SET

Introduction

The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician George
Cantor (1845-1918). The concept of sets is widely used in the foundation of
relations, functions, logic, probability theory, etc.
Sets are denoted by capital letters of English alphabet while the
elements are denoted, in general, by small letters.
If x is an element of set A, we write xe A (read as x belongs to A). If x is
not an element of A, we write x e A (read as x does not belong to A). The
symbol e is called the membership relation.

Representation Methods of Set
1. Tabular Form or Roaster Form
In this method of describing a set, the element of the set are listed
and separated by commas within brackets.

Examples:
(i) The set of all odd positive integers less than 10 can be
described as {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
(ii) The set of all vowels can be described as {a, e, I, o, u}
(iii) The set of all natural number can be described as {1, 2, 3}.
Here three dots stand for and so on.
(iv) The set of letters of the word EXAMINATION is { E, X, A, M, I,
N, A, T, I, O, N}

2. Property Method or Set-Builder Form
In this method of describing a set, a variable x which stand for each
element of the set is written under braces and then after giving a
semicolon or oblique line the property or properties p(x), possessed
by each element of the set is written within the braces itself.

Examples:
(i) The set A = [1, 3, 5] can be written as
A = {x/X eN, x is an odd number x<5}
(ii) The set A of all even natural number can be described as
A = {2n; n e N}
(iii) The set A = [ a, e, i, o, u] can be written as
A = {x/x is a vowel of English alphabet}

Cardinal Number of a Finite Set
The number of element in a finite set A is called the cardinal number of set
A and is denoted by n(A).
Examples:
Let A = {1, 3, 5} , then n(A) = 3

Different Types of Sets

1. Finite Set
A set having finite number of element is called a finite set.

Examples:
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Here, A is a finite set as it has three
element (finite number of element).
2. Infinite Set
A set which is not a finite set is called an infinite set. Thus a set A is
said to be an infinite set if the number of element of A is not finite.
Examples:
(i) Let N = set of all positive integers = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Here, N is not
a finite set; hence it is an infinite set.

3. Null Set (or Empty Set or Void Set)
A set having no element is called a null set or an empty set or a void
set. It is denoted by | or { }
Examples:
(i) Let A = the set of odd number divisible by 2.

4. Singleton Set
A set having single element is called a singleton set. It is represented
by writing down the element within the braces.
Examples:
(i) A = the set of present of India.


5. Equivalent Sets
Two finite set A and B are said to be equivalent if they have the same
cardinal number. Thus, sets A and B are equivalent if n(A) = n(B)
If set A and B are equivalent we write A ~ B
Examples:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , B = {a, e, i, o, u}
Here n(A) = n(B) = 5
Therefore sets A and B are equivalent.

6. Pair Set or Doubleton Set
A set having two elements is called a pair set.
Examples:
{1, 2}, {0, 3}


Set of Sets
A set S having all its elements as sets is called a set of sets or a family of
sets or a class of sets.
Examples:
(i) {{1,2}, {2,5}, {3,6,8}} is a set of sets having three element
{1,2}, {2,5}, {3,6,8} which are themselves sets.
Subsets
A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if each element A is also an
element of B. If A is a subset of set B, we write A _ B.
Examples:
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B={2, 3, 4, 1, 5}. Then A _ B.

Proper Subset of a set
A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B if A is a subset of B and A
B, that is, if
(i) Every element of A is an element of A is an element of B and
(ii) B has at least one element which is not an element of A. This fact
is expressed by writing A c B or B A. (read as A is a proper
subset of B)
Examples:
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3 }, B = {2, 3, 4, 1, 5}. Then A c B or B A.

Alternative Definition of Equality of Sets
Two sets A and B are equal if A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A.
Thus, A = B A _ B and B _ A.
That is, A = B { x e A x e B}
Note :- A c B A _ B and A = B.

Some Important Properties of Subsets
1. Every set is its own subset.
Let A be any set. Then, x e A x eA
Hence, A _ A.
2. Empty set is a subset of each set.
Let | be the empty set a and A be any set.
As | has no element, we can we say that there is no element in |
which is not in A.
Hence, each element of | is an element of A | _ A

Superset of a Set
Definition: A set A is said to be a superset of set B. If B is a subset of A,
that is, each element of B is an element of A. If A is a superset of B, we
write A _ B.

Comparability of Sets
Definition : Two sets A and B are said to be comparable if either A c B or
B A or A = B.
If neither A c B and B A nor A = B, then A and B said to be
incomparable.
Example :
(i) Sets {1,2,3} and {2,3,6,7} are incomparable


Power Set
Definition: The set or family of all the subset of a given set A is said to be
the power set of A and is denoted by P(A).
Symbolically, P(A) = {X:X _ A}
Thus X e P(A) X _ A
Also | e P(A) and A e P(A) for all sets A
The element of P(A) are the subset of A.

