H-1B visa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (November 2009) The H-1B is a non-immigrant visa in the United States under the Immigration and Nationality Act, section 101(a)(15)(H). It allows U.S. employers to temporarily employ foreign workers in specialty occupations. If a foreign worker in H-1B status quits or is dismissed from the sponsoring employer, the worker must either apply for and be granted a change of status to another non-immigrant status, find another employer (subject to application for adjustment of status and/or change of visa), or leave the United States. The regulations define a "specialty occupation" as requiring theoretical and practical application of a body of highly specialized knowledge in a field of human endeavor[1] including but not limited to architecture, engineering, mathematics, physical sciences, social sciences, biotechnology, medicine and health, education, law, accounting, business specialties, theology, and the arts, and requiring the attainment of a bachelors degree or its equivalent as a minimum[2] (with the exception of fashion models, who must be "of distinguished merit and ability".)[3] Likewise, the foreign worker must possess at least a bachelors degree or its equivalent and state licensure, if required to practice in that field. H-1B work-authorization is strictly limited to employment by the sponsoring employer.

Contents
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1 Duration of stay 2 Congressional yearly numerical cap 3 Employer attestations to protect U.S. workers 4 H-1B fees earmarked for U.S. worker education and training 5 Income taxation status of H-1B workers 6 H-1B employment 7 U.S. policy on maximum duration 8 H-1B and legal immigration 9 Quotas and changes in quotas 10 H-1B-dependent employers 11 Criticisms of the program o 11.1 Employees made to pay H1-B sponsorship costs o 11.2 No labor shortages o 11.3 Relatively low skills required o 11.4 Wage depression o 11.5 Hidden costs and risks for employers

11.6 Risks for employees 11.7 Fraud by Employers and Applicants 11.8 The Outsourcing Visa 12 Criticisms by H-1B holders o 12.1 Payment of out-of-state tuition o 12.2 Social Security and Medicare taxes o 12.3 Spouses cannot work o 12.4 Unrealistic Departure Requirement on Job Loss 13 Worker protection and law enforcement 14 American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000 15 Recent Changes to U.S. Policy 16 Similar programs 17 Dependents of H-1B visa holders 18 H-1B demographics 19 Usage of H-1B by outsourcing firms 20 Top ten H-1B rankings 21 See also 22 References 23 Notes 24 External links for H-1B information o 24.1 Other links

o o o

[edit] Duration of stay

The duration of stay is three years, extendable to six. An exception to maximum length of stay applies in certain circumstances: 1. one-year extensions if a labor certification application has been filed and is pending for at least 365 days; and 2. three-year extensions if an I-140 Immigrant Petition has been approved. Despite a limit on length of stay, no requirement exists that the individual remain for any period in the job the visa was originally issued for. This is known as H1B portability or transfer, provided the new employer sponsors another H1B visa, which may or may not be subjected to the quota. Under current law, H1B visa has no stipulated grace period in the event the employeremployee relationship ceases to exist.

[edit] Congressional yearly numerical cap

The current law limits to 65,000 the number of aliens who may be issued a visa or otherwise provided H-1B status each fiscal year (FY). In addition, excluded from the ceiling are all H-1B non-immigrants who work at (but not necessarily for) universities and non-profit research facilities.[4] This means that contractors working at, but not directly employed by the institutions may be exempt from the cap. Free Trade Agreements allow a carve out from the numerical limit

of 1,400 for Chilean nationals and 5,400 for Singapore nationals. Laws also exempt up to 20,000 foreign nationals holding a masters or higher degree from U.S. universities from the cap on H1B visas. A yearly shortfall in available visas arose beginning in the mid 2000s, despite a temporary increase in the yearly cap.[5] The number had been increased to 195,000 in FY2001, FY2002 and FY2003. The Department of Homeland Security approved about 132,000 H-1B visas in 2004 and 117,000 in 2005.[6] April 2, 2007 was the first day on which an employer could request a first-time visa for an H-1B worker, to become effective on October 1, 2007. On April 3, 2007, United States Citizenship and Immigration Services announced that it received more applications on April 2 than the 65,000 cap. Per agency rules, when the limit is reached on the first day of filing, all applications received on the first two days are put into a lottery to determine allocation of the available visas. In 2008 the US 2009 fiscal year H-1B visa quota was reached one week into the application process. In 2008, a total of 276,252 visas were issued and in 2009 that number decreased slightly to 214,271.[7] The American Immigration Lawyers Association (AILA), described the situation as a crisis, and the situation was reported on by the Wall Street Journal, BusinessWeek and Washington Post. Employers, concerned that they could not plan their staffing needs, applied pressure on congress.[8] Microsoft chairman Bill Gates testified in 2007 on behalf of the expanded visa program on Capitol Hill, "warning of dangers to the [U. S. economy] if employers can't import skilled workers to fill job gaps".[8] Congress considered a bill to address the shortfall,[9] but in the end did not revise the program.[10] No revision to the program, however, was passed.

[edit] Employer attestations to protect U.S. workers

The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is responsible for ensuring that foreign workers do not displace or adversely affect wages or working conditions of U.S. workers. While an employer is not required to advertise the position before hiring an H-1B non-immigrant pursuant to the H-1B visa approval, the employer is required to notify the employee representative about the LCA (Labor Condition Application) or if there is no such representation then the employer is required to publish that LCA at the workplace and the employer's office.[11][12] Employers must attest that wages offered are at least equal to the actual wage paid by the employer to other workers with similar experience and qualifications for the job in question, or alternatively, pay the prevailing wage for the occupation in the area of intended employment, whichever is greater. By signing the LCA, the employer attests that: prevailing wage rate for area of employment will be paid; working conditions of position will not adversely affect conditions of similarly employed American workers; place of employment not experiencing labor dispute involving a strike or lockout;[11][12] and that the foreign employee will be given benefits comparable to those offered to its other workers with similar jobs.[13] The law requires H-1B workers to be paid the higher of the prevailing wage for the same occupation and geographic location, or the same as the employer pays to similarly situated employees. Other factors, such as age and skill were not permitted to be taken into account for the prevailing wage. Congress changed the program in 2004 to require the Department of Labor to provide four skill-based

prevailing wage levels for employers to use. This is the only prevailing wage mechanism the law permits that incorporates factors other than occupation and location. The approval process for these applications are based on employer attestations and documentary evidence submitted. The employer is advised of their liability if they are replacing a US worker.

