hole i n b a s a l t
1 +

f i g u r a t i o n o f t h i s penetrator corresponds t o t h e des i g n i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 11-4, d e p i c t i n g t h e concept of extrud'ing penetrator operation. This design was based on t h e use o f a l a r g e d i a m e t e r annular pyrographite heating element which would provide t h e maximum surface area f o r r a d i a t i o n heat t r a n s f e r near the c r i t i c a l leading edge region. The annular design eliminates the azimuthal temperature v a r i a t i o n s present w i t h t h e use o f three separate heater stacks (a!; i n the extended surface penetrator) and f u r t h e r enhances the leading edge heating since both the i n n e r and outer surface of the heater can r a d i a t e w i t h equal f l u x density. I n addition, t h e molybdenum penetrator body thickness was h e l d t o 5 m i n t h i s region t o minimize the temperature drop r e s u l t i n g from heat conduction t o t h e molten rock l a y er. Approximately h a l f o f the t o t a l heater power i s Heater power i s s t e a d i l y r e developed i n t h e t h i n constant area section embedded i n the leading edge. duced away from the leading edge where t h e m e l t i n g power requirements o f the penetrator are much less. This t a i l o r i n g o f the heater output i s based on det a i l e d coniputer c a l c u l a t i o n s which are discussed i n the analysis section of t h i s report. Polycrystal-

(see Sec. I V . C. 3). Design changes based on f i e l d t e s t experience have eliminated e a r l y d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n the operation t o produce t h i s 30-mdeep hole. Rock i n t r u s i o n has been eliminated by tube has a l s o been elimimproved c o o l i n g of t h e glass-former region, and plugging o f t h e debris carry-off b r i s forming nozzle. below 650 cles. design. i n a t e d by improved c o o l i n g o f t h e w a l l near t h e deThe tube temperature i s held

t o prevent s t i c k i n g of h o t m e l t p a r t i -

This has been accomplished by a combination Tests of t h i s penetrator system incorpo-

of increased gas f l o w and improved coolant passage r a t i n g a m e l t channel impedance, o r surge suppressor, t h a t increased the pressure i n t h e molten l a y e r have been successful i n suppressing gas bubble production i n t h e me1t and have produced remarkably improved smooth glass borehole l i n i n g s i n a d d i t i o n t o m i n i mizing any tendency o f t h e d e b r i s removal system t o surge during t r a n s i e n t operations. i s suddenly pushed i n t o it. c a r r y - o f f system. Surging occurs when a l a r g e m e l t pool i s formed and the penetrator This causes a l a r g e amount o f l i q u i d rock t o extrude r a p i d l y i n t o t h e While the gas system can c a r r y a considerable amount o f rock i n excess of t h e steadys t a t e design, a severe surge can overload it. Successful operation o f t h i s debris removal system has been demonstrated i n both v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l orientations.

1ine-graphite r a d i a t i o n receptors are used t o i m prove t h e surface absorption c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the heater c a v i t y which i s a l s o f i l l e d w i t h helium gas t o provide a d d i t i o n a l conduction t r a n s f e r across the narrow gap. Debris removal techniques i n t h i s penet r a t o r system are completely analogous t o those employed i n t h e extended surface penetrator. With tin 89-nnn-diam m e l t i n g body, a HARE penet r a t o r was operated i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y a t power l e v e l s W of up t o 24 k and corresponding penetration r a t e s i n b a s a l t rock up t o 0.28 mn/s (3.31 f t / h ) w i t h debris-handling and glass-forming systems f u n c t i o n i n g c u l a t e d and experimentally measurpower r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e i n exceln a d d i t i o n t o hard rock, HARE has n compacted Hanford density o f 2.1 Mg/m3) and produc w a l l approximately pera ture-c:ontroll e h i c k using a longer temformer. E a r l i e r broblems

I n a d d i t i o n t o operations i n hard
The

rock, t h i s penetrator system has been tested i n porous Bandelier t u f f w i t h encouraging r e s u l t s . extrudate was e j e c t e d i n s h o r t rods which were e a s i l y expelled from t h e system by t h e t r a n s p o r t gas flow, and there was evidence t h a t t h e penetration mode (i.e.

, extrusiontor

d e n s i t y consolidation) could be

c o n t r o l l e d by varying t h e gas flow r a t e t o the ext r u s i o n nozzle and t h e heater power l e v e l . 3. High Advance Rate Extruder (HARE), The HARE design has a more conventional m e l t i n g body capable of woducing t h i c k e r glass l i n i n g s i n dense rock, a s i n u e annular resistance heater t h a t d e l i v e r s a higher leading edge heat f l u x , and m e l t removal e n t i r e l y through t h e c e n t r a l e x t r u s i o n p o r t . The basic con-

i n producing a smooth glass borehole l i n i n g were

rock during melting. l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e gases released from t h e A modification consisting o f

a long extrudate tube-nozzle system has been employed t o a l l e v i a t e t h i s problem by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e back-

pressure a t the glass-forming section thereby i n creasing the pressure i n the melt layer and suppressing gas bubble production. Figure 11-7 shows a HARE penetrator a f t e r testing i n basalt. 4. Melt Flow Augmented Extruder. An attempt has been made t o arrange the geometry of a penetrator in such a manner that h o t molten rock i s forced t o flow past the leading edge and thereby prevent this region from cooling a t higher penetration rates. A conceptual design is shown i n Fig. 11-8 to i l l u s t r a t e this technique. A melt reservoir i s formed on the outside of the conical section and maintained under pressure by the applied thrust load. The pressure differential resulting from the debris removal causes the melt to flow forward past the leading edge. The hottest (and least viscous) rock flows most easily and carries a significant amount of energy forward to prevent cooling of the leading edge and vanishing of the melt layer thickness. A new penetrator design that augments leading edge conduction heat transfer w i t h forced melt flow has been developed and i n i t i a l l y tested i n an 86-mdiam version. Heater configuration and debris removal system operation are based on the HARE design which has demonstrated successful performance i n extensive laboratory testing. The penetrator assembly for this melt flow augmented extruder i s illustrated i n Fig. 11-9 prior t o testing. The melt flow passage i s on the axis so that material melted near the perimeter of the hole must flow along the cone and over the leading edge i n order to reach the exit

Debris

Remy'

L R o c k Flow -I

Fig. 11-8.

Conceptual design of a melt flow augmented penetrator.

Fig. 11-9.

Melt flow augmented extruding penetrator w i t h segmented molybdenum glass former.

Fig. 11-7.

HARE extruder a f t e r several tests i n basalt showing the molybdenum me1 ting body w i t h residual rock melt and the graphite glass fomer.

passage. A segmented molybdenum glass former is employed. Tests showed t h a t t h i s penetrator can accept higher power levels a t higher thrust loads w i t h an increase i n penetration rate without an increase i n melting body temperature. In the initial testing, rates as high as 0.232 mn/s (2.74 f t / h ) were attained.

10

The maximum v e l o c i t y o f the rock m e l t as i t crosses U h e leading edge i s approximately 200 times the penetration r a t e velocity. Despite t h i s very apprec i a b l e v e l o c i t y enhancement, absolute v e l o c i t i e s are s t i l l q u i t e low,and higher t h r u s t s are required t o provide t h i s hydrodynamic pumping. Preliminary laboratory t e s t data i n d i c a t e t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher me1t v e l o c i t i e s are required before any appreciable penetration r a t e increase can be r e a l i z e d as a r e s u l t o f m e l t f l o w augmentation. Further t e s t s t o b e t t e r define the r o l e o f higher v e l o c i t y rock m e l t f l o w i n the leading edge region are planned. 5. S i g n i f i c a n t Achievements. A1 1 three new extruding penetrator systems have achieved penetration rates i n excess o f 0.2 mm/s. The HARE design was operated i n the laboratory a t pow e r inputs o f up t o 24 k w i t h correspondina advance W r a t e s i n b a s a l t rock up t o 0.28 mn/s (3.3 f t / h ) . Maximum penetration r a t e s a t t a i n e d exceed those o f the e a r l i e r 66-nnn-diam design by a f a c t o r o f 3 t o 4. E f f o r t s t o develop advanced penetration systems capable o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher advance rates have reached the laboratory experiment stage. Experiments r e l a t i n g t o d i r e c t m e l t heating and plasma arc heating are i n progress (see Sec. 11. F. and 11. H). Production o f a 30-m-deep f i e l d hole i n bas a l t has been completed w i t h the 84-rn-diam extended surface penetrator operated from the experimental f i e l d u n i t (see Sec. I V . C. 3). As a proof-of-concept experiment f o r a geothermal energy prototype b i t , an extruding penetrator system was used t o m e l t a hole i n a block of Dresser b a s a l t preheated t o 650

Data from a l a r g e number o f laboratory and f i e l d t e s t s have confirmed the operating performance maps and r e p e a t a b i l i t y o f the newer extruding penet r a t o r systems. Typical of these data i s the r a t e vs power r e l a t i o n implied by laboratory t e s t data f o r the extended surface penetrator melting i n b a s a l t as indicated i n Fig. 11-10. 0 Extruding penetrators have been used successf u l l y t o nielt samples o f basalt, granite, porous volcanic t u f f , and compacted alluvium. Typical laborat o r y samples o f b a s a l t t h a t have been penetrated i n hardware development experiments are i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 11-11, which shows the r e s u l t i n g smooth-lined

A material p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t t o d r i l l through by conventional techniques i s high quartzcontent g r a n i t e gneiss. Samples o f such a gneiss were supp1,ied t o the program from a quarry s i t e i n V i r g i n i a f o r melting experiments. Figure 11-12 shows
holes. a hole me1 ted i n t h i s g r a n i t e gneiss by an extruding penetrator and some o f the associated debris ejected i n the form o f short glass rods. Differences between t y p i c a l b a s a l t debris and the gneiss extrudate are a t t r i b u t e d t o the l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e i n v i s c o s i t y between the two glass melts and t o the s i g n i f i c a n t v o l ume f r a c t i o n o f quartz c r y s t a l s i n the gneiss. Preliminary design o f a l a r g e r diameter (150-

mm) penetrator based upon the HARE c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s

i n progress.
0.2'51

The i n i t i a l m e l t i n g bodies w i l l be made

I

K. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s t e s t

were compared t o another s e t o f t e s t s conducted a t the same operating conditions w i t h the exception o f the b a s a l t block temperature, which was a t a normal ambient value o f 290 K. The l a r g e specimen o f Dresse r b a s a l t was surrounded with m u l t i p l e e l e c t r i c a l resistance heaters and brought t o temperature over a 4-112-day heating period. Experimental data conI

firmed t h a t the a n a l y t i c a l l y estimated 25% increase i n penetration r a t e i n t h e hot b a s a l t could be easi l y achieved.

Results from t h i s "hot rock" t e s t Fig. 11-10.

I2

1 4

1 6

1 8

20

Power (kW)

have established t h a t operatton i n very hot rock i s u f e a s i b l e , and t h a t enhanced penetration r a t e i s an additional benefit. Rate vs power r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r 84-mmdiam extended surface penetrator from laboratory t e s t s i n basalt.

11

b u t i t i s not expected t o be a practical material

Fig. 11-11.

E x t r u d i n g penetrator melted holes i n

typical laboratory samples of basalt.

Fig. 11-12.

Hole melted in h i g h quartz-content granite gneiss with extruding penetrator, including associated debris i n the form of short glass rods.

from Sic-coated graphite which can be fabricated a t a fraction of the cost of a refractory metal body. Laboratory tests indicate t h a t this material will have a long enough lifetime for testing purposes,

for production penetrators. Information from laboratory and f i e l d t e s t s of extruding penetrator systems is being used to provide the basis for designs of larger diameter penetrator systems for high-pressure, deep-drilling geothermal energy applications. 6. Penetration Rate Paradox. Analytical calculations based on penetrator i n p u t power, calculated thermal fluxes, and available published transport properties of viscous rock melts have indicated the potential for appreciably higher penetration rates than could be attained i n laboratory tests. While the basic agreement between the analytical calculations and the laboratory established penetrator performance data has been very good, two particular areas where this agreement breaks down have been noted. The f i r s t area of concern was that calculated penetrator thrust loads were considerably lower than those observed i n actual tests. The second area o f concern was the inability of penetrator systems t o consistently achieve rates i n excess of 0.25 mm/s with allowable body temperatures despite the fact t h a t the analyses indicate higher rates should be possible with acceptable temperatures. Resolut i o n of these discrepancies led t o the investigation of molten rock thermal conductivities presented in detail i n the analysis section of this report. The conclusion arrived a t was that the thermal conductivity of molten rocks i s appreciably lower than some data in the literature indicates. The source of the problem stems from correctly removing the thermal radiation contribution from the measured effective conductivity to arrive a t the true thermal conductivity based only upon molecular conduction. Using a value of 0.25 W/m-K for the thermal conductivity of molten basalt i n the computer simulat i o n program ( t h i s value i s appreciably lower than the ones used i n previous calculations), i t becomes evident t h a t the penetration rate of an extruding penetrator i s limited by the heat flux that can be provided a t the leading edge or flow stagnation point. Based on allowable temperatures in the molybdenum body, the new calculations indicate that the leading edge heat f l u x will r e s t r i c t penetration rates in basalt to approximately 0.25 mmjs. T h i s lower value of thermal conductivity also results i n a thinner melt layer a t the leading edge for the

12

A t h i n n e r m e l t l a y e r necessitates higher t h r u s t loads f o r penetration, and hence t h i s Bjalso explains why t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h a higher thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y always underestimated the app l i e d t h r u s t load. Away from t h e leading edge, however, the c o n i c a l shape o f t h e me1t i n g body provides
same heat f l u x . a s i g n i f i c a n t geometrical enhancement and much higher penetration r a t e s are possible. This concept was demonstrated i n a l a b o r a t o r y t e s t using a conic a l shaped penetrator m e l t i n g i n t o a b a s a l t sample t h a t was p r e d r i l l e d t o remove the rock t h a t would normally be melted by t h e leading edge region o f t h e penetrator. With the penetrator body temperature This represents a facbelow the operating maximum, sustained r a t e s o f j u s t under 1 mm/s were attained. t o r o f 4 t o 5 times t h e r a t e t h a t would have been expected i f the leading edge heat f l u x were c o n t r o l l i n g the r a t e . This conical penetrator and a secExperimental t i o n o f t h e g l a s s - l i n e d hole i n b a s a l t t h a t i t produced are i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 11-13. confirmation of t h i s a n a l y t i c a l l y predicted r e s u l t l e d t o an i n t e n s i v e research program t o introduce techniques f o r increasing the a v a i l a b l e leading edge heat f l u x .

C.

Coring Penetrator Development For a p p l i c a t i o n s such as geophysical prospect-

ing, i t i s desirable t o e x t r a c t a r e l a t i v e l y undisturbed core sample t o i d e n t i f y the rock l a y e r s and . f a u l t structures a t various depths. The Subterrene
4 -

concept o f rock penetration by progressive m e l t i n g has been expanded t o include a technique f o r obtaini n g g e o l o g i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g core samples from t h e material being penetrated. The c o r i n g concept u t i l i z e s an annular m e l t i n g penetrator which leaves a rock-glass encased core i n t h e i n t e r i o r . Although the concept i s a p p l i c a b l e t o e i t h e r the e x t r u s i o n o r d e n s i t y consolidation mode o f melt-handling, i n i t i a l emphasis was placed on a consolidating-coring penetratar.

A 114-m-diam consolidating corer i n -

tended f o r use i n porous a l l u v i a l s o i l s has been designed, constructed, and laboratory tzsted. The core diameter i s 64 mn and t h e m e l t i n g body, which i s vacuum-arc-cast molybdenum, i s f a b r i c a t e d as a s i n g l e The penetrator has a water c o o l i n g system which represents a departure from t h e conventional gas systems. Design power l e v e l i s 13 W kW, and i n i t i a l t e s t i n g was accomplished a t 9 k i n t u f f and alluvium w i t h low t h r u s t loads and penetrt i o n r a t e s i n t h e range fo 0.05 t o 0.15 mn/s. rm During an i n i t i a l t e s t t h e penetrator assembly was allowed t o cool i n place a f t e r making a penet r a t i o n i n t o a volcanic t u f f sample i n t h e laboratory A f t e r breaking away the rock sample and glass hole l i n e r , t h e m e l t i n g assembly i s shown i n place i n F g. 11-14. The end o f the core sample i s v i s i b l e eaving the core removal tube and a p o r t i o n o f t r u c t u r a l - g l a s s h o l e 1i n i n g can be seen behind t h e m e l t l n g assembly. A t y p i c a l segment o f t h i s exthe t e r n a l glass l i n i n g and a glass-encased core sample can be seen i n more d e t a i l i n Fig. 11-15. The approximately 18-mm-thick glass hole 1i n i n g r e s u l t s from debris disposal by t h e combined mechanisms o f core removal and density consol i d a t i o n . Although t h e periphery o f the core sample w i l l be melted and an a d d i t i o n a l region w i l l be thermally a l t e r e d , t h e i n t e r i o r region can be preserved when the penetrator i s operating a t the c o r r e c t design conditions. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 11-16,which The dark melted peripheral r e s t r u c t u r a l component.

i s a cross section o f a Subterrene-produced core i n

Green River shale. Fig. 11-13. Conical penetrator and h o l e melted a t high r a t e i n p r e d r i l l e d b a s a l t sample. gion can be c l e a r l y distinguished from the s o f t shale remaining i n the i n t e r i o r . This unique a b i l i t y 13

Fig. 11-16.

Cross section o f a Subterrene-produced core i n Green River shale showing glass l i n i n g and s o f t i n t e r i o r region.

and d i r e c t i o n s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t performance improvements have been indicated. During the research peFig. 11-14. M e l t i n g assembly o f c o r i n g penetrator a t completion o f t e s t showing format i o n of glass hole l i n i n g and emerging core sample. r i o d covered by t h i s report, technical e f f o r t s were r e d i r e c t e d a t t h e request o f t h e program-sponsoring organization and f u r t h e r development o f t h e c o r i n g concept has n o t been pursued.
D.

Thermal Stress Rock F r a c t u r i n g Tool F r a c t u r i n g by developing thermal gradients i n a

rock mass by r a p i d heating o r c o o l i n g o f i t s surface i s a well-known technique t h a t has been employed i n p r i m i t i v e forms o f mining and tunneling since ancient times. The modern excavation i n d u s t r y does n o t t y p i c a l l y employ thermal s t r e s s f r a c t u r i n g , b u t research being conducted a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Missouri i n d i cates t h a t t h e technique can be e f f e c t i v e l y u t i l i z e d i n tunneling o f hard rock. Their experiments i n v o l v e d r i l l i n g an a r r a y o f holes i n rock face t o a predetermined depth and i n s e r t i n g h i g h - i n t e n s i t y heat sources a t t h e hole bottoms. The r e s u l t i n g thermal stresses produce cracks normal t o the rock face and a l s o p a r a l l e l t o t h e rock face i n a plane containing Fig. 11-15. External glass l i n i n g and glass-encased core sample produced by Subterrene c o r i n g penetrator i n volcanic t u f f . t h e heat sources. Thus t h e heading i s advanced by breaking an incremental depth o f the rock i n t o f a i r l y r e g u l a r blocks which are subsequently removed by mechanical means. t o "package" a core sample i n a r i g i d glass casing leads t o t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r obtaining oriented geol o g i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g samples i n f a u l t e d o r broken ground masses. Detailed a n a l y t i c a l analyses of t h i s i n i t i a l c o r i n g penetrator design have been developed 14 Requirements f o r the commercial app l i c a t i o n of t h i s technique demand the a v a i l a b i l i t y of rugged, reusable, economical heat sources. Devices developed f o r rock m e l t i n g as a p a r t o f t h e

Subterrene program have these desired c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . They are capable o f sustained operation a t high

blA.AloR

wSEALASSEMW

\\'
ELECTRODE

COMPOSITE HEATER

MOCYBDENUM BODY

Fig. 11-17.

Cross section of thermal stress rock fracturing tool.

temperature in contact with molten rock; they are rugged and reusable, and i n production could be manufactured economically. The development of a special tool for rock fracturing based on rock-melting technology was therefore undertaken. The rock fracturing tool, shown in Fig. 11-17, i s 48 mm diam and 2 m long. The molybdenum heater body operates a t 1700 K and i s hermetically sealed with helium for protection of the electrically powered graphite composite heating element which operates a t 2100 K. Peripheral equipment required for operation of the fracturing tool consists of a power supply (40 V , 250 A) and an a i r compressor for cooling gas (35 SCFM). A,typical power level of 5 kW i s required to produce fracturing.

Fig. 11-18.

Thermal stress fragmentation of a grani t e block produced by electrically heated molybdenum fracturing tool.

Rock fracturing tools have been successfully operated i n basalt, granite, limestone, and sandstone w i t h 3 t o 5 major fractures per hole occurring w i t h i n 475 to 725 s a f t e r reaching operating temperature. The rock fragments typically range in size from 25 t o 140 kg. Figure 11-18 shows the i n i t i a l fractures in a granite block produced by a single rock fracturing tool and the fragmentation of this block after fracturing from both predrilled holes. Spacing of the predrilled holes i n the rock face has typically been 0.3 m. I t i s necessary t o develop fractures t o one or more free, unrestrained surfaces to f a c i l i t a t e breaking out the rock fragments and to provide a surface t o which cracks can propagate. E. Glass-Forming Technology Early experiments w i t h density consol idation penetrators melting in Bandelier tuff and alluvium w d e m o n s t r a t e d the basic features of forming the molten rock into a competent glass hole l i n i n g . Using

a gas-cooled graphite glass-forming section directly behind the me1 ting penetrator, smooth-walled 1inings were formed i n a wide variety of soft ground and porous rock mediums which permitted extraction of the penetrator assembly w i t h relative ease. Graphite was selected as the forming material because i t minimized the tendency for the cooling glass to stick or adhere to i t s surface d u r i n g the solidification process. The thick glass liners necessitated by density consol Ida tion penetrators readily accommodated the presence of even large volumes of unmelted quartz crystals without seriously affecting the integrity of the liner. When experiments were performed with highe r thrust loads, the glass walls of the resulting holes were of much better visual quality than noted previous1.y. I t appears logical t h a t the higher

thrust loads and associated higher pressures i n the rock melt minimize gas-bubble evolution which can cause voids in the glass walls. The use of extruding penetrators in hard competent rock presents a different s e t of conditions for
15

liner optimization. The melting penetrator i s now continuously extruding molten debris for removal and transport t o the surface,and the glass liner requirements for a stabilized hole i n competent rock are very minimal. Penetrator development effort has been directed toward improving the ability of the system to control conditions i n the molten rock to influence the character and properties of the bore lining and the extruded debris. After completing the 30-m-deep field hole i n basalt, photographs of the hole wall were taken t o determine i t s surface characteristics. The photographs indicated that two distinctly different wall conditions were evident. These conditons were characterized by either (1 1 a relatively smooth glass liner of fused basalt w i t h a thickness estimated t o be of the order of 1 mn or ( 2 ) a surface largely stripped of fused material leaving behind only slightly glazed virgin basalt. Wall surfaces alternate between these two types throughout the depth of the hole due t o changes i n penetrator glass-former design and operating charact e r i s t i c s d u r i n g penetration. Both o f these conditions had previously been observed i n laboratory tests. Initial experiments w i t h extruding penetrators employed a segmented graphite glass-forming section based on consolidating penetrator experience. While capable of producing dense glass linings in hard rock, the early systems possessed two major shortcomings. The relatively soft graphite was easily scored by irregularities i n the liner d u r i n g extraction, leading to frequent replacement of the forming sections. This limitation was considered t o be particularly important i n view of the present program direction toward the development of deep hole systems for geothermal energy production. The second problem area concerns the dynamics of the molten rock layer when melting through basalts which contain both carbonate inclusions and bound water, resulting i n appreciable gas generation d u r i n g melting. Rapid gas evolution in the melt can result i n voids i n the glass lining and also surges of molten rock being forced i n t o the debris removal nozzle of the penetrator. Extreme surging can overload the debris removal system resulting i n blockage of the debris carry-off tube w i t h chilled rock debris. This l a t t e r problem area resulted i n an extruding system modification employing a longer extrudate 16

tube t o significantly increase the pressure drop of the entering rock melt. Operating w i t h this flow restriction, melt pressure levels a t the glass-formi n g section are increased sufficiently t o suppress gas bubble production while simultaneously minimizing the effects of surging a t the debris-forming nozzle. Tests with an 84-nim-diam extruder incorporating a restricted extrudate passage, or surge suppressor, that increased the pressure i n the melt have produced remarkably improved smooth glass borehole linings as illustrated i n F i g . 11-19. The problem of graphite glass-former wear was addressed by designing more rugged, abrasion-resist a n t assemblies employing refractory metal segments i n place of the all-graphite segments. An i n i t i a l design used a molybdenum forming r i n g followed by a graphite release r i n g to minimize rock glass sticki n g d u r i n g the critical cooling temperature range. In the cold condition, the graphite diameter is smaller than the molybdenum so that the abrasion from the hole wall i s born by the metal parts. In laboratory t e s t s the new glass former produced a cleanly stripped hole in basalt; i.e., the glass i s wiped from the wall by the p i s t o n effect of the formi n g section and the aspiration effect of the extrudate nozzle. The seal between the forming section and

Fig. 11-19.

Horizontal hole i n basalt. Note smooth glass l i n i n g produced by the penetrator with extrudate tube restrictions.

t h e rock w a l l i s enhanced by an annular r i n g o f s o l i d i f i e d rock t h a t has been observed t o form i n t h i s region. This mode o f operation i s considered Rock Type Granite Sol i d * Mol ten Basalt Sol i d * Mol ten d e s i r a b l e i n competent rock which requires no l i n i n g because i t minimizes t h e power requirement arld r e duces t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f d i f f i c u l t y w i t h e x t r a c t i o n and i n s e r t i o n . A glass s t r i p p i n g section c u r r e n t l y being tested has e n t i r e l y eliminated t h e use o f graphite r i n g s , employing o n l y molybdenum segments f o r greater abrasion resistance.
COMPARISON

TABLE 11-1

OF ELECTRICAL R E S I S T I V I T I E S OF ROCK,
ROCK MELTS, AND GLASSES

Temperature (K) 300 1800 300

1800

Specific Resistivity (n-cm) 1o8 6 t o 15

1o1O
2 to 4

1. Introduction. The e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y o f most minerals decreases w i t h increasing temperat u r e i n both t h e s o l i d and l i q u i d phases. I n the l i q u i d phase t h e r e s i s t i v i t y i s t y p i c a l l y i n t h e range o f 1 t o 1 0 n - c m which i s comparable t o the r e s i s t i v i t y of m a t e r i a l s c u r r e n t l y used f o r penetrator heaters. The e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t i e s o f molten rocks are many orders o f magnitude lower than those f o r the parent s o l i d s as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Table 11-1. These factors make i t possible t o consider using d i r e c t e l e c t r i c a l resistance heating i n t h e l i q u i d melt layer. Successful development o f a rock-melti n g penetrator system which could u t i l i z e t h i s heati n g concept would have s i g n i f i c a n t advantages over the present penetrator designs. The c u r r e n t penet r a t o r designs w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be l i m i t e d by t h e conduction o f heat from the i n t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l heaters, through the penetrator s t r u c t u r e and the m e l t l a y e r t o the melt-to-rock interface. The poss i b i l i t y o f arranging t h e e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t o f a rockm e l t i n g penetrator so t h a t c u r r e n t passes through a molten r e g i o n and deposits most of t h e m e l t i n g power d i r e c t l y i n t h e m e l t l a y e r j u s t adjacent t o the m e l t i n g i n t e r f a c e has been recognized f o r a long time. 2. This mode o f rock m e l t i n g has been i n v e s t i Melt-Heating Experiments. I n i t i a l experigated i n recent p r e l i m i n a r y l a b o r a t o r y experiments. ments were conducted w i t h t h e "desk top" rack-melti n g demonstrator equipped w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r capacity power supply. The penetrator assemb l y of t h i s device c o n s i s t s o f a p a i r o f tungsten electrodes (a 12-mm-diam r o d s1 i t a x i a l l y ) connected a t one end by a t h i n wafer o f p y r o l y t i c g r a p h i t e which serves as t h e heating element i n t h e normal penetration mode. The electrodes are separated a t the upper end by a t h i n i n s u l a t i n g l a y e r and clamped i n massive brass electrode heat sinks. To operate

Sandstone Sol i d * Mol t e n Glass Molten Na20-33% Si02 Molten Mg0-33% Si02

300 2300 300 2020 2020

1o1O
1o2 1o1O t o 0.5

5.0

Typical o f

conditions.

t h e penetrator i n the melt-heating mode, t h e power supplied t o t h e unprotected pyrographite wafer heate r i s f i r s t brought t o a l e v e l s u f f i c i e n t t o s t a r t formatior1 o f a m e l t pool on the surface o f t h e rock specimen. A f t e r t h e molten pool has been formed the heater power i s increased substantially,which r e s u l t s

i n h i g h pyrographite heater temperatures, r a p i d deter i o r a t i o n o f t h e wafer, and increasing heater r e s i s tance.