Example :
(i) If A = {1}, then P(A) = {|, {1}}

If A has n element, then its power set P(A) has 2
n
elements

Universal Set
Definition : Any set which is subset of all the sets under consideration is
called the universal set and is denoted by O or S or U.

Example :
Let A = {1,2, 3} , B = {3,4,6,9} and C = {0,1}
We can take S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9} as universal set.


Operation of Sets
1. Union of Two Sets
Note : (i) x e A B x e A and xe B
(ii) If A _ B, then A B = B

Generalized Definition
Definition : The union of set of A
1
, A
2
, is the set of all those
elements which are elements of at least one of these sets A
1
, A
2

It is denoted by

n
or A
1
A
2
A
3

Symbolically,

n
= {x:x e A
n
for at least one n e N}
Similarly,

n
= { x:xe A
n
for at least one value of n out of
1,2,3,k)
n=1


2. Intersection of Two Sets
Generalized Definition
Definition : The intersection of sets A
1
, and A
2
,. Is the set of all
the elements which are common to all the sets A
1
, A
2

It is denoted by

n
or A
1
A
2
A
3

Symbolically,

n
= {x:x eA
n
for all n}
Similarly,

n
= {x:x eA
n
for n = 1, 2, 3,.k}

Some Important Results of Algebra of Two Sets
1. If A _ B, then AB = A
2. X e AB xe A or x e B
3. Associative law: (AB)C = A(BC)
4. Distributive Law: (i) (AB)C = (AB)(AC)
(ii) A(BC) = (AB)(AC)
5. (i) (AB)A = A and (AB)B = B
(ii) (AB)A = A and (AB)B = B


3. Disjoin Sets
4. Pairwise Disjoint Sets

Difference of Two Sets
Definition: The difference of two sets A and B (also called relative
complement of B in A) is the set of all those elements of A which are not
elements of B. It is denoted by A-B
Symbolically, A-B = {x:xe A and x e B)

Remarks: (i) Clearly A-B = B-A . Hence, difference of two sets is not
commutative.
(ii) A-B can be obtained by discarding the element of B, present in
A.
Symmetric Difference of Two Sets
The symmetric difference of two sets A and B denoted by A A B, is defined
as
A A B = (A-B)(B-A)

Complement of a Set
Definition: The complement of a set A (also called absolute complement
of A) is the set of all those element of the universal sets A which are not
element of A. It is denoted by A
c
or A.

Important Properties of Complement
1. A A` = | 2. AA = U
3. U`= | 4. (A) = A
5. A _ B B _ A 6. A-B = B-A
7. A-B = AB` 8. B-A = A`B`

Demorgans Laws
1. (AB) ` = A`B`
2. (AB) = A`B`
3. A-(BC) = (A-B)(A-C)
4. A-(BC) = (A-B)(A-C)

Important Properties of Cardinal Number of Sets
Let A, B, C are finite sets in a finite universal set U. Then,
1. n(AB) = n(A)+n(B)-n(AB)
2. If A and B are disjoint sets then n(AB) = n(A)+n(B)
3. n(ABC)=n(A)+n(B)+n(C)-n(AB)-n(BC)-n(AC)+n(ABC)
4. n(A-B) = n(A)-n(AB)=n(AB`)
5. n(AAB) = n(A)+n(B)-2n(AB)
6. n(A`) = n(U)-n(A)
7. n(A`B`)=n(U)-n(AB)
8. n(A`B`)=n(U)-n(AB)

Order Pair
A pair of object listed in a specific order, is called an ordered pair.

Cartesian Product of Two Sets
If A and B are any two non-empty sets, Cartesian product of A and B is
defined as
AxB = {(a,b):ae A and b eB}

Note:-
- If A = | or B = | then AxB = |
- In general AxB = BxA
- If A has n elements and B has m elements, then AxB has mn
elements
- We can also define in a similar way, ordered triplet. If A, B and C are
three sets, then (a, b, c), where a eA, beB and ceC, is called an
ordered triplet. The Cartesian product of set A, B and C is defined as
AxBXC = { (a, b, c) ;a eA, beB, ceC}

Key Result on Cartesian Product
If A, B, C are three sets, then
Ax(BC) = (AxB)(AxC)
Ax(BC) = (AxB)(AxC)
Ax(B-C) = (AxB)-(AxC)
(AxB)(SxT) = (AS)x(BT), where S and T are two sets.
If A _ B, then (AxC) _ (BxC)
If A _ B, then (AxB) (BxA)= A
2

If A_ B and C _ D, then AxC _ BxD
If A _ B, then AxA _ (AxB)(BxA)
If A and B are two non empty sets having n elements in common then
AxB and BxA have n
2
element in common.
AxB= BxA, if A=B
Ax(B` C`)` = (AxB) (AxC)


Relation

Definition : A relation R, from a non-empty set A to another non-empty set
B, is a subset of AxB.
Equivalently, any subset of AxB is a relation from A to B.
Thus, R is a relation from A to B R _ AxB R _ {a, b}: aeA, b eB}
Example :
Let A = {1,2}, B{a, b, c}
Let R = {(1, a), (1,c)}
Here R is a subset of AxB ; hence it is a relation from A to B.