[edit] H-1B fees earmarked for U.S. worker education and training
In 2007, the U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration (ETA), reported on two programs, the High Growth Training Initiative and Workforce Innovation Regional Economic Development (WIRED), which have received or will receive $284 million and $260 million, respectively, from H-1B training fees to educate and train U.S. workers[citation needed] .

[edit] Income taxation status of H-1B workers

The taxation of income for H-1B employees depends on whether they are categorized for tax purposes as either non-resident aliens or resident aliens. A non-resident alien for tax purposes is only taxed on income from the United States, while a resident alien for tax purposes is taxed on income from both inside and outside the United States. The classification is determined based on the "substantial presence test": If the substantial presence test indicates that the H-1B visa holder is a resident, then income taxation is like any other U.S. person and may be filed using Form 1040 and the necessary schedules; otherwise, the visa-holder must file as a non-resident alien using tax form 1040NR or 1040NR-EZ; he or she may claim benefit from tax treaties if they exist between the United States and the visa holder's country of citizenship. Persons who are in their first year within the United States may choose to be considered a resident for taxation purposes for the entire year, and must pay taxes on their worldwide income for that year. This "First Year Choice" is described in IRS Publication 519 and can only be made once in a person's lifetime. A spouse, regardless of visa status, must have a valid Individual Taxpayer Identification Number (ITIN) or Social Security number (SSN) in order to be included on a joint tax return with the H1B holder. The rules to file taxes for H-1B holders may be complex, depending on the individual situation. Besides consulting a professional tax preparer knowledgeable about the rules for foreigners, the IRS Publication 519, U.S. Tax Guide for Aliens, may be consulted.

[edit] H-1B employment

According to the USCIS, "H-1B aliens may only work for the petitioning U.S. employer and only in the H-1B activities described in the petition. The petitioning U.S. employer may place the H1B worker on the worksite of another employer if all applicable rules (e.g., Department of Labor rules) are followed. H-1B aliens may work for more than one U.S. employer, but must have a Form I-129 petition approved by each employer."[14] H-1B visa holders pay Medicare and Social Security taxes, and are eligible for Social Security benefits. They also pay state and federal taxes.

[edit] U.S. policy on maximum duration

In theory, the maximum duration of the H-1B visa is six years (ten years for exceptional Defense Department project-related work). H-1B holders who want to continue to work in the U.S. after six years, but who have not obtained permanent residency status, must remain outside of the U.S. for one year before reapplying for another H-1B visa. There are generally two exceptions to the six-year duration of the H-1B visa:

If a visa holder has submitted an I-140 immigrant petition or a labor certification prior to their fifth year anniversary of having the H-1B visa, they are entitled to renew their H-1B visa in one-year or three-year increments until a decision has been rendered on their application for permanent residence. If the visa holder has an approved I-140 immigrant petition, but is unable to initiate the final step of the green card process due to their priority date not being current, they may be entitled to a three-year extension of their H-1B visa. This exception originated with the American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000.[15]

[edit] H-1B and legal immigration

Even though the H-1B visa is a non-immigrant visa, it is one of the few visa categories recognized as dual intent, meaning an H-1B holder can have legal immigration intent (apply for and obtain the green card) while still a holder of the visa. In the past the employment-based green card process used to take only a few years, less than the duration of the H-1B visa itself. However, in recent times the legal employment-based immigration process has backlogged and retrogressed to the extent that it now takes many years for skilled professional applicants from certain countries to obtain their green cards. Since the duration of the H-1B visa hasn't changed, this has meant a lot more H-1B visa holders have to renew their visas in one-year or three-year increments to continue to be in legal status while their green card application is in process.

[edit] Quotas and changes in quotas

The number of new H-1Bs issued each year in the United States is subject to an annual congressionally-mandated quota. Each H-1B quota applies to a particular Financial Year which begins on October 1. Applications for the upcoming Financial Year are accepted beginning on

the preceding April 1 (or the first working day after that date). Those beneficiaries not subject to the annual quota are those who currently hold H-1B status or have held H-1B status at some point in the past six years. This annual quota has had a significant impact on the high tech industry. It has generally been set at 65,000 visas per year, with some exceptions for workers at exempt organizations like universities and colleges (note: contrary to popular belief, non-profit organizations are not automatically exempt, but may be so if affiliated with a university or college).[citation needed] In 2000, Congress permanently exempted H-1B visas going to Universities and Government Research Laboratories from the quota. During the early years of this quota in the early 1990s, this quota was rarely actually reached. By the mid-1990s, however, the quota tended to be filled each year on a first come, first served basis, resulting in new H-1Bs often being denied or delayed because the annual quota was already filled. In 1998 the quota was increased first to 115,000 and then, in 2000, to 195,000 visas per year. During the years the quota was 195,000, it was never reached.[citation needed] In FY 2004, the quota reverted to 90,000 when the temporary increase passed by Congress in 1999 expired. Since then, the quota is again filling up rapidly every year, making H-1Bs again increasingly hard to get. More recently, the basic quota was left at 65,000 but with an additional 20,000 visas possible for foreign workers with U.S. advanced degrees. Of the 65,000 total, 6,800 are initially reserved for citizens of Chile and Singapore under free trade agreements with those countries; however, if these reserved visas are not used under the agreements, they go back to the general pool. Outside of the 65,000 quota, another 10,500 visas annually are available to Australian citizens under a similar but more flexible program, the E-3 visa program.[citation needed] For FY 2007, beginning on October 1, 2006, the entire quota of visas for the year was exhausted within a span of less than 2 months on May 26, 2006,[16] well before the beginning of the financial year concerned. The additional 20,000 Advanced Degree H-1B visas were exhausted on July 26. For FY 2008, the entire quota was exhausted before the end of the first day on which applications were accepted, April 2.[17] Under USCIS rules, the 123,480 petitions received on April 2 and April 3 that were subject to the cap were pooled, and then 65,000 of these were selected at random for further processing.[18] The additional 20,000 Advanced Degree H-1B visas for FY 2008 was exhausted on April 30. In its annual report on H-1B visas released in November 2006, USCIS stated that it approved 131,000 H-1B visas in FY 2004 and 117,000 in FY 2005.[citation needed] The inflation in numbers is because H-1B visas can be exempt from the caps if the employer is a University or Research Lab. For FY 2009, USCIS announced on April 8, 2008 that the entire quota for visas for the year has been reached, for both 20,000 Advanced and the 65,000 quota. USCIS would complete initial data entry for all filing received during April 1 to April 7, 2008 before running the lottery.[19] For FY 2010, USCIS announced on December 21, 2009, that enough petitions were received to reach the year quota.[20] Trend analysis[21] indicates that the FY 2011 cap may be reached sometime between early October and November since the economy is picking up and the recession is easing.

