Chapter 11- Water Pollution 11.

1 Types of Water Pollution Water pollution- any contamination of water that lessen its value to humans and other species- aquatic and nonaquatic recreation unsuitable for irrigation unsuitable for use in factories unfit for domestic consumption Affects both groundwater and surface waters Surface water- bodies of water in direct contact with the atmosphere Ground water- water found in the ground In saturated soils In aquifers Classified by: 1. Source a. Point source b. Nonpoint source 2. Chemical type a. Sediment b. Inorganic nutrients c. Thermal pollution d. Disease-producing microorganisms e. Toxic organic chemicals f. Heavy metals g. Oxygen-demanding organic wastes Point Source Water Pollution Point source water pollution- has its source in a well-defined location i.e. pipe through which a sewage treatment plant or factory discharges waste into either surface or groundwater Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Nonpoint source water pollution- does not arise from distinct point sources; when pollutants are washed into bodies of water from large areas i.e. farmland where chemicals drain into groundwater or surface waters, pastures, construction sites, cities, lawns, storm drains 11.2 Major Pollutants, Prevention, and Control Two basic approaches for ensuring clean water supplies: 1. Water pollution control a. Pollution control devices- technologies that remove pollutants from the effluents of factories and sewage treatment plants i. Usually applied to point sources ii. Pollutants are treated so they become less harmful, or are concentrated and disposed of 1. Often in landfills iii. Output controls- deal with the pollutant after is has been produced

1. Expensive way of diverting pollution from one medium to another 2. Pollution prevention- a variety of measures that eliminate the production of pollutants in factories, water treatment plants, and nonpoint sources a. Typically highly cost-effective b. Input controls- eliminates pollutants by adjusting inputs c. Throughput controls- alter the production of waste by adjustments of substances flowing through a system i. i.e. recycling wastes in another process Sediment Pollution Sediment- includes sand, silt, and clay-inorganic soil particles- eroded from soils One of most destructive and costly water pollutants 1 billion tons/yr of sedimentaquatic ecosystems in US Where Does Sediment Come From? -Natural sources i.e. Bank erosion -Human sources- activities that lead to water and wind erosion Farmland In under-vegetated, or disturbed watersheds, sediment pollution in surface waters can reach elevated levels Construction sites Land is bare until building is completed 10x higher erosion rates than cropland Timber harvesting Strip-mining Harmful Effects -$1 million/day in damage in US rivers Damages turbines, clogs canals, fills navigable rivers -Carry nutrient pollution and toxic chemicals -Suspended sediment blocks sunlight Kills photosynthetic base of many aquatic food chains Reduces levels of dissolved oxygen in waters -Smothers breeding grounds of fish and buries shellfish habitat -Kills fish -Problems for municipalities -Threatens reservoirs Control of Sedimentation Input Control -Proper application of erosion control strategies Conservation tillage, strip cropping, contour farming, terracing -Careful selection of construction sites Avoid steep slopes -Controls on land disturbance Reducing denuded or bulldozed areas Sodding and revegetating areas with a hydroseeder

-Small dams places across drainage ditches -Sediment fences Output Control -Direct muddy water to swamps and marshes -Filter out the sediment -Sedimentation ponds -Dredging rivers -Removed from drinking water by chemical coagulation and sand filtration Inorganic Nutrient Pollution Inorganic nutrient pollutants- nitrates and phosphates Nitrogen and phosphorous are limiting factors- essential elements that play key role in growth of individuals and populations Essential in low concentrations, but become pollutants in large quantities Nitrogen usually available in the form of NO3- ions or NH3 (ammonia) Phosphorus usually available as PO4 -3 ions (phosphate) Phosphorous less abundant, limiting nutrient in most freshwater lakes, rivers Three Major Sources: 1. Agricultural fertilizers- promotes crop production because they are rich in nitrates and phosphates a. Commercial fertilizers- artificial, synthetic fertilizers b. Animal wastes- manure Fertilizer not absorbed by crop roots washed by runoff waters into surface waters Stimulate population explosion of aquatic plants in aquatic systems 2. Domestic sewage a. Human wastes b. Household detergents 3. Livestock wastes a. Feedlots- concentrated livestock facilities where animals are held for fattening before slaughtering b. More animal waste is produced than human waste c. Farming practices d. Domestic pets Effects of Inorganic Nutrients on Aquatic Ecosystems -Eutrophication- nutrient enrichment of an aquatic ecosystem Natural occurs over a period of hundreds-thousands of years Accelerated (cultural) sped up process due to release of excessive amounts of nutrients into aquatic ecosystems as a result of human activities 80% N and 75% P entering surface waters in US Eutrophication proceeding 100-1000 times faster than normal conditions Classifying Lakes Based on Their Productivity Three major types of lakes: 1. Oligotrophic- nutrient-poor