Domain and Range of Relation
Domain of a Relation
Let R be a relation from A to B. The domain of relation R is the set of
all those element a e A such that (a, b)eR for some b eB. Domain of
R is precisely written as Dome (R ).
Range of a Relation
Let R be a relation from A to B. The range of R is the set of all those
elements beB such that (a, b) eR from some aeA.
Thus range of R = {beB(a, b)e R for some a eA}
Range of R = set of second component of all the ordered pairs which
belongs to R.
Codomain of a Relation
If R be a relation from A to B, then B is called the Codomain of
relation R.
Relation on a set
A relation R from a non-empty set A into itself is called a relation on
A. In other word if A is a non- empty set, then subset of AxA = A
2
is
called a relation on A.

Total Number of Relation
Let A and B be two non empty finite sets having p and q elements,
respectively. Then, n(AxB) = n(A).n(B) = pq.
Therefore, total number of subset of AxB = 2
pq
.
As each subset of AxB is a relation from A to B, total number of relation
from A to B is 2
pq
.
Note:- Empty relation | and universal relation AxB from A to B are called
trivial relation and any other relation is called a non trivial relation.






Types of Relation from One Set to another Set
Empty Relation
A relation R from A to B is called an empty relation or a void relation
from A to B = |
Universal Relation
A relation R from A to B is said to be the universal relation if R = AxB.


Types of Relation on a Set
Empty Relation
A relation R from A to B is called an empty relation or a void relation
from A to B = |
Universal Relation
A relation R on A is said to be universal relation on A if R = AxA.
Identity Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be the identify relation on A if R =
{(a, b):a eA, beA and a=b}.
Thus identify relation R = {(a,a) : a eA}. Identify relation on set A is
also denoted by I
A
.
Note :- In an identify relation on A every element of A should be
related to itself only.
Reflexive Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if aRa aeA, that is
(a,a) eRaeA.
Note:-The identity relation is always a reflexive relation, but a
reflexive relation may or may not be the identity relation.
Symmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be a symmetric relation if
aRb bRa (Whenever aRb, then bRa),
that is (a,b) eR(b,a)eR, a, b eA.
Antisymmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be Antisymmetric if aRb and bRa
a=b
That is (a, b) e R and (b,,a) eRa=b
Thus, R is Antisymmetric if a b, then both (a, b) and (b , a) can not
belong to R. One of them may belong to R.
Note:- A relation, which is not symmetric is not necessarily
Antisymmetric.
Transitive Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be a transitive relation if aRb and
bRc aRc
That is, (a,b) e R and (b, c) e R (a,c) eR.
Inverse Relation
Let R _ AxB be a relation from A to B. Then the inverse relation of R,
denoted by R
-1
, is a relation from B to A defined by
R-1 = {(b,a) : (a,b)eR}.
Thus (a,b) eR (b,a)eR
-1
, aeA, beB
Clearly dom.R
-1
= Range R and Range R
-1
= Domain R.
Equivalence Relation
Let A be a non-empty set, then a relation R on A is said to be an
equivalence relation if
(i) R is reflexive, that is aRa a eA: that is, (a,b) eR, aeA.
(ii) R is symmetric that is if aRb then bRa: that is (a,b)e R
(b,a)eR, a, beA
(iii) R is transitive that is if aRb and bRc, then aRc; that is (a,b) eR
and (b,c) eR (a,c)eR, a,b, c eR



Function

Definition : Let A and B be two non empty sets, then a rule f which
associative each element of A with a unique element of B is called a
mapping or function from A to B. If f is a mapping from A to B, we write f:
AB (read as f is a function from A to B)
Thus for a function A to B:
(i) A and B should be non empty.
(ii) Each element of A should have image in B.
(iii) No element of A should have more than one image in B.

Two things should always be kept in mind
A mapping f:XY is said to be a function if each element in the set
X has its image in set Y. It is possible that a few elements in the
set Y are present, which are not the image of any element in set X.
Every element in the set X should have one and only one image.
That means, it is impossible to have more than one image for a
specific element in set X. Functions cannot be multi- valued (A
mapping that is multi-valued is called a relation from X and Y).

