INTRODUCTION TO WELDING

By NAGABHUSHAN C.P.

WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material.
Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.

HISTORY

History of Metalworking
Welding began more than 3000 years ago Hot or cold metals hammered to obtain forge weld Bronze developed between 3000 and 2000 B.C. Iron became known to Europe about 1000 B.C. Several thousand years after use of copper Replaced bronze as metal used in manufacture of utensils, armor and other applications after 800 B.C. Working of metals followed one another in great ancient civilizations From copper, to bronze, silver, gold, and iron
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History of Welding
Edmund Davy discovered acetylene at beginning of nineteenth century Sir Humphrey Davy discovered the electric arc in 1801 Concerned with use of arc for illumination Demonstrated possible to maintain high voltage arc for varying periods of time by 1809 Workable electrical generating devices invented and developed on practical basis by 1850 Electric arc welding method used in US until about 1920 Handicapped because of welds produced by these bare electrodes not as strong as metal being welded Welding arc very unstable
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History of Welding
Technology of welding progressed slowly until World War I Demands of war called for improved methods of fabrication End of war, welding widely accepted Research on coated electrodes through 1920s resulted in electrode coatings and improved core wire

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Types of Welding
Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced together by external pressure (Ex) Resistance welding Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify (Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding

Classification of Welding Processes:

(i) Arc welding
vCarbon Arc (CAW) vShielded Metal Arc (SMAW) vGas Metal Arc (GMAW) vGas Tungsten Arc (GTAW) vPlasma Arc (PAW) vSubmerged Arc (SAW) vElectro-slag (ESW) vElectro-Gas (EGW) vFlux Cored Arc (FCAW) (ii) Gas Welding vOxy-Acetylene (OAW) vAir-Acetylene (AAW) vOxy-Hydrogen (OHW) (iii) Resistance Welding vFlash (FW) vSpot (RSW) vSeam (RSEW) vProjection (RPW) vPercussion (RPEW) (iv)Solid State Welding vForge (FOW) vFriction (FRW) vUltrasonic (USW) vDiffusion (DFW) vExplosive (EXW) vCold (CW) (v)Other Welding Processes vElectron-Beam (EBW) vLaser-Beam (LBW) vThermit (TW) vInduction (IW) (vi)Related Process vOxy-acetylene cutting vArc cutting vHard facing vBrazing vSoldering

Equipments for Arc Welding

Equipments:
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.) Two cables- one for work and one for electrode Electrode holder Electrode Protective shield Gloves Wire brush Chipping hammer Goggles

BASICS OF ELECTRICITY

Basic Electricity
DC -

Voltage The electrical potential or pressure that causes current to flow Current The movement of charged particles in a specific direction Polarity
Measured in Amps
AC

Measured in Volts

DC+

DC- (Direct Current Electrode Negative) DC+ (Direct Current Electrode Positive) AC (Alternating Current)

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Alternating Current
Alternating current: The type of current where the flow of electrons reverses direction (polarity) at regular intervals. Recommended current for SMAW general purpose electrodes and flat position.

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Direct Current
Direct current: The type of current where the flow of electrons (polarity) is in one direction. Controlling the polarity allows the welder to influence the location of the heat. When the electrode is positive (+) DCRP or DCEP it will be slightly hotter than the base metal. When the base metal is positive (+), DCSP or DCEN, the base metal will be slightly hotter than the electrode. DC current is required for GMAW It is frequently used for SMAW

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Ohms Law
Ohm's law states that, in an electrical circuit, the current passing through a material is directly proportional to the potential difference. Commonly expressed as:
Ohms law also be used to teach a principle of electrical safety.
Amperage is the harmful portion of electrical current. Rearranging Ohms Law for amperage shows that amperage (current flow) is determined by the voltage divided by the resistance. The higher the resistance, the less current that will flow for a given voltage.

E= IR

E I= R
What does this principle mean for SMAW?