[edit] H-1B-dependent employers

Recent H-1B legislation requires certain employers, called H-1B dependent employers to advertise positions in the USA before petitioning to employ H-1B workers for those positions.[citation needed] These requirements do not apply when hiring an exempt H-1B nonimmigrant For firms of 50 employees, an H-1B dependent employer is defined as having more than 15% of their employees in H-1B status. Smaller firms are allowed to have a higher percentage of H1B employees before becoming 'dependent'.

[edit] Criticisms of the program

A concern has been raised that this article's Criticism section may be compromising the article's neutral point of view of the subject. Possible resolutions may be to integrate the material in the section into the article as a whole, or to rewrite the contents of the section. Please see the discussion on the talk page. (November 2009) The H-1B program has caused a number of criticisms.

[edit] Employees made to pay H1-B sponsorship costs

Although the practice is unlawful, it is widely believed[citation needed] that some employers make their H1-B employees pay for most, all or in excess, of the costs associated with sponsoring and processing an H1-B application. These fees are usually under the guise of bond or other instruments, in an attempt to serve as a legal workaround to the law.

[edit] No labor shortages

Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman called the program a corporate subsidy, as quoted in a 2002 article in Computerworld.[22] The accuracy of this quote can not be ascertained, however, as Mr. Friedman has since died. Others holding this view include Dr. Norman Matloff, who testified to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee Subcommittee on Immigration on the H-1B subject. Matloff's paper for the University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform claims that there has been no shortage of qualified American citizens to fill American computer-related jobs, and that the data offered as evidence of American corporations needing H-1B visas to address labor shortages was erroneous.[23] The United States General Accounting Office found in a report in 2000 that controls on the H-1B program lacked effectiveness.[24] The GAO report's recommendations were subsequently implemented. High-tech companies often cite a techworker shortage when asking Congress to raise the 65,000 annual cap on H-1B visas, but according to a study conducted by John Miano and the Center for Immigration Studies there is no empirical data to support that claim.[25] Citing studies done at Duke, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, Georgetown University and others, critics have also argued that in some years, the number of foreign programmers and engineers imported outnumbered the number of jobs created by the industry.[26] Organizations have also posted hundreds of first hand accounts of H1-B Visa

Harm reports directly from individuals negatively impacted by the program, many of whom are willing to speak with the media.[27]

[edit] Relatively low skills required

Another criticism of the H-1B program is its vague eligibility requirements, but specific guidelines, upheld by a body of case law, define the requirements. While frequently described as a program for highly skilled workers, the H-1B nonimmigrant visa category specifically applies to specialty occupations. It can be argued that any job that requires a minimum of a bachelor's degree is "highly skilled". Specialty occupations have been defined as positions that require theoretical or technical expertise in a specialized field and have generally been interpreted as being those that normally require the attainment of a Bachelor's degree.[28] Typical H-1B occupations include architects, engineers, computer programmers, accountants, doctors, veterinarian, dentist, registered nurse, business managers, and college professors. The H-1B visa program also includes fashion models.

[edit] Wage depression

Wage depression is a chronic complaint critics have about the H-1B program: some studies have found that H-1B workers are paid significantly less than U.S. workers.[29][30] It is claimed[31][32][33][34][35][35] that the H-1B program is primarily used as a source of cheap labor. A paper by Harvard Professor George J. Borjas for the National Bureau of Economic Research found that "a 10 percent immigration-induced increase in the supply of doctorates lowers the wage of competing workers by about 3 to 4 percent."[citation needed] The LCA included in the H-1B petition is supposed to ensure that H-1B workers are paid the prevailing wage in the labor market, or the employer's actual average wage (whichever is higher)[citation needed], but evidence exists that some employers do not abide by these provisions and avoid paying the actual prevailing wage despite stiff penalties for abusers.[36] DOL has split the prevailing wage into four levels, with Level One representing about the 17th percentile of wage average Americans earn. About 80 percent of LCAs are filed at this 17th percentile level[citation needed]. This four-level prevailing wage can be obtained the DOL website,[37] and is generally far lower than average wages[citation needed]. The "prevailing wage" stipulation is allegedly vague and thus easy to manipulate[citation needed], resulting in employers underpaying visa workers. According to Ron Hira, assistant professor of public policy at the Rochester Institute of Technology, the median wage in 2005 for new H-1B information technology (IT) was just $50,000, which is even lower than starting wages for IT graduates with a B.S. degree. The U.S. government OES office's data indicates that 90 percent of H-1B IT wages were below the median U.S. wage for the same occupation.[38] In 2002, the U.S. government began an investigation into Sun Microsystems' hiring practices after an ex-employee, Guy Santiglia, filed complaints with the U.S. Department of Justice and U.S. Department of Labor alleging that the Santa Clara firm discriminates against American

citizens in favor of foreign workers on H-1B visas. Santiglia accused the company of bias against U.S. citizens when it laid off 3,900 workers in late 2001 and at the same time applied for thousands of visas. In 2002, about 5 percent of Sun's 39,000 employees had temporary work visas, he said.[39] In 2005, it was decided that Sun violated only minor requirements and that neither of these violations was substantial or willful. Thus, the judge only ordered Sun to change its posting practices.[40]

