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Socialist state
The term socialist state (or socialist republic, or workers' state) can
carry one of several different (but related) meanings:
In strictly speaking, any real or hypothetical state organized along the
principles of socialism may be called a socialist state. The term socialist
republic is used by those socialists who wish to emphasize that they favour
a republican form of government. Furthermore, since socialism purports to
represent the interests of the working class, many socialists refer to a state
organized according to their principles as a workers' state.
According to Marxism, socialism is a stage of social and economic
development that will replace capitalism, and will in turn be replaced by
communism. Thus, in Marxist terms, a socialist state is a state that has
abolished capitalism and is moving towards communism.
Several past and present states have claimed to follow some form of
Marxist ideology, usually MarxismLeninism. They referred to themselves
as socialist states and since 1970s as states of real socialism. The first
example was the Soviet Union, which was proclaimed a "socialist state" in
its 1936 Constitution and a subsequent 1977 one. Another wellknown
example is the People's Republic of China, which is a "socialist state"
according to its 1982 Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In the
West, such states are commonly known as "communist states" (though
they do not use this term to refer to themselves). A socialist state may be a
country that uses the term "socialist" or "socialist republic" in its official
name, constitution or the name or constitution of the ruling party,
regardless of the actual political and economic system it has in practice.
Examples include the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam, and the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya.
Because there are several different branches of socialism, a country's
claim to the label of "socialist state" or "socialist republic" is almost always
disputed by some branch. Indeed, there are many socialists who strongly
oppose certain (or all) selfproclaimed socialist republics. Trotskyists, for
instance, are particularly known for their opposition to existing Communist
states, which they do not view as adhering to communism at all, but rather
to Stalinism.
Stalinism is the political regime named after Joseph Stalin, leader of the
Soviet Union from 1929–1953. It includes an extensive use of propaganda
to establish a personality cult around an absolute dictator, as well as
extensive use of the secret police to maintain social submission and
silence political dissent.
The term "Stalinism" was coined by Lazar Kaganovich and was never used
by Joseph Stalin who described himself as a MarxistLeninist.
Like many other "isms" it can be used as a pejorative term when referring
to nationstates, political parties, or the ideological stance(s) of individuals,
particularly "AntiRevisionists". It is also used as a pejorative to describe
politicians and political groups, Communist or nonCommunist, who are
perceived as particularly authoritarian or hardline.
Socialism
Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization
advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the means of
production and distribution of goods, and the creation of an egalitarian
society. [1] [2]
Modern socialism originated in the late nineteenthcentury
working class political movement. Karl Marx posited that socialism would
be achieved via class struggle and a proletarian revolution, it being the
transitional stage between capitalism and communism. [3] [4]
Socialists mainly share the belief that capitalism unfairly concentrates
power and wealth into a small section of society who control capital, and
creates an unequal society. All socialists advocate the creation of an
egalitarian society, in which wealth and power are distributed more evenly,
although there is considerable disagreement among socialists over how,
and to what extent this could be achieved.[1]
Socialism is not a discrete philosophy of fixed doctrine and program; its
branches advocate a degree of social interventionism and economic
rationalization, sometimes opposing each other. Another dividing feature of
the socialist movement is the split on how a socialist economy should be
established between the reformists and the revolutionaries. Some
socialists advocate complete nationalization of the means of production,
distribution, and exchange; while others advocate state control of capital
within the framework of a market economy. Social democrats propose
selective nationalization of key national industries in mixed economies
combined with taxfunded welfare programs; Libertarian socialism (which
includes Socialist Anarchism and Libertarian Marxism) rejects state control
and ownership of the economy altogether and advocates direct collective
ownership of the means of production via cooperative workers' councils
and workplace democracy.
In the 1970s and the 1980s, Yugoslavian, Hungarian, Polish and Chinese
Communists instituted various forms of market socialism combining co
operative and State ownership models with the free market exchange.[5]
This is unlike the earlier theoretical market socialist proposal put forth by
Oskar Lange in that it allows market forces, rather than central planners to
guide production and exchange.[6] Anarchosyndicalists, Luxemburgists
(such as those in the Socialist Party USA) and some elements of the
United States New Left favor decentralized collective ownership in the form
of cooperatives or workers' councils.
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal) is a
political doctrine that holds that all people should be treated as equals, and
have the same political, economic, social, and civil rights.[1] Generally it
applies to being held equal under the law and society at large. In actual
practice, one may be considered an egalitarian in most areas listed above,
even if not subscribing to equality in every possible area of individual
difference.
Egalitarianism is considered a protean doctrine, as a social philosophy it
has been applied to society in a wide variety of different ways. Common
forms of egalitarianism include economic egalitarianism, legal
egalitarianism, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism, gender
egalitarianism, racial equality, assetbased egalitarianism, and Christian
egalitarianism.