A the same time the resistance o f t h e elect

t r i c a l path through the molten pool i s decreasing so t h a t a t r a n s f e r o f power deposition fo the heater rm wafer t o t h e rock m e l t occurs. Normal mode operat i o n o f the demonstrator would p r o t e c t the pyrographite wafer from o x i d a t i o n and i t would remain as the resistance heating element as t h e tungsten r o d heated up and t h e u n i t acted as a rock punch; i.e., no m e l t inemoval passages are included,and t h e hot m e l t f l o w back i n the small annulus between t h e hole w a l l and the tungsten rod. This s t a r t - u p and The experit r a n s i t i o n phase i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. I I - 2 0 ( a ) and I I - 2 0 ( b ) f o r the melt-heating concept. ments revealed t h a t once the c u r r e n t path through the m e l t was established as shown i n Fig. II-20(c), the powe'r supplied t o the tungsten r o d could be i n creased ( s i g n i f i c a n t l y , r e s u l t i n g I n a g r e a t l y enhanced penetration r a t e . I n several experiments the power Five k i l o w a t t s o f m e l t i n g W was increased t o > 5 k .

power i s s u f f i c i e n t t o m e l t a 12-m hole i n b a s a l t a t a 17

#Electric

r e s i s t i v i t y data of the type depicted i n Fig. 11-21 are being incorporated i n t o one- and two-dimensional c a l c u l a t i o n a l techniques t o determine the e l e c t r i c a l energy deposition p r o f i l e s i n rock melts subjected t o both conduction and r a d i a t i o n energy transfer. Laboratory experiments using 60-Hz currents o f 50 t o b l e melt pools. 150 amps have achieved very hot, y e t remarkably staNo tendency t o arc was observed a t High-

Wafer oxidation

applied voltages below approximately 30 V .

temperature experiments i n molten Jemez b a s a l t showed a stable ohmic behavior o f the m e l t pool w i t h no change i n r e s i s t i v i t y noted f o r variable c u r r e n t dens i t y o r frequency i n the 50-to5000-Hz range. Labor a t o r y t e s t s are c u r r e n t l y being conducted w i t h an annular melt-heating penetrator consisting o f two concentric cy1 inder power conducting electrodes separated by a high-temperature i n s u l a t o r . After est a b l i s h i n g a rock m e l t pool, power i s conducted from the outer c y l i n d r i c a l electrode t o the inner one through the rock melt i n a manner analogous t o t h a t shown i n Fig. 11-20 b u t now i n an a x i a l l y symmetric (C 1 Fig. II-2@(a). (b). (c). I n i t i a l heating i n pyrographite wafer, w i t h s t a r t o f surface melting. E l e c t r i c a l current path and heating t r a n s f e r t o melt w i t h oxidation o f pyrographite wafer. Heating e n t i r e l y i n melt, increased power and r a p i d penetration rate. The highest penet o r o i d a l geometry. This c o n f i g u r a t i o n permits a melt removal path through the center of the i n n e r electrode and has the p o t e n t i a l t o be incorporated i n t o more conventional melting penetrator designs as a technique f o r overcoming the l i m i t a t i o n s of the leading edge stagnation p o i n t heat t r a n s f e r rates. Me1t i n g augmentation of t h i s type could improve adr a t e of about 11 mn/s (130 f t / h ) !
i

,
!

vance rates severalfold,and preliminary experiments

t r a t o r v e l o c i t y a c t u a l l y observed was o f the order of 1 m/s, b u t the simple laboratory setup allowed l a r g e losses by conduction and r a d i a t i o n from the electrodes and by the escape o f very h o t gases. These i n i t i a l experiments never achieved thermal equil ibrium,and the penetrator was not designed t o remove melt. The melt-heating mode has been demonstrated i n a series o f experiments w i t h basalt, granite, and tuff. Although i n p r i n c i p l e the melt-heating mechanism o n l y requires a conducting l i q u i d phase, there i s reason t o believe t h a t the actual mechanism a l s o involves the p a r t i a l e l e c t r i c a l breakdown o f vapors evolved from t r a c e elements i n rock. The success
5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 u3 9
1470

230.63
103.33

1564

mh

b.9 37 2.6 44
16.n

101 71

1 W

u1 .1

o f these preliminary experiments has i n i t i a t e d f u r t h e r experimental and a n a l y t i c a l research t o define the d e t a i l s o f the heating mechanisms involved and the influence o f the t y p i c a l m e l t r e s i s t i v i t y vs temperature behavior on the process. Molten rock 18 Fig. 11-21.
l / l (K"x
)

Temperature dependence o f e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y f o r mol ten Dresser basalt.

i n d i c a t e t h a t e l e c t r i c current d i s t r i b u t i o n s are encouragingly s t a b l e and uniform. ResearCh t i e s and l a b o r a t o r y experiments i n t h i s i n t r i g u i n g concept c u r r e n t l y have a high p r i o r i t y i n the curr e n t program.
G.

volume w i t h granulated s a l t o f s i m i l a r o r i g i n . a molten pool formed a t the bottom o f the hole.

When This

the heating element approached operating temperature molten pool was maintained while the melting assembly was continuously withdrawn from the hole, a d d i t i o n a l granulated s a l t being added t o the hole as required. Mechaniml a g i t a t i o n o f the molten s a l t was found t o improve the q u a l i t y o f the r e s u l t i n g borehole plug. A cross *jection o f a borehole plug formed by t h i s technique i n a block o f l i v e s t o c k s a l t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 11-22. Q u a n t i t a t i v e measurements o f the physical prop e r t i e s o f s i x borehole plugs formed i n s a l t samples o r i g i n a t i n g from a mine located near Lyons, KS, were performed and compared w i t h the properties o f the v i r g i n s i i l t block. The v i r g i n samples had an average density o f 2.1 Mg/m3, average permeability o f 0.5 darcys, and average crush strength o f 28 MPa. The s i x 'laboratory-produced plugs yielded values of 1.6 Mg/m3, 0.4 darcys, and 12 MPa, respectively for density, permeability, and crush strength,with both v i r g i n and laboratory-produced samples showing considerable i n d i v i d u a l variations. Although the melted borehole plugs contained s i g n i f i c a n t porosity, the permeability data i n d i c a t e t h i s p o r o s i t y i s unconnectet1,and p o t e n t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e plugging can be achieved by t h i s method. The plugs appear t o be w e l l

S a l t Borehole Plugging by Melting The disposal o f r a d i o a c t i v e wastes i n under-

ground s a l t deposits depends on t h e long-term physical i n t e g r i t y o f the selected s a l t formations. Pree x i s t i n g boreholes, those formed f o r s i t e evaluation, v a u l t construction, and instrumentation monitors, must be sealed t o r e s t o r e t h e i n t e g r i t y o f the s a l t formations proposed f o r r a d i o a c t i v e waste storage. The plugs used t o seal these holes must n o t represent a t h r e a t t o the i n t e g r i t y o f the s a l t formation during the hazardous l i f e t i m e o f the wastes.

study o f the f e a s i b i l i t y o f forming borehole plugs by melting and r e s o l i d i f y i n g s a l t s i m i l a r t o t h a t found i n the formation was i n i t i a t e d on the basis t h a t a plug w i t h physical and chemical properties close t o those o f the formation could be formed by t h i s technique. Since melting and r e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f rock s a l t causes p r a c t i c a l l y no change i n the chemical properties , emphasis was directed toward the r e s u l t i n g physical properties o f the plugs prepared i n t h i s manner. The properties considered t o be most important i n h u d e the physical structure, f l u i d permeability, crush strength, and material bonding a b i l i t y o f the fused s a l t plug. Experiment a l l y formed plugs were evaluated on these terms r e l a t i v e t o the rock s a l t i n t o which they were formed. The resistance heating element used i n these preliminary experiments was a m e t a l l i c s t r i p made o f Haynes 25, selected f o r i t s corrosion resistance i n the molten s a l t environment. Power was supplied t o the heater through a water-cooled copper electrode, and the m e l t i n g assembly was mounted on a piece o f d r i l l stem a c t i v a t e d by a hydraulic c y l i n d e r i n the rock laboratory t e s t frame. D i r e c t e l e c t r i c a l curr e n t was passed through the heater s t r i p t o provide the energy necessary t o m e l t the rock salt, and duri n g the experiments the heater temperature was maintained close t o the melting temperature of the s a l t (1077 K) because there was l i t t l e thermal resistance between the heater element and the m e l t pool. Each experiment was i n i t i a t e d by i n s e r t i n g the m e l t i n g

t assembly i n t o a 77-mm-diam p r e d r i l l e d hole i n a d

Fig. 11-22.

s a l t block sample and then f i l l i n g the residual hole

Cross section o f a borehole plug formed i n a s a l t block by melting and r e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f granulated s a l t . 19

bonded t o the hole w a l l as depicted i n Fig. 11-23, which i s a magnified view o f a t y p i c a l plug rock s a l t bond.

rock face. o f 20 000

Plasma c e n t e r l i n e temperatures i n excess

parent

K are a reasonable expectation as these

The reduced plug density can be

values are r o u t i n e l y attained w i t h commercial equipment. Plasma arc t h r u s t e r s have demonstrated continuous run durations o f a month using r a d i a t i o n cooled anodes operating a t 1800 above 10 MPa (1500 p s i ) .

a t t r i b u t e d t o the l a r g e volume reduction during the l i q u i d - s o l i d phase t r a n s i t i o n and the l a r g e amount o f thermal shrinkage which occurs when the plug cools t o room temperature. Available data i n d i c a t e t h a t modest pressurization o f the m e l t and the cooli n g plug would be extremely b e n e f i c i a l . Pressuritat i o n would tend t o heal o r prevent gross defects i n the plug and i n the bond between the plug and the surrounding formation. Although the equipment used t o prepare the borehole plugs i n t h i s study was q u i t e rudimentary, i t was useful i n providing base-line operating experience from which design improvements can be made. Desirable features i n a prototype f i e l d device would include provisions f o r m e l t pressurizing, a g i t a t i o n o f the molten pool f o r b e t t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n of the melted rock s a l t , and a system t o c o n t r o l the r a t e o f a d d i t i o n o f rock s a l t t o the heated region.

K. References i n

the l i t e r a t u r e also mention operations a t pressures While the observation has been noted t h a t a plasma t o r c h r e a d i l y melts a rock sample, apparently no one has faced up t o the formidable task o f providing a debris removal system f o r such a penetration device. The Subterrene program has provided e x c e l l e n t experience i n handling molten rock debris. Over
500 kg o f molten b a s a l t were f l u i d i z e d and transport-

ed t o the surface by a cooling gas from a s i n g l e hole produced i n the f i e l d by an extruding Subterrene penetrator. The technology being investigated i s the combination o f plasma arc heating w i t h a molten deb r i s removal system t o produce a plasma-assisted Subterrene penetrator. I n i t i a l experiments were conducted w i t h the simple plasma arc device shown i n

H. Plasma Arc Experiments

A technical approach being investigated for Subterrene penetrators i s the a p p l i c a t i o n o f plasma arc heating t o increase penetration r a t e and handle the highest melting-point rocks. Conduction designs now employed are l i m i t e d by the temperature of the r e f r a c t o r y metal through which energy i s transferred t o the rock. External a p p l i c a t i o n o f energy permits some cooling o f the penetrator body and the potent i a l f o r applying much higher temperatures t o the

A tungsten anode and cathode are employrm ed w i t h a high-temperature i n s u l a t o r fabricated fo boron n i t r i d e . The arc discharge nozzle i n the cathFig. 11-24. ode i s v i s i b l e i n Fig. 11-24. This u n i t has been operated a t power l e v e l s up t o 15 k using nitrogen W f o r the plasma gas. Maximum arc temperatures, e s t i mated from an energy balance, were i n excess of

20 000 K.

B r i e f a p p l i c a t i o n o f the arc discharge t o

a b a s a l t sample produced the r e s u l t s shown i n Fig. 11-25. Conceptual designs have been prepared f o r an integrated u n i t which combines t h i s high-temperature arc source w i t h a molten debris removal system. Successful a p p l i c a t i o n o f plasma heating i n a Subterrene penetrator has the p o t e n t i a l f o r providing a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher penetration r a t e device through even the most r e f r a c t o r y rocks.

I.

Rock Laboratory Test F a c i l i t y The rock laboratory t e s t f a c i l i t y has been

moved from i t s previous l o c a t i o n t o a three-story high bay area providing 150 m o f f l o o r space. The f a c i l i t y consists o f two t e s t frames, a c o n t r o l room, an assembly and work area, and an equipment pad outside o f the b u i l d i n g . Fig. 11-23. Microstructure o f bond between melted plug and Lyons, KS, rock s a l t . One o f the t e s t frames was
L i

acquired fo a previous laboratory project; the rm other was moved from the o l d location. The small frame has a stroke o f 1 i and a load capacity of n

20

Fig. 11-26. Fig. 11-24. I n i t i a l plasma arc heating device showi n g tungsten cathode and arc discharge nozzle.

Rock laboratory t e s t f a c i l i t y showing c o n t r o l room and two h y d r a u l i c a l l y thrusted t e s t frames.

the l a b o r a t o r y t e s t f a c i l i t y w i t h an extruding pene40 kN, w i t h a h y d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r mounted v e r t i c a l l y and t h r u s t i n g downward. Penetrator assemblies are The l a r g e r frame has mounted on t h e h y d r a u l i c ram and are thrusted i n t o the s t a t i o n a r y rock samples. a h y d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r mounted i n t h e f l o o r , w i t h a 1-m-diam specimen p l a t f o r m t h a t moves up from t h e f l o o r w i t h a 24-11 stroke. Penetrator assemblies are mounted on the top o f t h e t e s t frame; rock specimens are clamped t o t h e p l a t f o r m and move up i n t o t h e s t a t i o n a r y penetrator assembly. Figure 11-26 shows t r a t o r i n place i n t h e 1-m t e s t frame. The l a r g e r t e s t fraine i s shown on t h e r i g h t side o f Fig. 11-26 and was only p a r t i a l l y completed a t the time t h e photograph was taken. The c o n t r o l room i s v i s i b l e on t h e balcony above t h e t e s t frames and t o t h e l e f t o f t h e room i s t h e c o o l i n g gas and water c o n t r o l panel. Figure 11-27 shows the i n s i d e o f the c o n t r o l room. I n the foreground i s the calculator-based data a c q u i s i t i o n system w i t h t h e hydraulic and power c o n t r o l rack v i s i b l e i n the f a r corner. During an experiment, closed loop servo-systems provide options f o r maintaining constant power, current, voltage, applied load, o r penetration r a t e . Data a c q u i s i t i o n i s independent o f these c o n t r o l a c t i v i t i e s , b u t provides processed data both during the experiment and i n storage f o r f u t u r e use. Sensor inputs t o the system include voltages, currents, thermocouple outputs, pressure and f l o w transducer outputs, as w e l l as load, rate,and p o s i t i o n transducer outputs. These i n p u t s are transformed i n t o desired engineering u n i t s and p r i n t e d and p l o t t e d i n r e a l time as w e l l as stored on cassette tapes f o r f u r t h e r processing a t a l a t e r time.

Most o f the p o s t t e s t data processing, manipu-

l a t i o n , and p l o t t i n g can be performed w i t h t h e c a l -

c u l a t o r system, using i t s high-level BASIC language Fig. 11-25. B a s a l t r o c k sample a f t e r b r i e f exposure t o plasma arc discharge. and 7904 word memory.

A series o f programs has been

21

developed for rapid routine data handling and stored in the form o f cassette tapes which are easily loaded into the calculator memory.

Fig. 11-27.

Laboratory control room with calculatorbased data acquisition system.

22

111.

POWER SOURCE DESIGN AND DIRECTED R S A C ' EE R H

LJ
Electric Power Sources 1. Introduction. Electrical power has been used t o provide the rock-melting energy for a l l of the prototype Subterrene penetrators. Previous work has indicated t h a t production systems would be most effective w i t h electrical heating, a t least i n the range of diameters being considered for geothermal well applications. The heating technologies that have been studied f a l l into two general categories, one consisting of internal heat generation w i t h heat conduction through the metal penetrator wall t o the rock-melting interface, and the other consisting of energy deposition outside the penetrator surface. The l a t t e r category includes ohmic heating of the molten rock, dielectric heating of the heated s o l i d rock, and radiant heat transfer from a plasma arc source. 2. Heater Development for Penetrator Research. a. Introduction. While many different heate r types have been tried, graphitic radiation elements i n helium-filled cavities were selected for a l l the penetrators constructed since the early stages of the program. The successful use of pyrolytic graphite as a radiant heating element and the low thermal resistance of a polycrystalline-graphite radiation receptor were combined t o produce a very stable heater assembly. Heaters typically consist of a stack of oriented pyrolytic-graphite disks or annular rings held i n a graphite-lined cavity by a spring-loaded electrode as illustrated i n Fig. 111-1 for a density consolidation penetrator. The advantages of t h i s system are based on the unique charact e r i s t i c s of graphitic materials and the wide range of mechanical , electrical and thermal properties obtainable in commercially available products. Features of this design which contribute t o efficiency and durability can be summarized as follows: 0 A heater cavity containing only graphite in the hi gh-temperature region. 0 The use of a specialty graphite for the receptor whose thermal expansion characteristics match those of molybdenum and whose absorptivity for radiat i o n energy is near unity. 0 A nonisotropic pyrolytic-graphite heater stack oriented so that the h i g h electrical resistivi t y i s parallel to the penetrator axis, and the high
A.

F i q . 111-1.

Cross section of a consolidating penetrator with stacked pyrographite radiant heater and graphite radiation receptor.

thermal conductivity i s normal t o the penetrator axis and i n the direction of principal heat transfer. 0 ,4 hollow heater cavity to allow control of the re1 a t i ve heat generation a1 ong the penetrator length. 0 Utilization of the exceptional combination of high compressive strength and low thermal conductivit.y of pyrolytic graphite for the insulator between the heated penetrator body and the cooled af terbody - Tailored Heaters. A series of heaters i n b. the form of either solid cylinders consisting of stacked (disks or pellets (for the extended surface extruders and density consol idation penetrators) or hollow c.ylinders consisting of stacked annular rings (for the high advance rate extruder and melt flow augmented extruder) was designed, tested, and incorporated in operational penetrator systems. In each case, the desired power generation along the length o f the heater was nonuniform and was tailored to meet the melting demands of the penetrator a t a given axial location. The energy requirements along the penetrator length were calculated using the analytical methods described i n Sec. i l . C of this report. The validity of these calculations was confirmed in numerous laboratory experiments and by tailoring the output of the heater, localized over-

23

A system o f a l t e r n a t i n g segments o f p y r o l y t i c graphite and p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e graphite was o r i g i n a t e d t o approximate t h e required power d i s t r i b u t i o n . Polyc r y s t a l l i n e graphite has a r e l a t i v e l y low r e s i s t i v i t y and was used where e s s e n t i a l l y no power generation was needed. P y r o l y t i c graphite has a high r e s i s t i v heating o f the penetrator body can be avoided.
i t y across the g r a i n and was used i n areas r e q u i r i n g

Power demand from an operating heater i s n o t r a d i a l but a x i a l i n the region o f the leading edge of t h e Penetrator. An i d e a l heater would c o n s i s t of a very short disk o r annular r i n g functioning as a heating element i n contact w i t h the leading edge o f the penemuch lower power generation per u n i t length. t r a t o r followed by an extended heater assembly w i t h This configuration was evaluated and used i n a 51-nun-diam density consolidation penetrator, and the HARE extruder and was capable o f producing s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher heat fluxes through the penetrator leading edge. An exploded view o f t h i s heater system f o r the HARE extruder i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 111-3. d. Hermetically Sealed Heater Assembly. P r a c t i c a l penetrator assemblies f o r f i e l d hole production would b e n e f i t from a hermetic sealing o f the heater c a v i t y . The design, f a b r i c a t i o n , and f i e l d t e s t i n g o f an improved e l e c t r i c heater f o r consolidation-mode penetrators ( i n which the penetrator body, withdrawal structure, heater elements, and graphite electrode are a hermetically sealed u n i t ) was completed. This design provided a small sealed reserv o i r o f helium. Laboratory and f i e l d t e s t s o f the system showed t h a t t h i s technique was successful i n maintaining a clean helium atmosphere i n the heater c a v i t y throughout the expected l i f e t i m e o f the penet r a t o r assembly. This penetrator system w i t h the sealed heater assembly i s shown i n Fig. 111-4 a f t e r t e s t i n g . Included i n t h i s development program was the f a b r i c a t i o n o f a special heater-processing apparatus f o r f i l l i n g the penetrator w i t h helium and t e s t i n g the hermetic seal a t operating temperatures. e. Power Supplies. Previous work i n d i c a t ed the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f operating the r a d i a n t heater system w i t h d i r e c t current power and w i t h the heati n g element p o s i t i v e w i t h respect t o the cooler

A s p e c i a l t y graphite made from h i g h l y oriented pyrolytic-graphite f l o u r was used when an intermediate r e s i s t i v i t y was required. An example o f a t a i l o r e d heater f o r the HARE extruder i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 111-2. c. Annular Heaters. Heaters i n the form o f thin-wal l e d hollow cy1 inders were p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i n t h a t both i n s i d e and outside surfaces could radiate, thus increasing the heat t r a n s f e r area per u n i t heater length. Again, a l t e r n a t i n g r i n g s o f p y r o l y t i c graphite and polycrystal l i n e graphite were used. A stepped j o i n t between the two graphites proved adequate f o r e l e c t r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y provided the e n t i r e heater assembly was maintained under
a high thermal f l u x . spring-loaded compression, and t h a t the j o i n t was machined t o close to1 erances. The polycrystal 1inegraphite member had t o be f r e e t o expand r a d i a l l y away from the p y r o l y t i c graphite, w i t h i t s much lower thermal expansion i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . The highest

Fig. 111-2.

HARE extruder t a i l o r e d heater assembly. Dark sections are p y r o l y t i c graphite; l i g h t e r sections are polycrystal1 i n e graphite.

Fig. 111-3.

Exploded view o f HARE extruder heater assembly. Note t h i n leading p y r o l y t i c graphite heater r i n g f o r maximum energy generation near penetrator leading edge.

24

....

. . . . ,....

? .

u
..
Fig. 111-4.
.
..

Consolidating penetrator w i t h hermetically sealed heater assembly.

k*!

cavity walls. Power supplies were developed that provided a very stable regulated output. For exper ments both i n the laboratory and i n the field, operation i n a regulated constant power mode was used w i t h current and voltage l i m i t i n g t o protect both the supplies and penetrator hardware from circuit failures. An additional benefit from the h i g h stab i l i t y of these supplies was the a b i l i t y to measure accurately the resistance of the heater system. The relationship between heater resistance and temperature then permitted an estimation of average heater temperature during operation. Overall heater voltages as h i g h as 100 V were employed successfully in the consolidator penetrator assemblies. 3. Alternatives t o Graphite Resistance Heating. a. Introduction. While the graphite radiation heater configurations were adequate for the prototype penetrators, future requirements necessitate the investigation of different heat sources. Operation a t the h i g h lithostatic pressures encountered a t depths o f 5 t o 10 km i n geothermal well production preclude the internal penetrator cavities of radiation heater designs on the basis of required collapse strength. High-strength penetrator bodies devoid of extended internal cavities must therefore be developed. Penetration rates of penetrators relying only on heat conduction through a stagnant rock-melt film are a function of penetrator surface temperature. A practical limit seems t o be between 0.2 and 0.3 m ." ms a t reasonable metal wall temperatures. Research d i rected a t higher penetration velocities must therefore address the technical problems associated w i t h providing high-energy deposition rates i n the sol i d and molten rock ahead of the penetrator leading edge. b. Solid Heaters. The chemical systems C-BN-Mo and Re-BeO-Mo appeared t o possess the necessary s t a b i l i t y t o be used for solid conduction heate r systems devoid of extended internal cavities. A

heater was designed for evaluation i n the heater t e s t f a c i l i t y consisting of a BN mandrel, a polycrystal'l ine-graphite tubular heater, a BN insulator, and a M outer cylinder simulating a penetrator o body. Small amounts of B4C formed in a 1-h t e s t a t 2473 K i n an argon atmosphere. Heater regions that did not exceed 2325 K d i d not appear t o react. Extended operation a t temperatures below 2300 K would appear t o be feasible. This combination would be considerably less expensive to fabricate than oxide insulator-metal wire or ribbon heater assemblies. A similar t e s t using Be0 insulators and a R heater composed of a spiral wrap of four 0.5e mm-diam wires was also successful. Figure 111-5 shows t h i s assembly a f t e r testing w i t h parts of the outer M tube and Be0 insulating sleeve broken away o t o reveiil construction details. This configuration should provide adequate flux for a l l b u t leading edge applications, a t wire temperatures low enough t o insui-e a long service l i f e . c. M1 t Heating. Power generation directly e i n the melt film a t the leading surface of a penetrator can create higher film temperatures than i n the metiil wall, t h u s enhancing the penetration rate. The electrical resistivity of most minerals decreases w i t h increasing temperature i n both the solid and l i q u i d phases. In the liquid phase the resistivity i s typically in the range of 0.01 t o 0.1 n-m, which i s comparable t o the resistivity of materials currently used for penetrator heaters. In addition, the electrical r e s i s t i v i t i e s o f molten rocks and soils are many orders o f magnitude lower than those for the parent solids. I n i t i a l experiments were designed t o demonstrate this principle i n a simple

Fig. III-5.

BeO-Re heater t e s t assembly broken open after t e s t t o reveal internal details. 25

geometry,and l a t e r experiments concentrated on exploring the power generation and electrical s t a b i l i t y i n t h i n molten basalt films. Electrical resistivities of representative molten rock types were also determined under conditions approximating the freshly melted rock to be expected a t the leading edge of an operating penetrator. Significant technical achievements i n t h i s area include: 0 Demonstration of h i g h penetration rates w i t h a simple two-electrode system. Operation of this device i s described i n detail i n Sec. 11. F of this report,and the desk-top demonstration u n i t and power supply used i n the i n i t i a l melt heating experiments i s shown i n Fig. 111-6. 0 Demonstration of ohmic melt heating i n a penetrator configuration. Hardware from the 58-mdiam extruder experiments was modified t o produce a penetrator w i t h an annular melt flow passage. Alternating current was passed through this gap and produced sufficient power t o penetrate a basalt sample. T o separate operational modes were identified. w Initially, current flows of u p to 10 A a t impressed voltages of about 50 V could be sustained. The glass melt layer apparently was behaving as an ohmic heater i n the vitreous state. Increasing the voltage beyond this point caused a spontaneous reverting to another stable condition w i t h currents u p t o 200 A a t sustaining voltages of about 18 V. This condition was apparently one of controlled submerged arcing. T h i s u n i t produced about 75-mn total penetration depth i n basalt rock. 0 Direct electrical heating of t h i n molten bas a l t films. A series of experiments was conducted t o evaluate the behavior of t h i n films of flowing

basalt. A small amp1 itude perterbation analysis (details in Sec. V. C of t h i s report) showed the possible buildup of electrical instabilities i n a melt heating penetrator geometry i n which the leading edge contained an annular electrical insulator between concentric electrodes. While the most direct way of determining the existence of these instabilities would have been to construct and t e s t a series of prototype penetrators , time and funding restrictions led t o another approach. Figure 111-7 shows the l a s t i n a series of furnace experiments where preheated molten basalt was forced t o flow under pressure i n confined passages. The object of these experiments was t o detect electrical current i n s t a b i l i t i e s and temperature instabilities under cond i t i o n s simulating those a t the leading edge of a me1 t heating penetrator. The arrangement i n Fig. 111-7 provided for a melt film thickness of 1 mm and melt flow rates i n the range of 1 g-s-l, a t temperatures u p t o 2000 K , simulating penetrator conditions, b u t did not provide comparable heat sources and sinks or allow the formation of variable path cross sections. The results of these experiments were the production of stable currents u p to 3.8 A a t sustaining voltages of 220 V a t 60 H through passage lengths of z 20 mm. No serious electrical or thermal instabilities were detected. 0 Determination of electrical resistivity of freshly melted basalt and granite. Resistivity data reported i n the 1 i terature for rock me1 t s generally appear to be obtained on material i n equilibrium w i t h atmospheric oxygen. Since the molten film
A'2%

Ta
MOLTEN BASALT

THERMOCOUPLES (4)

GRAPHITE FELT
GRAPHITE CRUCIBLE
BN

Mo

F i g . 111-6.

Desk-top demonstration u n i t used i n i n i t i a l melt heating experiments.

Fig. 111-7.