[edit] Hidden costs and risks for employers

Although, lower wages do not necessarily mean lower costs for employers. The costs for a company to apply for an H-1B visa can be significant, and it can vary between $1,440 and $5,000[41] as the H1B fee was increased by $2000 for petitioners who employ 50 or more employees in the United States with more than 50 percent of its employees in the United States in H-1B or L (including L-1A, L-1B and L-2) nonimmigrant status from August 14, 2010 as President Obama signed into law Public Law 111-230,[42] depending on the attorney's fees (if used), the number of employees in the company, and if a faster premium service is paid, without including the cost of a possible trip to the border of the country of origin, nor the renewal costs. Besides that, there is no guarantee that the prospective employee will be granted the visa due to high demand, and the expenses are sometimes non-refundable. In addition to that, if the employer should dismiss the employee, the company is liable for any reasonable costs that the employee incurs in moving him/herself, his/her effects, back to his/her last foreign residence. This provision covers only dismissal, it is not relevant when an employee chooses to resign.[citation needed]

[edit] Risks for employees

Historically, H-1B holders have sometimes been described as indentured servants,[43] and while the comparison is no longer totally accurate, it had more validity prior to the passage of American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000. Although immigration generally requires short- and long-term visitors to disavow any ambition to seek the green card (permanent residency), H-1B visa holders are an important exception, in that the H-1B is legally acknowledged as a possible step towards a green card under what is called the doctrine of dual intent. H-1B visa holders may be sponsored for their green cards by their employers through an Application for Alien Labor Certification, filed with the U.S. Department of Labor.[citation needed] In the past, the sponsorship process has taken several years, and for much of that time the H-1B visa holder was unable to change jobs without losing their place in line for the green card. This created an element of enforced loyalty to an employer by an H-1B visa holder. Critics[who?] alleged that employers benefit from this enforced loyalty because it reduced the risk that the H1B employee might leave the job and go work for a competitor, and that it put citizen workers at a disadvantage in the job market, since the employer has less assurance that the citizen will stay at his job for an extended period of time, especially if the work conditions are tough, wages are lower or the work is difficult or complex. It has been argued that this makes the H-1B program extremely attractive to employers, and that labor legislation in this regard has been influenced by corporations seeking and benefiting from such advantages.[citation needed]

Some recent news reports suggest that the recession started in 2008 will exacerbate the H-1B visa situation, both for supporters of the program and for those who oppose it.[44] The process to obtain the green card has become so long, that during these recession years it has not been unusual that sponsoring companies fail and disappear, thus forcing the H-1B employee to find another sponsor, and losing their place in line for the green card. An H-1B employee could be just one month from obtaining their green card, but if he or she are laid off, he or she will have to leave the country, or go to the end of the line and start over the process to get the green card, and wait as much as 10 more years, depending on their nationality and visa category.[45]

[edit] Fraud by Employers and Applicants

The U.S. CITIZENSHIP AND IMMIGRATION SERVICES "H-1B Benefit Fraud & Compliance Assessment" of September 2008 concluded 21% of H1-B visa granted originate from fraudulent applications or applications with technical violations.[46] Fraud was defined as a willful misrepresentation, falsification, or omission of a material fact. Technical violations, errors, omissions, and failures to comply that are not within the fraud definition were included in the 21% rate. Subsequently, USCIS has made procedural changes to reduce the number of fraud and technical violations on H-1B applications.

[edit] The Outsourcing Visa

In his floor statement on H-1B Visa Reform, Senator Dick Durban stated "The H-1B visa job lasts for 3 years and can be renewed for 3 years. What happens to those workers after that? Well, they could stay. It is possible. But these new companies out of India have a much better idea for making money. They send the engineers from India to America to fill spots--and get money to do it--and then after the 3 to 6 years, they bring them back to India to work for the companies that are competing with American companies. They call it their outsourcing visa. They are sending their talented engineers to learn how Americans do business and then bring them back and compete with those American companies."[47] Critics of H-1B use for outsourcing have also noted that more H1-B visas are granted to companies headquartered in India than companies headquartered in the United States.[48]

[edit] Criticisms by H-1B holders

[edit] Payment of out-of-state tuition
In most states, H-1B workers and their dependents do not qualify for in-state tuition regardless of the amount of time spent in the US[citation needed]. However, for more than a decade, a few states such as California, New York, Washington and Texas have extended in-state tuition to H-1B workers and dependents. Typically the decision to offer in-state tuition to H-1B and H4 residents is taken as a result of an adverse state court decision that uses the precedent established for G-4 visas in the Supreme Court decision in TOLL v. MORENO, 441 U.S. 458 (1979).

[edit] Social Security and Medicare taxes

H1B employees have to pay Social Security and Medicare taxes as part of their payroll. Like US citizens, they are eligible to receive Social Security benefits even if they leave the United States, provided they have paid Social Security benefits for at least 10 years. Further, the US has bilateral agreements with several countries to ensure that the time paid into the US Social Security system, even if it is less than 10 years, is taken into account in the foreign country's comparable system and vice versa.[49]

[edit] Spouses cannot work

The spouse of a H-1B visa holder who generally comes on H-4 (dependent) visa cannot work in the United States.[50]

[edit] Unrealistic Departure Requirement on Job Loss

If an H-1B worker is laid off for any reason, the H-1B program technically does not specify a time allowance or grace period to round up one's affairs irrespective of how long the H-1B worker might have lived in the United States. To round up one's affairs, filing an application to change to another non-immigrant status may therefore become a necessity. An H-1B worker who is laid off and attempts to find a new H-1B employer to file a petition for him is considered out of status if there is even a one day gap between the last day of employment and the date that the new H-1B petition is filed. While some attorneys claim that there is a grace period of 30 days, 60 days, or sometimes 10 days, that is not true according to the law. In practice, USCIS has accepted H-1B transfer applications even with a gap in employment up to 60 days, but that is by no means guaranteed. Some of the confusion regarding the "grace period" arose because there is a 10 day grace period for an H-1B worker to depart the United States at the end of his authorized period of stay (does not apply for laid-off workers). This grace period only applies if the worker works until the H-1B expiration date listed on his I-797 approval notice, or I-94 card. 8 CFR 214.2(h)(13)(i)(A). The employer has the legal obligation to pay for the laid-off worker's return transportation.

