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TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a physical property of a system and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. Temperature underlies the common notions of hot and cold; something that is hotter has the greater temperature. Temperature is used as a measure of the internal energy in a system. The Temperature of a system is defined as the average kinetic energy of microscopic motions of a single particle in the system. Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. Throughout the world (except for in the U.S.), the Celsius scale is used for most temperature measuring purposes. Fahrenheit scale is used in the U.S.
In this animation, the size of helium atoms relative to their spacing is shown to scale under 136 atmospheres of pressure. These roomtemperature atoms have a certain, average speed (slowed down here two trillion fold).
HEAT
Heat is a form of energy transfer, associated with the different motions of atoms, molecules and other particles that comprise matter when it is hot and when it is cold. High temperature bodies result in high heat transfer. Heat transfer can be created by chemical reactions (such as burning), nuclear reactions (such as fusion taking place inside the Sun), or mechanical dissipation (such as friction).
Heat is defined as energy in transit.
Heat can only be transferred between objects, or areas within an object, with different temperatures. In the absence of work, only in the direction of the colder body.
Latent Heat Latent Heat is the heat given up or absorbed by a substance as it changes state and is not associated with a change in temperature. Each substance has a characteristic latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporization, latent heat of condensation and latent heat of sublimation.
Sensible Heat Sensible Heat is the heat given up or absorbed by a substance with no change of state and is associated with a temperature change, as opposed to latent heat. This is so-called because it can be sensed by humans. If the air in a building was to be heated from 60 F to 70 F only sensible heat would be involved. However, if the air in a building was to be cooled from 80 F to 70 F and humidity was to be removed from the air at the same time, then both sensible and latent heats would be involved.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The increase in the internal energy of a thermodynamic system is equal to the amount of heat energy added to the system minus the work done by the system on the surroundings.
In simple words, in any process, the total energy of the universe remains constant.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (CLAUSIUS STATEMENT):
The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium. It is impossible to carry out a cyclic process using an engine connected to two heat reservoirs that will have as its only effect the transfer of a quantity of heat from the low-temperature reservoir to the high-temperature reservoir.
UNDERSTANDING REFRIGERATION
These experiments can help you understand the properties of gases and their role in refrigeration. Experiment 1 Put a pot of water on the stove, stick a thermometer in it and turn on the burner. You will see (if you are at sea level) that the temperature of the water rises until it hits 212 F. At that point, it will start boiling, but will remain at 212 F -- this is the boiling point of water at sea level. If you live in the mountains, where the air pressure is lower than it is at sea level, the boiling point will be lower -- perhaps between 190 and 200 F. Experiment 2 Put a thermometer in a container of water, put the container in the oven and turn it to 400 F. As the oven heats up, the temperature of the water will again rise until it hits 212 F, and then start boiling. The water's temperature will stay at 212 F even though it is completely surrounded by an environment that is at 400 F. If you let all of the water boil away, as soon as the water is gone the temperature of the thermometer will shoot up to 400 F.
UNDERSTANDING REFRIGERATION
Butane Lighters Check out a disposable butane lighter with a clear case, what you are seeing is liquid butane stored in a high-pressure container. The boiling point of Butane is 31 degrees F at normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 PSI). By keeping butane pressurized in a container, it remains liquid at room temperature. If you open the container, the butane would boil, and the temperature of the boiling liquid would be 31 F. Butane lighters don't work very well on cold winter days. If it is 10 degrees Fahrenheit outside, the butane is well below its boiling point, so it cannot vaporize.
In a refrigeration cycle, the same refrigerant is used over and over again for transferring the heat. You can get an idea of how this works by the same oven experiment. This involves the following four steps: 1. The air temperature in the oven is 400 degrees F. The water in the cup boils away, remaining at 212 F but producing a lot of 400 F steam. Let's say the this steam is collected in a steel container. 2. Once all the water boils away, the steam in the container is to be pressurized. In the process of pressurizing it, its temperature rises to 800 F and it remains steam. 3. The steel container dissipates its excess heat to the air in the oven, and it eventually falls back to 400 F. In the process, the high-pressure steam in the container condenses into pressurized water (just like the butane in a lighter). 4. At this point, the water in the steel pressurized container is released into the pot, and it immediately begins to boil, its temperature dropping to 212 F.
By repeating these four steps, the same water is reused over and over again to provide refrigeration. Now let's take a look at how these four steps apply to your refrigerator.
2. The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot ammonia gas dissipate its heat. The ammonia gas condenses into ammonia liquid (dark blue) at high pressure.
3. The high-pressure ammonia liquid flows through the expansion valve. The expansion valve is a small hole. On one side of it, is high-pressure ammonia liquid. On the other side of the hole is a low-pressure area. 4. The liquid ammonia immediately boils and vaporizes (light blue), its temperature dropping to -27 F. This makes the inside of the refrigerator cold. 5. The cold ammonia gas is sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle repeats.