Furnace experiment for direct electrical heating of t h i n molten basalt films

cid

26

a t the leading edge o f a penetrator i s i n a confined f r e s h l y melted condition, r e s i t i v i t i e s coyld be subs t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t . The resistance of f r e s h l y me1ted b a s a l t and g r a n i t e were determined by me1t i n g under an atmosphere o f argon i n a molybdenum-lined crucible. Uata f o r Jemez b a s a l t were s i m i l a r t o those obtained by Corning Glass Company on a sample t h a t had been held a t 1760 K f o r 4 h, except t h a t t h e present r e s u l t s showed a l e s s steep temperature dependence and could be represented by a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n between the l o g o f r e s i s t i v i t y and 1/T, while the Corning data showed a d e f i n i t e nonlinear characteristic. d. D i e l e c t r i c Heating. The r e s i s t i v i t y o f rock generally decreases w i t h temperature and also w i t h increasing frequency o f the applied voltage. One way t o o b t a i n higher advance r a t e s i s t o deposit energy i n the s o l i d rock ahead o f the penetrator. Success o f t h i s approach depends on the absolute value as well as the temperature dependence o f the rock r e s i s t i v i t y a t temperatures w i t h i n a few hundred degrees o f the lowest m e l t i n g p o i n t c o n s t i t u e n t o f the rock. The low thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y of rock r e s u l t s i n a very steep temperature gradient i n f r o n t o f the advancing penetrator and a correspondi n g l y low cross sectional area o f heat-affected material. An i d e a l combination o f s o l i d rock d i e l e c t r i c properties ( a l t e r n a t i n g current r e s i s t i v e losses) and molten rock r e s i s t i v i t i e s would enable the successful operation o f a simple penetrator conf i g u r a t i o n . One such c o n f i g u r a t i o n might consist o f an i n t e r n a l l y conduction-heated extended conical surface as used i n the consolidation penetrators. The leading edge, however, would consist o f a c e n t r a l debris-removal passage j o i n e d t o the conical surface through an e l e c t r i c a l l y nonconducting r i n g . A l t e r n a t i n g voltage impressed between the conical surface and debris passage would cause a c u r r e n t t o flow through the melt f i l m between the rock and advancing penetrator. As the frequency o f the impressed voltage i s increased, more c u r r e n t would f l o w i n the rock ahead o f the f i l m u n t i l the desired balance o f power deposition was achieved.

determined as functions o f frequency and temperature. These r e s u l t s , i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 111-8, were combined w i t h the d i r e c t current r e s i s t i v i t y data t o estimate the conditions needed f o r proper operation.
I t appeared t h a t the frequency would need t o be above

1 MHt and t h a t the melt f i l m thickness would have t o be very small f o r t h i s configuration t o produce high advance rates. One other aspect o f t h i s geometry has t o do w i t h the nature o f the melting interface. Studies were made i n which an advancing melting rock i n t e r f a c e was "quenched" and examined microscopically.
A region o f p a r t i a l l y melted c r y s t a l s i n a molten

m a t r i x was present between the s o l i d rock and advanci n g molt.en pool. The e f f e c t o f the v e l o c i t y o f melt flowing past such an interface, and the e l e c t r i c a l paths w i t h i n such a region, have n o t been adequately eval uated. e. Plasma Arc. U t i l i z a t i o n o f plasma arc technology f a r rock-melting penetrators requires a stable arc source and adequate coupling t o the rockmelting i n t e r f a c e . Several design studies explored ways i n which the melted rock could be removed from o f heat t r a n s f e r through the molten f i l m . the m e l t i n g i n t e r f a c e , thus maintaining high rates A test f i x t u r e using a tungsten radiation-cooled anode and cathode s t r u c t u r e and BN e l e c t r i c a l i n s u l a t o r s was

6a9C

A continuing supp l y o f f r e s h l y melted rock would f l o w i n t o t h i s reof melt would f l o w away fo the region o u t the derm bris-removal passage. D i e l e c t r i c properties o f l o c a l Jemez basalt were

1
1

gion from the conical surface, and a constant stream

10

ld

ld
FREQUENCY (HZ1

1 8

1 6

14

Fig. 111-8.

A l t e r n a t i n g current r e s i s t i v i t y o f Jemez basal t

tested in the laboratory. The desirability of higher power operation led to construction of a water-cooled copper anode assembly. The f i r s t - u n i t accepted powers up t o 18.5 k (66 V and 281 A) using a flow W kg-s- nitrogen gas and a calculated of 9 x plasma temperature of over 10 000 K. Another operating mode was explored i n which the arc was transferred from the integral anode structure to an external water-cooled plate. I t i s possible that a rock-melting penetrator could be designed in which the molten rock pool ahead of the penetrator would be a good enough electrical conductor t o permit i t to function as the external electrode. Some data are available that indicate t h a t a plasma arc may be made to operate a t pressures encountered i n geothermal hole completion tasks. Materials Science and Technology 1. Introduction. A major and continuous effort has been expended on the materials science aspects of t h e Subterrene program. The very h i g h temperatures originating within the penetrator and ultimately transmitted to the ambient rock environment have required the use of refractory materials for penetrator construction. In t u r n , a wide spectrum of corrosion studies has been generated including: ( a ) external refractory alloy - molten s i l i c a t e (rock) interactions; ( b ) internal power source material interactions; and (c) miscellaneous corrosion effects on pipe stems and support systems. I n addition, qualitative compatibility and screening tests were performed as p a r t of a general search for materials w i t h improved corrosion profiles i n various geochemical media. The rock-glass liners producedduring the melting operations were subjected to an intensive program of physical and mechanical strength measurements. Fabrication technologies for the refractory metals molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W) were investigated, resul t i n g in significant improvements. Advances in the preparation and use of new high-temperature brazes were also accomplished. As might be anticipated, the basic knowledge of the geosciences was used extensively throughout the program. 2. Refractory Alloy - Rock Melt Interactions. Corrosion studies were performed i n the laboratory I and when possible, during and after field tests. Most laboratory investigations were done in s t a t i c t e s t systems i n order to derive base-line data w i t h
B.

the understanding that dynamic t e s t systems. would evolve as the program progressed. Both Mo and W and the alloy Mo-30W were studied i n various rock media including: tuff, basalt, andesite, granodiorite, amphibolite,and granite. In addition, the corrosion effects within a series of basalts, e.g., Jemez, Dresser, Hawaiian tholeiitic, and East Pacific Suboceanic Ridge, were determined. In this manner, the degree of corrosion was correlated against a wide range of rock chemical compositions. Significant technical results obtained from the laboratory studies included the following: e Molybdenum and possibly some of i t s alloys have corrosion resistance superior t o t h a t of W i n a l l tested rock types. The measurements of M and o W solubility show t h a t M i s less soluble, on the o average, by factors ranging from 4 to 20. c A significant correlation was obtained a t constant temperature, time,and similar viscosity between metal solubility and the ferric-ferrous ratio, Fe+3/Fe+2, of the various basaltic compositions. Corrosion was found t o vary with the basalt type, +3 +2 i.e., increasing with an increase i n Fe /Fe Thus, h i g h Fe+3 content basalts such as Dresser will be more corrosive. a The more siliceous rock melts exhibited lowe r degrees of corrosion. T h i s i s due, i n p a r t , to the higher viscosity and lower metal diffusion rates. e Corrosion proceeds via a t least three general mechanisms as observed experimentally. These include oxidation and solution, alloying, and gas bubble oxidation. The details of these corrosion mechanisms have never been determined completely. Gross variab i l i t y in chemical composition, viscosity, density, and flow rate differences w i t h their effects upon diffusion rates, solution thermodynamics, and variable rock oxygen potentials makes such determinations formidable tasks. The gross difference i n corrosion between M and W can be explained in part thermodyo namically and kinetically on the basis that W has the potential for faster reaction rates, for example, i n high-temperature steam and other oxidizing media. a Based on geometric considerations and the s t a t i c t e s t data, a model for the surface recession rate o f the outer surface of a cylindrical penetrator was derived. Combined w i t h engineering design data, i t was thus possible t o make estimates of penetrator lifetime based on chemical action alone.

28

Mechanical erosion effects were n o t considered although these add to the surface wear, particularly a t the penetrator t i p . The surface recession rate, Art, i s given as

where

Dp = penetrator diameter, mm
V
= penetration velocity, mm/s = 6/Dp

6 = thickness of dissolved metal boundary layer i n the glass lining, mn

H = penetrator length, mm

= density of glass (d ) or

penetrator (d ) P a = solubility by weight of metal i n P glass. Assigning certain engineering parameters and average 1900-K solubility values, the curves shown i n Fig. 111-9 were constructed. The value of 6 , 0.1 mm, was representative of observations i n the s t a t i c experiments. Modifications could be made t o the model as additional data from dynamic t e s t s become available. These lifetime estimates indicate lower

Chemicol corrosion weor estimates for penetrator body metols-assumptions:

8=0.1mm V.0.l m m h

Drilling Time (ks)

bj Fig.

111-9.

Estimated lifetimes of M and W peneo trators i n basalt and granitic rocks.

chemical corrosion wear rates for molybdenum as compared to tungsten. Exceptionally long lifetimes can be expected from molybdenum penetrators operating i n either Bandelier tuff or granitic rocks. A a pracs tical example, consider a cumulative surface recession of 0.1 mm observed for a molybdenum penetrator i n Jemez basalt operating under the assumed parameters o f Fig. 111-9. This value i s indicative of an operating time of 2.8 x 103 ks (778 h ) . Typical penetrator designs would permit considerably larger surface recessions before a failure occurs, and hence the potential for long operating lifetimes under these conditions i s excellent. 0 r l number of qualitative compatibility tests were made to identify useful penetrator materials other than M and W. Materials considered worthy of o o further 'Study included: M alloys containing rhenium (Re) , rhenium (pure Re provided reasonable fabrication techniques) , certain high-me1 ting-temperature noble metal alloys containing rhodium and iridium for highly oxidizing environments such as exist i n carbonatle sedimentary rocks, and certain ceramics such as IHfC and ZrB2. Although these ceramics a l l react t o some degree, they s t i l l may be useful provided thle reaction follows parabolic-type kinetics. Molybdenum disilicide, MoSi2, was found partially satisfactory, particularly a t temperatures below 1700 K. Both silicon carbide, Sic, and Sicconversion coated graphite resist attack (in basalt) t o some degree, generally below 1800 K. Quantitative corrosion data for the materials mentioned above were not obtained with the exception o f some very limited data for Re. The solubility of Re was a factor of 5 t o 10 less than that of Mo,which was encouraging. I t may also be possible to use the ductile alloy Mo-34 at.% ?e (E.10-50 w t % Re). l In view of the deep geothermal drilling application, i t was deemed prudent t o t e s t the penetrat o r materials M and W i n types of basement rock o likely t o be encountered. Granodiorite and amphibol i t e samples, obtained from the LASL Geothermal Energy Project a t a depth of approximately 750 m, were used for these tests. Solubility of the metals i n this particular grade of granodiorite was similar t o t h a t i n surface tuff and granites. Amphibolite, however, proved t o have corrosion potential equal t o or worse than surface basalts.
Q ,

29

To a s s i s t i n the clarification of details of the corrosion mechanisms , a subcontract was awarded to Professor A. Muan of Pennsylvania State University. The objective of the work was to determine the degree of importance of the various corrosion mechanisms. The studies feature control of oxygen potent i a l (Po ) and the thermodynamic solution relation2 ships i n the Mo-Fe and W-Fe systems. T h i s work was specifically directed a t the activity-composition relations i n Mo-Fe and WF alloys, and the charac-e t e r i s t i c s of the oxide chemistry of tetravalent molybdenum, including the stability relations o f phases formed between Moo2 and important rock-forming oxide components. Activity-composition relations i n Mo-Fe and W-Fe alloys were determined i n the temperature range 13701770 K by equilibrating alloys w i t h i n this system w i t h Fe-Cu alloys of known activity-composition relations. The method is based on the assumption that the solubility of Cu i n Mo-Fe alloys of low Fe contents, and the solubility of M i n Cu-Fe alloys, are o small enough to have an insignificant effect on the activity-composition relations of the main constituents of the two alloys concerned. The compositions of the alloys, following equilibration, were determined by electron microprobe analysis. Both alloys, Mo-Fe and W-Fe, were found t o display large positive deviations from ideality. In the reaction between M - or W-metal and iron oxide of various rock melts, o a suspected mechanism of corrosion of the metal probe i s the reduction of some of the iron oxide t o form iron which i n t u r n may form a dilute alloy of iron i n the M or W. Hence, for an evaluation of the o problem of corrosion of Subterrene probes, the M o rich and W-rich regions of the Mo-Fe or W-Fe alloys are of primary interest. In order to make i n t e l l i gent inferences regarding the behavior o f Moo2 d i s solved i n s i l i c a t e melts, and hence regarding the interactions between M penetrators and s i l i c a t e o phases,it i s necessary t o expand knowledge of the crystal -chemical and thermodynamic behavior of M4+ o i n oxide and s i l i c a t e phases. In the application of no- o r W-probes as hot penetrators i n basal t i c rocks, the main oxidationreduction reaction likely to take place and have a close bearing on the rate of corrosion of the probe 30

i s 2(FeO)silicate melt + M = 2(Felalloy o

(Mo02)s1i ca te me1 t i for which the equilibrium constant may be written aMo02

K =

. aFe
3

aFeO
where as an approximation aMo has been set equal t o unity. (Identical equations may be written for the W-Fe-0 system.) Clearly, the strong positive deviaticnfrom ideality i n the alloy system would mean that the iron concentration i n the alloy phase i n equilibrium w i t h an iron-oxide-containing liquid would be very small unless the iron and iron oxide activities are very h i g h . I t is concluded that severe corrosion of M (or w) penetrators should not o take place as a result of reactions between the refractory metal and FO of the rock a t oxygen poe tentials determined by the equilibrium expressed i n the above equations. However, i t is likely that these relations may be changed drastically i f the penetrators are operated i n an atmosphere of higher oxygen potentials, such as t o promote the formation of Mo- or W-oxides of higher valence status (Moo3 or NO3). In addition to laboratory data, corrosion data were also obtained from f i e l d t e s t operations such as the 30-m hole in Jemez basalt using 84-mm fluted extrusion penetrators fabricated from M and Mo-30 W. o The observed corrosion i n that operation, as expressed by surface recession rates and compared with the laboratory predictive model , was estimated t o be greater by a factor of 15-20. A detailed analysis revealed the following: e An oxidizing environment beyond that expected i n normal Jemez basalt existed during major portions of the basalt operation. T h i s was attributed t o excess water and possibly some hydrated or carbonated minerals. The predictive model had been generated from data obtained from "dry" basalt. e Significant gas phase corrosion was observed. 0 The complex geometry of the fluted penetrator would result i n a spectrum of surface velocities during the downward penetration. Forced convection of a fluid is known t o increase corrosion rates on refractory materials.

LJ

b ,

+3 +2 Determination of a gross change in Fe /Fe after penetration corroborated laboratory work and lent credence t o corrosion mechanisms involving the iron components of the basaltic melts. a Alloying was also identified as a corrosion mechanism, again corroborating 1aboratory experiments. Qualitative visual and metallurgical observations were made on several field-tested 50-mn consol idation penetrators used i n tuff and alluvial soils. These penetrators were fabricated from Mo and, i n one case, thoriated W. Both solution and gas phase modes of corrosion were observed. Grain growth stabilization was observed both for the thoriated W unit as well as areas of the Mo units where carbon diffusion (from the internal heater) had occurred. Intergranular cracking, internal cavity blisters, and voids were also observed i n varying degrees of severity. 3. Power Source Materials. The radiant heater design w i t h an internal inert gas-filled cavity has been used successfully i n a l l penetrator development models. Only for the advanced application of deep geothermal drilling and the associated high lithos t a t i c pressures has i t been necessary t o consider other designs, e.g., solid conduction heaters. The basic chemical reactions for the r a d i a n t heater system concern those i n the Mo- or W-carbon systems. These have been studied extensively b o t h from thermodynamic and kinetic viewpoints. Their characteristics are reasonably well known and the lifetime of some of the internal components can now be estimated. For example, using available Mo-C and W-C reaction rate data, the cylindrical receptor thickness required for a 1000-h (3.6-Ms) lifetime was calculated a t selected internal operating temperatures. Eventually, the metal carbiding that slgwly progresses provides a means for receptor failure. To reduce the scope of the carbiding reaction, a diffusion barrier was introduced and successfully tested. Preliminary calculations and testing in the materials laboratory identified stoichiometric tantal u m carbide, TaClS0, as an excellent barrier against carbon diffusion. Graphite receptors of the size used in 50-m consolidation penetrators were coated with TaC (QJ 0.03 m thickness) by means of a chemical vapor deposition process (see Fig. 111-10) and subjected t o two lifetime tests of duration 200 h (720 ks) and 278 h (QJ1 Ms), respectively. t e s t Parameters included: internal heater temperatures of
P

Fig. 111-10. Tantalum carbide coated graphite receptor used i n penetrator radiant

heater system. 2300 aiid 2450 K; M body temperature of QJ 1800 K; o i n p u t pouJer, 4-4.6 KW; heat f l u x a t the heater surface of 1.2-1.4 MW/m2; and several thermal cycles down to 300 K. The t e s t units appeared operableafter shutdown. Analysis has demonstrated t h a t a coating as thin (3s 0.03 mm reduced the carbiding reaction by a t least an order of magnitude. A number of small thermal stress cracks and some coating separation were obslerved. The very h i g h lithostatic pressures associated w i t h depth preclude the use of the radiant heater des i g n for deep d r i l l i n g . Solid contact o r conduction heaters (appear as a suitable alternative. Several high-str'ength systems were investigated thermodynamical ly and experimentally. An early conceptual design using M and boron nitride (BN) i s shown i n Fig. o 111-11. A cylindrically symmetric M electrode is o embedded in pyrolytic BN,which i s encased i n the Mo body. A t 300 K, BN is an electrical insulator with a resistivity of % 10l6 R.cm. However, by QJ 1900 K, the resistivity has dropped to QJ 105 R-cm across the grain ( Y direction) and to QJ 5 x 103 n.cm w i t h the g r a i n ("a" direction). However the Mo-BN system was shown t o be thermodynamically unstable (except perhaps under very high nitrogen gas pressure) a t operating temperatures of QJ 2300 K. -f The use of systems such as Mo-ZrN or WHN was investigated, b u t again the decomposition probabi 1i ty was h i g h . Further, the nitrides become excellent
QJ

electrical conductors a t high temperatures. Consideration (of other solid-state resistive heating 31

Fig. 111-11. Conceptual design of a contact heater

melting body utilizing a pyrolytic boron nitride heating element. systems suggested the use of stable oxides for the electrical insulator part of the system. The severe thermal and electrical requirements eliminate the majority of the known binary oxides and a considerable number of ternary oxides as well. O those ref maining, beryllia, (BeO), and thoria, ( T h o 2 ) , were considered the best. Magnesia, (MgO), might be used provided i t s volatility can be reduced substantially and compatibility w i t h M and W established. Alumio na, (A1203), would also be useful provided operating temperatures are lowered. The compatibility of Be0 w i t h the metals Mo, W , Re,and graphite was investigated. Both BeO-Re and BeO-C appear t o be acceptable combinations. Although the thermodynamic s t a b i l i t y of BeO-Mo and BOW i s ealso good, experimental studies have shown that electrical shorting eventually occurs on wire-wound heaters due t o conductive material deposition over the oxide surface. I n the case of Mo, the metal itself has an appreciable vaporization rate a t operati n g temperature. A small t e s t unit comprised o f wire-wound Re about a Be0 core encased in M was run o for short periods and yielded some heat flux, power and temperature data. Maximum R wire temperature e 2 recorded was 2376 K a t a flux o f % 1.23 MW/m Based on the results of this test, this configuration should provide adequate flux a t wire temperatures low enough t o insure long service l i f e .

Structural Glass Liner Results. Density consolidation Subterrenes are used to form glasslined stabilized bores in porous o r unconsolidated s formation without any debris removal. A the hole i s being melted, the rock melt i s consolidated into a glass lining forming a strong, relatively impermeable boundary. To provide quantitative data on these formed-in-place rock glass linings, a contract was initiated w i t h Terra Tek t o characterize the lining formed in Bandelier tuff and compare its properties to those of the parent material. W i t h knowledge of the material properties, the engineering potential can be better evaluated. Sihce the formation of rock-glass linings by a Subterrene penetrator i s a relatively new process, l i t t l e i s known of the properties of the solidified melt material forming the lining. To better characterize the lining material, Terra Tek performed physical and mechanical tests i n a l l three principal directions whenever possible. Figure 111-12 shows the orientation of t e s t samples with respect t o the original liner as supplied by LASL. Bandelier tuff samples containing the glass linings used in this study were supplied by LASL i n the form o f hollow cylinders. The inner diameters were either 51 mn with a lining of the order of 20 mm thick or 76 mm w i t h a 25mm lining, typically being 500 nm~ long. The lining material was observed to be generally competent except for the presence of radial fractures. Tuff samples n o t containing the fused lining were also supplied for tests on the parent tuff.
4.

AXIAL SAMPLE

SAMPLE

Fig. 111-12. Cross section of glass lining showing orientation of t e s t samples.

32

The dry and grain densities and wosity were measured for both the parent tuff and glass liner; the results are presented i n Table 111-1. The debris disposal mechanism of density consolidation i s evidenced by the 50% increase i n dry density and greatly reduced porosity of the liner material compared to the original tuff. Even lower l i n e r porosities are probably achievable through the use of higher penetrator thrusts resulting i n greater melt pressures. The density and porosity values obtained for the tuff are typical of other tuffs. Permeability as a function of effective stress (confining pressure) was measured on several radial lining samples. The results of one of these t e s t s are shown in Fig. 111-13. A the confining stress was increased, the s permeability decreased from about 8 millidarcys a t very low confining pressure (sl MPa) to 200 microdarcys a t a confining pressure of 50 MPa. On unloading, the permeability d i d n o t completely recover. Changes of the order shown i n Fig. 111-13 are n o t common for typical rocks w i t h about the same in'ltial permeability, suggesting the cause for the decrease i s probably associated w i t h minor imperfections in the glass liner which are closed a t higher pressures. These values compare t o a permeabilitity of approximately 300 millidarcys for the parent tuff, indicating the sealing properties of the liner. Compression and tension t e s t s were performed on both parent tuff and the glass linings a t confining pressures ranging from 0 to 50 MPa. For the l i n i n g the axial and tangential samples were significantly s t i f f e r than the radial samples, and i n general, a l l samples were considerably s t i f f e r a t higher confining pressures. Axial and tangential samples showed the same strength w i t h i n the experimental scatter; the radial samples , however, were weaker because they
TABLE 111-1

IO

2 0 30 40 CONFINING PRESSURE (MPa)

5 C

Fig. 111-13.

Effect of confining pressure on the permeability o f a typical radial glass liner sample.

COMPARISON OF DENSITIES AND POROSITY FOR PARENT TUFF AND FUSED GLASS LINER

Material

Dry Density Grain D s i t y Porosity e ( M g h 3, (Mglm31 (%I 1.50 2.23 2.54 2.40 41

hd

Parent Tuff Glass Lining

contained the transition zone between the 1i n i n g material amd the parent tuff. The radial samples always failed a t the "soft" end (outside end) suggesti n g that. the strength of the lining i s a function of the distance from the inside radius. This anisotropy does not appear t o be associated w i t h a t h i n transition layer alone, b u t rather i s inherent throughout the material as a function of the radial coordinate. The linings have a low tensile strength (0.8 t o 1.6 MPa) that does n o t increase w i t h confining pressure and is lndependent of orientation. Such low tensile strength i s probably due t o local inhomogeneities and flaws caused by the thermal stresses in the cooling melt. Neither mechanism would detract from the abili t y of the glass l i n i n g t o carry compressive stresses b u t would influence i t s ability to support tensile or bending loads. Tht! Terra Tek study represents a significant i n i t i a l step by characterizing one particular mat e r i a l (Bandelier t u f f ) and the rock-glass linings formed from it. From the information obtained during t h i s study, the following conclusions can be drawn. e The lining materials can be modeled as a cy1 indrical , transversely isotropic media w i t h the radial direction weaker and less s t i f f than the axial and tangential directions. e The l i n i n g has higher compressive strength (% 50 MPa) than the parent Bandolier t u f f :( 4 Wa). Strengtli increases w i t h confining pressure for both the glass l i n i n g and the parent tuff. 33

Both the glass lining and the parent tuff material possess tensile strengths of the order of 1 MPa. 0 The lining material has a permeability of the order of 10 millidarcys a t low confining pressure (compared to approximately 300 mil 1idarcys for the parent t u f f ) b u t decreases rapidly as the confining pressure increases. 6 The results are very encouraging i n that the enhanced material properties of the lining are f a r superior t o the parent material and present the possi bi 1i t y f o r many engineering appl ications.
CD

large e f f o r t was made to locate and use commercial fabrication sources and to develop appropriate fabrication techniques t o accomnodate large stock size requirements and design complexity. In addition, requirements of high mechanical strength and molten rock corrosion resistance a t various design j o i n t s necessitated expenditure of e f f o r t on a high-temperature braze program. Development of several useful braze formulations was accomplished. The objectives relative t o refractory metal fabrication were: t o identify the s t a t e of the a r t , locate f a c i l i t i e s and associated skills, expand upon the s t a t e of the a r t where required, and aid i n the development of the industrial sources for the penet r a t o r hardware. An extensive nationwide survey was made i n support of these objectives. A l i s t of those organizations hand1 i n g molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten ( W ) i s given i n Table 111-2.

Refractory Alloy Fabrication 1. Introduction-General Fabrication Problems. The h i g h temperatures a t which rocks melt and the requisite higher internal operating temperatures of Subterrene penetrators mandated the utilization of refractory alloys o r materials f o r construction. A
C.

TABLE 111-2

FABRICATORS FOR T N S E AND MOLYBDENUM PARTS U GT N

s Work Has Been Performed A Follows. Sources Indentified, 1. Vacuum-arc-cast, extruded molybdenum bar: 9. C1 imax Molybdenum (Amax Specialty Metals) C eve1and , OH. 1 10. 2. Powder-metallurgy, extruded molybdenum bar: Climax Molybdenum General Electric, Cleveland, OH. Sylvania, Towanda, PA. 11. 3. Powder-metallurgy t u n g s t e n blanks: General Electric, Cleveland, OH *Syl vani a , Towanda , PA. 4. Extruded tungsten bar: 12. Canton Drop Forging and Mfg, Co., Canton, OH. Nuclear Metals, W. Concord, MA. 5. Upset forging -- molybdenum and tungsten: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. 13. *Ladish Co., Cudahy, WI. *Northwest Industries, Albany, OR. 6. Molybdenum sheet spinning: Laeger Metal Spinning, East Linden, NJ. 7. Chemical vapor deposition: 14. U tramet, Pacoima, CA. 1 8. Ring rolling: *Ladish Co., Cudahy, WI. *Airco Viking, Verdi, NV.
34

B u t Not Yet Used, Are Marked W i t h An Asterisk. Si 1icide coating : Vac-Hyd Processing, Torrance, CA. Machining: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos,NM. Northwest Industries, Albany, OR. Thermo Electron, Woburn, MA. Medium-temperature brazing: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. Air Vac, Carrollton, TX. *Thenno Electron, Woburn, MA. High-temperature brazing: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN. Thermo Electron, Woburn, MA. Advanced Technology, Pasadena, CA. Electron-beam welding: Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM. Electrofusion, Menlo Park, CA. Electron Beam Welding, Inc., Los Angeles, CA. *Therm0 Electron, Woburn, MA. Alloy development (in conjunction w i t h L S : AL *C1 imax Molybdenum, Cleveland, OH. *Wah Chang, Albany, OR.

Vacuum-arc-cast low-carbon M has been the o prime t e s t material f o r penetrator development. Although W and some alloys such a s thoriated W have certain high-temperature metallurgical advantages (small -scale tests have been performed), the s t a t e of the a r t suggests t h a t a large fabrication development program would be necessary t o b r i n g W technology up t o a level comparable t o the sophisticated quality standards and fabrication know-how of present-day Mo. An additional deterrent to largescale use of W has been the greater degree of corrosion observed i n molten rock experiments. The various penetrator designs including dens i t y consolidators, fluted extruders, conventional extruders, and si ngl e-piece me1 t i ng body corers resulted i n the need for both current and advanced fabrication techniques t o produce appropri ate1y sized stock b i l l e t s of material. Close cooperation was achieved w i t h the comnercial organizations i n this respect. In particular, the development of large-diameter M penetrator blanks was a signifio cant achievement. Excellent b i l l e t s o f fully wrought M (150 nnn diam) have been produced by o forging and d i ffusion-bonding three shorter sintered stock b i l l e t s together for a total length of 450 mm. 2. High-Temperature Braze Development. This program was conducted under a two-phase effort. The preliminary phase was largely on a screening level w i t h results a s follows: e The specific braze compositions Ti-lOCr, Ti-30V, Ti-65V, V , Cr, and N (for diffusion bondi ing) were laboratory tested i n sample cups. The cups were used t o hold Jemez basalt f o r the molten rock f compatibility t e s t portion of the program. O these compositions, only V and Ti-65V were considered as good vacuum furnace brazes. General applications for the Ti-65V alloy would be limited t o <1670 K and t o 4 9 6 0 K for V . Neither material could be expected to survive for any significant length of time i n contact w i t h mol ten basalt, and oxygencontaminated atmospheres are to be avoided. o Activated diffusion bonding o f Mo w i t h N i holds great promise. e Pore formation from the Kirkendall effect became a problem when braze joints were overheated. e Mo-Mo, W-W,and M- brazing were interoW changeable.

The major phase addressed he problem of the develorment of other brazes for use t o sl900 K, elimination of pore formation w i t h i n the braze joints, shear strengths of the braze joints, as well as conducting further compatibility tests. Conclusions are best discussed i n terms of the individual braze formulation. a Ti-65V. Kirkendall void formation was eliminated by heating the j o i n t a 0 K above the alloy flow temperature. The upper limit of compatibility w i t h basalt was confirmed a t ~ 1 6 7 0 K. The h i g h tempera,ture strength was better than recrystallized vacuum-.arc-cast Mo. Data f o r a l l brazes are shown i n Table 111-3. A typical shear t e s t specimen i s shown in Fig. 111-14.

TABLE 111-3

SHEAF S R N T OF BRAZE JOINTS I M AT 1670 K TE GH N o U timate 1 Shear Strength (MPa) (ksi ) (MPa) 5.1 3.4 6.8 3.6 5.8 16 5 2 4.9 t 1 . 5 34 + 1 0 4.7 6.0 4.7 4.6

Braze - ell Materi T i -65V

0.2% Yield Strength

(ksi ) 2.6 2.0 2.9 2.2 2.5 Average 2.4 2 0.3a 1.6 2.6 1.4 2.5

Pure V

---

--3455

Average 2.0 5 0.6 50V- 50140 1.8 1.8 1.4 Averdge 1.7 f 0.2 1.8 2.3 3.2

1 4 5 4 5.050.7 b

12 2 1
b

50MoB-50MoC

Averdge 2.5 5 0.7

J

17 25

a + values are standard deviation o f the means. Joiiqt was substantially stronger than the base metal.
35

BRAZED JOINT

Fig. 111-14.

Braze shear t e s t specimen, (a) as brazed blank, (b) finished specimen.