[edit] Worker protection and law enforcement

For every H-1B petition filed with the USCIS, there must be included a Labor Condition Application (LCA) certified by the U.S. Department of Labor. The LCA is designed to ensure that the wage offered to the non-immigrant worker must meet or exceed the "prevailing wage" in the area of employment. The LCA also contains an attestation section designed to prevent the program from being used to import foreign workers for the purpose of breaking a strike, or for the purpose of replacing U.S. citizen workers. Under the regulations, LCAs are a matter of public record. Corporations hiring H-1B workers are required to make these records available to any member of the public who requests to look at them. Copies of the relevant records are also available from various web sites, including the Department of Labor.

Theoretically, the LCA process appears to offer protection to both U.S. and H-1B workers. However, according to the U.S. General Accounting Office, enforcement limitations and procedural problems render these protections ineffective.[51] Ultimately, the employer, not the Department of Labor, determines what source it will use to determine the prevailing wage for an offered position, and it may choose among a variety of competing surveys, including its own wage surveys, provided that such surveys follow certain defined rules and regulations. The law specifically restricts the Department of Labor's approval process of LCAs to checking for "completeness and obvious inaccuracies".[52] In FY 2005, only about 800 LCAs were rejected out of over 300,000 submitted. Hire Americans First has posted several hundred first hand accounts of H1-B Visa Harm reports directly from individuals negatively impacted by the program, many of whom are willing to speak with the media.[27] Enforcement is substandard and there are reports of abusers surviving INS audits unscathed.[53] In 2009 Federal authorities busted a nationwide H-1B Visa Scam. In October 2008, a USCIS report found that the H-1B program has more than a 20 percent violation rate.[54]

[edit] American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000

The American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000 (AC21) and the U.S. Department of Labor's PERM system for labor certification erased most of the earlier claimed arguments for H-1B's as indentured servants during the green card process. With PERM, labor certification processing times are now approx 9 months (as of Mar 2010).[55] Because of AC21, the H-1B employee is free to change jobs if they have an I-485 application pending for six months and an approved I-140, if the position they are moving to is substantially comparable to their current position. In some cases, if those labor certifications are withdrawn and replaced with PERM applications, processing times will improve, but the person will also lose their favorable priority date. In those cases, employers' incentive to attempt to lock in H-1B employees to a job by offering a green card is reduced, because the employer bears the high legal costs and fees associated with labor certification and I-140 processing, but the H-1B employee is still free to change jobs. However, many people are ineligible to file I-485 at the current time due to the widespread retrogression in priority dates. Thus, they may well still be stuck with their sponsoring employer for many years. There are also many old labor certification cases pending under pre-PERM rules. On May 25, 2006 the U.S. Senate passed immigration bill 2611, which contained several increases in the number of H-1B visas, including: 1. Raising the base quota from 65,000 to 115,000, 2. Automatically increasing the base quota by 20% whenever it is reached with no provision for lowering it,

3. Adding 6,800 visas for trade agreements separate from the base quota, 4. Adding 20,000 visas for those with foreign graduate degrees, 5. Raising from 20,000 to unlimited the number of visas for those with U.S. graduate degrees, and 6. Making visas to non-profit organizations exempt from the quota.[56][57][58] However, as the House refused to consider the measure, it died in conference and no H-1B increase was approved in time for the elections. The USCIS has announced that after completing a policy review that it was clarifying that to avoid H-1B quota limits, individuals who spent one year outside of U.S. and did not exhaust their entire six year term can choose to be re-admitted for remainder of initial six-year period without being subject to the H-1B cap.[59] The USCIS has also announced that after completing a policy review that it was clarifying that any time spent in H-4 status will not count against the six-year maximum period of admission applicable to H-1B aliens.[59] On May 24, 2007, the Senate considered amendments to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform bill[60] (S. 1348)[61] including the Sanders Amendment to increase the H-1B Scholarship & Training Fee from $1500 to $8500 (for H-1B employers with more than 25 full time employees). The additional fee was to be used for training and scholarship programs and in addition to other existing fees. Senator Sanders listed the Teamsters Union and the AFL-CIO among supporters of his amendment. Without this amendment, Senator Sanders (I-VT) said, "skilled middle class and upper middle class Americans" would be hurt, and their wages would continue to be suppressed. Just prior to the vote, Senator Sanders announced that he had made changes to his amendment, dropping the fee for H-1B visas from the $8500 he proposed earlier, down to $5000. Following Senator Sanders announcement, Senators Kennedy and Specter expressed their support for the bill and the amendment passed by a vote of 5935.[62] Compete America, a coalition of U.S. tech companies, reported the passage of the Sanders amendment will "accelerate outsourcing and undermine U.S. economic growth." The Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008, which, among other issues, federalizes immigration in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, stipulates that during a transition period, numerical limitations will not apply to otherwise qualified workers in the H visa category in the CNMI and Guam.[63] On Feb. 17, 2009, President Obama signed into law the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (stimulus bill), Public Law 111-5.[64] Section 1661 of the ARRA incorporates the Employ American Workers Act (EAWA) by Senators Sanders (I-Vt.) and Grassley (R-Iowa) to limit certain banks and other financial institutions from hiring H-1B workers unless they had offered positions to equally- or better-qualified US workers, and to prevent banks from hiring H1B workers in occupations they had laid off US workers from. These restrictions include: 1. The employer must, prior to filing the H-1B petition, take good-faith steps to recruit U.S. workers for the position for which the H-1B worker is sought, offering a wage at least as

high as what the law requires for the H-1B worker. The employer must also attest that, in connection with this recruitment, it has offered the job to any U.S. worker who applies who is equally or better qualified for the position. 2. The employer must not have laid off, and will not lay off, any U.S. worker in a job essentially equivalent to the H-1B position in the area of intended employment of the H1B worker within the period beginning 90 days prior to the filing of the H-1B petition and ending 90 days after its filing.[65]

[edit] Recent Changes to U.S. Policy

USCIS (U.S. Citizenship & Immigration Services) recently issued a Memoranda dated 8 Jan 2010. The memoranda effectively states that there must be a clear "employee employer relationship" between the petitioner (employer) and the beneficiary (potential Visa holder). It simply outlines what the employer must do to be considered in compliance as well as putting forth the documentation requirements to back up the employer's assertion that a valid relationship exists. Some argue that this has effectively "killed the job-shop industry". While it is clear that the number of Visa petitions granted has declined (or is slower than normal to reach the full quota), it is not clear whether or not this is a result of simple political pressure to put the program on "hold", or a long-term result from real economic realities. The Memoranda gives three clear examples of what is and is NOT considered a valid "employee employer relationship".

an accountant working on and off-site to work a fashion model a computer software engineer working off-site

In the case of the software engineer the petitioner (employer) must simply agree to do (some of) the following among others:

supervise the beneficiary off-site & on-site maintain such supervision through calls, reports, or visits have a "right" to control the work on a day-to-day basis if such control is required. provide tools for the job hire, pay and have the ability to fire the beneficiary evaluate work products and perform progress/performance reviews claim them for tax purposes provide (some type of) employee benefits use "proprietary information" to perform work produce an end product related to the business have an "ability to" control the manner and means in which the work product is accomplished.