Point 2 to 3 to 4: The superheated vapor travels through the condenser which first cools and removes the superheat and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature.
Point 4 to 5: The liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation. This results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure as shown at point 5. Point 5 to 1: The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration
PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM
COMPRESSOR
A Compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids. Compression Ratio = Absolute Discharge Pressure / Absolute Suction Pressure The Capacity of a Compressor is determined by its Mass Flow rate (Lb/Min) and not by Volume Flow (CFM).
COMPRESSOR
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS BY MODE OF OPERATION RECIPROCATING CENTRIFUGAL SCROLL SCREW BY CONSTRUCTION OPEN TYPE SEMI-HERMETIC HERMETIC
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors up to 1000 hp are still commonly found in large industrial applications, but their numbers are declining as they are replaced by various other types of compressors. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>5000 psi or 35 MPa).
A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can operate with two, four or six cylinders.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Centrifugal compressors use an impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa). Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers.
SCROLL COMPRESSOR
The Scroll Compressor has one Scroll (or Spiral) orbiting in a path defined by a matching fixed scroll. The fixed scroll is attached to the Compressor body. The orbiting Scroll is coupled to the crankshaft. The orbiting motion created a series of gas pockets traveling between the scrolls. On the outer portion of the scrolls, the pockets draw in gas, then move into the center of the scroll, where the gas is discharged. As the gas moves into the increasingly smaller inner pockets, the temperature increase to the desired discharge pressure. Due to its higher efficiency, quiet operation and lower Vibration levels, the Scroll Compressors are widely used as a replacement for other types of Compressors in the latest Air Conditioning systems with higher SEER ratio.
SCREW COMPRESSOR
Within the compressor body there are two screws with mating profile: a female and a male screw, female having concave inlets and the male with convex helical inlets. The screws rotate in opposite directions with the female screw receiving the driving power and transmitting this power to the male screw through a set of synchronization gears. As the screws rotate, the air is drawn into the inlet port and fills up the space between the screws. This phase is the Admission. The key phase is the Compression. It starts when the end of a male thread blocks the end of a female thread. The volume available between the compressor body and these two threads then progressively decreased during rotation. When this volume merges into the delivery outlet of the compressor, the third phase takes place, hence the Exhaust. Throughout this process, there is no contact between the screws. This means no wear, total reliability, and non-pulsating air delivery.
CLASSIFICATION BY CONSTRUCTION
Open-type: One end of the compressor crankshaft protrudes outside of the casing and is connected to the drive shaft externally, which in turn is driven by a motor. Maintenance is easy, but the overall size is bulky. These are used in heavy industrial applications.
Hermetic: The casing is welded and sealed, and the heads of the cylinders cannot be accessed for inspection or maintenance. These are used in household refrigerators and in mediumcapacity air-conditioning units.
Semi-hermetic: Both the compressor itself and the drive motor are housed inside the casing, which is designed so as to be opened for inspection and maintenance. In this case, the drive shaft and the crankshaft are one single piece. Semi-hermetic compressors are made so as to prevent air or dust from entering the mechanisms.
CONDENSER
Condenser is a heat exchanger which rejects heat from the refrigeration system.
It takes in a high temperature and high pressure gas from the Compressor and changes it into a Liquid at the same temp. and pressure conditions.
Types of Condensers:
Air-Cooled Water-Cooled
CONDENSER
AIR-COOLED CONDENSER
It rejects heat directly to the Outdoor Air. This is a Fin and Tube (Hair-Pin type) heat exchanger. Air cooled condensers are used in systems upto 100 Tons capacity. This is less energy efficient when compared to Water cooled condenser, since it can operate only at more Temperature differences.
WATER-COOLED CONDENSER
This condenser works in three steps: 1. Heat transferred from the refrigerant to the water. 2. Hot Water is pumped to the Outdoor Cooling Tower. 3. Cooling Tower rejects heat to the outdoor air. Though this system is more complex and expensive, this is more energy efficient, since it can operate at even lower temperature differences. This system is generally preferred on large tonnage units (more than 100 tons). Types of Water-Cooled Condensers Tube in Tube Shell and Tube Shell and Coil
Metering Device provides a Pressure Drop in the system. It separates the high side of the system from the low side. The Metering Device converts the High Pressure and High Temperature Liquid from Condenser to Low Pressure and Low Temperature Liquid-Vapor mixture, which will be fed to the Evaporator.