a. Clear water b. Deep basin c. Gravel or sandy bottom d. Plankton scarce e. Rooted vegetation scarce f. Low total biomass per unit volume of water 2. Mesotrophic- middle-nutrient a. Fertility, clarity, dissolved oxygen levels, total biomass are intermediate b. Good for swimming, boating, fishing 3. Eutrophic- nutrient-rich a. Shallow basin b. Muddy bottom i. Poor spawning surfaces c. Turbid water d. Low dissolved oxygen content i. Most from increased photosynthetic organisms released to atmosphere e. Plankton abundant f. Rooted vegetation abundant g. Algal blooms- algal population explosions i. Average concentration of soluble inorganic phosphorous exceeds .01 ppm ii. Average concentration of soluble inorganic nitrogen exceeds .3 ppm iii. Destroy lake aesthetics iv. Impede recreation v. Reduce penetration of sunlight vi. Decomposing algae reduce DO levels vii. Fills in lake bottom viii. Give water bad taste and odor ix. Piles of algae and rooted plants on shores 1. Decompose giving off H2S gas (rotten egg odor) x. Proliferation of blue-green algae 1. Some release chemicals that are poisonous to fish and humans Stream Eutrophication Naturally oligotrophic at headwaters, eutrophic at mouth More easily reversed than lake eutrophication Groundwater Pollution Septic tanks contribute to nitrate and phosphate contamination in groundwater Controls of Eutrophication Output Measures and Controls: -upgrade wastewater treatments plants to remove higher percentage of P and N -Recycle wastes from wastewater treatment plants -Use detention basins on feedlots -Employ weed-cutting machines to remove excess vegetation from aquatic ecosystems -Destroy plant growth in aquatic ecosystems with herbicides

-Dredging the bottom sediment to remove nutrients -Avoid dumping treated sewage in lakes in sensitive lakes -Applying treated wastewater to grassy areas -Treating wastewater biologically in artificially constructed wetlands Input Controls in Urban Areas: -Ban use of phosphate detergents -Limit P content of detergents -Use newly developed P-free detergents -Impose excise tax on lawn and garden fertilizers to reduce volume of use -Educate citizens to use less detergent and fertilizers Input Controls in Rural Areas: -Minimize use of fertilizers on cropland -Inject liquid fertilizers directly into soil -Postpone application of manure until spring melt of ice and snow -Plant vegetative barriers between fields and waterways -Implement soil erosion controls on farms to minimize surface runoff -Do not build concentrated livestock production areas in floodplains Thermal Pollution Thermal pollution- increase in the temperature of water that adversely affects organism living in it Natural causes Summer heating by sun Human activities Sources: -Industries remove water to cool equipment or products and discharged as hot water thermal plume- a heated body of water Biological Effects of Thermal Pollution -Reduction in Dissolved Oxygen Warm water has lowered capacity to dissolve oxygen Fish in warm water have increased oxygen requirements -Interference with Reproduction Body temperature of cold-blooded animals varies with temperature of environment Thermal signals for spawning, nest building, migration disrupted -Increased Vulnerability to Disease -Direct Mortality Cold-water fish may die from shock -Undesirable Changes in Algal Populations Three major groups of algae: 1. Diatoms a. Cool water 2. Green algae a. Warm water 3. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) a. Warm-hot water b. Least desirable as aquatic animal food