Proteus
In Greek mythology, Proteus (Πρωτεύς) is an early seagod, one of
several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea"[1], whose
name suggests the "first", as protogonos (πρωτόγονος) is the "primordial"
or the "firstborn". He became the son of Poseidon in the Olympian
theogony (Odyssey iv. 432), or of Nereus and Doris, or of Oceanus and a
Naiad, and was made the herdsman of Poseidon's seals, the great bull
seal at the center of the harem. He can foretell the future, but, in a
mytheme familiar from several cultures, will change his shape to avoid
having to; he will answer only to someone who is capable of capturing him.
From this feature of Proteus comes the adjective protean, with the general
meaning of "versatile", "mutable", "capable of assuming many forms":
"Protean" has positive connotations of flexibility, versatility and adaptability.
Christian Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning
equal or level), also known as biblical equality, is a recent adaptation of
the moral doctrine of Egalitarianism which holds that people should be
treated as equals. Ultimately, Egalitarianism holds that all human persons
are equal in fundamental worth and moral status.
Christian Egalitarianism holds that all people are equal before God and in
Christ. All have equal responsibility to use their gifts and obey their calling
to the glory of God. God freely calls believers to roles and ministries
without regard to class, gender, or race.[1]
According to Christian Egalitarianism, gender equality in Christian church
leadership (including pastors) and in Christian marriage is biblically sound.
Its theological foundations are interpretations of the teachings and example
of Jesus Christ and other New Testament principles. It refers to the
biblicallybased belief that gender, in and of itself, neither privileges nor
curtails a believer’s gifting or calling to any ministry in the church or home.
It does not imply that women and men are identical or undifferentiated.
Christian Egalitarianism affirms that God designed men and women to
complement and benefit one another.[2]
The opposing view is Complementarianism, a theological view held by
some Christians that differing, often nonoverlapping roles between men
and women, manifested in marriage, church leadership, and elsewhere, is
biblically required.
Christian Egalitarians' interpretation of scriptures and spiritual convictions
bring them to the conclusion that the manner and teaching of Jesus
abolished discrimination against racial minorities, slaves, and women, in
both the church and marriage. The Apostle Paul wrote:
There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female,
for you are all one in Christ Jesus'
– Galatians 3:28
This is a very dangerous position if taken out of context. Paul alo said, God
is the head of man and man is the head of woman…. Not to Lord over
women but show authority and role.
Capitalism
Capitalism is the economic system in which the means of production are
owned by private persons, and operated for profit
[1] and where
investments, distribution, income, production and pricing of goods and
services are predominantly determined through the operation of a free
market [2] , rather than by central economic planning. Capitalism is usually
considered to involve the right of individuals and corporations to trade,
incorporate, employ workers, and use money provided by central banks, in
goods, services (including finance), labor and land.[2] In theory, production
and distribution in a capitalist system are governed by the free market
rather than state regulation,[3] with state action confined to defining and
enforcing the basic rules of the market[4] though the state may provide a
few basic public goods and infrastructure.[5] Unrestrained capitalism is
confined to theory, as "all of the capitalistic societies of the West have
mixed economies" with interventionist state regulation, social programs[6]
and state ownership of some sectors.
Capitalist economic practices became institutionalized in England between
the 16th and 19th centuries, although some features of capitalist
organization existed in the ancient world, and early forms of merchant
capitalism flourished during the Middle Ages. [7] [8]
Capitalism has been
dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism.[7] From Britain it
gradually spread throughout Europe, across political and cultural frontiers.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, capitalism provided the main, but not
exclusive, means of industrialization throughout much of the world.[9]
The concept of capitalism has limited analytic value, given the great variety
of historical cases over which it is applied, varying in time, geography,
politics and culture, and some feel that the term "mixed economies" more
precisely describes most contemporary economies. [10] [11] Some
economists have specified a variety of different types of capitalism,
depending on specifics of concentration of economic power and wealth,
and methods of capital accumulation.[9] The capitalist mixed economy is
the main capitalist system, where the state intervenes in market activity
and provides some services. Other systems include laissezfaire, where
the state plays a minimal role and anarchocapitalism where the market
and private enterprise are completely free from the state which is
nonexistent. During the last century capitalism has been contrasted with
centrally planned economies, such as Marxian economies.
Communism
Communism is a socioeconomic structure that promotes the
establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless society based on
common ownership of the means of production and property in
general. [1] [2] The communist movement has attempted to produce a
[3]
communist society by setting up political parties, which in some cases
have become governments. These attempts have never produced a
communist society, and have frequently led to totalitarian states.