It further states that "common law is flexible" in how these factors are to be weighed.

Although this memoranda cites legal cases and provides examples, such a memoranda in itself is not law and future memoranda(s) could easily be issued that could change this.

[edit] Similar programs

In addition to H-1B visas, there are a variety of other visa categories that allow foreign workers to come into the U.S. to work for some period of time. L-1 visas are issued to foreign employees of a corporation. Under recent rules, the foreign worker must have worked for the corporation for at least one year in the preceding three years prior to getting the visa. An L-1B visa is appropriate for nonimmigrant workers who are being temporarily transferred to the United States based on their specialized knowledge of the company's techniques and methodologies. An L-1A visa is for managers or executives who will either manage people or an essential function of the company. There is no requirement to pay prevailing wages for the L-1 visa holders. For Canadian residents, a special L visa category is available. TN-1 visas are part of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and are issued to Canadian and Mexican citizens.[66] TN visas are only available to workers who fall into one of a pre-set list of occupations determined by the NAFTA treaty. There are specific eligibility requirements for the TN Visa. E-3 visas are issued to citizens of Australia under the Australia free-trade treaty. H-1B1 visas are issued to residents of Chile and Singapore under the amended NAFTA treaty. One recent trend in work visas is that various countries attempt to get special preference for their nationals as part of treaty negotiations. Another trend is for changes in immigration law to be embedded in large Authorization or Omnibus bills to avoid the controversy that might accompany a separate vote. H-2B visa: The H-2B nonimmigrant program permits employers to hire foreign workers to come to the U.S. and perform temporary nonagricultural work, which may be one-time, seasonal, peak load or intermittent. There is a 66,000 per year limit on the number of foreign workers who may receive H-2B status Alternatives to H-1B visa:

Green Card for medical doctors and physicians. o Pre-requisite: National Interest Waiver. o Alternatively, a Medical Doctor or Physician may enter the U.S. for a temporary period through a temporary visa. Green Cards for Nurses and Physical Therapists . (Link is broken) Employment Visa for Professors and Researchers. (Link is broken)

[edit] Dependents of H-1B visa holders

H-1B visa holders are allowed to bring their immediate family members (spouse and children under 21) to the United States under the H4 Visa category as dependents. An H4 Visa holder may remain in the U.S. as long as the H-1B visa holder remains in legal status. An H4 visa holder is not eligible to work in the U.S. and is not eligible for a Social Security number (SSN).[67] An H4 Visa holder may attend school, obtain a driver's license and open a bank account while in the US. In order to claim a dependent on a tax return or file a joint tax return, the dependent will have to obtain an Individual Tax Identification Number (ITIN) which is used only for tax filing purposes.

[edit] H-1B demographics

Of all Computer Systems Analysts and programmers on H-1B visas in the US, 74 percent were from Asia. This large scale migration of Asian IT professionals to the United States has been cited as a central cause of the quick emergence of the offshore outsourcing industry.[68] Further information: IT Body Shops

[edit] Usage of H-1B by outsourcing firms

In 2006, these firms collectively were issued 19,512 of the 65,000 H-1B visas granted, with 4 outsourcing firms among the top 5 receivers of H-1B visas. Among the top of the list were some of the most well known outsourcing firms: Infosys, Satyam Computer Services, Tata Consultancy Services, and Wipro Technologies. Critics have argued that granting H-1B visas to these outsourcing firms is not the real intent of the H-1B Visa program.[69][70] One reason given is: Critics claim that the Indian firms skirt regulations and use the visas to train workers in the U.S. to facilitate moving jobs offshore.[69] In 2006, Wipro applied for 20,000 H-1B visas and 160 Green Cards; and Infosys applied for 20,000 H-1B visas and only 50 Green Cards. Of the Applied H-1B visas, Wipro and Infosys

were granted, 4,002 and 4,108 visas respectively, an acceptance rate of 20% and 24%.[71] Given that both companies have a work force of approximately 100,000 employees, and a U.S. employment base of roughly 20,000 H-1B holders, this indicates that roughly 1/5th of the Indian workforce of Infosys & Wipro applied for a visa in 2006.[72] A 2009 Business Week article cited a ComputerWorld article indicating that Wipro was the top user of the program with 1,964 Visas.[73] Critics have argued against this trend, stating that there is no dearth of qualified workers in the United States.[74] In 2009, due to the worldwide recession, applications for H1B visas by outsourcing firms were significantly lower than in previous years.[75]

[edit] Top ten H-1B rankings

Top ten companies receiving H-1Bs[69][70][72][73] Primary H-1Bs Rank Company Headquarters Employment received Base 2006 Bangalore, 1, 8 Infosys India 4,908 Karnataka, India Bangalore, 2, 1 Wipro India 4,002 Karnataka, India Redmond, 3, 2 Microsoft US 3,117 Washington Tata Consultancy Mumbai, 4 India 3,046 Services Maharashtra, India Satyam Computer Hyderabad, Andhra 5, 22 India 2,880 Services Pradesh, India Teaneck, New 6, 20 Cognizant India 2,226 Jersey[76] Patni Computer Mumbai, 7, 5 India 1,391 Systems Maharashtra, India IBM (India, Private 8, 4 Armonk, New York US 1,130 Ltd.) Redwood Shores, 9, 15 Oracle Corporation US 1,022 California Larsen & Toubro Mumbai, 10, 6 India 947 Infotech Maharashtra, India Santa Clara, ,3 Intel Corporation US California London, United ,7 Ernst & Young LLP Kingdom H-1Bs approved 2009 440 1,964 1,318