Domain, Codomain and Range of a Function
The set A is called the domain of the map f and the set B is called the
Codomain. The set of the image of all the element of A under the map f is
called the range of f and is denoted by f(A).
Thus range of f, that is f(A) = {f(x) : xeA}.
Clearly, f(A) eB.

Classification of a Function

One-One and Many-One Functions
If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the
Codomain, the function is said to be One-One. One-One function are
also called injective function.
On the other hand, if there are at least two element in the domain whose
images are the same the function is known as many-one.

Methods to Determine One-One and Many-One
(i) Let x
1
, x
2
e Domain of f and if x
1
= x
2
f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) for ever x
1
, x
2

in the domain then f is one-one or else many-one.
(ii) Conversely, if f(x1) = f(x2) x
1
=x
2
for every x
1
, x
2
in the domain,
then f is one-one or else many-one.
(iii) If the function is entirely increasing or decreasing in the domain
then f is one-one or else many-one.
(iv) Any continuous function f(x) which has at least one local maxima
or local minima is many-one.
(v) All even functions are many one.
(vi) All polynomials of even degree defined in R have at least one local
maxima or minima and hence are many-one in the domain R.
polynomial of odd degree can be one-one or many-one.
(vii) If f is a rational function then f(x
1
) = f(x
2
) will always be satisfied
when x
1
=x
2
in the domain. Hence we can write
f(x
1
) f(x
2
) = (x
1
-x
2
)g(x
1
, x
2
) where g(x
1
,x
2
) is some function in x1
and x
2
. Now if g(x
1
, x
2
) = 0 gives some solution which is different
from x
1
=x
2
and which lies in the domain then f is many one or
else one one.
(viii) Draw the graph of y=f(x) and determine whether f(x) is one-one or
many-one.

Onto and Into Function
Let f: X Y be a function. If each element in the Codomain y has at
least one pre-image in the domain X, that is for every yey there exist
at least one element xeX such that f(x) =y, then f is onto. In other
words, range of f=Y, for onto functions.
On the other hand, if there exist at least one element in the Codomain
Y which is not an image of any element in the domain X, then f is into.
Onto function is also called Surjective Function and a function which
is both one-one and onto is called Bijective Function.

Methods to determine whether a function is onto or into
(i) If range = Codomain, then f is onto. If range is a proper subset
of Codomain then f is into.
(ii) Solve f(x) = yfor x, say x = g(y).
Now ifg(y) is defined for each y e Codomain and g(y)e domain
of f for all y e Codomain then f(x) is onto. If this requirement is
not met by at least one value of y in Codomain then f(x) is into.
Remarks:
(i) An into function can be made onto by redefining the
Codomain as the range of the original Function.
(ii) Any polynomial function f:R R is onto if degree is
odd; into if degree of f is even.
Inverse Function

If f:XY be a function defined by y = f(x) such that f is both one-one
and onto then there exists a unique function g:YX such that for
each y e Y, g(y) = x if y = f(x). the function g so defined is called the
inverse of f and denoted by f
-1
. Also if g is the inverse of f, then f is
the inverse of each other.
The condition for existence of inverse of a function is that the function
must be one-one and onto. Whenever an inverse function is defined
the range of the original function becomes the domain of the inverse
function and domain of the original function becomes the range of the
inverse function.

Properties of Inverse Functions
The inverse of bijective function is unique and bijective.
Let f:A B be a function such that f is bijective and g:B A is
inverse of f, then fog = I
B
= Identity function of set B. Then gof
= I
A
= Identity function of set A.
If fog = gof, then either f
-1
= g or g
-1
= f and fog(x) = gof(x)=x.
If f and g are two bijective function such that f : AB and g
:BC, then gof : AC is bijective. Also (gof)
-1
= f
-1
og
-1
.
Graph of y = f(x) and y=f-1(x) are symmetrical about y = x line
and intersect on line y=x only or f(x) = f
-1
(x) = x whenever graph
intersect.

Composite Function

Let A, B and C be three non-empty sets.
Let f:AB and g : BC be two function then gof : AC. This
function is called composite of f and g, given by gof(x)=g(f(x)) xeA.
Thus, the image of every x e A under the function gof is the g-image
of the f-image of x.
The gof is defined only if x e A, f(x) is an element of the domain of g
so that we can take its g- image.
The range of f must be a subset of the domain of g in gof.

Properties of Composite Functions
In general, the composition of function is not commutative, that
is fog = gof
The composition of function is associative, that is if h: AB,,
g:BC and f : C D be three function then (fog)oh = fo(goh)
The composition of any function with the identity function is the
function itself, that is
f : AB then foI
A
= I
B
of = f where I
A
and I
B
are the identity
function of A and B respectively.