METERING DEVICE
Commonly used types of Metering Device: CAPILLARY TUBE THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE
CAPILLARY TUBE
A Capillary tube is a long tube with a very small diameter. When the high pressure refrigerant is forced to go through a small orifice it loses a lot of the pressure. The liquid refrigerant is sort of misted into the evaporator. So not only is the pressure reduced, the surface area of the liquid is vastly increased. The surface area of zillions of liquid droplets is much greater than the surface area of the column of liquid in the pipe feeding the metering device. The capillary line has no moving parts and can not respond to changing conditions like a changing thermal load on the evaporator.
EVAPORATOR
Evaporator is a heat exchanger which absorbs heat into the refrigeration system. It takes in a low temperature and low pressure liquid from the Metering device and changes it into Vapor at the same temperature and pressure conditions.
EVAPORATOR
This is generally a Fin & Tube (Hair-Pin type) heat exchanger, similar to Air-Cooled Condensers.
REFRIGERANT
A refrigerant is a compound used in a heat cycle that undergoes a phase change from a gas to a liquid and back. The two main uses of refrigerants are refrigerators and air conditioners.
In olden days, the mainly used Refrigerants were R-11 and R-12, due to their low boiling point. These are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which deplete the Ozone layer to a greater extent. According to the 1987 Montreal Protocol and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, the production of CFCs (R-11 and R-12) were stopped in 1995. The next alternative is Hydrochloro-fluorocarbons (HCFCs), due to their lower ozone depletion potential. R22 is a HCFC based refrigerant. This is widely used currently. But as per the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, even HCFCs are to be phased out in 2010. In 1991, Honeywell announced the development of a new environmental friendly hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant, whose designation is assigned as R-410A. This does not deplete the Ozone layer. Carrier began a cooperative development program with Honeywell to develop the first residential air conditioners in the United States that would use R-410A. In 1995, Carrier launched a new product line using the registered trademark Puron Refrigerant, which uses R-410A. In 1996, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recognized Carriers and Honeywells foresight by presenting both collaborating companies with the Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award. Also in 1996, the EPA formally recognized R-410A as an acceptable substitute for R-22. Since that time, other manufacturers have followed Carriers lead and developed their own line of R-410A products. Now every major air-conditioning equipment manufacturer has a line of R-410A equipment. Until now, most R-410A equipment has been for residential service. Carrier is boldly breaking that barrier by introducing new lines of high-efficiency commercial air conditioning units specially designed for Puron refrigerant.
UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigerators and Air-Conditioning systems may be rated in kJ/s or Btu/h of cooling or Tons of refrigeration. One ton of refrigeration is the rate of heat removal required to freeze one ton (2000 pounds) of water at 0 C (32 F) to ice in 24 hours.
Heat to be extracted
= 2000 * 144 = 288000 Btu / 24 hours = 12000 Btu/hour = 200 Btu / Minute
Most residential air conditioning units range in capacity from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration.
SEER = BTU Wh
US Government SEER Standards
The appliance standards required a minimum SEER of 10 for split-system central air conditioners and heat pumps in 1992. The average heat pump or central air conditioner sold in 1986 had an SEER of about 9.
Today, it is rare to see systems rated below SEER 9 in the US. The United States now requires that residential systems manufactured after 2005 have a minimum SEER rating of 13. Substantial energy savings can be obtained from more efficient systems. For example by upgrading from SEER 9 to SEER 13, the power consumption is reduced by 30%. It is claimed that this can result in an energy savings valued at up to US$300 per year depending on the usage rate and the cost of electricity. Residential split-system ACs of SEER 18 or more are now available, but at substantial cost premiums over the standard SEER 13 units.
WINDOW AC UNITS
A Window Air Conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. The following are the components of a standard Window AC unit: A compressor An expansion valve A hot coil (on the outside) A chilled coil (on the inside) Two fans A control unit For larger applications, all the above components are packaged in a single unit and mounted on the roof. The distribution of cool air and recycling of warm air is through duct work. This is called as a Roof-Top Unit (RTU).
SPLIT-SYSTEM AC UNITS
A split-system air conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system. The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve and the evaporator coil, is placed inside the building. The air handler blows air through the coil and routes the air throughout the building using a series of ducts.
The hot side, known as the condensing unit, is placed outside the building.
This approach has evolved over the years because it is low-cost, and also because it normally results in reduced noise inside the house. In warehouses, businesses, malls, large department stores, etc., the condensing unit normally is placed on the roof and can be quite massive. Alternatively, there may be many smaller units on the roof, each attached inside to a small air handler that cools a specific zone in the building.
Cooling Tower: In all the systems described earlier, air-cooled Condensers are used. In large systems (more than 100 tons), the efficiency can be improved significantly by using water-cooled Condensers. The Water that is used to cool the condenser is in turn cooled in a Cooling tower. In a cooling tower, air is blown through the stream of water so that some of the water evaporates, thereby cooling the warm water.