219 233 609 695 272 602 723 481

,8 ,9 , 10

Aliso Viejo, California DELOITTE New York City, CONSULTING LLP New York San Diego, QUALCOMM INC California UST Global

344 328 320

Top 10 universities and schools receiving H-1Bs[69][70][72] School H-1Bs Received 2006 New York City Public Schools 642 University of Michigan 437 University of Illinois at Chicago 434 University of Pennsylvania 432 Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine 432 University of Maryland 404 Columbia University 355 Yale University 316 Harvard University 308 Stanford University 279 Washington University in St. Louis 278 University of Pittsburgh 275 Top ten U.S. technology companies receiving H-1Bs[69][70][72] Company H-1Bs Received 2006 Microsoft 3517 Cognizant 2226 IBM 1130 Oracle Corporation 1022 Cisco 828 Intel 828 Motorola 760 Qualcomm 533 Yahoo 347 Hewlett-Packard 333 Google 328 Xavient 49

[edit] See also

SKIL Bill Free trade debate

Labor shortage Immigration Voice L-1 visa

[edit] References
1. United States Citizenship and Immigration Service, "Characteristics of Specialty Occupation Workers (H-1B)", for FY 2004 and FY 2005, November 2006. 2. Bloomberg Bloomberg, Microsoft Cuts 5,000 Jobs as Recession Curbs Growth (Update5), 22 Jan 2009 (Microsoft Lays off 5,000 even as they use 3,117 visas in 2006.) 3. Bill Gates, Chairman of Microsoft, Testimony to the U.S. Senate Committee Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. Hearing "Strengthening American Competitiveness for the 21st Century". March 7, 2007 4. Business Week, Immigration: Google Makes Its Case, 7 Jun 2007. 5. Business Week, Who Gets Temp Work Visas? 7 Jun 2007 (Top 200 H1B Visa Users Chart) 6. Business Week, Immigration Fight: Tech vs. Tech, 25 May 2007. 7. Business Week, Crackdown on Indian Outsourcing Firms, 15 May 2007. 8. Dr. Norman Matloff, Debunking the Myth of a Desperate Software Labor Shortage, Testimony to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee, April 1998, updated December 2002 9. Programmers Guild, PERM Fake Job Ads defraud Americans to secure green cards, Immigration attorneys from Cohen & Grigsby explains how they assist employers in running classified ads with the goal of NOT finding any qualified applicants. 10. Lou Dobbs: Cook County Resolution against H-1b 11. PRWeb, The Programmers Guild Calls on Congress to include U.S. Worker Protections in the Pending SKIL Bill H-1b Visa Legislation 12. CNN, Lou Dobbs, Programmers Guild Interview & Transcript, August 26, 2005 13. Congressional Record: ILLEGAL ALIENS TAKING AMERICAN JOBS, June 18, 2003 (House) 14. Center for Immigration Studies, Backgrounder: The bottom of the pay scale, Wages for H1-B Computer Programmer's, John Milano, 2005. 15. U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Report, EXPORT CONTROLS: Department of Commerce Controls over Transfers of Technology to Foreign Nationals Need Improvement 16. Attestation Requirements of an H-1B Dependent Employer

[edit] Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. ^ 8 U.S.C. 1184(i)(1)(A) ^ 8 U.S.C. 1184(i)(1)(B) ^ 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(15)(H)(i) ^ American Competitiveness in the 21st Century Act, Pub. L.No.106-313, 114 Stat.1251, 2000 S. 2045; Pub. L. No. 106-311, 114 Stat. 1247 (Oct 17, 2000), 2000 HR 5362; 146 Cong. Rec. H9004-06 (October 5, 2000)

5. ^ Another Year, Another H-1B Crisis, Frank Nelson, Attorney, Asian Journal, Sep 05, 2005 6. ^ Department of Homeland Security Annual Reports on the H-1B visa program for 2004 and 2005 7. ^ U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services Characteristics of H1B Specialty Occupation Workers Report for Fiscal Year 2009 8. ^ a b Wall Street Journal, March, 2007 9. ^ S.1092: Hi-Tech Worker Relief Act of 2007. United States Congress via American Immigration Lawyers Association. 10. ^ S.1092: Hi-Tech Worker Relief Act of 2007. Thomas.gov. United States Library of Congress. Retrieved 2008-06-12. 11. ^ a b Overview : H1B Visas for Temporary Professional Workers, The Law Office of Sheela Murthy, P.C., 2003-09-19, archived from the original on 2010-08-13, retrieved 2010-08-13 12. ^ a b H-1B Visa, Workpermit.com, archived from the original on 2010-08-13, retrieved 2010-08-13 13. ^ Thompson, Kim (January 6, 2011). "USDOL Targeting H-1B Pay/Benefits Compliance". Mondaq Business Briefing. Fisher & Phillips LLP. 14. ^ H-1B Frequently Asked Questions 15. ^ American Competitiveness in the Twenty-First Century Act of 2000 16. ^ 2007 H-1B visa limit already reached 17. ^ USCIS REACHES FY 2008 H-1B CAP 18. ^ USCIS Runs Random Selection Process For H-1B, USCIS, April 13, 2007 19. ^ USCIS Reaches FY 2009 H-1B Cap 20. ^ USCIS FY 2010 H1-B Cap Count 21. ^ H1-B Visa Petitions Cap Reach Dates By Year from 1999 to 2010 22. ^ H-1B Is Just Another Gov't. Subsidy 23. ^ ON THE NEED FOR REFORM OF THE H-1B NON-IMMIGRANT WORK VISA IN COMPUTER-RELATED OCCUPATIONS 24. ^ http://www.gao.gov/archive/2000/he00157.pdf [GAO Report on H-1B Foreign Workers] 25. ^ John Miano (June 2008). "H-1B Visa Numbers: No Relationship to Economic Need". Center for Immigration Studies. Retrieved 04/07/2010. 26. ^ Numbers USA (2010). "There Is No Tech Worker Shortage". Numbers USA. Retrieved 04/07/2010. 27. ^ a b Hire Americans First (2010). "H-1B Visa Harm Report". Hire Americans First. Retrieved 04/07/2010. 28. ^ United Department of Labor Office of Inspector General, The Department of Labor's Foreign Labor Certification Programs: The System Is Broken and Needs To Be Fixed, May 22, 1996, p. 20 29. ^ Low Salaries for Low Skills: Wages and Skill Levels for H-1B Computer Workers, 2005 John M. Miano 30. ^ The Bottom of the Pay Scale: Wages for H-1B Computer Programmers John M. Miano 31. ^ Programmers Guild (2001). "How to Underpay H-1B Workers". Programmers Guild. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 32. ^ NumbersUSA (2010). "Numbers USA". NumbersUSA. Retrieved 04/02/2010.