50Mo-50V. Kirkendall voids were not observed, probably due t o prealloying. Corrosion resistance was improved over that of pure v. Joints were substantially stronger than the base metal. a 50MoB-50MoC. Although not an optimum mixture, i t was clear that the basic formulation was good since the joints exhibited exceptional hightemperature strength, good corrosion resistance to a t least 1670 K, and no void formation. This system shows excellent potential for joining Mo. 3 . Silicon Carbide Conversion Coatings. Parts fabricated from the refractory alloys for routine laboratory testing are reasonably expensive. To reduce development costs, a preliminary evaluation has been made of silicon carbide (Sic)-coated graphi t e for both glass-forming elements and developmental penetrator bodies of various sizes. The coating i s produced by a surface conversion on premachined graphite parts. The finished unit i s relatively inexpensive and offers the potential of improved mechanical wear and oxidation resistance. Compatibility tests i n basalt have demonstrated resistance to corrosion t o %1800 K for periods of 4 h (14.4 ks). Coating thickness should be of the order of 0.5 mn. Careful dimensional design i s necessary to avoid undue thermal stress cracking. While refractory metal penetrator bodies would be required for field tests and lifetime studies, the Sic-coated graphite parts offer a new dimension in flexibility for low-cost laboratory preliminary evaluation tests. Geosciences 1. Introduction. Engineering of Subterrene systems for many applications has been materially
D.

assisted by the various disciplines composing the geosciences. Many illustrations of Subterrene system - geoscience interaction have been encountered. Familiarization with basic physical and chemical property data of many rock types has been required f o r logical and orderly Subterrene development. A large amount of literature data for solid and molten rocks as well as rock glasses was accumulated during the course of the program. Included were: chemical and mineralogical composition, thermodynamic functions, density, viscosity, melting ranges, thermal di ffusivi ty and conductivity , specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, permeability, electrical resistivity, and dielectric constants. A number of these values were obtained as a function of temperature and pressure,and selected experimental measurements were also made, adding t o the data base. For example, a precision gas comparison pycnometer was obtained which was capable of measuring rock volumes t o 0.1 an 3 (out of a total of 50 c 3 ). Coupled w i t h appropriate sample preparations m and a direct weight measurement, b u l k density, grain density, and porosity could be determined. 2. M1 ting Range Experiments. Melting range e measurements were accomplished routinely using either an induction heater optical or hot-stage microscope technique (Lei t z 1750 model ). A though 1 much data was available in the literature, the large variability in rock composition justified acquisition of accurate information relative to the specific rocks used in the t e s t program. These measurements were very important since the melting range encountered would affect a decision on (1) whether or n o t a conventional Subterrene penetrator could be used for that particular type of rock and ( 2 ) i f i t could, which specific engineering design would be appropriate. I t i s known that a number o f rock formations do not melt a t ambient pressure b u t rather decompose (for example, pure 1imestones). In addition to measurements made on the local rock formations, a number of rock types from other localities were checked. These included: sandstone from Pecos National Monument, NM; basement granite from the Fenton Lake region, NM; caliche soil from Sandia Corporation's t e s t grounds, NM; granite gneiss from F t . Belvoir, VA; various soils from the Hanford radiochemical tank storage farms, WA;

36

ai

h/

Columbia river basalt from Bend, OR; and alluvial s o i l s from the Nevada Test Site, NV. The National Park Service had also expressed an interest in using a Subterrene penetrator to melt holes for purposes of wall strengthening and water drainage in a number of archeological sites. As part of an independent program, melt tests were conducted on various rock formations from such Southwest areas as Tuzigoot, Tumacacori , Casa Grande,and Montezuma Castle, a l l national monuments in Arizona, as well as F t . Bowie Historic Site, AZ. These t e s t s showed that although many of the rocks, soils, and adobe structural materials could be melted a t conventional Subterrene operating temperatures , certain others could not. Another use for the hot-stage microscope was the visual study of the melting kinetics of multicomponent systems as well as individual minerals and crystals. For example, Bandelier tuff, when i n i t i a l l y melted, yields a highly fluid liquid which contains large crystals of quartz and cristobalite. T h i s high fluidity permits easy penetration. As melting progresses, the l i q u i d begins t o dissolve the cryst a l s with an attendant increase in viscosity. 3. Molten Rock Property Studies. The Subterrene system i s capable of melting many types of rock, b u t penetration rates can be reduced because of high viscosities exhibited by, for example, granites. In general, the melt should be no more viscous t h a n a comnercial glass, which i s normally worked below a viscosity of 103 Pa.s. A typical operating envelope based upon this criterion and the practical temperature limitations of a M penetrator i s defined in o Fig. 111-15. Corning Glass Works assisted the program by obtaining molten rock viscosity data. A typical viscosity curve (for Dresser basalt) i s shown i n Fig. 111-16. To alleviate the penetration rate problem, the concept of pressurized flux injection was considered. The addition of a f l u x i n g or mineralizing agent under pressure just preceding the advancing penetrator should have beneficial results. A two-fold effect occurs in that both the viscosity and the absolute values of the melting range are reduced. These are well-documented phenomena and typical fluxing agents include water, boric oxide, borates, or alkali halide salts. Fig. 111-17 illustrates the reduction in melting temperature w i t h a pressurized water system.

F,: 1. I 11-1 5.

Temperature dependence of viscosity for molten glasses and rock glasses.

4. Directed Research. Various rock types have been usled i n experiments to determine the response of geological materials to Subterrene penetrators during the melting process. Careful analysis of the rock before and a f t e r passage o f the penetrator i s a prerequisite to an understanding of the chemical and mechanical interactions between the metallic

IO',,

I , ,
Viae

I , I , I , I , ,

,-I

lksD (K)
u93

(Pa*#)-

m8 0 .0
UL6 . -0 5.893

UP

7. lm
1.W

xu

1%b

io2=_ e

1mC 1W

3. uo

can*

mu.

VcQiu

a. t

* -

-5.4

1 5.6

5.8

6.0

62 .

6.4

6.6

6.0

7.0

7.2

I/T (K''xIO44)

F i g , 111-16.

Viscosity o f molten Dresser basalt. 37

Tompmlure

IK)

F i g . 111-17.

The effect of pressure on the melting curve (sol idus) of several rock-water systems.

penetrator and the molten rock. Many rock types must be studied i f a capability i s t o be developed for predicting the behavior of the Subterrene in various geologic environments. A preliminary study was performed t o i l l u s t r a t e the type of information that can be obtained by petrographic and microchemical analysis of rock-melt samples. Further work on determining the degree of chemical inhomogeneity in the glasses, the proportions of crystals to glass as a function of distance from the penetrator, and the identification of quench products will contribute greatly to the understanding of the interactions between the metallic penetrators and the complex rock-glass mixtures. Petrographic modal analyses of numerous rockglass samples were made w i t h a Swift automatic p o i n t counter. Corresponding chemical analyses were made with an Applied Research Laboratories Electron Microprobe. Subterrene samples show analogous textures t o rocks which have undergone partial fusion in geological processes. Petrographic descriptions were prepared for samples from the glass linings formed i n various rock types. The thin sections examined were cut perpendicular t o the hole wall. Each sample has three regions: (1) unaltered rock, unaffected because of i t s distance from the penetrat o r face; (2) a transition zone, closer to the penetrator face, i n which the rock shows alteration effects (such as darkening of the matrix o r certain minerals) or a small amount of partial melting, b u t does not appear t o have been converted t o a dominantly glassy state; and (3) a fused zone, closest to the penetrator face, consisting of glass w i t h gas bubbles and <50% unmelted inclusions. In most cases,

the boundaries between these zones are much narrower than the zones themselves. Partially fused rock samples exhibit an increase i n the amount and degree of homogeneity of glass toward the penetrator face. This observation i s consistent w i t h the fact t h a t highest temperatures are maintained for the longest times nearest the penetrator face. Thus, textures of incipient fusion are preserved a t the outer edge of the fused zone, whereas the most advanced stage of fusion i s present a t the inner edge. The mineral and glass mixtures i n the samples are the product of a complex interplay of temperature gradients w i t h time of penetration. The rapidity of the Subterrene fusion and quenching process precludes attainment of chemical equilibrium i n the molten zone. Interpretation of the sequence of the fusion process i s hindered by uncertainties i n (1) the effects of flow of the molten rock d u r i n g penetration, ( 2 ) the geometry of migration of the rock-melt interface d u r i n g heating, and ( 3 ) the nature and duration of thermal gradients i n the rock during penetration. The rocks record only the maximum thermal profiles effective over varying time intervals. Molten rock flow during Subterrene penetration i s indicated by the finely laminated texture of glass near the penetrator face and the presence of streaks of melted mineral grains parallel to the hole wall. The laminations are defined by variations in color, refractive index, and major element content (and probably oxidation) , and they generally parallel the penetrator face, suggesting laminar flow d u r i n g f u sion. In several specimens, laminae show complex swirling patterns suggesting t h a t the entire fused zone underwent mixing d u r i n g penetration. Such act i o n could mix crystals and l i q u i d i n the fused zone and could transport partially molten crystals from the penetrator face throughout the fused zone, thereby hindering the interpretation of the sequence of alteration and fusion. Petrographic information derived from samples exposed t o Subterrene penetration may be used i n the Subterrene development program i n the following ways: 0 Petrographic analysis can provide data on the identity, volume percentage, and size distribution of r e l i c t unmelted crystals and quench products i n the fused zone of Subterrene samples. Estimates of

38

'
I

the degree of abrasion (mechanical and chemical) by such crystals i n various rock types can then be made. The metallic penetrator t i p may be abradgd by the m i x i n g action which brings angular r e l i c t crystals, such as quartz and olivine,into contact w i t h the t i p . Such abrasion m i g h t be lessened i f mixing were suppressed and i f a narrow zone o f completely fused material could be formed along the penetrator face, as i s present i n the Bandelier tuff samples. 0 Penetration rate i s inhibited by h i g h viscosity, particularly i n highly siliceous melts. E f fective viscosity measurements, coupled w i t h determination of temperature gradients i n the samples, can be correlated with petrographic data t o investigate possible ways to reduce the viscosity of liquid-crystal mixtures i n the fused zone. 8 Fluid flow patterns, traced by the dark streaks of graphite and fused iron oxides i n the glass walls of the holes, can be examined i n detail by cutting series of oriented t h i n sections. Calculations of the geometry of the glass flow can then be verified by careful observation of these patterns.

Petrographic techniques can be used to determine the sequence i n which the minerals i n rocks melt under the nonequilibrium conditions of the Subterrene system. The early-melting fraction produces the liquid composition into which additional minerals will react and through which the Subterrene will penetrate a t a given temperature. The degree of chemical corrosion of the penetrator may be dependent upon the chemical composition of the partially melted rock which, i n turn, i s dependent upon the temperature gradients i n the sample. Deep geothermal drilling requires knowledge of the effects of both the lithostatic pressure and h i g h temperatures, alone and i n combination, upon the penetrator materials. A though experimental 1 high-pressure studies were not completed, a laboratory drilling experiment w i t h preheated (650 K) basalt was accomplished. The feasibility of Subterrene-type drilling i n hot rock was t h u s successfully demonstrated.
0

39

IV.

FIELD TEST AND DEMONSTRATIONS

Field-Demonstration Units 1. Introduction. The principal objectives of field-testing complete penetrator systems are the performance evaluation of the system under actual field conditions and the acquisition of realistic data on system reliability and expected service life. Data and experience from field tests form an important input in the penetrator-system design-optimization process. The field-test program was established with the design, construction, and utilization of a portable , modularized fiel d-demonstra ti on unit (FDU). This initial FDU provided a self-contained unit for demonstrating smal 1 -diameter rock-me1 ting penetration system capabilities at locations away from the immediate Los Alamos area. The major components of the FDU and their basic functions include dual hydraulic cylinders for thrusting the penetrator assembly, a hydraulic power supply and control console for operating the thruster, an electric power supply and control console for providing the penetrator melting power, an air compressor to supply cooling air to the melting assembly, and the associated Subterrene penetrator and required stem sections. Field-demonstration units were initially used with density consolidation penetrators to form both vertical and horizontal glass-lined holes in porous and unconsolidated rocks. A sequence of exposures taken as a light source was moved along the bore of one o f these 15-m-long holes is shown in Fig. IV-1, depicting its smooth surface and straightness. Eight water drainage holes were melted with dn FDU at the Rainbow House and Tyuonyi archeological ruins at Bandelier National Monument, NM, in cooperation with the National Park Service (NPS). A program to melt additional water drainage holes at Tumacacori, Tuzigoot, and Casa Grande Ruins National Monuments and Fort Bowie Historical Site in Arizona has been under development with the NPS. Rock and soil samples from these areas have been received,and preliminary me1 ting-penetration experiments are in progress. The versatility of the original FDUs has been expanded by adapting them for operation with hard rock extruding penetrator systems through the addition of a debris removal stem configuration. Figure IV-2 shows a field-demonstration unit being
40

A.

Fig. IV-1.

Mu1 tiple-exposure photograph taken in glass-lined bore produced by consolidating Subterrene penetrator.

used for a hard rock extrusion experiment in a packaged rock sample. This test was incompatible with the indoor rock laboratory test facility. Service facilities for the FDU are being provided by the mobile experimental field unit which is described in detail i n Sec. IV. C o f this report. 2. Tunnel Lining Experiment. A significant advantage of a Subterrene-derived system for tunneling or excavating in loosely compacted formations is the glass lining produced in place around the periphery of the melting penetrator. The structural

Fig. IV-2.

Field-demonstration unit in position for horizontal hard rock extrusion experiment.

i n t e g r i t y o f t h i s l i n i n g could be u t i l i z e d t o supp o r t the r o o f o f a tunnel u n t i l a permanent l i n i n g can be i n s t a l l e d . Use of the Subterrene-system could p o t e n t i a l l y increase the safety and - e f f i c i e n c y o f tunneling i n formations which a r e n o t self-supp o r t i n g and might make possible the use o f tunneling, instead o f the d i s r u p t i v e c u t and cover method, f o r the construction o f underground f a c i l i t i e s . The basic f e a s i b i l i t y of t h i s tunneling concept has been demonstrated by an excavation experiment conducted i n a loose a l l u v i a l d i r t f i l l behind a wooden r e t a i n i n g w a l l which was formerly used as a b l a s t s h i e l d bunker. The e x i s t i n g wooden w a l l made an i d e a l p o r t a l f o r t h e prototype tunnel opening (2 m high, 2 m deep, and 1 m wide) which i s shown i n Fig. IV-3. The r o o f and s i d e w a l l s o f the tunnel were formed by me1 t i n g a series o f 50-mm-diam horizon-

the tunnel t o s t a b i l i z e the formation i n t h a t region. A f t e r t h e holes were melted t o form the r o o f and w a l l s o f the tunnel, the i n t e r i o r volume was excavated by hand t b expose the glass l i n i n g . An FDU was e a s i l y adapted f o r the task by mounting the h y d r u a l i c t h r u s t e r u n i t on an adjustable s c a f f o l d i n g as i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.

IV-4.

Holes were p r e d r i l l e d i n the

wooden r e t a i n i n g w a l l o f the bunker a t t h e proper l o c a t i o n s f o r i n s e r t i o n o f t h e Subterrene penetrator t o produce t h e continuous glass l i n i n g . The penet r a t o r assemblies employed a new design replaceable g r a p h i t e glass former which produced smooth glass l i n i n g s and showed r a d i a l wear o f l e s s than 0.005 mm per meter o f l i n i n g produced. Gaseous n i t r o g e n was used t o c h i l l t h e m e l t and s o l i d i f y the glass, and t h e maximum penetrator power consumption was 4.5 kW. The excavated tunnel volume was 4 m and t h e volume o f the glass l i n i n g which forms the w a l l was approxi3 This small t e s t tunnel demonstrates mately 0.2 m

t a l holes approximately 2 m deep i n t h e loose s o i l f i l l m a t e r i a l using e l e c t r i c a l l y heated d e n s i t y c o n s o l i d a t i o n Subterrene penetrators t h a t a r e o r d i n a r i l y used f o r l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d development t e s t s . The holes were placed s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e t o gether f o r the glass l i n i n g s t o fuse and thus produce a double-walled l i n i n g r e i n f o r c e d by webs between t h e i n d i v i d u a l holes. Four v e r t i c a l holes were melted from the surface a t t h e closed end o f

t h e concept o f supporting the overburden o f a tunnel w i t h a glass l i n i n g formed i n s i t u by a kerf-melting penetration system. The production o f tunnel l i n i n g s by m u l t i p l e Subterrene penetrators operating simultaneously i s a l o g i c a l extension o f t h i s t e s t .
6.

Public Demonstrations

1. Washington, DC. The LASL Subterrene s t a f f

staged a s e r i e s o f f i e l d demonstrations of consolidati n g and extruding rock-melting penetrator systems a t t h e U.S. Army's Engineering Proving Grounds quarry

Fig. IV-3.

Subterrene-produced prototype tunnel opening showing d e t a i l o f l e f t w a l l .

Fig. IV-4.

Field-demonstration u n i t m e l t i n g holes f o r tunnel r o o f . 41

area at Fort Belvoir near Springfield, VA. Attendance averaged above 80 for the first three demonstrations and approximately 45 for the final presentation. Attendees at the sessions were primarily from the following groups: First Morning - Atomic Energy Commission, Congressional Representatives, Military Personnel. First Afternoon - National Science Foundation, Congressional Representatives, Military Personnel. Second Morning - Industrial sector including representatives from tunneling, horizontal hole boring, major oil companies, and manufacturers of support equipment. Second Afternoon -Representatives from a1 1 areas. Each demonstration was initiated with a welcoming address and introduction by a representative of either the AEC or NSF. A LASL scientist then presented a brief historical and technical account of the Subterrene program, the ways it differs from conventional drilling methods, potential practical applications, and the characteristics of the melting penetrators which the audience would observe during the actual demonstrations. Part of the Subterrene field demonstration equipment is shown in Fig. IV-5 during one of the Fort Belvoir demonstrations. Each of the two portable Subterrene field units was then demonstrated, beginning with a horizontal consolidator penetrating a section of alluvium encased in a steel shell. The consolidator was allowed

to break through the end of the sample which enabled the audience to watch as the molten earth was displaced from the end of the shell and the hot, glowing penetrator was visible. After each demonstration the shell was removed and the observers were allowed to examine the glass casing formed by the penetrator. This was followed by an extruder, operated in a vertical position, penetrating a hard rock sample and demonstrating the concept of molten debris removal by the cooling gas stream. Subterrene staff members were available during the rock-me1 ting demonstrations to explain the sequence of operations and answer questions on rock and soil melt handling, potential applications, and the simplicity of the field-test equipment and operations. In addition to examining the penetrators, associated equipment, and the melted holes at close range, the observers were invited to visit the display trailer to obtain copies of Subterrene reports. Additional background information was provided by the 20 specially prepared display posters located in the trailer, as depicted in Fig. IV-6. This demonstration series was sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission and the National Science Foundation - RANN Program with additional inspiration provided by the Interagency Comnittee on Excavation Technology (ICET). 2. Denver, CO. As guests of the Bureau of Reclamation, the LASL Subterrene staff staged a series of field demonstrations of consolidating and extruding rock-melting penetrator systems at the Denver Federal Center. Two demonstrations were given in the

Fig. IV-5.

Subterrene rock-melting demonstration and briefing before audience in Fort Belvoir, VA.

Fig. IV-6. Subterrene demonstration display trailer.

42

morning, w i t h an average attendance o f 85, and one

actual demonstration. techno1 og actual me

V i s i t o r s were b r i e f e d on the The f i n -

i n the afternoon w i t h a phenomenal attendance o f over 400 v i s i t o r s . The program f o r t t i o n s was s i m i l a r t o t h a t used a t F o r t Belvoir, VA, w i t h a representative from the Bureau of Reclamation welcoming the group and introducing the LASL speaker. After a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l and technical account The observers then i n o f the Subterrene program, t h e two portable f i e l d u n i t s were demonstrated. spected the penetration systems, melted qlass-lined holes, and v i s i t e d the d i s p l a y t r a i l e r t o c o l l e c t technical reports and study the d i s p l a y posters on the Subterrene program.
3.

quipment w h i l e they observed the peration a t close range.

ished holes were smooth and stable and immediately a v a i l a b l e f o r inspection upon withdrawal o f the pene t r a t o r system. A f t e r cooling, segments o f the The demonstrations and glass l i n e r s were provided t o the spectators t o conclude the demonstration. equipment were viewed by a wide ranging audience of engineering, c i t y management, and technology t r a n s f e r oriented v i s i t o r s . C. Mobile Experimental F i e l d U n i t 1. Introduction. The extension o f the fie-ld

Tacoma, WA.

During t h e past three years,

t e s t program t o l a r g e r diameter, deeper penetrations i n t o hard rock formations has l e d t o the design, f a b r i c a t i o n , and f i e l d u t i l i z a t i o n o f a specialized mobile Experimental F i e l d U n i t (EFU). This EFU i s designed t o operate w i t h consolidating, coring, and extruding penetrator systems under f i e l d conditions and i n areas remote from the laboratory. For hard rock penetrations w i t h extruding systems, t h i s means t h a t an appreciable t h r u s t load must be applied t o the penetrator melting body i n order t o provide ext r u s i o n pressures i n the rock m e l t s u f f i c i e n t l y high t o f o r c e the molten material t o f l o w through the debris-removal passages i n the melting body. In nonstable formations such as caving o r squeezing s o i l s o r formations containing trapped ground waters, i t may be necessary t o produce m e l t pressures greate r than the overburden stress t o s t a b i l i z e and supp o r t the hole and prevent blowout. Since the weight o f the c u r r e n t l y used gas-cooled stem i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o produce the required pressures, a l a r g e pull-down c a p a b i l i t y has been provided. This hydraulic p u l l down feature and the absence o f a r o t a r y t a b l e are the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which d i s t i n g u i s h the EFU from a conventional, lightweight, work-over r i g . perimental F i e l d The Ex-

Tacoma has attempted t o create an environment i n c i t y government f o r experimenting w i t h innovative techniques and developing b e t t e r procedures and hardware f o r improving c i t y operations through the use o f new technology.

A Technology Transfer Center

has been created t o a i d i n the development and i m plementation o f proposed solutions t o departmental problems i n the c i t y and t o e s t a b l i s h an i n t e r c i t y center for technology applications.

As a p a r t o f

t h i s program, Tacoma hosted a Technology Transfer F i e l d Day Program t o i l l u s t r a t e how i t i s attempting t o mobilize i t s resources t o a i d p r o d u c t i v i t y i m provements throughout the c i t y . The F i e l d Days were held t o comnunicate information about progress i n the a p p l i c a t i o n o f technology t o municipal opera-

rm t i o n s d i r e c t l y fo the hardware developers and t o

provide observers w i t h f i r s t - h a n d experience i n handling several types o f new hardware and t o view operational improvements i n service d e l i v e r y systems. The 10s Alamos S c i e n t i f i c Laboratory was i n v f t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s program by providing Subterrene rock-melting penetration system demonstrations aimed a t the p o t e n t i a l use o f t h i s technology f o r under-

, as

received from the comer-

f o r the demonstrations
was loosely conSolidated l o c a l alluvium described as " p i t - r u n gravel" which consisted o f material varying from f i n e p a r t i c l e s t o 50-mn c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i z e conglomerates. The sample was v i s i b l y wet and packed i n a 1.2-x 1.5-x 2-m plywood sample container. A f t e r m e l t i n g a sample hole through the alluvium t o t e s t the equipment and provide a f i n i s h e d hole f o r the observers t o inspect, two a d d i t i o n a l holes were melted and s t a b i l i z e d w i t h glass l i n i n g s during the

cia1 fabricator,

l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. IV-7.

S i g n i f i c a n t design features o f the EFU a r e b r i e f 1y summarized bel ow:

0

The mast w i l l handle 300 m o f 114-mmdiam d pe i n 10-m lengths. u l i c a l l y and i s de-

(4.5-in.-)

I t i s r a i s e d and

signed t o work wh

r near v e r t i c a l .

With

modifications i t can be operated a t greater i n c l i nations, even approaching horizontal penetrations.

43

Penetrating and h o i s t i n g speeds are continu-

rm ously variable, fo 0 t o 5 mn/s (1 ft/min), and can be remotely c o n t r o l l e d w i t h an e l e c t r i c a l l y pos i t i o n e d spool valve i n the h y d r a u l i c supply l i n e . Manual c o n t r o l s produce higher speeds f o r t r i p p i n g o r other l i g h t - l o a d operations. The mast, pull-down and h o i s t i n g systems, hyd r a u l i c pump and prime mover, and a h y d r a u l i c powered sandline are mounted on a tandem f l o a t . With the mast stored i n a h o r i z o n t a l position, the u n i t i s l e g a l t o m v e w i t h a c o m e r c i a l t r a c t o r without a special permit. Operation o f the system i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and r e q u i r e s o n l y an operator and helper f o r r o u t i n e Fig. IV-7. Mobile Experimental F i e l d U n i t as r e ceived from f a b r i c a t o r . penetration and t o o l t r i p p i n g . Automatic, closedloop servomechanism c o n t r o l i n several modes of pene t r a t i o n (constant load, constant rate,or p o s i t i o n The u n i t i s h y d r a u l i c a l l y powered and controlled. Dual two-way h y d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r s attached t o t h e f a s t l i n e s i d e o f t h e mast, Fig. IV-8, provide the force t o move the pipe i n o r o u t o f the hole and t o p u l l down on t h e s t r i n g . Each c y l i n d e r ' s " d r i l l i n g " l i n e attaches t o i t s i n d i v i d u a l h y d r a u l i c a l l y operated g r i p p i n g e l e v a t o r which can transmit a p u l l down o r e x t r a c t i o n f o r c e o f 89 kN (20 000 l b ) t o the d r i l l stem. Both elevators can be used simultaneously t o e x e r t a f o r c e o f 178 kN. demand) i s provided, and monitor and alarm c i r c u i t s warn the operator o f abnormal conditions. The present experimental nature of the operation d i c t a t e s more complete instrumentation and recording of penet r a t o r performance than would be required i n r o u t i n e h o l e forming.
2.

Stem Design and Performance.

A 78-mm-diam

stem was designed, fabricated, and u t i l i z e d f o r f i e l d operations w i t h t h e EFU. This stem was designed f o r e i t h e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r extruding Subterrene penet r a t o r s operating a t increased depths a t power l e v e l s up t o 30 kW. The concentric tube design o f the stem provides, i n a d d i t i o n t o s t r u c t u r a l support, e l e c t r i c power supply t o t h e penetrator, coolant and d e b r i s removal gas, debris removal c a r r y - o f f tube, i n e r t i n g gas (he1 ium) supply, and instrumentation c a p a b i l i t y . The o u t e r s h e l l i s t h e main s t r u c t u r a l member and i s f a b r i c a t e d from 6061 T-6 aluminum on t h e basis o f i t s low r e s i s t i v i t y , h i g h strength, atmospheric corrosion resistance, and low weight. Designed t o a l l o w 100-kN

(22 500-lb) loading i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , the s h e l l i s a l s o t h e negative l e a d f o r dc power transmission t o t h e penetrator. The i n n e r s t a i n l e s s s t e e l tube i s
for d e b r i s removal w h i l e t h e annulus provides t h e space f o r the coolant gas flow, three i n s u l a t e d p a r a l l e l copper power leads, helium gas l i n e , and i n s t r u mentation leads. An end view o f a t y p i c a l stem sect i o n i s shown i n Fig. IV-9 i l l u s t r a t i n g these funct i o n s a n d some a d d i t i o n a l p e r t i n e n t data on t h e stem Fig. IV-8. F a s t l i n e s i d e o f EFU showing hydraulic cylinders, d r i l l i n g l i n e s , and d i e s e l hydraul i c power u n i t design i s presented i n Table I V - 1 .

44

Fig. IV-9.

End view of 78m-diam stem section.

TABLE IV-1 PERTINENT 78-MM-DIAMETER STEM DATA

Section lengths Debris carry-off tube i.d. Weight per section Resistance of copper electrodes per section Resistance of aluminum shell per section a t 300 K Measured dielectric s t r e n g t h

4.05 m 24.0 mm 25.9 kg 4.65 x 1.13

n n

1200 V (minimum

A structural coupling of Inconel 718 joins successive sections and transmits tensile loads while compressive loads are absorbed by a mating shoulder on adjacent sections. This mechanical design coupled w i t h simple "slip i n " power and flow connectors allows f a s t makeup of the d r i l l string. Under field conditions the contact resistance between adjacent aluminum stem sections was less t h a n 2 x nat moderate penetrator thrusts,indicating excellent electrical performance. Field testing has confirmed the validity of the stem design i n providing a l l necessary penetrator service functions and no difficult j e s were encountered i n the continuous gas transport o f the rock wool/scoria debris t o the surface for col lection. 3. Proof-of-Concept Field Experiment. As a proof-of-concept experiment, the EFU was uti1 Ized to produce a 30-m-deep hole i n a thick flow of Jemez basalt i n Ancho Canyon, southeast of 10s Alamos. The

depth goal of 30 m was selected as a compromise on the basis of demonstration of capability and field expense and does not represent any technological limitation of the penetrator or i t s support system. Deploymen8 o f equipment for the field operation with the EFU i s shown in Fig. IV-10. In addition to the diesel-powered EFU, the following auxiliary equipment was required. 0 Power conditioning and control equipment for the electrical power input to the penetrator. 220-V three-phase power supply to match the penetrator power conditioning requirements. 0 Cooling gas supply for hole forming assembly cooling requirements and debris removal. 0 Instrumentation for monitoring and controll i n g the penetrator system operation. " The instrumentation control, recording, and power conditioning equipment i s housed in the t r a i l e r to the l e f t of the EFU i n Fig. IV-10. The extruding penetrator selected for the experiment was the 84mm-diam fluted molybdenum body design described i n more detail i n Sec. 11. B of this report. This extruder was designed specifically t o produce a deeper basalt penetration than had previously been made and to do so under field conditions. Preliminary laboratory testing, followed by t e s t s employing rock specimens mounted on the EFU preceded actual production of the 30-m hole. Production of the 30-m-deep basalt hole was completed, and an aggregate- of 505 kg of debris was processed

. .
'

Fig. IV-10.