Communism is usually considered to be a branch of socialism, a broad
group of social and political ideologies, which draws on the various political
and intellectual movements with origins in the work of theorists of the
Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.[4] Communism attempts
to offer an alternative to the problems believed to be inherent with capitalist
economies and the legacy of imperialism and nationalism. Communism
states that the only way to solve these problems is for the working class, or
proletariat, to replace the wealthy bourgeoisie, which is currently the ruling
class, in order to establish a peaceful, free society, without classes, or
government.[2] The dominant forms of communism, such as Leninism,
Stalinism, Maoism and Trotskyism are based on Marxism, but nonMarxist
versions of communism (such as Christian communism and anarchist
communism) also exist and are growing in importance since the fall of the
Soviet Union.[citation needed]
Socioeconomics
Socioeconomics or socioeconomics is the study of the relationship
between economic activity and social life. The field is often considered
multidisciplinary, using theories and methods from sociology, economics,
history, psychology, and many others. It has emerged as a separate field
of study in the late twentieth century. In many cases, however,
socioeconomists focus on the social impact of some sort of economic
change. Such changes might include a closing factory, market
manipulation, the signing of international trade treaties, new natural gas
regulation, etc. Such social effects can be wideranging in size, anywhere
from local effects on a small community to changes to an entire society.
Examples of causes of socioeconomic impacts include new technologies
such as cars or mobile phones, changes in laws (such as the legal right to
abortion), changes in the physical environment (such as increasing
crowding within cities), and ecological changes (such as prolonged drought
or declining fish stocks). These may affect patterns of consumption, the
distribution of incomes and wealth, the way in which people behave (both
in terms of purchase decisions and the way in which they choose to spend
their time), and the overall quality of life. These can further have indirect
effects on social attitudes and norms.
The goal of socioeconomic study is generally to bring about socioeconomic
development, usually in terms of improvements in metrics such as GDP,
life expectancy, literacy, levels of employment, etc.
Although harder to measure, changes in lesstangible factors are also
considered, such as personal dignity, freedom of association, personal
safety and freedom from fear of physical harm, and the extent of
participation in civil society.
Marxism
The main points of contention among Marxists are the degree to which
they are committed to a workers' revolution as the means of achieving
human emancipation and enlightenment, and the actual mechanism
through which such a revolution might occur and succeed. Marxism is
correctly but not exhaustively described as a variety of Socialism. Some
Marxists, however, argue that no actual state has ever fully realized Marxist
principles; other Marxists, such as Autonomists claim Marxist principles
cannot be realized in any state construct seen through the 20th Century,
and would necessitate a reconceptualization of the notion of state itself.
Leninism
In his pamphlet What
is to be Done?
(1902), Lenin argued that the
proletariat can only achieve a successful revolutionary consciousness
through the efforts of a vanguard party composed of fulltime professional
revolutionaries. Lenin further believed that such a party could only achieve
its aims through a form of disciplined organization known as democratic
centralism, wherein tactical and ideological decisions are made with
internal democracy, but once a decision has been made, all party members
must externally support and actively promote that decision.
Leninism holds that capitalism can only be overthrown by revolutionary
means; that is, any attempts to reform capitalism from within, such as
Fabianism and nonrevolutionary forms of democratic socialism, are
doomed to fail. The goal of a Leninist party is to orchestrate the overthrow
of the existing government by force and seize power on behalf of the
proletariat (although in the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviets seized
power, not the Bolshevik Party), and then implement a dictatorship of the
proletariat. The party must then use the powers of government to educate
the proletariat, so as to remove the various modes of false consciousness
the bourgeois have instilled in them in order to make them more docile and
easier to exploit economically, such as religion and nationalism.
The dictatorship of the proletariat is theoretically to be governed by a
decentralized system of proletarian direct democracy, in which workers
hold political power through local councils known as soviets (see soviet
democracy). The extent to which the dicatorship of the proletariat is
democratic is disputed. Lenin wrote in the fifth chapter of 'State &
Revolution':
Democracy for the vast majority of the people, and suppression by force, i.e.,
exclusion from democracy, of the exploiters and oppressors of the peoplethis is
the change democracy undergoes during the transition from capitalism to
communism.
The elements of Leninism that include the notion of the disciplined
revolutionary, the more dictatorial revolutionary state and of a war between
the various social classes is often attributed to the influence of
Nechayevschina and of the 19th century narodnik movement (of which
Lenin's older brother was a member) "The morals of [the Bolshevik] party
owed as much to Nechayev as they did to Marx" writes historian Orlando
Figes.[1] This would help explain the traces of class bigotry (e.g. Lenin's
frequent description of the bourgeoisie as parasites, insects, leeches,
bloodsuckers etc[2] and the creation of the GULAG system of concentration
camps for former members of the bourgeois and kulak classes[3])
detectable in Leninism but foreign in Marxism.