c. Give off toxic substances -Destruction of Organisms in Cooling Water Affected by water turbulence, suction, and pressure Controlling Thermal Pollution -Install cooling towers- devices that transfer heat from the water to the atmosphere Wet cooling tower-heated water is piped to the top of the tower as water flows downward over a series of plates and meets cooling air flowing in from the bottom of the tower Cool water reused or discharged Generate fog Water permanently removed from aquatic ecosystem Toxic chemicals used to prevent bacteria growth in pipes Dominate skylines Expensive Beneficial Effects of Heated Water Used to prevent ice from forming Prevent frost damage Heat homes Disease-Producing Organisms Water contaminated with infectious microorganisms is responsible for more cases of human illness worldwide than any other environmental factor Cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, polio, and infectious hepatitis Caused by specific microorganism transmitted by water polluted with human or animal wastes Pfiesteria causes open sores and massive fish kills Can cause human memory loss, confusion, skin gastro-intestinal, and respiratory problems Protection Ourselves from Pathogens in Water Supplies Good sewage treatment Drinking water purification Impossible to test for all pathogens Pathogens- disease-causing bacteria Law requires sampling of coliform bacteria Coliform bacteria- extremely common form found in the intestines of humans and warm-blooded animals Indicators of potentially harmful bacteria and viruses Chlorination- destroys bacteria during water treatment Shift to an alternative available water source Toxic Organic Compounds Organic compounds- made primarily of carbon and hydrogen Group of synthetic organic compounds sometimes released into ground and surface water are toxic i.e. Persistent organics are DDT (pesticide) and PCBs (industrial chemicals) Released directly into surface or groundwater

Poured into surface impoundments Substances enter the atmosphere Waste percolates into ground Companies inject to deep wells Groundwater Contamination Virtually no natural cleansing mechanisms Sources of toxic organic compounds that pollute groundwater: 1. Municipal and industrial landfills 2. Percolating toxic chemicals from contaminated sites 3. Deep injection wells 4. Septic tanks Adverse Effects on Health Numerous studies have linked groundwater contamination by toxic organic chemicals to serious health effects Disrupt normal enzyme function in living cells Polluted well water rarely contains only a single organic contaminant Possible synergistic effects Fetuses can be affected when mothers ingest chemicals i.e. PCBs passed from mother to fetus cans cause: delayed development low birth weight retarded reflexes impaired memory Preventing groundwater contamination requires preventative actions: -Proper disposal or destruction of wastes -Bans on evaporation ponds and burial of toxic wastes -Hazardous waste recycling -Substitution of nonhazardous chemical processes Heavy Metals Pollution Heavy metals- highly toxic elements, not broken down by bacteria (persistent) i.e. lead, mercury, selenium Sources of Lead: -Active and inactive mines Release waters that have leached heavy metals Mine tailings Mine runoff -Gaseous emissions of coal-fired power plants -Garbage incineration -Industrial facilities Metal processing plants, dye-making firms, paper mills -Lead leached from pipes -Rain and snow Effects of Lead: -Disrupt normal enzyme function in living cells