Deploymerlt of EFU i n basalt hole melti n g field operation.

45
7.

.
'

. -..
'

i n the operation. The debris i s characterized as approximately half rock wool and half scoria o r solidified pellets. The cyclone separator and debris storage drums shown i n Fig. IV-IO were added t o coll e c t the rock wool and scoria prior t o exhausting the coolant gas t o the atmosphere. The overall experiment effected a sizable gain i n knowledge and experience i n field operations of Subterrene penet r a t o r systems i n general and the 84-mn extruder i n particular. All of the new f i e l d techniques required for this novel method of hole production were successfully developed over a relatively short time span. In this same interval the 84-mn system evolved by moderate changes frcm a 3/4-m-depth laboratory extruder to a f i e l d device capable of sustained continuous operation a t modest depths. I t i s noteworthy that f i e l d testing brought out problem areas and solution approaches that passed essentially undetected i n the preliminary laboratory t e s t s . Hard rock buildup i n the lower portion of the debris carry-off tube was a primary cause of f i e l d operation stoppages a t the beginning of the experiment. Surging i s a phenomenon associated w i t h this

type of stoppage and occurs when very rapid penetration is made into a b u i l t - u p melt pool. T h i s causes a large mass of molten rock t o be suddenly injected into the carry-off tube substantially "overloading" the transporting gas which allows the slowmoving mol ten rock t o contact the side wall. When the tube wall temperature exceeds 600 K the molten rock debris can stick o r adhere t o the surface,and this buildup can continue until a complete blockage is present. The solution of this problem was an internal design modification which lowered the temperature of the carry-off tube, t h u s preventing sticking and blockage. Subsequent deep hole penetrators may find water more effective f o r cooling of this region coupled w i t h d i s t i n c t advantages f o r debris transport. Plans f o r the EFU include f i e l d testing of advanced penetrator assemblies i n basalt and other formations a t sites near Los Alamos. Other potent i a l applications include utilization i n forming test holes f o r heat flow measurements i n several geothermal resource areas , formation of drainage holes i n archeological ruins, and production of near horizontal holes f o r u t i l i t y emplacement.

46

V. A.

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS available is not designed t o withstand the high geothermal temperatures. An additional desirable capability is t h a t of continuing d r i l l i n g past the anticipated production zone towards the source of heat that drives the reservoir. This could mean penetrating into hard igneous and metamorphic rocks a t very high temperatures. The objectives would be to gain a better understanding of the basic system and t o determine whether reinjection fluid, o r even additional fresh water, might be added a t the lower hotter depths t o percolate upward into the production zone. The l a t t e r could greatly augment and a r t i f i c i a l l y stimul a t e both the production and useful l i f e of the reservoir. A t the Geothermal Resources Research Conference i n Seattle, i n September 1972, two rec* ommendations were that h i g h priority be given t o immediate improvement of exploration methods and t o the development of cheaper d r i l l i n g methods i n hightemperature formations. These improvements would result i n improved reservoir and economic models which, the conference attendees concluded, were sorely needed. The average costs f o r shallow o i l and gas wells reported by the 1972 Joint Association Survey are presented i n Table V-1.
TABLE V-1 AVERAGE DEPTH AND COST PER DEPTH TOTAL UNITED STATES IN 197Za

Geothermal Well Technology 1 . Introduction. A t the request of the projectsponsoring agency, increased emphasis was devoted to the application of the Subterrene concept t o the production of geothermal energy wells. Consistent w i t h this task, the general status of the geothermal industry and the technical problems being experienced i n producing geothermal we1 1s were extensively reviewed and evaluated. An e a r l i e r L S AL publication (LA-5689-MS) presented a summary status review of geothermal well technology, including d r i l l i n g and operational problems. Another objective of this study was t o begin the analysis and evaluation of producing wells by means of the Subterrene rock-melting process. In addition t o the use of p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e and data, many personal discussions were h e l d w i t h people i n various fields of the d r i l l i n g and Geothermal Energy (GTE) industries i n an e f f o r t t o arrive a t correct and object i v e conclusions. A l i s t of these contacts is presented l a t e r i n this section. 2. Current Technolociical and Cost Status. a. Exploration. Geothermal resource areas of the vapor-domi nated o r hydrothermal types are scattered throughout the world. Steam fumaroles or hot-water springs a r e indicators of such areas and as a result of o i l and gas d r i l l i n g a c t i v i t i e s , other anomalous high heat flux areas have become known. Data from these sources provide only rough indications of geothermal energy resources because a significant geothermal reservoir is a complex system depending on location, nature of the heat source, recharging characteristics , interrelation of permeable and nonpermeable s t r a t a , and on the total volume of the system. Much more information i s needed before the f u l l extent and nature of the geothermal resource i s well understood. With the exploratory methods available, the presence of a significant GTE reservoir must s t i l l be proven by drilling. Exploratory holes can be used for measurements of temperature and pressure profiles, permeability, porosity, 1i tho1 ogy, stratigraphy, f 1uid compositions , and production flow t e s t s . These uses of exploration holes are consistent w i t h today's capabilities f o r d r i l l i n g , downhole measurements, and logging except that i n many cases the measurement equipment

Type of Wells and Average Costb per Meter ($/m) Averaqe Total DepthWeighted Oil Gas Dry Average (km) 1.3 44.10 45.10 25.10 35.90 (4300) (13.40) (13.80) (7.70) (11.00) 1.9 52.95 53.80 34.80 45.20 (6200) (16.10) (16.40) (10.60) (13.80) 2.6 68.00 82.90 54.40 65.00 (8500) (20.70) (25.30) (16.60) (19.80) Numbers i n parentheses are f t and $/foot. Includes d r i l l i n g and casing.

*W.

J. Hickel, "Geothermal Energy A National Proposal f o r Geothermal Resources Research ," University of Alaska Conference held i n Seattle, WA (September 18-20, 1972).

47

Depth=LSkrn 1972 Dollerr

il

150
Y)

Fig. V-1.

Typical well costs for 1.5-kmdeep wells.

Cost data compiled a t LASL showed that average geothermal wells are considerably more expensive than indicated i n Table V-1 for o i l and gas wells. These data are represented i n F i g . V-1 where i t can be seen that t h e Imperial Valley hot-water wells and The Geysers steam-dominated wells are two to five times more expensive than the average o i l and gas we1 1s Greider* of Chevron O i l compiled cost data on geothermal exploration wells. Wells t o depths of 1.5 km (5000 f t ) i n most geothermal provinces i n sedimentary basins in the U. S . average 65 t o 100 $/m (20 t o 30 $ / f t ) . In remote areas or i n those w l t h interbedded volcanic rocks, costs r u n from 100 t o 200 $/m (30 to 60$/ft). To run casing and t o prepare for production i n these 1.5-km wells costs 33 t o 50 $/m (10 to 15 $ / f t ) . Thus, costs of geothermal wells range from 100 to 250 $/m (30 t o 75 $ / f t ) or approximately two t o fike times higher than the average costs o f o i l or gas wells given i n Table V-1. Greider presented other cost data: Surface exploration costs run from $75 000 t o $90 000 per typical area of interest. Only one out of four o f these areas would probably justify an exploratory hole, resulting i n $300 000 t o $360 000 per d r i l l able prospect. Only one of four of these prospect

wells would be worth r u n n i n g p i p e and completing for extensive testing. The three unsuccessful wells would cost % $100 000 t o $200 000 each and the completed wells - $150 000 t o $250 000. The net averI , age cost for each prospect worth completing and testing extensively is then $650 000. Perhaps one of four of the completed prospect wells would res u l t i n the discovery well of a reservoir large enough t o be commercially attractive. The r a t i o of total wells drilled t o each discovery well i s t h u s 16:l. Greider feels that t h i s i s a r e a l i s t i c r a t i o as the industry matures a f t e r the large easily located reservoirs are drilled. Greiders definition of a good discovery well is one defining a reservoir capable of 275 MW(e) power output. A sumnary of his cost model i s shown i n Table V-2. This simple calculation of exploratory drilling costs indicates that the costs are h i g h enough t o easily justify the cost of research leading t o lowe r exploration drilling costs. The much higher costs associated with the production and reinjection wells will be discussed l a t e r . b. Problems i n Completing Geothermal Wells. The methods used i n making geothermal wells are essentially the same as those for o i l or gas wells. Indeed, t h i s very fact somewhat impedes GTE development because geothermal we1 1 d r i 1lers are forced t o use materials and equipment t h a t are not necessarily best for geothermal wells w i t h their higher temperatures and corrosive conditions. Problem examples are: ( 1 ) only oil-well tubular goods and b i t s are available, ( 2 ) muds and cements are not checked out for high-temperature use because
TABLE V-2

COST TO PRODUCE A DISCOVERY WELL FOR A 275-MW(e) RESERVOIR

% of

Cost ($) Land acquisition (nontechnical leasing, bonus, rentals, etc.) Drilling (12 unsuccessful + 4 completed holes) Surface exploration (geology, geochemistry, geophysics) Total 3 580 OOOa 2 600 000 1 840 000 8 020 000

Total 45 32 23 100

Greider, Economic Considerations for Geothermal Exploration i n the Western Uqited States, presented a t the Symposium, Colorado Department o f Natural Resources , Denver , CO (December 6, 1973).
*R.

a Considering the h i g h bids made a t the Jan. 22, 1974 KGRA competitions i n California, these costs are probably low.

.. .

.-

48
*

sui table high- temperature laboratory equipment i s n o t available, and (3) bit-bearing lubrication sys\ terns are not designed t o withstand GTE temperatures. This dependence is designated as an important consideration i n the NSF-sponsored study of impediments to geothermal development by Bechtel Corp. for The Futures Group, Inc. In current geothermal wells, drilling i s easy i n some sedimentary basins and i s very d i f f i c u l t i n hard, fractured rocks found, e.g., a t The Geysers. The l a t t e r results i n high b i t wear and often in failures of b i t bearings due t o a combination of temperature, stress, corrosion, and fatigue effects. To better understand the factors affecting geothermal well drilling, the activity logs for 125 geothermal wells drilled i n California were studied.* The majority of the data were either from the general Geysers area or from Imperial Valley, California, and are here designated Steam, Hard Rock (SHR); and Hot Water, Sedimentary (HWS); W respectively. The data include 92 SHR and 33 H S type wells. Their depths are indicated i n a frequency of occurrence-versus-depth plot i n Fig. V-2. Selected depth intervals are 300 m. About 40% of the Imperial Valley wells ranged i n depth from 1300 t o 1900 m (4300 t o 6200 f t ) . In The Geysers 50% of the wells are i n the 1900- t o 2500-m (6200to 8200-ft) range. A similar plot is shown in Fig. V-3 for overall average penetration rates where the average includes total time for spudding i n to total depth. In the Imperial Valley the penetration rates were 1.5 to 2.5 m/h (4.9 to 8.2 ft/h) for 42% of the wells analyzed. In The Geysers, 52%of the wells were drilled a t 1 to 2 m/h (3.3 to 6.6 f t / h ) , somewhat lower than the rates in the Imperial Valley. The above discussions of cost centered primarily on wells i n conventional GTE areas where maximum depths may not exceed 3 km. For hot dry rock and geopressurized developments, the depths and drilling costs could be considerably higher. Costs increase very rapidly w i t h depth, as illustrated i n Fig. V-4. The average oil-and gas-well costs are shown shaded; typical Geysers and Imperial

Imperial Volley -dimentory hot-woter (33 we1 Is)

The Geysers vicinit! hard rock sieom-dominated (92 wells)

I 1 2 3 4 5

(krn)
9

1216

u
3
6

(km)

912

(kft)

Well Depths

(kft)

Fig.

V-2.

Depths of geothermal wells drilled i n two geothermal regions.

Valley geothermal costs are shown a s 160 $/m (50 $ / f t ) and 80 $/m (25 $ / f t ) , respectively. For depths of 15 km, costs could be % $20 000 000 to $26 000'000 per well. Clearly, GTE drilling w i t h current techniques could be very costly (e.g., running into tens of billions of dollars) making i t worthwhile and cost-effective to develop new, cheaper techniques and equipment.

40

Ok--+--hE

(ft'h)OvemlI Average Rnetmtion Rate

(fth)

Petroleum Information Corporation, Denver, CO, "Drilling Data File for Approximately 300 Geothermal Wells," supplied to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory for study purposes (March 1974).

Fig. V-3.

Overall average penetration rates i n typical geothermal wells.

49

'"t

1 1 I I969,ARPbfAEC StudyaOotol750 $/m ' lo 15km

Depth (km)

Fig. V-4.

Cost of wells permeter vs total depth.

I t has been amply demonstrated that naturally

occurring hot-water or vapor-dominated geothermal reservoirs can be penetrated by rotary drilling methods t h a t have been developed for oil and gas wells. However, there are factors i n geothermal fields such as h i g h temperature, corrosive fluids and gases, unfavorable siting conditions, and, i n many cases, hard abrasive rocks, which combine to make the average rotary-drilled geothermal wells more expensive t h a n the average oil o r gas wells of comparable depth. High well costs could significantly impede the expansion of geothermal energy sources. There are many applications for geothermal temperatures less than 660 K, which i s about the upper limit measured a t well bottom t o date. To attain the higher temperatures desirable or required for many heretofore unexploi ted GTE applications, one has t o consider penetration into deep h o t zones. Current drilling methods (especially the use of muds and cemented casings for hole control and support) will t h u s be severely strained technically and will probably make the wells excessively expensive. An evaluative summary of the various current drilling problems in geothermal wells is presented i n Table V-3.
50

Conceptual Applications of Subterrene Devices e t o Geothermal Wells. Nw Subterrene technology would open u p options for obtaining the most economically and technically suitable methods for any particular s e t of conditions and requirements. For example, i t could be most economical to use rotary d r i l l s for making holes rapidly i n known, easily penetrated formations. Then, in hot, hard zones, the tools and methods might change t o Subterrene technology t o complete the j o b . Listed below are current rotary drilling problems i n geothermal wells followed i n each case by a discussion of how the use of Subterrene devices could either help solve or eliminate the problem. 6 Problem: Hole stabilization in unstable formations. Subterrene: The optimum well hole production process minimizes excavation damage to the inherent structural integrity of the ground or rock and i s then followed by the continuous installation of a structural support and seal t o prevent the i n flow of ground fluids. T h i s process may well be accomplished by a Subterrene system which makes the hole by melting and simultaneously forms a struct u r a l rock-glass liner. a Problem: Rock b i t wear and temperatureinduced fai 1ures Subterrene: A Subterrene depends upon melting, not on cutting or mechanical fragmentation, and therefore eliminates this problem. Also, h i g h rock temperatures would enhance the performance of the Subterrene b i t because the b i t has to supply less thermal energy to melt the rock. a Problem: Cements a t h i g h temperature. Subterrene: Steel casings may n o t be necessary i f good structural rock-glass hole linings can be made. If steel casings are used, the relatively smooth surface inside the glass lining should fac i l i t a t e the flow of the cement. Also, the requirements that the cement be b o t h strong and impermeable should be lessened because of the presence of the glass lining. m Problem: Production-zone hole completion. Subterrene: The Subterrene could penetrate the production zone with a glass-lined hole. T h i s penetration would not kill or impair the zone's production capability because drilling fluid, cuttings, and lost-circulation material would not be
3.

TABLE V-3 SUMMARY OF CURRENT GEOTHERMAL DRILLING PROBLEMS Type GTZ Field

I tern Surface locations

Sedimentary Hot-Water

Hard, Igneous Vapor-Dominated

Symbols and Problem Descriptions 6: Difficult geological conditions typical of many GTE fields, including s i t e s , hard rocks, caving formations, etc.
R: Rigs of h i g h mobility are needed, adequately equipped t o handle r a p i d changes i n hole conditions . X: Dependence on oil- and gas-industry materials and equipnent, competition for supplies. T: Temperatures up to c\, 660 K cause rubber, elastomer, metallurgical, mud, cement, and electronic problems.
C: Corrosion problems caused by ground fluids

Drilling-rig design

Other surface equi pmen t Bits and d r i l l a b i l i t y

Mud-ci rcul ation sys tems Hole support and control Cements Downhole measurements

and gases.
E: High stem, casing, and surface-equipment erosion by a i r + steam + rock cuttings. D: Directional drilling equipment n o t available for hard rock a t high temperatures. F: Hot saline waters contaminate drilling muds. Also, muds can reduce or kill well productivity or may hydrate clays. 0: Lack of organized GTE wells drilling-data bank and ways t o use such data t o optimize d r i l l i n g programs.
0
0

T u b u l a r goods

Optimized dri 11i n g Costs of geothermal wells

H: Costs are typically high because of interrelating effects of items listed above.

pumped into the zone. Also, the sealing action of the lining would f a c i l i t a t e stem and b i t changes, i f necessary. Several ways t o ultimately complete the well and to allow the hot water or steam t o flow into the well are conceivable. One might be to shatter the glass liner with a linear explosive; another, t o conventionally perforate the liner w i t h shaped charges. a Problem: High torque on long d r i l l stems in deep wells. Subterrene: Subterrene bits are n o t rotated and therefore the torque requirements are eliminated. a Problem: Corrosive environment. Subterrene: The corrosion problem will change because different materials will be used. Any drilling system must live with the corrosive

materials encountered i n the earth. However, Subterrene-produced holes should be more effectively sealed from the corrosive materials. Also, stem and b i t need n o t rotate so that protective coatings should be easier t o maintain. e Problem: Formation evaluation and sampling. Subterrene: The Subterrene offers the possibility of extracting a continuous, oriented glass-encased core. The glass hole lining eliminates the problem of making logging measurements through a heavy steel casing or through variable depths of mud invasion. Because the glass-lined hole interior i s better protected than the unlined hole, the possib i l i t y o f developing continuous downhole logging may be enhanced. a Problem: Directional drilling i n hot, hard rock. 51

Subterrene: Hot, hard rock does n o t bother the Subterrene bit. Directional change is possible by either mechanical means or by controlling the temperatures circumferentially around the b i t . In exploration and resource assessments , Subterrene devices m i g h t make small-diameter, shallow (e.g. , 50-m-diam by 150-m-deep) , self-cased holes for thermal-gradient measurements. Many such holes will be needed i n the near future. For production wells and systems, there are two specialized back-up or auxiliary devices that could be used in conjunction with conventional rotary dri 11ing systems. First, a hole-stabilization tool for use i n caving formations, hydrating or swelling clays, or lostcirculation zones. This tool would be a thermal device producing either a rock-glass lining or i n jecting structually stabilizing materials into the borehole walls. Second, the tool would be used for completing holes into production zones where h i g h s t a t i c temperatures and h o t fluids are encountered and where reservoir contamination i s n o t desirable. In certain water or steam reservoirs, or i n magmas and lavas that are difficult t o penetrate with rotary d r i l l s , Subterrene systems could be used t o produce entire production wells. Product i o n fields would probably include waste-water reinjection wells and injection wells for productionaugmentation purposes. These l a t t e r type we1 Is , of smaller diameter than the production wells, could have the same diameter as the exploration wells. Note that one of the desirable requirements for small exploration boreholes i s t h a t the holes be readily enlargeable, i f desired, to the size of a production well. With conventionally cased holes, such an enlargement i s very difficult and costly because the casing i s very securely cemented into place. In a glass-lined hole the l i n i n g might be either reamed out w i t h a rotary b i t or i t could be melted and the hole enlarged with a Subterrene b i t . 4. Contacts Made t o Discuss Geothermal Well Drilling Problems. The following people were willi n g t o discuss drilling problems and contribute data that were useful i n preparing report LA-56894, "Geothermal W1 1 Technology and Potential Appl icae tions o f Subterrene Devices - A Status Review.'' 1. A. L. Austin, Lawrence Livermore Lab., Univ. of California, Livermore, CA.

2. L. 0. Beaulaurier, Drilling Problems, Geothermal Technology Assessment Study for The Futures Group, Inc., Bechtel Corp., San Francisco, CA. 3 . W. E. Boyd, Industrial and Business Training Bureau, Petroleum, Univ. of Texas, Austin, TX. 4. M. Carasso, Project Mgr., Geothermal Technology Assessment Study for The Futures Group, Inc., Bechtel Corp., San Francisco, CA. 5. Tony Chasteen, Engineer, Union Oil o f Calif., Santa Rosa, CA. 6. Joe Cook, Rock B i t Production Mgr. , Administration Div. Hughes Tool Co., Houston, TX. 7. Glenn Damewood, Tech. V.P., Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX. 8. John P. Finney, Project Engineer, Geysers, Pacific Gas and Electric Co., San Francisco, CA. 9. Jim French, GTE Data Bank, U. S. Geological Survey, Garden Grove, CA. 10. Ed Gallo, Director of Research, Hughes Tool Co., Houston, TX. 1 1 . T. C. Gipson, Calvert Western Exploration Co., Tulsa, OK. 12. Bill Glass, V . P. and Operations Mgr., Big Chief Drilling Co., Oklahoma City, OK. 13. John Goode, Cement Lab., Halliburton Services, Duncan, OK. 14. R. Greider, Senior Geological Consultant, Chevron Oil, Minerals Staff, San Francisco, CA. 15. J . L. Kennedy, Editor, O i l and Gas Journal, Houston, TX. 16. R. T. Littleton, Bureau of Reclamation, Boulder City, NV. 17. Jack Marsee, V. P. Engineering, Loffland Bros. Drilling Co., Tulsa, OK. 18. John McNanee, Bureau of the Census, Waryland. 19. R. W. McQueen, V. P . , Dresser Security Bits, Houston, TX. 20. K. Mirk, P. Witherspoon,and H. Wollenberg, Lawrence Berkeley Lab., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, CA 21. Howard Morton, Technical Repr. , Rocky Mts., Baroid Div., N. L. Industries, Inc., Tulsa, OK. 22. M. Newsom, R. Alvis and C. Morse, Sandia Corp., Albuquerque, NM. 23. Dexter Polk, V . P., Dresser Oil Field Products Div. , Houston, TX. 24. Henry J . Ramey, J r . , Dept. of Petroleum Engineering, Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA. 25. W. Randall, Research, Amoco Production Co., Tulsa, OK. 26. R. W. Sartor, Dresser Industries, Dallas, TX. 27. Calvin Saunders , Gen Mgr Research, Hal 1i burton Services , Duncan , OK. 28. H. Snow and V. E. Suter, District Operations Mgr., Union Oil Co. of Calif., Santa Rosa, CA. 29. Ken Tanner, Mgr. Tech. Services, Baroid Div., N. L. Industries, Inc., Houston, TX.

52

30. Ted Welp, I n t e r n a l Revenue Service, U. S. Treasury Dept., Washington, DC.

2.

System Model a. GEOWELL. A computer program c a l l e d

31. Jim Youngblood, V. P., Houston, TX.

B.

Dresser Magcobar,

GEOWELL was developed t o analyze the c r i t i c a l techn i c a l and economic aspects o f a Subterrene w e l l production sjstem. System assumptions and the var-

Geothermal Well Systems and Cost Analysis 1. Introduction. I n l i g h t of t h e ' f a c t t h a t a

ious technical and cost elements t h a t make up the model are presented i n the f o l l o w i n g discussions. Because b o t h r o t a r y and rock-melting systems are cost-optimized f o r producing d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of a w e l l , the program contains both r o t a r y and rockwells. m e l t i n g p r e d i c t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r deep geothermal For future studies and as more geothermal b i l i t i e s can be expanded t o include a complete spectrum o f geothermal we1 1 types. b. Well Designs. Two e x p l o r a t o r y gas w e l l s o f recent years, d r i l l e d under d i f f i c u l t conditions and t o record depths, used some o f t h e b e s t r o t a r y d r i l l i n g technology a v a i l a b l e today: (1) E. R. Baden No. 1 d r i l l e d t o 9158 m (30 050 ft) and (2) Bertha Rogers No. 1 d r i l l e d t o 9583 m (31 441 f t ) i n t h e Anadarko Basin i n Western Oklahoma by Lone S t a r Producing Co. o f Oklahoma City. A f t e r reviewing w e l l designs used i n many other w e l l s both i n t h e U.S. and abroad, t h e designs o f these two w e l l s were selected as guidelines f o r GEOWELL. Figure V-5 shows the w e l l design f o r a t o t a l depth o f 10 km d r i l l e d completely by r o t a r y b i t s . Moderate formation and f r a c t u r e pressures, i .e., approximately hydrostatic, were assumed i n the upper 4300 m. High pressures, i.e., approaching l i t h o s t a t i c , were assumed from 4300 t o 7000 m. Thereafter, t o t o t a l depth, i t was assumed t h a t pressures were moderate again. below the 660-mm (26-in.) Figure V-6 shows the w e l l design when rock-melting b i t s are used
It was assumed t h a t the 914- and 660-mm holes would always

s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h e cost o f a geothermal energy e x t r a c t i o n f a c i l i t y i s associated w i t h w e l l costs, improvements i n geothermal w e l l d r i l l i n g technology would be p a r t i c u l a r l y b e n e f i c i a l , When the h o t d r y rock (HDR) and geopressurized e x t r a c t i o n systems are developed, geothermal energy could become very important as a n a t i o n a l energy source. According * t o estimates made by White and Williams, the geothermal energy resource a v a i l a b l e t o H R and geoD pressurized systems i n t h e regional conductive environments (depths down t o 10 km, n o t i n c l u d i n g any methane c o n t r i b u t i o n ) i s
Q, 33 500 000 (8 000 000 x 1 0 l 8 c a l = 31 800 x 10l8 i s 2600 times t h e estimated value f o r steam and h o t water geothermal energy

w e l l data become available, t h e program's capa-

x 10l8 J Btu). This conventional resources and

440 000 times the t o t a l U.S.

energy consumption i n

1972 o f 75.9 x 1 0 l 8 J. Both HDR and geopressurized w e l l s can be d i f f i c u l t t o produce. Hot d r y rock w e l l s are i n t e n t i o n a l l y made i n s o l i d and p r e f e r a b l y very h o t basement rock, hence t h e i r name, whereas geopressurized w e l l s are i n h i g h pressurized (approaching l i t h o s t a t i c ) and d i f f i c u l t - t o - d r i l l formations. A study was i n i t i a t e d on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f the Subterrene concept t o t h e p r o d u c t f o n o f these d i f f i c u l t - t o - d r i l l wells. e The basic study o b j e c t i v e s were t o : Study t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Subterrene

concept t o the production o f deep w e l l s such as may be used f o r h o t d r y rock o r geopressurized geothermal energy e x t r a c t i o n systems.
0

hole section.

Make technical and economic comparisons

w i t h r o t a r y d r i 11i ng techniques and sys tems. The r e s u l t s are published i n LASL r e p o r t LA-6555-MS, "Technical and Cost Analysis o f Rock M e l t i n g Systems f o r Producing Geothermal Wells" by J . H. Altseimer (October 1976) and a r e summarized i n t h e f o l l o w i n g sections o f t h i s r e p o r t .

be made by r o t a r y d r i l l i n g .

Below the bottom o f

t h e 660-mm hole, r o t a r y d r i l l s would continue t o be used u n t i l i t was desired t o s t a r t rock melting. The s i z e of t h e hole a t t o t a l depth i n t h i s w e l l i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t thown f o r t h e a l l - r o t a r y case. However, note t h a t intermediate hole and casing sizes are smaller due t o t h e advantageous use o f the rock-glass l i n e r . c. Surface Equipment. Surface equipment

*White, D. E. and Williams, D. L., Ed. "Assessment o f Geothermal Resources o f t h e U.S. 1975," U.S.G.S. C i r c u l a r 726 (1975).

requirements f o r a combined rotary/rock-me1 ti ng

53

914 M (36 IN,) HOLE M (30 In.) E CASIWG, T 5 19.0 M 66-3m (26 IN.) !iOLE [406 m (16 IN.) PILOT HOLE] 508 M (20 IN.) 6 5 CASING. T 16.1 m 406 M ( 6 IN.) HOLE 1 OP OF ROCK ! L E HOLE i TD E ' 436 M (16 IN.) HOLE YITH LIGHT GLASS LINER u M (7 IN.) P l l O CASING, T 18.5 PLY 8
?40
M

tl3.37 IN.) PllO CASING,

(5 IN.) P u o M % T u.1 M I, 299 rn (U.8 IN.) HOLE WITH HEAVY GLASS LINER
M

NODERUE
PRESSURES 10
OM] M-

200 ~y.l HOLE WIT!! LIGHT

GLASS LINER
127
M
T

(5 IN.) P l l O CASING,

12.1 M

Fig. V-5.

Well design for the all-rotary drilled we1 1.

Fig. V-6,

W1 1 design for rotary/rock-melted well. e

system are similar t o those now used for all-rotary projects. Also, the power levels required for rock melting are compatible with those already required on rotary deep-we1 1 rigs , e.g. , up to 3000 hp. In GEOWELL, the drilling contractor's cost i s divided into rig (CRIG) and drill-pipe (CPIPE) costs. For these estimates 1973 oil and gas data were compiled from the open literature and then upgraded to 1975. Using EL as the total target depth in meters, the resultant curve-fit equations used i n the program are: CRIG = 1453 -+ 0.2022 (EL) -+ 10.19 x (EL)', $/d CPIPE = 106.8 - 0.0419 (EL) + 20.55 x 10-6(EL)*, $/de Drill Pipe. Design studies produced a Subterrene d r i l l pipe capable of carrying b o t h electric current and the downflow of drilling fluid. The pipe is shown i n Fig. V-7 and consists of two concentric 7075 aluminum tubes separated by a 2-mnthick layer of material that,, structurally bonds the tubes together and acts as an electric insulator. A conventional tool j o i n t on the outer tube serves as the structural connection w i t h adjacent pipe. The current i n the outer tube flows across the thread contact surfaces and the smooth metal cont a c t and sealing surface a t the joint leading edge.
d.