33. ^ OutlookIndia.com (February 18, 2009). "H-1B Visa Ban for Bailed-out US Firms is Irrational: Montek". OutlookIndia.com. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 34. ^ Ron Hira (Jan 12, 2008). "No, The Tech Skills Shortage Doesn't Exist". Information Week. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 35. ^ a b B. Lindsay Lowell, Georgetown University (October 2007). "Into the Eye of the Storm: Assessing the Evidence on Science and Engineering, Education, Quality, and Workforce Demand". Urban.org, The Urban Institute. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 36. ^ http://www.millerjohnson.com/pubs/xprPubDetail.aspx?xpST=PubDetail&pub=1406 H-1B Prevailing Wage Enforcement On The Rise Millions In Back Wages And Fines Ordered 37. ^ DOL Foreign Labor Certification Online Wage Library 38. ^ Alice LaPlante (July 14, 2007). "To H-1B Or Not To H-1B?". InformationWeek.com. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 39. ^ Sun Accused of Worker Discrimination, San Francisco chronicle, June 25, 2002, online text 40. ^ Santiglia v. Sun Microsystems, Inc., ARB No. 03-076, ALJ No. 2003-LCA-2 (ARB July 29, 2005) 41. ^ www.uscis.gov/h-1b_count 42. ^ http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.5af9bb95919f35e66f614176543f6d1a/? vgnextoid=27eac9514bb8a210VgnVCM100000082ca60aRCRD&vgnextchannel=68439 c7755cb9010VgnVCM10000045f3d6a1RCRD 43. ^ Grow, Brian (June 6, 2003). "Skilled Workers or Indentured Servants?". BusinessWeek. 44. ^ "Foreign tech workers touchy subject in U.S. downturn". Reuters. February 19, 2009. 45. ^ http://www.travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/bulletin/bulletin_4597.html visa bulletin 46. ^ http://www.uscis.gov/files/nativedocuments/H-1B_BFCA_20sep08.pdf 47. ^ http://durbin.senate.gov/showRelease.cfm?releaseId=280890 48. ^ http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9142152/List_of_H_1B_visa_employers_for_2 009 49. ^ Social Security Administration: International Agreements 50. ^ 8 CFR 214.2(h)(9)(iv) 51. ^ United States General Accounting Office, H-1B Foreign Workers: Better Controls Needed to Help Employers and Protect Workers 52. ^ 8 USC 1182 (n) 53. ^ Programmers Guild (1999-2000). "The Reddy Case". Programmers Guild. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 54. ^ Roy Mark (13 Feb 2009). "Feds Bust Nationwide H-1B Visa Scam". eWeek. Retrieved 04/07/2010. 55. ^ Changes to the H-1B and L-1 Visa Application Fees, August 12, 2010 56. ^ [1] 57. ^ U.S. Senate: Legislation & Records Home > Votes > Roll Call Vote 58. ^ H-1B visas hit roadblock in Congress | TalkBack on ZDNet

59. ^ a b USCIS Interoffice Memorandum from Michael Aytes, Associate Director, Domestic Operations, to all Regional Directors and Service Center Directors, dated December 5, 2006 60. ^ http://www.katiraeilaw.com/newsletter/117.html?task=view 61. ^ Search Results THOMAS (Library of Congress) 62. ^ U.S. Senate: Legislation & Records Home > Votes > Roll Call Vote 63. ^ Consolidated Natural Resources Act of 2008 64. ^ [2] 65. ^ [3] 66. ^ Mexican and Canadian NAFTA Professional Worker 67. ^ http://www.ssa.gov/pubs/10096.html#4 68. ^ Yeoh et al., 'State/Nation/trasnation: Perspectives on Transnationalism in the AsiaPacific', Routledge, 2004, ISBN 041540279X, page 167 69. ^ a b c d e Marianne Kolbasuk McGee (May 17, 2007). "Who Gets H-1B Visas? Check Out This List". InformationWeek. Retrieved 06/02/2007. 70. ^ a b c d Peter Elstrom (June 7, 2007). "Immigration: Google Makes Its Case". BusinessWeek. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 71. ^ Prithiv Patel, Infosys, Wipro and TCS under investigation for misuse of H1B visas, India Daily, May 15, 2007 72. ^ a b c d Peter Elstrom (June 7, 2007). "Immigration: Who Gets Temp Work Visas?". BusinessWeek. Retrieved 04/02/2010. 73. ^ a b Jacob Sapochnick, Patrick Thibodea (2009). "List of H-1B visa employers for 2009". ComputerWorld, BusinessWeek. Retrieved 04/07/2010. 74. ^ 'To H-1B Or Not To H-1B?', Information Week, July 14, 2007. 75. ^ '25% H-1B visas still left!', Times of India, Oct 2, 2009. 76. ^ "Cognizant Technology Solutions : Contacts". Retrieved 2007-07-05.

[edit] External links for H-1B information

U.S. Department of State information on H-1B visa U.S. GAO Report on H-1B Problems, PDF format 2010 H1B Visa Reports: Top H1B Visa Sponsors by Industry, Occupation, Economic Sector and Locations H1B Quota Updates from USCIS

[edit] Other links

Pittsburgh law firm's immigration video sparks an Internet firestorm, Pittsburgh PostGazette, June 22, 2007 H-1B Visas Under Scrutiny Customs and Border Protection investigates H-1B admissions at Newark, NJ Airport. "Lawmakers Request Investigation Into YouTube Video" Sen. Chuck Grassley and Rep. Lamar Smith ask the Labor Department to look into a video they say documents H-1B abuse by companies. Information Week, June 21, 2007

Oct. 2007 study by Georgetown University The study raises questions about the use of test scores by visa-worker-seeking technology companies to claim that American citizens are not qualified. "America's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs" A Duke University Study