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Conduction of Current in the Arc

Cathode Thermal Ionization Electrons Emitted Free Electron Ion Plasma T>10,000K Anode Recombination Neutral Gas Atom

Electrons Absorbed

WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded Metal Arc Welding- SMAW

Gas Metal Arc Welding -GMAW

Flux-Cored Metal Arc Welding- FCAW

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding -GTAW

Resistance Spot Welding- RSW

Oxy-Acetylene welding- OAW

Oxy-Acetylene welding- OAW

Submerged Arc Welding- SAW

Electro-Slag Welding- (ESW)

Joint Design

BUTT JOINT FILLET JOINT

LAP JOINT CORNER JOINT EDGE JOINT

Welding Positions

Weld Defects
A weld defect is any physical characteristic in the completed weld that reduces the strength and/or affects the appearance of the weld. The mark of a good welder is the ability to identify weld defects and adjust the welding parameters to eliminate them. Defects that are not visible must be detect by using destructive or nondestructive testing. If the defects in a weld exceed the specifications, the weld must be removed and redone. Welds are removed by grinding, gouging and cutting. Eliminating a weld defect is time consuming and expensive -- you must be able to complete the weld correctly the first time.

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Typical Arc Welding Defects

Defect Description The depth of the weld is less than specifications. Causes Excessive heat Excessive speed.

The weld metal is not completely fused to base metal or passes are not completely fused.

Incorrect angle Incorrect manipulation Insufficient heat

Weld material flows over, but is not fused with the base metal.

Slow speed

Typical Arc Welding Defects

Defect Description Weld bead does not extend to the desired depth. Small indentions in the surface of the weld Small voids throughout the weld material. Causes Low heat Long arc Incorrect joint design Excessive gas in the weld zone. Moisture Rust Dirt Accelerated cooling

Typical Arc Welding Defects

Defect Description Usually visible cracks on the surface or through the weld Causes Accelerated cooling Constrained joint Small weld volume

Cracks in the transition zone between the weld and base metal

Induced hydrogen Incompatible electrode or wire Accelerated cooling

Misshapen and/or uneven ripples

Inconstant speed Incorrect manipulation Incorrect welder settings

Arc welding
Advantages
Most efficient way to join metals Lowest-cost joining method Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials Joins all commercial metals Provides design flexibility

Limitations
Manually applied, therefore high labor cost. Need high energy causing danger Not convenient for disassembly. Defects are hard to detect at joints.

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Alternating Current (from Transformer)
More efficiency Power consumption less Cost of equipment is less Higher voltage hence not safe Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals Not preferred for welding thin sections Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode

Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding Direct Current (from Generator)
Less efficiency Power consumption more Cost of equipment is more Low voltage safer operation suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals preferred for welding thin sections Positive terminal connected to the work Negative terminal connected to the electrode

Brazing
Brazing is a metal-joining process whereby a filler metal is heated above and distributed between two or more close-fitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting (liquidus) temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the base metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work pieces together. It is similar to soldering, except the temperatures used to melt the filler metal is above 450 ?C (842 ?F)

Advantages & Disadvantages of Brazing

Advantages
Dissimilar metals which cannot be welded can be joined by brazing Very thin metals can be joined Metals with different thickness can be joined easily In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence there is no distortion Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders

Disadvantages
Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding Joint preparation cost is more Can be used for thin sheet metal sections

Soldering
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures below 450 ?C for joining. Soldering is used for, Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans Electrical Connections Joining thermally sensitive components Joining dissimilar metals

Hazards
1. Fumes and Gases

2. Electric Shock

3. Radiation

4. Noise

5. Fire and Burns

Personal Protective Equipment

Respiratory protection

Personal Protective Equipment

Eye safety

Safety eyewear should always be worn under the welding helmet to protect against flying debris when the helmet is raised to inspect work and when engaged in other welding activities, e.g. grinding, hammering.