The inner tube has a tight sliding f i t a t the j o i n t for electric contact, b u t no axial forces can be transmitted. Handling and operational characteri s t i c s of t h i s pipe are very similar to those of conventional d r i l l pipe. The i n i t i a l cost i s approximately three times higher b u t this disadvantage i s reduced by an enhanced operating lifetime for the Subterrene pipe due t o the fact t h a t Subterrene pipe does n o t rotate and i s n o t exposed t o the usual rotary pipe fatigue stresses and f r i c t i onal wear.
BONDED COAXIAL ALUMIMM DRILL PlPE FOR A TYPICAL IOOOOm TOTAL DEPTH WELL

[Aluminum Condvclon

L S e a l 8 Eiaclrkal

LElaclrkal. Thermal

Insulation

inrulolion

F i g . V-7.

Subterrene coaxial a1 umi num dri 11-pipe concept.

54

Bd

A pipe with an 0.d. of 140 mn (5.51 i n . ) was found t o f i t well i n a l l sections of the borehole being studied and was therefore selected as a standard. Thus, in the GEOWELL analysis the 0.d. i s maintained a t 140 mm, whereas the other dimensions are varied to meet current and load criteria. Costs are calculated on the basis of these dimensions t o arrive a t a basic material and fabrication cost. Other estimates are made as to delivered pipe cost, pipe lifetime, drilling contractors profit, etc., to finally arrive a t a Subterrene drill-pipe cost i n dollars per day. e. Bits. The Subterrene b i t required for producing deep wells is the me1 t-extruding type using either gas or liquid as the drilling fluid. The assumed design-point b i t performances are a lifetime of 300 h and a rate of penetration (ROP) of 1 mm/s (11.8 ft/h) a t a rock temperature of 283 K. Note that rock temperature i s specified because ROP varies w i t h rock temperature. Attaini n g and demonstrating longer lifetime and higher ROP remain development problems for m e l t i n g b i t s . Another problem is obtaining sufficient clearance between the glass former (located immediately behind the melting face) and the hole so as t o facili t a t e b i t travel during trips. A clearance of several millimeters on the radius i s desirable to prevent b i t damage or high-pressure drops across the b i t d u r i n g f a s t trips. A t least five approaches to solving this problem have been identified. GEOWELL also includes rotary-bi t performance estimates. Field performances vary widely depending on s i t e and operating conditions. An attempt was made to simulate relatively easy rotary d r i l l i n g i n the sedimentary upper formations and harder drilling i n the deeper, more crystalline formations. The equations defining performance vs depth used i n the program are for rotary penetrat i o n rate, RROP, a t any rotary depth, ROTEL, i n meters : RROP = 591.62 x (ROTEL)'0'6739, and for b i t meterage:
m/h

equations give a range of ROP from 592 m/h a t spudding-in t o 1.2 m/h a t 10 000-m depth. Meterage ranges from 884 m i n i t i a l l y to 64 m a t 10 000-m depth. For rotary bits catalog data was used for carbide bits. The rock-melting b i t costs, PENC, are based on Subterrene program experience and are defined by the following equations, where DPEN is penetrator diameter i n meters:
PENC = 1286 + 20556 (DPEN) + 69053 (DPEN)2,

1975 $.

ROTEL < 1440 m: BITM = 884.0 0.553 (ROTEL), m/bit ROTEL > 1440 m: BITM = 97.0 0.0033 (ROTEL), m/bit.

Some additional performance variations are included t o account for multiple operations like pilot holes followed by hole-opener operations. The above

f . Electric Power Generation and Transmission. For power transmission a1 ternating current is the better choice over direct current for several important reasons, the most important one being corrosion. The presence of dc electric power flowi n g i n a conductor immersed i n mud o r drilling fluid would enhance production of corrosion c e l l s due t o the potential gradient along the conductor. Such corrosion would be particularly detrimental around any conductor anomaly such as a threaded joint. B y its inability t o establish and support such corrosion cells, ac has a distinct advantage. Direct-current equipment capable of a continuous voltage change over a wide range would be costly, bulky, and d i f f i c u l t t o control. However, such voltage requirements could be met easily by the combination of an ac power source and transformer or saturable reactor. The use of ac also has some disadvantages such as inefficiencies due to hysteresis, dielectric losses, and changing power factors. However, w i t h proper design, the small losses remaining in the transmission circuit and other related equipment are acceptable. For power-cost estimates, GEOWELL i n cludes calculations for the costs of diesel electric generators amortized over 10 yr as well as diesel fuel costs. 9. Drilling Fluids. The drilling fluid for a rock-melting system has to perform the followi n g functions: (a) form solid debris, (b) cool the glass-former section, (c) control formation pressures and prevent caving, ,(d) carry out debris, (e) hold solid additives in suspension under stagnant flow conditions, ( f ) reduce corrosion, and (9) lubricate moving pipe o r casing. Based on rotary drilling experience, drilling fluids like water, water-based muds, oil-based muds, etc. , could perform functions (c) through (9). I t is estimated that functions (a) and ( b ) could also be

55

been demonstrated experimentally.

handled even though t h i s c a p a b i l i t y has n o t y e t For t h e we1 1

pressure, i s assumed w i t h m u l t i p l i e r s o f T.5, respectively 0 The f l o w r a t e o f the d r i l l i n g f l u i d i s

30.0,

and 0.77 on density, viscosity,'and heat capacity,

models s e t up f o r t h i s study i n which high format i o n pressures are postulated, muds are deemed essential t o c a r r y o u t function ( c ) . Open-literature data f o r mud costs i n o i l and gas w e l l s were used t o estimate the mud costs f o r the r o t a r y w e l l model. For normal geothermal gradients, the t o t a l mud costs, CMUD, are:

based on upper annulus dimensions and i s calculated t o be s u f f i c i e n t t o move the excavation debris (assumed as spherical p a r t i c l e s ) upward a t a veloci t y equal t o the terminal v e l o c i t y o f the p a r t i c l e s

EL > 1354 m: CMUD

= 21912

28.64 (EL) + 0.0108 (EL)2, 1975 $.

m u l t i p l i e d by 1.5. 0 Maximum p a r t i c l e diameter i s 10 mm w i t h a 3 density o f 2700 kg/m

F r i c t i o n f a c t o r s f o r the pipe and annulus respectively. Outer-

For Subterrene mud costs, the b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f the precise hole s i z e control w i t h rock melters compared t o r o t a r y and also g l a s s - l i n i n g b e n e f i t s i.e., are i s o l a t i o n of mud from the formations, re0.75 times rotary. h. Hole Support. s u l t e d i n an estimate t h a t Subterrene mud costs
Q ,

are based on absolute roughnesses o f 4.57 x and 3.05 x

0

T o o l - j o i n t pressure losses are zero i n s i d e

the d r i l l pipe because o f f l u s h design.

j o i n t losses are estimated. 0 Heat t r a n s f e r through the w a l l o f the coa x i a l aluminum pipe i s included. e Heat t r a n s f e r t o o r from the surrounding rock i s included, based on t r a n s i e n t heat conduction i n a s e m i - i n f i n i t e slab as a f u n c t i o n o f d r i l l i n g time.
0

The f o l l o w i n g glass-

l i n e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were assumed: (1) the s o l i d i f i e d melt seals the hole e f f e c t i v e l y ; (2) the collapse strength o f the rock-glass l i n e d w a l l i s high; (3) l i n e r w a l l thicknesses are controllable; and (4) l i n e r t e n s i l e strengths are n e g l i g i b l e . For the s t e e l casing used i n the modeled wells, the conductor and surface casing are made o f lowcost K-55 grade steel, whereas the remainder i s made from a higher grade such as P-110. Casing costs were obtained from i n d u s t r i a l catalogs. Cementing costs i n d o l l a r s per u n i t volume are mainly based on LASL h o t d r y rock geothermal d r i l l i n g experience. With the i n p u t dimensions, the program calculates the weight of the casing and the delivered-casing costs. For cement costs, the t o t a l volume o f delivered cement i s calculated f o r the w e l l model being considered, and t h i s volume i s m u l t i p l i e d by the appropriate cost i n d o l l a r s per cubic meter.

Heat a d d i t i o n t o the d r i l l i n g f l u i d from

the debris and cooling o f the glass l i n i n g i s i n cluded as a lump sum a t the penetration location.
0

Heat a d d i t i o n along the length o f the stem Study Results. The GEOWELL a n a l y t i c a l

due t o power-transmission losses i s included. 3. r e s u l t s presented i n t h i s section are l i m i t e d t o the most severe technical conditions, i.e., a rockmelting b i t advancing a t 1.0 mm/s a t the bottom o f a 10 000-in deep w e l l . Figure V-8 p l o t s the mass flow r a t e required t o l i f t the debris i n the annulus as a function o f debris diameter f o r the w e l l design i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. V-6. For the maximum p a r t i c l e s i z e o f 10 mm, the required mud f l o w r a t e i s 46.1 kg/s.
If the maximum p a r t i c l e s i z e (and

i. Thermal and Hydraulic Conditions.

Equations f o r the thermal and hydraulic conditions i n rock-melted boreholes were s e t up t o f a c i l i t a t e the evaluation o f rock melting. The f o l l o w i n g assumptions are incorporated i n t o t h i s p a r t o f the program.
0

hence flow r a t e ) i s reduced, then the corresponding increase i n maximum mud temperature i s as shown i n Fig. V-9. Even i f the flow r a t e i s halved t o 23 kg/s, corresponding t o a p a r t i c l e s i z e o f 2.5 mm, the maximum mud temperature would s t i l l be a reasonable 336.5 K, even a t the high geothermal gradi e n t w i t h a rock temperature o f 1033 K a t t o t a l depth. Thus, the mud f l o w r a t e i s established by the particle-removal c r i t e r i o n and n o t by the mud temperature.

Geothermal temperatures increase l i n e a r l y

w i t h depth. e A t y p i c a l d r i l l i n g mud, based on water properties as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature and 56

NOMINAL MELTING ROP : I m m / r

NOMINAL MELTING ROP: Imm/s DATA APPLICABLE OVER 25 TO 7 5 K l k m QEOTHERMAL GRADIENT RANGE

\
Gea gradlent*75 K/km Bottom rock temprmlurrIO33K (1399%)

'Ot 0 0

I
2
4 6 8 I O Particle Diamater(mm1
0
I

Fig. V-8.

Typical mud f l o w r a t e vs debris p a r t i c l e diameter f o r rotarylrock-me1 ted 10 000-mdeep we1 1

4 8 8 Particle Diameter (mm)

io

For a p a r t i c l e diameter o f 10 mn t h e horsepower required from the w e l l i n l e t t o t h e o u t l e t i s

n ,

Fig. V-9.

Maximum t y p i c a l mud temperatures f o r rotary/rock-me1 t e d 10 000-m-deep w e l l .

720 hp.

Taking i n t o account surface i n l e t pres-

sure drops and motor i n e f f i c i e n c i e s , the actual pump power might have t o be as h i g h as 900 hp, w e l l w i t h i n the range o f power l e v e l s on c u r r e n t d r i l l i n g r i g s . The t o t a l pressure drop between the d r i l l pipe and the annulus f l o w channel i s 18.04 MPa (2620 p s i ) , o f which 11.56 MPa (1680 p s i ) i s i n t h e d r i l l pipe and 6.48 MPa (940 p s i ) i s i n the annulus. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e normally high drops across r o t a r y b i t s , the drop across the rock-melting b i t i s n e g l i g i b l e . Using the coa x i a l aluminum p i p e f o r a 10-km w e l l and i n c l u d i n g an allowance f o r a 650 000-N (146 000-lb) breakaway load, the maximum s t r e s s i n the aluminum pipe i s 364 000 kPa (52 700 p s i ) a t a y i e l d - t o - l o a d s a f e t y f a c t o r o f 1.33. Under normal operating conditions a t t h i s depth t h e maximum s t r e s s i s o n l y 170 900 kPa (24 800 p s i ) . stress problems are indicated. The GEOWELL program c a l c u l a t e s the various downhole losses, t o t a l required power, and t h e transmission e f f i c i e n c y assuming t h a t t h e coaxi a1 aluminum d r i l l pipe i s used t o t r a n s m i t a l t e r n a t i n g current. tively. T o t a l power required ranges from 580 t o The 10 000-m e f f i c i e n c y tends t o remain 740 k a t depths o f 5000 and 10 000 m, respecW high compared t o t h e 5000-m values because o f the Thus, no severe

b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f higher rock temperatures on the m e l t i n g process. These c a l c u l a t i o n s do n o t i n d i c a t e any p a r t i c u l a r power-transmission problems t o depths as g r e a t as 10 000 m f o r any o f the examples studied. 4. Cost Analyses a. Normal Geothermal Gradient Wells. The Subterrene w e l l s

Figure V-10 shows both r o t a r y and Subterrene c o s t p r e d i c t i o n s vs t o t a l depth. use optimized r a t i o s o f r o t a r y t o Subterrene w e l l depth intervals,and the geothermal gradient i s 25 Wkm. For these w e l l s the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t nominal m e l t i n g r a t e o f 0.2 mm/s i s n o t costcompetitive with r o t a r y . The r a t e s r e q u i r e d f o r the melted w e l l s t o equal t h e r o t a r y - d r i l l e d w e l l costs range from 0.24 t o 0.42

mm/s f o r 10 000- and

However, a t 0.6

5000-m deep wells, respectively.

m/s the c o s t savings o f melted over r o t a r y w e l l s range from 18 t o 8% f o r 10 000- and 5000-m deep wells, respectively, and a t the r a t e o f 1.0 mm/s the corresponding savings are 23 t o 16%. These
savings are f o r w e l l s being made under r e l a t i v e l y cool, normal-gradient conditions.

b.

High Geothermal Gradient Wells.

A hot

w e l l i s defined as one t h a t has a bottomhole temperature o f 673 K (752'F). Very few s t a t i s t i c s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s c l a s s o f w e l l s because (1) n o t 57

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT:25 K/km

1 4

(lo3 f t )
IO

1 6

20
1

24

28
I

32

9-

8-

*7z
r-

cn -

mns(n5-

t;;

I I

4-

3-

2I-

1
I

Fig. V-10.

Well cost vs total depth i n cool wells with a geothermal gradient of 25 K/km.
Fig. V-11.

many very h o t geothermal we1 1s have been drilled and (2) l i t t l e detailed data have been released by the companies dri 11i n g the we1 1s. Nevertheless , estimates can be made to allow a comparison of Subterrene and rotary systems. The procedure used i s t o apply correction factors to the appropriate cost equations in GEOWELL. The computed results for hot wells as defined above are shown i n Fig. V-11. Because a l l bottomhole temperatures are assumed to be 673 K, the geothermal gradients vary with depth, b u t across the range of data plotted a l l gradients are above normal. I t can be seen that w i t h the state-of-the-art nominal melting rate of 0.2 m / s , the Subterrene well cost i s not much different from that for rotary d r i l l i n g . A t 0.6 mm/s, midway between current and program target rates, the cost savings are significant (20 and 17%for 10 000-and 5000-m depths, respectively) , and are also greater than for comparable depth normal-gradient wells. A t 1 mm/s the Subterrene cost is indicated as being 30 and 21% less t h a n rotary for 10 000-and 5000-m depths, respectively

Well costs vs total depth in hot wells w i t h various melting b i t performance. Rock temperatures increase linearly to 673 K (752'F) a t total depth for a l l wells.

c. Study Conclusions. e The GEOWELL computer program i s a good simulation of deep and d i f f i c u l t wells of the type defined, allowing the evaluation of major technical o r cost items. Other well models could be specified and the program adjusted accordingly for further studies. e The Subterrene concept can be combined w i t h conventional drilling operations without major operational perturbations. However, for very hot boreholes, a change i n system design and operation is indicated to develop the capability of maintaining continuous , or nearly continuous, circulation while working i n the hot p a r t of the borehole. This applies t o both rotary and Subterrene systems. e Subterrene performance of O.P-mm/s penetration rate and 100-h b i t l i f e can, i n some cases, provide marginal cost savings. However, i f the
Q ,

58

bl

Subterrene system achieves the performance goal of 1 mm/s penetration rate and 300-h b i t l i f e , then Subterrene-produced wells would be significantly less expensive t h a n rotary. In h o t wells (673-K bottom temperature) savings of 30 and 21% are predicted f o r depths of 10 000 and 5000 m respectively. Even i n cool , normal-gradient conditions, the savings are favorable, ranging from 23 to 16%for depths of 10 000 and 5000 m respectively. e Penetration rates of 0.4 t o 0.6 mm/s also result i n significant savings for deep geothermal wells. e All other Subterrene design or operational problems t h a t were studied appear t o have viable solutions. e The most interesting feature of the d r i l l ing by melting concept i s to form rock-glass liners on the borehole wall. These liners offer opportunities t o solve well-production problems associated with hole control , l o s t circulation, casing design, cementing,and highpressure packers. Mathematical Modeling and Analysis 1. Introduction. The analysis effort has been directed a t understanding and predicting Subterrene performance and in guiding new penetrator designs. The program has included the development and use of detailed computer programs adapted t o the spec i f i c geometries, physical phenomena, and material properties germane t o Subterrene performance. The development of analytical models has contributed t o the basic understanding of specific relationships such as the leading edge flux limitations and the thrust-veloci ty dependence. Also of major importance was the theoretical calculation of material properties when the experimental values were not appropriate or available. The application of these models and techniques to specific designs and the interpretation of t e s t results has received the largest portion o f the analysis program time. a. Computer Program Development. The f i nite element code AYER has been the single most important analysis tool and has seen the most applications to Subterrene problems because of the ease of operation and the versatility provided by the subroutine input. Any desired additional programming can be included i n the five subroutines.
C.

The basic AYER code provides a time-dependent solution to the nonlinear two-dimensional heat conduct i o n equation in plane or cylindrically symnetric coordinates with temperature- and time-dependent material properties. This basic code incorporating penetrator material properties, in situ rock properties,and various treatments of the radiation has been used extensively. Two specific additions t o the basic code have extended the usefulness of AYER. One is the inclusion of a hydrodynamics subroutine for the meltlayer flow. This treatment of the melt-layer hydrodynamics was developed for the VFQ code. I t s i n corporation in AYER eliminates the necessity of separate set-ups and the transferring of data from one code t o the other. Since this routine calculates the velocity flow field i n the melt and the hydrodynamic forces on the penetrator, i t gives the imnediate interaction of the melt velocities and temperatures with the internal temperature d i s t r i bution. The calculated forces on the penetrator, which are extremely sensitive to the surface temperature distribution, are automatically available for each change of penetrator configuration. A second addition was an energy deposition routine for heating the melt layer a t the leading edge with an electrical current. The present form of t h i s calculation has proved useful where the electric field could be assumed t o have a simple distribution. I t gives the effect of the temperature-dependent electrical resistivity of the melt on the power distribution and provides t h e interaction between the power deposition, heat flow,and hydrodynamics. An extension of this routine could i n clude a more complete solution of the Maxwell equations for the electric field configuration in the case of spatially dependent resistivity and dielect r i c constant. Other special -purpose codes have been written t o address the problems unique t o the Subterrene penetrators. For instance, VFQ i s a f i n i t e difference program for computing steady-state thermal and hydrodynamic characteristics o f the melt flow to determine such things as required thrust loads and thickness profile of the melt layer. PLACID, a finite-element program for stress analysis, has been used for the thermal and loading stress analysis of the heated penetrator.
59

the thermal conductivity of liquid basalt was calb. Analytical Models. A number of simpliculated with three different theories. For basalt fied analytical models have been used to examine these three methods give results from 0.10 to 0.34 specific physical phenomena that affect the performA value of 0.25 W-m-l-k- was chosen for ance of Subterrene penetrator systems. In many cases W.m-.k-. the performance calculations. Thus f a r these methods these models have supplemented the more comprehensive have been applied only t o basalt b u t could be used computer programs and contribute to the overall for any rock f o r which the sound speeds are known understanding by isolating specific effects. Some have been incorporated into the computer programs or for the solid and l i q u i d and f o r which the viscosity i s known as a function of temperature. have yielded specific results that were used i n the computer analysis. These models have been used t o An analytical parameter study of the leading edge flux was also developed which considers the calculate material properties, the leading edge flux, effects of surface temperature, rock and melt thermal the thrust-velocity relationship, stem cooling, and conductivities, and a f i n i t e radius of curvature for melt-heating stability analyses. Some of these the leading edge. One significant result i s that models will be briefly reviewed here and the effects the infinite radius of curvature or f l a t plate limit on the penetrator performance calculations will be holds for the flux a t the leading edge for most outlined i n the next section. penetrators and operating conditions achieved thus Since the conditions a t the penetrator leading far. This result i s valid for rocks w i t h a melt edge are critical i n the determination of velocity and thrust for a given penetrator surface temperature thermal conductivity less than that of the solid rock, advance rates of ~ 8 . 2mn.s-,and radii of distribution, i t i s necessary to calculate the radiacurvature >5.0 mm. Models that predict the forcetive and conductive fluxes accurately. The data velocity relationship have been useful for scaling available indicates that, above the melting temperthe penetrator thrust w i t h the velocity and material ature, rocks and glasses are transparent t o radiaproperties. In one case the total force required tion over distances of several millimeters. This for a penetrator moving i n a medium w i t h continuous implies that the t h i n melt layers (4.5 m ) are properties i s developed. In another the leading edge optically t h i n . An optically thin approximation for forceis derived with a model that recognizes exradiation crossing the melt layer was developed and p l i c i t l y the discontinuous nature of the properties installed i n AYER. A maximum in total flux i s ina t the melt-rock interface. Other analytical apdicated when the optical thickness of the layer i s proaches have examined the general effects of peneone; that i s , when the melt can reradiate and i s trator geometry on performance, stem cooling problems, s t i l l transparent. A t this maximum the total flux and the power-velocity relation. is only ~ 2 0 % higher than the total flux occurring when the optically thin approximation i s applied. c. Status of the Calculations. Two phases Mainly because of the low emissivities of refractory of the analysis effort will be discussed: that d i rected a t the production of specific penetrator demetal penetrators, radiation can contribute only a signs and that directed a t predictingpenetrator small fraction of the required leading edge flux. I t i s the molecular contribution to the thermal performance as determined by the laboratory tests. conductivity of the melt that controls the leading AYER has been used to produce a number of melting body designs including the heater configurations and edge flux and the penetrator performance. The thermal conductivity of basalt and many other rocks has refractory metal body geometry for consolidators and been measured to temperatures well above melting. extruders. These designs were accomplished with exHowever, the heat flux due t o the radiation cannot tensive parameter studies. The body geometries and heater configuration have been adjusted through many be separated from that due to molecular motion w i t h iterations to provide a good leading edge flux and out detailed knowledge of the temperature and frequency -dependent absorption coef f i ci ents of each to insure that material temperature 1imitations were met over a wide range of power and advance rates. rock sample,and thus i t has been necessary to proThe calculational procedure was generally for steadyduce theoretical calculations of the thermal conducstate conditions and includes the melt layer and tivity. An average molecule model was adopted,and
60

surrounding rock.

The HARE extruder has been tested

With the power and temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s determined, the steady-state f o r c e on the penetrator by a well-developed m e l t l a y e r can be determined. The hydrodynamic forces applicable t o t h e Subterrene geometries have been developed fo the Navier-Stokes rm equations and applied t o penetrators. properties o f t h e m e l t layer: The t h r u s t values a r e a1 so extremely sensi t i v e t o the other the v i s c o s i t y , t h e thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y which determines the c r i t i c a l thickness a t t h e leading edge, the surface temperat u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and the m e l t v e l o c i t y f i e l d . The i n c l u s i o n o f the hydrodynamics subroutine o f VFQ i n AYER has provided the temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n and v e l o c i t y f i e l d i n the same c a l c u l a t i o n . Good approximations t o the r a d i a t i o n and molecular thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s are provided by t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c a l culations. For t h e HARE penetrator i n basalt, t h i s canplete treatment has given reasonable t h r u s t values on the assumption t h a t t h e HARE i s l i m i t e d by the f o r c e on the leading edge.

extensively as designed,and i t s performance i n bas a l t i s w e l l understood i n terms o f t h e analysis. The calculated temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n and power losses have been compared w i t h a c a l i b r a t i o n experiment f o r the 114-mm c o r i n g penetrator i n an argonf i l l e d quartz container. I n an unusual application, the c a l c u l a t e d azimuthal temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n was c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the c o r r o s i o n r a t e s f o r the extended area penetrator. The l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g program generally provides data on instantaneous values o f heater power, advance r a t e , t o t a l t h r u s t , and temperature a t one p o i n t i n the r e f r a c t o r y body during the course o f approximately 1-m t o t a l penetration. q u a n t i t i e s vary considerably. Because o f i n homogeneities i n t h e n a t u r a l rock samples, these However, averages can be taken over s h o r t periods during which steady s t a t e has been achieved between programmed changes o f t h r u s t , rate, o r power. lations. These r e s u l t s can then be compared w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f steady-state calcuThis comparison i s most e a s i l y discussed i n terms o f the power-velocity and the t h r u s t v e l o c i t y re1a t i o n s h i p. For both consolidators and extruders the steadys t a t e power as a f u n c t i o n o f v e l o c i t y depends on the losses t o t h e unmelted rock, the m e l t l a y e r heat capacity, and the stem c o o l i n g losses. included. For extruders the energy c a r r i e d o f f i n the debris must a l s o be The rock losses (energy conducted away from t h e penetrator beyond the me1t i n g isotherm) , depend i n t u r n on the heat capacity and thermal cond u c t i v i t y o f t h e i n s i t u r o c k and the temperature distribution. The m e l t l a y e r and d e b r i s power are determined by the heat o f fusion, m e l t heat capacity, and c o r r e c t average d e b r i s and m e l t l a y e r temperatures. The stem losses depend on penetrator geometry, c o o l i n g methods, and debris removal methods. E s t i mation o f t h e stem losses, which are u s u a l l y a small f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l power, has n o t encountered any s i g n i f i c a n t problems. Since t h e c a l c u l a t e d and experimental powers agree f a i r l y w e l l , i t can be assumed t h a t the data f o r the important physical prope r t i e s ( i n p a r t i c u l a r the thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s o l i d , the heat o f fusion, and t h e heat capacit i e s ) are o f s u f f i c i e n t accuracy f o r t u f f and b a s a l t t h a t the AYER temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n s are c o r r e c t .

2. The Thrust-Velocity Relationship f o r Ext r u d i ng Penetrators

a.

Introduction.

Calculations o f t h e t o t a l

t h r u s t required t o maintain a given advance r a t e f o r Subterrene penetrators are d i f f i c u l t f o r various reasons. For c o n s o l i d a t i n g penetrators, t h e f o r c e r e t a r d i n g the penetrator does n o t necessarily r e s u l t from the pressure required t o move t h e viscous melt.

I f the leading edge i s r e t a r d i n g the advance because

o f i n s u f f i c i e n t heat f l u x , the concentration of t h e f o r c e on a small area o f the s o i l o r rock can r e s u l t i n compaction and plowing o f t h e unmelted material, and t h i s f u r t h e r complicates the t h r u s t - v e l o c i t y relation.

I f t h e advance i s being retarded by t h e

consolidation requirement, t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d by a d d i t i o n a l m e l t i n g o r by a combination of m e l t i n g and compaction o f the c o l d o r heat-softened unmelted material. This l a t t e r e f f e c t has n o t been included i n the hydrodynamics codes used f o r the thrust calculations. However, t h e thermal analysis o f e x i s t i n g penetrators i n d i c a t e s t h a t the consolid a t i o n c o n d i t i o n i s n o t always met a t t h e v e l o c i t i e s achieved i n experiments. b u t i o n t o the thrust.

I f t h i s i s t h e case, forces

required f o r compaction could be t h e dominant c o n t r i The s i t u a t i o n f o r extruders i n dense b a s a l t i s d i f f e r e n t w i t h no compaction occ u r r i n g and no consolidation requirement. The f o r c e

61

on the penetrator results from the pressures required t o force the melt to the extruding ports. Considerable data has been accumulated for the thrust-velocity relationship for two extruders i n basalt. However, the three-dimensional nature of the melting surface of the extended area penetrator precludes any detailed analysis. The HARE extruder has cylindrical symnetry throughout and i s amenable t o computer analysis. Since the exterior of the body i s parallel to the axis of symmetry, most of the force i s on the f l a t annular leading edge. T h i s component of the force can be obtained approximately from a simple analytical model. Also, the twodimensional geometry can be accomnodated by the AYER heat conduction code. When used in conjunction with a subroutine based on the hydrodynamic analysis i n VFQ, this code will calculate a steady-state temperature distribution, a melt velocity field, and a pressure distribution; and hence, determines a simultaneous power, advance rate, and thrust, In t h i s report, one steady-state analysis of the HARE penetrator i s discussed and compared w i t h time-averaged operating conditions for the laboratory model in basalt. b. Material Properties. The properties o f the rock melt critical to the thrust calculations are the specific heat, heat of fusion, density, and the thermal conductivities, both molecular and radiative. The radiative contribution to the flux i s taken t o be that given by the optically t h i n approximation. This flux i s given by
FR = E n 2 a(Ts 4

Tm4 )

The index of refraction i s n = 1.5 and CJ i s the Stefan-Bo1 tzmann constant. The effective emissivity is
&

s Em
s E m

The emissivity of the penetrator surface ( E ~ )is taken to be an average over wavelength for molyb* denum. The emissivity for the rock a t the melt interface (,,,)is n o t known; i f i t i s assumed t o be near 1.0, then the effective emissivity i s 0.25. Experimental determinations of the thermal conductivity generally do not separate the radiative ** and conductive contributions. Because the melt layers a t the leading edge of most penetrators are so t h i n , the contribution due t o molecular motion dominates and i t must be estimated separately. In Sec. C. 3,three theories are used to calcul a t e the molecular thermal conductivity of an average rock ( S O 2 ) in the liquid phase. The phenomenological approach similar to t h a t of Bridgeman was used t o scale the conductivity from the solid to the liqq u i d on the basis of the sound speed. The molecular collision theory of Horrocks and McLaughlin was used with basalt viscosities determining the parameters in the molecular potential. The phonon transport model of Liebfried and Schlsmann for a perfect crystal was modified t o a form appropriate to a liquid. All three models gave similar results and indicate an upper limit of 0.34 W-m-l-k-1 for the conductivity i n the temperature range of 1500 to 2000 K. A will be seen, s calculated values of the leading edge thrust can be brought i n t o approximate agreement with the axperimental values i f the radiation flux i s limited by Eq. (V-1) and i f a value of 0.25 W.m-'.k- 1 i s used for the thermal conductivity of the melt. The viscosities of the equilibrium melts of several basal ts have been measured. In particular, that of Jemez basalt was obtained a t Corning and the uniform melts of t h o l e i i t i c basalts were also exam*** ined during recrystallization by Shaw. These res u l t s are plotted i n F i g . v-12. However, the behavior of basalt as i t melts i s not known. For the calculations considered here, i t i s assumed that i t exhibits no significant liquid behavior below the melting temperature. In the melt layer a f i t t o the Corning data is used, and i n the analytical model
x

E =

E s + E m - E

Hess, H. H., and A. Poldervaart, Basalts, (John e Wiley & Sons, Nw York, 1968).

Touloukian, Y. S., and D. P. DeWitt, Thermal Radiative Properties, Vol. 7, (Plenum Publishing Corp. , Nw York 1970). e ** Murase, T., and A. R. McBirney, "Thermal Conduct i v i t y of Lunar and Terrestrial Igneous Rocks in Their Melting Range," Science 170, 165-167 (1970). *** Shaw, H. R., "Rheology of Basalt i n Melting Range," J. Petrology lo (3), 510 (1969).

62

F i g . V-13.

Geometry o f HARE penetrator annular 1eadi ng edge.

I0 O
I300
1500

I0 70

1900

TEMPERATURE ( K )

Fig. V-12.

Viscosity of basalt as a function o f temperature.

a value given by average melt temperature is used. * The density, specific heat,and heat of fusion represent typical basal ts c. A Model for the Leading Edge Forces. A number of analytical models g i v i n g the various components of force on a rock-melting penetrator have been produced. The treatment detailed here determines the force resulting from t h e pressure gradient required t o force the melt from between the me1 trock interface and the penetrator. I t assumes the existence of a melting isotherm a t which the material properties are discontinuous. The melt layer thickness and me1 t i n g temperature appear explicitly in the results, and above the melting temperature the me1 t i s represented by average uniform properties. If a penetrator i s operating in the correct mode its advance rate (v*) will be limited by the leading edge force. In blunt extruders this force will dominate and i t will be convenient t o have a

simple expression for the force-velocity relationship that explicitly recognizes the existence o f the melt-rock interface and the discontinuities of the physical parameters a t the me1 ting temperature. Figure V-13 depicts a radial section through the melt layer for a penetrator with the HARE geometry. In this approximation the me1 t layer is characterized by a uniform thickness L and an average viscosity -= determined by an average temperature. Consistent with these assumptions i s the assumption that the velocity in the melt layer i s parabolic i n the radial direction

~(n

where 6 = 6 ( x ) . Then u = a t L / 2 and u = 0 a t y = 0 or L . An average velocity can be defined as

The shear rates a t the penetrator and melt surface are

&I =4j=12u
0

bd

Clarke, B., e t a l . , "Rock Properties Related t o Rapid Excavation," University of Missouri Rolla, PB 184 767 (March 1969).

63

The continuity equation gives approximately, f o r an annulus of effective radius R,

P c

The melt layer thickness i s related to the melt properties and temperature by
A

(2a Re) =
P

uo (2r Re) + pi v* (2a Rx)

gives

- Tm)

c=

p V* (Cv 6T + H )

FR

(V-3

which for pi =

which comes from the leading edge flux requirement.

- = xv*+ u o u t

Fc

FR = AAT + FR = pV* (Cv 6T

t H)

where uo i s the average melt velocity a t the outside edge (see Fig. V-13). The pressure gradient required t o move the melt a t a constant velocity i n the presence o f a viscosity i i s i

The pressure i s taken to be a function of x only, since the velocity i n the y direction i s small.

Here 6T = Tm - Ta,where Ta i s the ambient temperature and H i s the heat of fusion. These equations are best suited for assessing the relative effects of penetrator t i p geometry, average material properties, and operating conditions. The value of force obtained depends on v * ~ , AT, and the third power of the material properties which makes the results sensitive to the choice of the appropriate average quantities. With the operating conditions of v* = 0.20 x rn-s- and Ts = 1900 K and material properties A = 0.25 W . m - l - f l , p = 2.7 x lo3 k g ~ m - ~ Cv = 1.25 x loe3 J-kgl-K-, H = 420 x , lo3 J-kg-, and = u(T) = 5.0 N-s-m-2, w obtain for e the radiation flux,
FR = 0.24 Wm- 2

The resulting pressure is

p =

the melt layer thickness

24 F uo x2 + x

e=
,
and the force

0.10 n

e2

e2

which gives r i s e t o a force on an annulus of width L of,

F [=

F = 2.97 kN

P dA

2 8a

V*

- + 24a R L3
e3

u uo 7 . L2
e

If uo = 0; that i s , i f no melt flows into the t h i n annulus between the f l a t t i p and the unmelted rock, then the force on the advancing face i s

which i s i n essential agreement w i t h the 4 . 0 kN used t o obtain t h i s velocity i n the laboratory. In a d d i t i o n to this simplified model, detailed steady-state computer analyses of the HARE penetrator were carried out. The thrust calculations were implemented with the addition of a hydrodynamics subroutine adapted from VFQ. During the iteration for the temperature solution, this subroutine uses the current melt temperatures to calculate the melt viscosities. From the conservation of mass and the Navier-Stokes equations, the velocity field in the melt i s calculated. The forces on the penetrator due

64

t o the melt pressure and viscous drag are then determi ned The procedure for one s e t of operating conditions required the manual adjustment of the meltrock interface geometry between computer runs t o obtain internal consistency. T h i s was carried out for a velocity of v* = 0.15 mm-s- and a maximum molybdenum temperature of % 1900 K. A t the mid-point (in the radial direction) of the leading edge, the resulting surface temperature and melt layer thickness were TS = 1800 K and L = 0.18 mn with an average temperature of % 1600 K. The calculated leading edge force i s 1.09 kN with an additional axial force of 0.22 kN on the conical throat. For these conditions the model of Eq. (V-2) gives 0.76 kN, again in f a i r agreement with the 2 to 3 kN needed to maintain t h i s velocity in the laboratory. The situation i s illustrated in Fig. V-14 which i s a plot of force versus advance rate. The results of the calculations discussed above are compared to some of the experimental results. The solid closed curves bracket the experimental data envelope for various basalt samples

and melting body powers. The points are the results of the simple model of Eq. (V-2). The points @ and are the AYER results for a leading edge temperature of % 1800 K. The dashed curve connects points scaled by v* 4 Unfortunately, these data were obtained before thermocouples were installed in the HARE melting body, and no correlations of calculations and experimental points with the same measured body temperatures can be made. However, a good agreement between me1 ting body power and advance rate has been obtained, Fig. V-15, and a temperature distribution for a given velocity can be inferred from the AYER calculations. I t should also be emphasized that the reduction of the experimental data required a judgement a s t o whether or not steady state had been reached and includes an average over an oscillating instantaneous velocity. d. The Force on a Conical Section. The limiting effect of the leading edge flux has long been recognized and experimental verifications of higher velocities for penetrator designs that can eliminate this difficulty have been carried out. A conical consolidator w i t h a diameter of 57 mn was

HARE Penetrotor In Dense Basolt

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

102

0.00

t
1

EDGE ONLY

@ AYER :LEADING @
EDGE ONLY AYER i TOTAL

alo

I 0.20

I 0.2s

1
I

i
I

c .

Calculated Laboratory Data

VELOCITY (mrn s-)

I
Power (kW)

Fig. V-14.

Required thrust as a function of advance rate for the HARE extruding penetrator.

Fig. V-15.

Advance rate melting power and total power relationships for HARE extruding penetrator operating in basalt. 65

used in basalt with a predrilled hole to remove the rock that would normally be melted by the leading edge region of the penetrator. The leading edge advances unrestricted and the hole i s melted to a large r diameter by the conical section with a length of 110 mm and half angle 0 = sin- 0.11. If the surface of the penetrator i s a t an angle of 0 t o the direct i o n of advance, then the mass flux perpendicular t o the surface i s reduced by the factor sin 0. The melt layer thickness i s then given by Eq. (V-3) with v* replaced by v* sin 0. The expression for the force i s further modified by the factor sin2 4. One factor of sin 4 i s for the effective velocity and one for the component of force parallel t o the penetrator axis. If two penetrator elements occupy the same annular area projected on a plane perpendicular to the penetrator axis, then the force required t o advance each a t a given velocity will scale approximately as sin 20. Tab1 e V-4 1i s t s thrust calculated with this approximate model along w i t h some experimental results. The average advance rates are considerably larger than the maximum (L0.25 mm-s-) observed for penetrators limited by the leading edge in basalt. The body temperature, taken to be the surface temperature in the calculations, i s somewhat lower than that usually achieved. For 2000-K temperatures, the velocity could approach 1.0 mn-s- for t h i s conical section. The calculational model includes many approximations and does not include physical effects such as glass-former drag and the variations of physical rock properties between samples; hence, only approximate agreement can be expected. 3. Liquid Basalt Thermal Conductivity Investigation. A number of circumstances combine to make the heat transfer due to molecular conduction dominate over radiation in the melt layer a t the leading edge of Subterrene penetrators. These include the low emissivities of refractory metals, material temperature limitations, and the extreme thinness of the me1 t layer. Most high-temperature experimental measurements of liquid rock thermal conductivity CMbine the effects of conduction and radiation i n f a i r l y thick samples. Because the radiative propert i e s of liquid rocks are n o t well known, the radiation contribution to the flux cannot be accurately subtracted o u t . This situation has prompted a comparison of theoretical estimates of the thermal 66

TABLE V-4 RESULTS OF CONICAL SECTION TESTS I BASALT N W H PREDRILLED HOLE FOR LEADING EDGE I T

Average Rate (mn s-1) Basalt 0.85 Basalt 0.5

Measured Calculated Body Temperature Thrust Thrust

(K)

1770
1690

(kN) 4 4

(kN)

6.5 6.9

conductivity of liquid basalt due to molecular motion with that implied by the actual performance of Subterrene penetrators. The force required to maintain a given penetrator velocity i s proportional t o the inverse cube of the thermal conductivity of the surrounding melt. Since most of this force i s accumulated i n the t h i n layer a t the leading edge where the conductive flux dominates, the calculated force i s sensitive t o the value assumed for the liquid thermal conductivity. The forces calculated by detailed computer simulation of the penetrator and the viscous melt best match laboratory values i f 0.25 W/m-K i s used for the thermal conductivity. The data of * Murase and McBirney for Columbia River basalt was used i n the simulations for temperatures below melti n g (1450 K ) . This data i s plotted i n F i g . V-16 as the solid line labeled CRB. This basalt becomes transparent t o radiation near the melting temperature and an abrupt r i s e in effective conductivity occurs. The contribution due t o molecular motion i s masked by the radiation a t temperatures above 1450 K. The thermal conductivity of a liquid can be estimated w i t h several theories, three of which are outlined here. In the discussions which follow, thermal conductivity represents only the molecular conduction and does not include any radiation contribution. The f i r s t i s a scaling based on the conductivity of the solid and the temperature dependence of the velocity of sound. The thermal conductivity can be written phenomenologically as

where
Cv = an appropriate specific heat

e
*

c/3 = velocity of sound averaged over three spatial directions. = the mean free path.

Murase, T., and A. R. McBirney, Thermal Conductivity of Lunar and Terrestrial Igneous Rocks in Their Melting Range, Science 170, 165-167 (1970).

where

k = 1.38 x J*K-' i s Boltzmann's constant m = 20 x 1.66 x kg i s the atomic mass. This value i s close t o the measured value o f C = P 3 1.1 x 10 f o r some basalts. Also, t h i s average l i q u i d has a distance between molecules o f

d = 3.25 x 1 0 - l o m

s
ICALCULATED VALUES HM FROM THREE MOOELS -PEN-AND PENETRATDR DATA

If

= d i s used f o r the s o l i d , the thermal con-

d u c t i v i t y given by Eq. (V-5) i s

---__ --0

_________B
zoo0 m

AB (300 K) = 1.5 W-m-' .K-l

O 500

la00

1330

which i s close t o the measured value f o r CRB a t 300 K.

So the average mean f r e e path f o r the energy

TEMPERATURE (K)

c a r r i e r s (phonons) consistent w i t h the measured t h e r Fig. V-16. L i q u i d b a s a l t thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y r e sul t s . mal c o n d u c t i v i t y i s the dimension o f the space a v a i l able t o each molecule. 0-5)
AB (1500 K) = 0.38 W.m-lbK-l

Ifi t i s now assumed t h a t

t h i s i s also t r u e f o r the l i q u i d , then from Eq. This can be separated f u r t h e r i n t o the contributions o f longitudinal

(L) and

transverse ( t ) modes.

Two o f the three l o n g i t u d i n a l modes c o n t r i b u t i n g t o

X correspond t o i n t e r n a l modes o f the molecules,

The sound v e l o c i t i e s i n basalt are given approximatel y i n Table V-5.

L i q u i d b a s a l t w i l l be considered

the remaining one t o the t r a n s l a t i o n o f the molecules. I f i t i s f u r t h e r assumed t h a t i n t h e l i q u i d (but n o t i n the t i g h t l y bound s o l i d ) the i n t e r n a l modes do n o t t r a n s f e r energy during a c o l l i s i o n , then a lower l i m i t t o A B i s obtained:
AB (1500 K) = 0.13 W*m-l-K-l

t o be composed o f average t r i a t o m i c molecules w i t h molecular weight A = 60 and which contain atoms o f average weight A = 20. These values are f o r S i O z and are close t o the average f o r basalt. s i t y ( p ) o f l i q u i d b a s a l t i s 2.7 x classica s p e c i f i c heat i s Cv = 3 = 1.25 x m The den-

lo3

k g - ~ n - ~ .The

lo3

These values are i n d i c a t e d on Fig. V-16 by the dashed J*kg-l-K-l

l i n e s labeled B.

TABLE V-5 SOUND VELOCITIES

IN BASALT (mms-l)

A second method i s the molecular c o l l i s i o n model * This u t i l i z e s i n f o r o f Horrocks and McLaughlin. mation obtained from v i s c o s i t y data, which i s a v a i l able f o r some basalts. Assumptions must be made concerning the type o f packing o f the molecules occurr i n g i n the l i q u i d and the type o f p o t e n t i a l between molecules. They o b t a i n f o r the thermal conductivity,
Tye, R. P, Thermal Conductivity Inc. , London, 1969).

S o l i d (300 K)

c,e
Ct

5.0 3.7

lo3 lo3

Liquid 3 3.0 x 10
0

(Academic Press

67

1/2

.(V-6)
Here :
= 3k

AHM = 0.34 W.m-'.K'l

which i s indicated i n Fig. V-16 by the line labeled

HM

v* = a = v =

u3/v 1/2 ( ~ v )

Another approach is t o modify the theory of * Leibfried and Schlomann for a perfect crystal. They obtained for T > e
It

volume per molecule E and u are the depth and zero crossing i n the LM potential : J where : h M d v

= 6.62

J-S i s Planck's constant

r = molecular separation M = molecular mass z = coordination number of l a t t i c e L1 , M, are l a t t i c e sumnation constants. The l a t t i c e constants are taken t o be Z = 12, L1 = 22.11 and M1 = 10.56, corresponding t o a face-centered cubic l a t t i c e . The estimation of u and 6 from v i scosi ty can be compl i cated, and the fol 1owing J simplified procedure i s used here. For the LM potential
u = R/2
116

= mean atomic mass

= v1/3 = volume per atom 8 = Debye temperature T = absolute temperature y = -3 (Ln e)/a (Ln v) i s the Grheisen anharmonici ty parameter. The Debye temperature is
h e = T ; ~ L,

where R i s the separation a t minimum potential. Since the molecules of a liquid are bound R % d = v1j3. The viscosity (TI) of liquids can be written
E -

where vL i s the highest vibrational frequency of the l a t t i c e . T h i s is obtained by integrating over the Debye spectrum g(v)
= 4RV

v2 (2 ct-3 + c i 3 )

n=noe

kT

In the liquid there are only longitudinal modes w i t h N degrees of freedom; so on integration 113 vL=(-)
Y

where E is the depth of the potential seen by a molecule moving through the l a t t i c e and results from b i n d i n g t o n neighbors; E i s the depth of the potential for binary interactions. Let E be approximated by
E

E/n

0-7 1

where V/N = v , the volume per atom. For liquid bas a l t e 2 385 K; so the condition i s met on Eq. (V-8). The anharmonicity parameter can be written Tye, R. P . , Thermal Conductivity (Academic Press Inc. , London, 1969).

For basalt E = 41.5 x lo-'' J and for closely packed spheres n = 12. Equation (V-7) then yields

68

W
i
j

Y 1

Yp

The f i r s t term i s equal to 1/2; the second reduces to

!

M where p = - i s the density. Data to evaluate y2 for V a liquid basalt was not available. A rough estimate based on the solid data i s y2 % 3.75. The thermal conductivity can now be estimated as
1o3 0.67 x -W-m" T

YLS

.K-l

and i s labeled LS in Fig. V-16. I t must be emphasized t h a t t h i s method in particular i s extremely sensitive t o the longitudinal sound speed and i t s dependence on density. All of the above methods involve gross assumptions and would p r o f i t from more data for the fundamental parameters (cl, E, 0 , etc.). However, they exhi b i t reasonable agreement with the thermal conductivity implied by the performance of Subterrene penetrators as indicated by the line labeled PEN i n Fig. V-16. Using a value of 0 2 W-m"-K-' .5 for the thermal conductivity of molten basalt i n the computer simulation program, i t becomes evident that the penetration rate of an extruding penetrator is limited by the k a t f l u x that can be provided a t the leading edge (flow stagnation point). Based on allowable temperatures i n the molybdenum body, the calculations indicate that the leading edge heat flux will r e s t r i c t penetration rates i n basalt t o approximately 0.25 mm/s. Away from the leading edge, however, the conical shape of the melting body provides a significant geometrical enhancement,, and much higher penetration rates are possible. T h i s concept was demonstrated i n the laboratory t e s t usSng a conical shaped penetrator melting into a basalt sample that was predrilled to remove the rock t h a t would normally be

melted by the leading edge region a the penetrator. With the penetrator body temperature below the operating maximum, sustained rates of j u s t under 1 mn/s were attained. This represents a factor of 4 to 5 times the rate that would have been expected i f the leading edge heat flux were controlling the rate. Experimental confirmation of this analytically predicted result led to a major research program to i n troduce techniques f o r increasing the available leading edge heat flux. 4. Stem Cooling w i t h Particle Transport. One of the analytical approaches to the general problem of the effects of penetrator performance on stem cooling has been the development o f an analytical model and computer program to calculate stem cooling characteristics with a centrally extruding penetrator. This model includes the transport of, and heat transf e r from, highly idealized melt/solid particles i n the extrudate carry-off tube. A particular concern has been that the wall of the central extrudate tube gets hot enough to cause melt sticking near the "tip" or penetrator end. A flow schematic of the system modeled is shown in Fig. V-17. In this particular
COOLING GAS

DEBRIS EXIT

61 I

1 '72

COOLING

ELTING PENERATOR

VP

Fig. V-17.

Flow schematic for stem model calculations.

69

model, a short section of stem near the t i p end (0 z y - YZ) has a different flow geometry and wall < material t h a n the remainder of the stem. A t the station y = YZ a heat load referred to as "tip conduction" i s assumed to be added t o the total cooling gas flow coming down channel 1 (the "downcomer"). This represents heat conducted from the melting penetrator and from the hot rock in the region 0 - y - YZ. After the t i p conduction heat i s added, < < the flow i s s p l i t into two streams. One stream continues down a revised channel 1 and becomes the central "upcomer" flow i n channel 2 a t y = 0 where the rock-melting debris i s introduced. The other becomes the outer annulus "upcomer" flow in channel 3 a t y = YZ. The flow balance and downcomer pressure are controlled by sonic restrictions a t y = 0 for flow into channel 2 and a t y = YZ for flow into channel 3. Melt i s assumed t o be introduced already formed in solid-like particles moving a t a low velocity a t the t i p end, y = 0. These particles are assumed t o be rigid, spherical, and of uniform size b o t h a t a given axial station and throughout the length of the stem. This i s obviously a simplification of the true particle characteristics, b u t by varying the particle diameter parametrically i t can be assumed that any significant effects of particle irregularity will be observed. A t any axial station the steady-state heat balance i s a result of convective heat transfer from the particles (which are assumed to be a t a uniform temperature), to the fluid in channel 2; combined radiative heat transfer from the particles and convective heat transfer from the fluid i n channel 2 t o the counterflowing fluid i n channel 1; and for y > YZ there i s heat transfer from channel 1 to channel 3 , and from channel 3 to ( o r from) the surrounding rock. In addition, as stated above, a lumped heat load i s added t o the total flow a t y = YZ. Equations for the heat balance and particle velocity are developed and are integrated numerically starting a t y = 0 with an assumed gas temperature a t the t i p end. Integrations are terminated when the gas temperature i n channel 1 (the downcomer) i s reduced t o the prescribed gas i n l e t temperature. The value of y a t this point, then, i s the total stem length corresponding to the assumed tip-end gas temperature. Calculations were made of the 86-mm extruding penetrator over a range of particle diameters and
70

tip-end gas temperatures (or total stem lengths) for gas flow rates of 40 g/s (70.7 SCFM) and 100 g / s (176.6 SCFM) f o r nominal conditions. These results indicate that as the net heat transfer t o the fluid i s reduced by conduction i n t o the rock, the tip-end gas temperature quickly approaches a limit,and further increases i n stem length do not increase this gas temperature. This tip-end temperature i s approximately the maximum gas temperature, and the maximum inner tube wall temperature closely follows this gas temperature. This i s true even when a thermal resistance corresponding t o a relatively thick layer of rock deposited on the tube wall i s included. Calculations for conditions different from these can be made quite easily for stem geometries of the general type of the 86-mn penetrator. Changes can be made t o the program f o r other geometry types, such as a single upcomer stem. 5. Melt-Heating Analysis. a. Introduction. The concept of increasing the advance rate of rock-melting penetrators by the direct deposition of energy in the melting rock with ohmic heating holds technical promise i f certain fundamental difficulties can be overcome. Higher advance rates can be expected i f power i s deposited in the melt layer to mitigate the effect of the low melt thermal conductivity in isolating the h o t penetrator from the unmelted rock. In principle i t would be advantageous t o deposit the energy directly i n the unmelted rock; however, a l l penetrator electrode configurations considered here result in deposition in the higher temperature molten rock. This i s due t o the highly nonlinear dependence o f the resistivity of rock on temperature in the melting range. In t h i s report a simple model i s presented which estimates the velocity enhancement that can be expected with direct melt heating for a leading edge limited annular penetrator. Some of the problem areas are the selection of a leading edge insulator, materials compatibility, the s t a b i l i t y of the melt current d i s t r i bution, and the effects of natural inhomogeneities on the current distribution. Only the current d i s t r i bution will be considered here. Small amplitude perturbation theory i s used to examine the conditions under which the current distribution becomes unstable in the t h i n annulus of rock melt a t the leading edge. b. Leading Edge Analysis. I t i s necessary t o resort to the computer model to determine the

temperature profile across the melt layer during steady-state advance and energy deposition. The temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity of the melt i s given by

Velocity effects make the one-dimensional model i n tractable unless simplifying assumptions are made. An energy deposition routine was installed in AYER to deposit power i n the melt layer a t the leading edge of an insulated penetrator. The assumption i s made that the voltage gradients are parallel to the surface of the insulated t i p . Then, w i t h the total melt current specified, the current density d i s t r i b u t i o n across the melt layer and the local power density, i 2 p , can be determined. The calculations then include the effects of the temperature-dependent power deposition and melt velocity field on the heat transfer and hydrodynamic force solutions. For direct comparison with a conventional penetrator, the HARE geometry was used. An insulating nose i n s e r t with the properties of boron nitride replaces the conventional molybdenum leading edge. This geometry i s illustrated in Fig. V-18 where item A i s the boron nitride insert. The case to be considered f i r s t i s that of an adiabatic leading edge. In these calculations the heater was adjusted to provide a zero temperature gradient a t the surface of the boron nitride. T h i s can be seen i n F i g . V-19 where the calculated

temperature is plotted as a function of distance from the penetrator surface a t the position labeled B i n Fig. V-18. Curves 2 through 5 i n Fig. V-19 are for the velocities indicated,and the melt power has been adjusted t o give a maximum temperature a t B of approximately Ts = 1950 K. The outside o f the melt layer i s a t Tm = 1450 K, the center o f the melting range of basalt. Curve 1 of F i g . V-19 i s for a velocity of 0.15 mm-s- w i t h no melt heating. Here the maximum molybdenum temperature (%1900 K ) occurs a t the inside surface o f the metal body,and the temperature is close t o linear w i t h position. To f a c i l i t a t e a comparison of the two cases i t i s noted that w i t h melt heating the AYER temperature profiles can be f i t t e d closely with the parabola

which i s plotted as the dashed curves i n F i g . V-19. Then, approximately

and the conductive f l u x i s twice that of the almost linear, no melt-heating case a t the melt-rock interface. The mass-averaged temperature is

(V-lo)

MOLY
I

MOLY

+--r

1
R

Fig. V-18.

AXIS OF SYMMETRY

II

II

I200 90
PENETRATOR SURFACE

0.I

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

y (mm)

Fig. V-19.

Penetrator geometry for me1 t-heating analysis.

Calculated melt layer temperature prof i l e s as a function of penetration velocity with and without melt heating. 71

whereas, for the linear case i t i s

which i s somewhat lower. With the use of Eqs. (V-9), (V-lo), and (V-11) the expected reduction i n the leading edge force a t a given velocity can be obtained. For example, consider the curves 1 and 5 of Fig. V-19 for a penetrator velocity of v* = 0.15 mn-s". From Eq. (V-10) w have for the melt heat e case, T 1 1800; for curve 1, Eq. [V-11) gives T 1 1625. The effective viscosity for melt heating can be a factor of 4 down from the conventional case. Also, Eq. (V-9) shows that f o r a given flux a t the melt-rock interface, and hence for a given velocity, the melt layer i s approximately twice as thick for the melt-heating case. Since the force scales as L- 3 and as K, a given velocity with melt heating could require a thrust force as l i t t l e as 1/32 of t h a t required w i t h o u t melt heating. I n fact, AYER and simple model calculations predict even lower thrusts. The situation i s illustrated i n Fig. V-20. which i s a p l o t of force versus advance rate. The performance map for the conventional HARE penetrator is repeated i n the upper l e f t corner. The closed curve brackets the experimental performance for various basalt samples and melting body powers. The points are calculated with the simple model of Sec. C.2and include only the leading edge component of the force, given by
F = 8aR T ( k -

,'

/-

t
too
0
01 .

0.2

03 .

0.4

05

0.6

VELOCITY ( m m * i ' )

Fig. V-20.

Thrust force a s a function of penetration velocity w i t h and w i t h o u t melt heating.

(V-12)

The points and@ are the AYER results for the leading edge and total forces corresponding to the melt temperature profile of curve 1 in Fig. V-19. For most conditions the leading edge force i s proportional t o the fourth power of the velocity for a constant leading edge temperature. The dashed lines i n Fig. V-20 connect points scaled by F a v * ~ . The calculated performance of a HARE w i t h melt heating i n basalt i s also plotted i n Fig. V-20 w i t h the same nomenclature as the conventional case. A second res u l t of AYER a t v* = 0.5 m . ~ - ' for a lower surface temperature (1850 K ) i s shown. For the melt heating

case the values of I! used i n Eq. (V-12) are taken from the AYER calculations. Because of the broad maximum in the temperature curve, L i s n o t as sensitive to the surface temperature as i n the linear case. In practice, maintaining any given velocity requires an accurate control of thrust and internal and melt powers, The upper dashed curve was obtained by scaling the point (1850 K) w i t h F = v * ~ and represents a more conservative operating temperature. If a uniform melt layer and power deposition can be maintained, i t should be possible t o obtain performance between the two curves without overheating the penetrator t i p . c. Instabilities in the Current Distribution. The temperature dependence of the resistivity gives r i s e to a power density in the melt t h a t i s sensitive to the temperature. If the voltage gradient i s constant, the power density increases w i t h increasing temperature. I f the current density i s constant, the power density ( p = i 2 p ) decreases with increasing temperature. W are now concerned w i t h the efe fects of this on the current and temperature d i s t r i bution in a t h i n melt layer bounded by the insulating penetrator leading edge, the rock-melt interface, and

Fig. V-21.

Rectangular model used for current s t a b i l i t y analysis.

Such a treatment applies only when the instabilities begin b u t provides no information on the large amplitude limit. The conditions for growth will depend on the power deposition and the damping effects of the conduction and convection losses. The following assumptions are made: 1. Sinusoidal perturbations 2. Conduction losses from sides (z = 0, L) are neglected 3. Adiabatic condition a t melt-rock interface 4. Melt layer has no inhomogeneities. The conservation of energy gives, for the volume element RL dx
/pC

dV =

the electrodes. W will consider a rectangular e model which applies t o the annular penetrator w i t h R >> L. In Fig. V-21 the penetrator surface i s a t y = 0, the melting interface a t y = z, and the electrodes are a t z = 0 and z =L. For any such pair o f electrodes only the voltage V and the total current I can be regulated. B an instability w mean a local change T in y e temperature, whose magnitude increases with the time, from the value of the average melt layer temperature required for a steady-state velocity of v*. - i s an average over the melt layer T

1 4

dV + /F-dA

+ JpC

Tv-dA

dE = dQ + dPf

+ dPv

(V-13)

W assume the temperature i s of the form e T = where

T + T~

eat sin wx =

T+

(V-14)

The growth rate a can then be evaluated. (V-14) 1 aT a = -T

From Eq.

f =m [

Tdm

e t layer m1 These instabilities can occur since a local increase i n temperature lowers the resistivity, which results i n higher current density and power density, which in t u r n continues the increase i n temperature. T h i s can cause an uncontrolled increase of temperature throughout the melt layer (thermal runaway) or the occurrence of local high-current channels. A will s be seen, for voltage control both thermal runaway and channeling will be more likely than for current control. If the total current i s constant, the local current density can vary and produce channeling ; however, thermal runaway i s prevented. To determine the quantitative conditions for the onset of the growth o f instabilities for the condition of constant total current, w w i 11 use smal 1-amp1 i tude e temperature perturbation theory; that i s T << 7.

at

Writing d i approximately as

w obtain from Eq. (V-13) e

a = T ~ Cd

1 + dPf + dPV) @ dV

(V-15)

Each term on the r i g h t will consist of a steady-state term and a contribution t o the growth rate: so
a = u +af+av q

73

and the steady-state terms must cance

(dj

'dPf

dV dV)ss = O
+

dPv

T h i s i s the only term sensitive t o the shape of the instability. There is no steady-state contribution, and the growth rate, i n this case negative, i s

The growth rates and the steady-state terms are determined by an expansion of each term of Eq. (V-15) i n a power series i n T. The zero-order terms represent the steady s t a t e , and the remaining terms give the growth rates. For small-amplitude theory only the first-order terms i n T are retained. Generally,a resulting from the power deposition will 9 be positive; af and av resulting from conduction and convection losses will be negative. The procedure i s straightforward and will only be outlined here. For the power deposition term the temperaturedependent r e s i s t i v i t y is expanded,and i t i s assumed that the total current can be held constant by external control. T h i s results i n a growth rate of

u K =- -

W'Ke

PC

I t can also be shown that the inclusion of a radiation conductivity results i n no additional f i r s t order terms,and the equilibrium value o f the radiation conductivity can be included i n Ke. Even though the penetrator temperature i s maintained so that there i s no heat exchange w i t h the melt layer i n steady s t a t e , conduction from the instability t o the penetrator can provide some damping. The power density loss i s
dP
dV

J = P .

F (T)

(V-16) Here n = B/T, h = 2a/w i s the perturbation wavelength, v* i s the advance rate, L i s the melt layer thickness, and C is the circumference of the annulus. The second term i n Eq. V-16 i s the damping provided by the constant-current condition. I t is not significant for perturbations small in extent compared t o the circumference of the penetrator. The melt layer thickness (e) can be determined by equating the conductive flux to the mass-velocity flux a t the meltrock interface. Then, f o r basalt w i t h Tm = 1450 K and a penetrator surface temperature of Ts = 2000 K

The flux F (T) depends on the y-dependence of T and P on the properties of the penetrator t i p . However, the thermal resistance of the penetrator t i p will dominate, and f o r an appropriately chosen conduction length (A) f o r the insulator, the damping r a t e becomes
E

K -4K,A e ?m

The next significant term results from the mass flow ( i n the z-direction) across the layer
dPv = pC(vL TL

Vo

To)Ldx

(V-17)

a - np~v*~

Ke

Considering f i r s t the HARE geometry, vo = 0, and assuming that the same perturbation applies t o TL as t o T, w have e

where Ke i s the thermal conductivity of the melt. The power density i n the element due to heat flux can be separated into conductive and radiative parts and into x and y components. For the power loss by conduction t o the r e s t of the melt layer (x-direction) ,

av

. - 3LLV*2 Ke

To this point only temperature perturbations have been considered. However, since temperature profiles can be established across the gap i n a time short compared to the risetime of temperature perturbations, i t will be assumed that e and Ts retain the relationship

74

dP
$=

-$(vLf-VoT0)

- ? v L ~

This r e s u l t s i n a p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a o f

The a d d i t i o n a l term i n dPv/dV l o c i t y v*.

Iss necessitates an

increase i n dQ/dV t o maintain the steady-state veThe corresponding increase i n a i s q

- which f o r basalt and v* i n mn-s-l i s

A = a
q

v0 T - T o n r T
T

Further damping i s provided by the new term i n aV. This i s the o n l y term r e s u l t i n g fo t h i s combined rm mode; however, as seen i n the graph o f Fig. V-22, i t contributes s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o the onset of i n s t a b i lit i e s . I f the geometry of the penetrator i s such t h a t be considered. vo i n Eq. (V-17) i s n o t zero, two other e f f e c t s need For a constant vo = vo the power The s i z e o f these terms i s determined by vo, which depends on the geometry and the advance rate. convenience m i s defined as For

m = AR/h R L

where AR i s the area through which rock enters the r e s e r v o i r and 2s R L i s the approximate f r o n t a l area o f the leading edge. Then (1 + m)

1o s t per u n i t vol ume becomes

PERTURBATION WAVE LENGTH (mm)
I

a v - - - *

and

If the m e l t enters the gap a t a high temperature,

a where To% T, then A q
m>l. temperature dependence o f the v i s c o s i t y . Another damping e f f e c t can occur because o f the As the l o %

0, and considerable damping

i s provided by the new term i n av f o r geometries w i t h

c a l temperature r i s e s the decreased v i s c o s i t y w i l l r e s u l t i n an increase o f m e l t v e l o c i t y i f the presrop across the m e l t l a y e r i s constant. A n upper l i m i t t o the s i z e o f t h i s e f f e c t can be obtained i f i t i s assumed t h a t the pressure i n the r e s e r v o i r i s constant. This can be t r u e i f the d i mensions o f the r e s e r v o i r are l a r g e enough and the f l o w v e l o c i t i e s and v i s c o s i t y i n the r e s e r v o i r are Fig. V-22. Small-amplitude i n s t a b i l i t y growth rates --HARE c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n b a s a l t . low enough. I n t h i s case the upper l i m i t t o the

75

damping r a t e contributed by the v i s c o s i t y i s , w i t h

energy deposition i n a b a s a l t m e l t flowing through an annular gap between two pieces o f boron n i t r i d e . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f the foregoing theory t o the stab i l i t y o f the c u r r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n such experiments requires t n a t c e r t a i n modifications be made. Since the m e l t l a y e r cannot grow i n thickness, we

s = 15 f o r basalt,

where p = p e o T and

have avl

= 0.

The o n l y p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the

ST

growth r a t e i s

s=a
T
For

.
Tm,

However dQ/dV i s n o t determined by the melting power r e l a t i o n b u t i s given by

?=

2000 K and since To

1~

(7 - To)/=i = 1/6.

The sum o f the c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the growth r a t e due t o v e l o c i t y would then be

g = - (PCVL o ) T-T dV L

so t h a t

= - e+( + Z 1 m - n m ) l m s
av

11

vL T
(V-18) a q = n T -

- To
T

The s i z e o f the various growth r a t e s i n b a s a l t are compared i n the graph o f Fig. V-22. The s o l i d curves are the p o s i t i v e r a t e s t h a t lead t o i n s t a b i l i t y , and the dashed curves are the negative or damping terms. The conduction damping term a K ( h )
( 1 ~ 1 .O

However, i n the temperature range applicable t o penetrators i n b a s a l t n 2000 K. Then

aq

5, To > 1450 K and 7 %

2 i-

vL'

i s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y f o r small wavelengths

mm).
and, w i t h the v e l o c i t y damping term

Only the v e l o c i t y damping f o r vo = 0 i s p l o t t e d and i s small compared t o the p o s i t i v e term f o r a l l v*. The damping a (v*, A ) due t o the c o n d u c t i v i t y o f the P penetrator t i p , here taken t o have the properties o f boron n i t r i d e , depends on the choice o f the conduction length, A. I n Fig. V-22 A = 6 mn i s chosen as a reasonable thickness f o r the boron n i t r i d e , which connects the m e l t l a y e r t o the molybdenum penetrator, which i s a t a uniform temperature because o f the high thermal conductivity. For t h i s case the sum o f the p o s i t i v e terms, aq(v*) and avl(v*), dominate the sum o f the negative terms f o r some range o f A and f o r v*
%

c t q + a vvL ~ vL i - = O ~ -

Any o f the conduction terms ( a K < 0, a < 0) and P a < 0 can insure s t a b i l i t y . Unless the m e l t i s heated t o high temperatures such t h a t T >> To, the c u r r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n these experiments w i l l be stable i n the small-amplitude approximation.

IJ

A second type o f experiment was an attempt t o

examine the me1t-heating process v i s u a l l y . Concent r i c graphite electrodes, separated by a boron n i t r i d e insulator, were heated by rf t o 1770 K and were brought i n contact w i t h a stack o f transparent Pyrex

0.3 rnm-s-l.

The second term i n However, t h i s

av as given by Eq. (V-18) can, i n p r i n c i p l e , provide

s t a b i l i t y under most circumstances.

equation represents o n l y an upper l i m i t .

A number o f experiments have been performed

which examine the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e l e c t r i c a l

A 60-Hz voltage was impressed across the electrodesand when c u r r e n t f l o w i n the m e l t was i n dicated, a slow penetration was started. The a c t i o n
disks.

76

a t the electrodes was photograp..:d disks.

throug

the Pyrex forward

c o n f i g u r a t i o n the center conductor was replaced by a number o f copper cables. For each type o f stem, the d i r e c t - and alterna4 t i n g - c u r r e n t ( t o 10 Hz) transmission p r o p e r t i e s were determined. lowing e f f e c t s :
l

Since the r a t h e r slow (0.1 mn-s-)

v e l o c i t i e s achieved were probably determined by the electrode temperatures and n o t the m e l t heating i n f r o n t o f t h e boron n i t r i d e , and since the m e l t l a y e r thickness was n o t determined, a q u a n t i t a t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f the foregoing theory cannot be made. ever, during some o f these experiments, b r i g h t , r a d i a l , high-temperature filaments were observed and photographed between the electrodes. unstable discharge i n t h e melt. o f t h i s type are needed. I t i s poss i b l e t h a t t h i s was a high-amplitude phase of an Further experiments

These analyses included the f o l -

How-

e o f the coppen a

Temperature-dependent e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s conducting s t r u c t u r a l members (aluminum, and s t e e l ). E f f e c t s o f ground conduction i n p a r a l l e l w i t h

the outer r e t u r n conductor.

e Contact resistance a t the d r i l l stem j o i n t s . e Properties o f possible i n s u l a t o r s and d r i l l i n g f l u i d s and the e f f e c t s on the leakage conductance. These considerations r e s u l t e d i n an expected range o f d i s t r i b u t e d parameters, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i m pedances, and a t t e n u a t i o n constants. The e f f i c i e n c y o f a number o f combinations o f d r i l l stems and melti n g body heaters were c a l c u l a t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f hole depth. An example o f the e f f i c i e n c y versus Here t h e a l t e r n a t i n g - c u r r e n t depth f o r the c o n f i g u r a t i o n depicted i n Fig. V-23 i s shown i n Fig. V-24.

6. Power Transmission Analysis o f Subterrene

Stem.

The properties o f the Subterrene d r i l l stem t h a t a f f e c t the e l e c t r i c a l power transmission t o the penetrator heater have been investigated. This cons i s t e d o f a consideration o f m a t e r i a l properties, the r e s u l t i n g e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f two stem

configurations, and sample c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e f r a c t i o n o f transmitted power a v a i l a b l e t o heat t h e penetrator. Because o f the generally high currents r e s u l t i n g from t h e low resistances o f e x i s t i n g and proposed heaters, o n l y stem designs i n which t h e s t r u c t u r a l members are a l s o conductors were considered. V-23. One such c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. I t consists of concentric aluminum c y l i n d e r s I n t h e other

i n s u l a t e d from one another and p r o v i d i n g downward and r e t u r n conduction paths.

z 0.4
a
R, = LOAD RESISTANCE
R e 8 CHARACTERISTIC

Oa2 0.1

oC,

t
4

IMPEDANCE

1
WELL DEPTH ( km 1

i ; i

I
it

1 ;

i2

Fig. V-23.

Cross section of proposed Subterrene

d r i l l stem u t i l i z i n g concentric aluminum conductors.

Fig. V-24.

Power transmission c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a Subterrene stem as a f u n c t i o n o f depth and load resistance.

77

characteristics have been used,and good insulation and negligible contact resistance were assumed. If the characteristic impedance (Rc) and the load (Rs) are matched, perhaps through a downhole transformer, negligible transmission losses result (curve A ) even a t depths of 12 km. For higher or lower loads the efficiency lessens (curves B and C ) . A t heater resistances below 0.1 a, which i s typical of present laboratory penetrators, the efficiency i s below 0.5 a t 10 km. The design direction for deep Subterrene systems would dictate the need for higher resistance heating elements w i t h the prospects of h i g h transmission efficiencies for load resistances above 1 51. Applications and Technology Transfer The basic notion of developing an excavation tool based upon the melting of rocks and s o i l s was generated by the need for very deep drilling as proposed i n the original Mohole Project. The rockmelting idea recognized that very deep i n the earth extremely high temperatures --approaching rock me1 ting points --would be encountered. Therefore a tool that formed the borehole by me1 t i n g could uniquely solve this problem. For the general field of drilling and excavation technology, clearly del ineating some of the major problem areas was a straightforward task. To name only a few, the following problems seemed significant: High costs associated w i t h geothermal energy d r i 11i n g 0 High costs associated w i t h drilling deep wells, particularly as a result of trip time spent making downhole equipment changes. e Hole s t a b i l i t y problems in weak caving ground. 0 High cutter costs and low lifetime when boring i n very hard abrasive rock. 0 Maintaining a sustained advance rate when boring in wet and variable loose ground. With the Subterrene concept the three major facets of excavation, namely, rock fracturing, debris removal, and wall stabilization, are attacked i n a single,integrated operation. In loose or porous formations the debris removal operation is eliminated by density consolidation. Another unique advantage of the Subterrene system concept i s that the holes are automatically lined with a hard glass-like material. I t may thus be possible t o eliminate the
D.

costly and time-consuming procedure of inserting and cementing metal casings typically associated w i t h wells drilled with rotary bits. Studies made a t Los Alamos combined with a survey of potential users i n industry have revealed a large number of potential applications of the Subterrene. The system's inherent ability t o make holes of precise diameter could be utilized i n producing holes for anchoring structures such as bridges, TV towers, and transmission line towers. Emplacement holes for anchoring pipeline supports could be readi l y melted i n difficult materials such as Alaskan permafrost. Loose gravel and other unconsolidated formations are d i f f i c u l t to d r i l l and stabilize with conventional rotary equipment. The Subterrene, which would leave a glass-lined hole, provides a solution t o this difficulty. Conversely, hard, abrasive rocks can also be penetrated because the melting temperature, not the hardness or abrasiveness, determines the usefulness of the Subterrene. Particular interest i n small -diameter, horizontal , glass-lined holes motivated a separate study, which has been completed. These small horizontal borings can be used as underground u t i l i t y conduits for the installation of telephone, gas, water, and television lines; as glass-lined holes for h i g h explosive shot emplacement; and as drainage holes to stabilize roadcuts and embankments. The study indicates t h a t hole straightness requirements can be met by adding deviation sensors and alignment-control units t o the hole-forming assembly. From the viewpoint of the energy research and development programs a t Los Alamos, two potential uses are of special interest. The f i r s t involves melting holes i n h o t rocks for the extraction of geothermal energy. Since the penetration of the Subterrene depends on the melting of the rock, the h i g h i n situ -- temperatures will be beneficial i n saving thermal energy and increasing the penetration rate. The second i s related to the LASL program for developi n g underground superconducting transmission lines for electrical power. A t present, such lines would have to be laid in trenches which could only be dug with considerable environmental disruption. W i t h a Subterrene, however, horizontal holes could be melted w i t h a minimum disturbance of the ground surface. The technology dissemination efforts expended by members of the Subterrene program a t Los Alamos have

78

been extensive i n both scope and depth. Approximately 60 technical papers and reports have been written by the project staff on a l l phases of Subterrene activities for distribution and presentation a t various technical society meetings. These reports continue t o be in demand and are forwarded t o a l l interested organizations and individuals. A substantial number of technical briefings have been presented to interested individuals and groups by the Subterrene staff throughout the program. Interested individuals and groups include members of the United States Congress, representatives of major i n dustrial concerns , representatives of the armed forces, u t i l i t y and power distribution specialists, drilling and oil-field specialists, university professors, professional engineers, and college students. For use a t meetings which cannot be attended by a member of the s t a f f , a short documentary color film on the Subterrene concept has been produced which utilizes technical animation t o i l l u s t r a t e the basic operating concepts. Initial impact in the area of public demonstrations has been achieved through the use of a mobile Su bterrene f i el d-demonstration u n i t which performed successfully before several groups in Washington, DC. The demonstrations were held a t the U.S. Army's Engineering Proving Grounds quarry area a t Fort Belvoir, VA. Among the estimated 300 persons who attended one of the four scheduled demonstrations were representatives from Congress, U.S. Government agencies, the news media, equipment manufacturers, and excavation firms. A similar demonstration was conducted shortly thereafter a t the Denver Federal Center in Denver, CO. A Subterrene field-demonstration unit was sent t o the c i t y of Tacoma, Wkto participate i n their Technology Transfer Field Days Demonstration a t their request. After performing for the general public, the u n i t was viewed and operated by personnel associated with underground uti 1 i ty emplacements. Such demonstrations , particul a r l y when they involve the production of useful holes by nonlaboratory work crews, are f e l t to be significant advances i n the technology transfer arena. A brief sumnary of these activities i s presented i n Table V-6.

TABLE V-6 LASL INITIATIVES I TECHNOLOGY N DISSEMINATION AND TRANSFER

Documentation Briefings LASL reports Technical society presenciety reports tations

Extensive mailing l i s t for reports Applications survey l e t t e r s Journal covers and a r t i c l e s Subterrene films Replies t o i n dustrial inquiries

All interested visitors t o LASL Visiting lecture tours Prospective funding agency briefings

Advisory Panels Geosciences advisory panel Industrial staff members National Science Foundation program managers ERDA program managers Internal
LASL

Demonstrations Rock melting demonstrations for visitors at L S AL Washington, DC field demonstrations Denver Federal Center field demonstrations Tacoma, WA Technology Transfer Field Days Drainage holes a t Bandelier National Monument

staff reviews Displays exhi biting examples of Subterrene rockme1 ting penetrator systems, glass-lined holes, rockme1 ted debris samples, and technical reports were prepared for the First Houston Technology Transfer Conference i n Houston, TX, and the 1974 Annual Meeting of the Association of Engineering Geologists in Denver, CO. Technical papers on Subterrene technology were presented a t each of these meetings. Permanent display samples were prepared for the American Museum of Atomic Energy in Oak Ridge, TN, and Subterrene hardware and posters were included i n the current ERDA traveling exhibit on geothermal energy. In conclusion i t appears that a l l of the preliminary steps in achieving the transfer of a new technology have been accompl i shed by the Subterrene s t a f f . The technical needs were identified i n depth, the applicable technology was directed toward the development and testing of a new system, and a vast program i n techno1 ogy dissemination was implemented. To complete this process, a large-scale commercial utilization of the technology i s required.

LJ
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VI.

TECHNICAL REPORTS AND PRESENTATIONS

Copies o f the reports l i s t e d below can be obtained from: National Technical Information Service (NTIS) U.S. Department o f C m e r c e 5285 P o r t Royal Road Springfield, VA 22151 ; the completed reports are i d e n t i f i e d by t h e i r LA-MS number by NTIS. Discussions of the technical reports can be directed t o i n d i v i d u a l authors at: University o f California Los Alamos S c l e n t i f l c Laboratory P. 0. Box 1663 Group P-DO, MS-570 Los Alamos, NM 87545 Telephone: (505) 667-6722

A.

COMPLETED LASL TECHNICAL REPORTS

LASL Report No. LA-5354-MS LA-5422-MS LA-5423-MS LA-5435-MS LA-5459-SR LA-5211-MS LA-5502-MS LA-551 7-MS
1

Title Systems and Cost Analysis f o r a Nuclear Subterrene Tunneling Machine - A Preliminary Study. (September 1973).
A V e r s a t i l e Rock-Melting System f o r the Formation o f Small-Diameter Horizontal Glass-Lined Holes (October 1973).

Author( s)

J. H. Altseimer
D. L. Sims W. A. Stark, J r . M. C. Krupka
G. E. Cort

Carbon Receptor Reactions i n Subterrene Penetrators (October 1973). Rock Heat-Loss Shape Factors f o r Subterrene Penetrators (October 1973). Rapid Excavation by Rock Melting -- LASL Subterrene Program December 31 , 1972 t o September 1 , 1973 (November 1973).

--

R. J. Hanold
P. E. Armstrong

Subterrene E l e c t r i c a l Heater Design and Morphology (February 1974). Heat Transfer and Thermal Treatment Processes i n Subterrene-Produced G ass Hole Linings (February 1974). 1 Conceptual Design o f a Coring Subterrene Geoprospector (February 1974). Selected Physiochemical Properties of Basaltic Rocks, Liquids and G asses (March 1974). 1 Development o f Mobile Rock-Melting Subterrene F i e l d U n i t f o r Universal Extruding Penetrators ( A p r i l 1974). Numerical Solution o f Melt Flow and Thermal Energy Transfer f o r the Lithothermodynamics o f a Rock-Melting Penetrator (May 1974). The AYER Heat Conduction Computer Program (May 1974). PLACID: A General Finite-Element Computer Program f o r Stress Analysis o f Plane and Axisymmetric Solids (May 1974). Geothermal Well Technology and Potential Applications o f Subterrene A Status Review (August 1974). Devices

A. C. Stanton
J. W. Neudecker
M. C. Krupka

LA-5540-MS LA-5573-MS LA-5608-MS LA-561 3-MS LA-5621 -MS LA-5689-MS

!

J. E. Griggs
R. D. McFarland R. G. Lawton

R. G. Lawton
J. H. Altseimer L. B. Lundberg

LA- 5826-MS

Characterization o f Rock Melts and Glasses Formed by Earth-Me1 t i n g Subterrenes (January 1975).

80

LASL Report No. LA-5857-MS

Author(s)
~~

Chemical Corrosion o f Molybdenum and Tungsten i n L i q u i d Basalt, T u f f , and Granite w i t h A p p l i c a t i o n t o Subterrene Penetrators (February 1975). Petrography and Chemistry o f Minerals and Glass i n Rocks P a r t i a l l y Fused by Rock-Melting D r i l l s (September 1975). Unique Refractory Techniques f o r Fabricating Subterrene Penetrators (September 1975). Rock Property Measurements P e r t i n e n t t o t h e Construction o f Drainage Systems a t Archeological S i t e s i n Arizona by Subterrene Penet r a t o r s (November 1975). Development o f Coring, Consolidating, Subterrene Penetrators (March 1976).

W. A. Stark, Jr. M. C. Krupka

LA- 5838

S. N. Ehrenberg P r i s c i l l a Perkins M. C. Krupka

LA-6038-MS LA-6135-MS

W. C. Turner
6. M. Pharr

LA-6265-MS

H. D. Murphy J. W. Neudecker G. E. Cort W. C. Turner R. D. McFarland J. E. Griggs

J. H. Altseimer

LA- 6555-MS

Technical and Cost Analysis of Rock M e l t i n g Systems f o r Producing Geothermal We1 1s (November 1976).

B.

TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS AND JOURNAL ARTICLES

Conference on Research i n Tunneling and Excavat i o n Technology (Abstract and Presentation)

J. C. Rowley

Rapid Excavation by Rock M e l t i n g 1 5 t h Symposium on Rock Mechanics (Presentation and Paper)

NSF, Wayzata, MN, September 1415, 1973

R. J. Hanold

The Subterrene Concept and I t s Role i n Future Excavation Technology 26th P a c i f i c Coast Regional Meeting (Abstract and Presentation)

U.S. National Comnittee on Rock Mechanics , Custer, SD, September

17-19, 1973

M. C. Krupka

Refractory M a t e r i a l and Glass Technology Problems Associated w i t h t h e Development o f a Rock M e l t i n g Drill. Tunnels & Tunnelling Magazine ( I n v i t e d A r t i c l e )

American Ceramic Society, San Francisco, CA, October 31: November 2, 1973

J. H. Altseimer

Subterrene Rock Me1t i n g Devices U n i v e r s i t y o f Wyoming ( I n v i t e d Presentation)

B r i t i s h Tunnelling Society, January-February 1974

J. C. Rowley

Rock Me1t i n g and Geothermal Energy Geotechnical Eng. Group & Association o f Eng. Geologists J o i n t Meeting ( I n v i t e d Presentation)

Laramie, WY, A p r i l 25, 1974

R. J. Hanold

The LASL Subterrene Concept

Los

Angeles, CA, May 30, 1974

U
81

J. R. C. J.

C. Rowley J. Hanold A. Bankston W. Neudecker

Rapid Excavation & Tunneling Conference (Presentation and Paper) Rock Melting Subterrenes - Their Role i n Future Excavation Techno1ogy

American Inst. of Mining Engineering, San Francisco, CA, June 24-27, 1974

D. L. Sims
W . A. Stark, J r . ,

Petroleum Enqineer (Journal Article) Melting Glass-Lined Holes: Nw Drilling Technology e Journal of Vacuum Science and Technoloqy (Article) Application o f Thick Film and Bulk Coating Technology to the Subterrene Program 3rd International Congress I R SM (Presentation and Paper) Rock Melting Applied t o Excavation and Tunneling

July 1974 American Vacuum Society, Vol. 11, NO. 4, July-August 1974

e t a1

J. C. Rowley

International Society for Rock Mechanics, Denver, COY September 2-7, 1974

C. A. Bankston

NATO Committee on Challenses of Modern Society (presentation) The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory Subterrene Project and I t ' s Applications t o Geothermal Energy

NATO, Los Alamos, NM, September 18, 1974

J. C. Rowley

Conference on Research for Development of Geothermal Resources (Presentation' and Paper) Rock-Me1 ting Technology and Geothermal Drilling Houston Technoloqv Transfer Conference (Presentation-and Paper) The Initiatives of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory i n the Transfer of a Nw Excavation e Technology
NASA

NSF, JPL, CIT, Pasadena, CA, September 23-25, 1974

R. J . Hanold C. A. Bankston J. C. Rowley W. W. Long

Houston, TX, September 24-25, 1974

R. J. Hanold

Earth & Planetarv Sciences Group-Johnson Space F i g h t Center (Presentation) 1 The Los Alamos Subterrene Program and i t s Role i n Geothermal Energy Development17th Annual Meeting, Association of Engineering Geologists (Abstract and Presentation) The Rock Melting Subterrene and i t s Potential Role i n Geothermal Energy AIAA/SAE 10th Propulsion Conference (Presentation and Paper) Nuclear Propulsion Technology Transfer to Energy Systems

NASA, Houston, TX, September 26, 1974

C. A. Bankston J . H. Altseimer

AEG, Denver, COY October 18, 1974

J. J. W. W.

H. D. E. A.

Altseimer Balcomb Keller Ranken

AIAA/SAE, San Diego, CA, October 21-23, 1974

R. D. McFarland R. J. Hanold
R. E. Williams

1974 ASME Winter Annual Meeting (Presentation and Paper) Viscous Melt Flow and Thermal Energy Transfer for a Rock-Me1 t i n g Penetrator Tunnels & Tunnelling Hagazine (Article) Soil Melting A Practical Trial

ASME, Nw York, NY, November 18e

22, 1974

British Tunnelling Society, January-February 1975

H. N. Fisher

1975 AM Winter Annual Meetins SE (Presentation and Paper) Thermal Analysis o f Some Subterrene Penetrators University of Colorado (Invited Presentation) The Subterrene Program and Geothermal Energy

ASME, Houston, TX, November 30December 4, 1975 Boulder, COY December 2, 1975

J. H. Altseimer 82

C.

REPORTS RELATED T SUBTERRENE TECHNOLOGY PUBLISHED BY OTHER ORGANIZATIONS O

C

1.

Black,. D. L. , "Basic Understanding o f Earth Tunneling by Melting," Prepared f o r U.S. Department o f Transportation by Westinghouse Astronuclcar Laboratory, J u l y 1974. Bledsoe, J . D., H i l l , J. E., and Coon, R. F., "Cost Comparison Between Subterrene and Current Tunneling Methods," Prepared f o r National Science Foundation by A. A. Mathews, Inc., May 1975. Black, D. L., "A Study o f Borehole Plugging i n Bedded S a l t Domes by Earth Melting Technology," Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory, June 1975. Nielsen, R. R., Abou-Sayed, A., and Jones, A. H., "Characterization o f Rock-Glass Formed by the LASL Subterrene i n Bandelier Tuff," Terra Tek, November 1975. Muan, A., "Silicate-Metal Reactions w i t h a Bearing on the Performance o f Subterrene Penetrators,' The Pennsylvania State University, August 1976.
S t . John, C. M., "Stresses and Displacements Around Deep Holes i n Hot Rocks," s i t y o f Minnesota, September 1976.
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