-Lead poisoning -Subtle adverse effect of low concentrations of lead in drinking water on embryonic development, and learning and memory in children Sources of Mercury: -Direct industrial discharges -Rain and snow Coal-fired power plants and incinerators -Bacteria convert innocuous mercury into methyl mercury Accumulates in body tissues Biomagnification- increasing concentration of toxins in body tissues as it moves up the food chain Sources of Selenium: -Agriculture and irrigation Controlling Heavy Metals Pollution -Reduce discharges in air and water -Eliminate discharges in air and water -Require industries to pretreat metal-laden waste -Transported to certified hazardous waste dump -Changes in types of pipes used -Tighter controls on air pollution emissions Cross-media contamination- when heavy metals in the environment originate as air pollutants and then rain down on the land and water Oxygen-Demanding Wastes Excess biodegradable organic matter is consumed by bacteria Deplete the dissolved oxygen content of the water Bacteria actively compete with other oxygen-demanding aquatic organisms Levels of DO fall as bacteria populations increase Oxygen-demanding wastes- organic wastes and human-produced wastes like sewage whose decomposition consumes oxygen in aquatic ecosystems Organic content of the water is expressed as the biological/biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) BOD- measure of the amount of material that supports bacteria that demand oxygen The more organic material, the more oxygen consumption Only when assimilation capacity of the lake or stream is exceeded does severe oxygen depletion occur Rivers organic assimilation capacity determined by its rate of aeration- how fast oxygen is replenished Effects of High BOD on Aquatic Species -Oxygen sag- dip in oxygen curve as measured further and further downstream from discharge -Zone of decline immediately below outfall DO levels drop rapidly because of high organic component of waste Cannot support more desirable fish species Cannot support larvae of some insect species -Damage zone- DO so drastically reduced that even more tolerant fish species cant survive

Supports sludge worms -Recovery zone- amount of oxygen removed by sewage bacteria is more than counterbalanced by the oxygen entering the stream from the atmosphere or photosynthesis of aquatic plants -Clean water further downstream where most organic material has been decomposed and DO level rises to original value Hormone Disruptors and Drugs Hormone disruptors- chemical pollutants that when ingested by humans and other animals alter the hormonal system of wild animals, affecting reproduction and other vital functions Paper mills release estrogen-like compound (genistein) Male fish develop sex organs of males and females unable to reproduce Paper mills release dioxin Carcinogenic May suppress immune systems Synthetic female sex hormones excreted Shift in fish gender Prescription drugs, antibiotics, painkillers, antidepressants pollute waterways Trace amounts from urine Livestock May have synergistic effects 11.3 Sewage Treatment and Disposal Point sources discharge wastes into underground pipes Pipes transport wastes to sewage treatment plants- facilities that remove wastes Sewage Treatment Methods Serve 70% of US population Fall into one of three categories: 1. Primary mainly a physical process to remove solids from wastewater a. Enters plant b. Travels through screen c. Passes into settling tanks i. Suspended organic solids settle to the bottom d. Fluid that remains is chlorinated and discharged (in primary only treatment plants) e. Solids at the bottom of settling tanks pumped to sludge digester i. Bacteria feed on the organic waste 1. Produces methane, which is sometimes recycled to generate electricity f. Removes 60% of suspended solids g. Removes 33% of BOD 2. Secondary- primarily biological treatment that relies on aerobic bacteria to break down degradable organic materials and remove additional suspended solids a. Two major methods i. Activated sludge process 1. Fluid from settling tank piped to aeration tank a. Air is bubbled to provide oxygen

b. Aerobic bacteria decompose organic compounds rapidly 2. Transferred to a settling tank a. Remaining suspended organic matter and bacteria settle to bottom b. Form sludge i. Drained to anaerobic digester ii. Activated sludge- the highly concentrated mix of aerobic bacteria and organic matter within the aeration chamber 3. Recycled back to aeration tank a. Provides bacteria seed population 4. Remaining sludge dried, incinerated, landfilled, or used as fertilizer 5. Remaining liquid chlorinated and discharged 6. Reduces 90% BOD 7. Removes 90% suspended solids 8. 50% N and 70% P compounds still remain a. Require tertiary treatment ii. Trickling filter- sewage is sprayed by arms of slowly rotating sprinkler onto a filter bed made of stone or bark that are coated with bacteria 1. Sewage trickles down through stones 2. Bacteria consumes BOD 3. Leftover solids pipe to settling tank a. Transferred to sludge digester 4. 80-85% of BOD removed 5. Still contains P and N compounds a. Require tertiary treatment 3. Tertiary- most advanced treatment process designed to remove most of remaining pollutants (N and P compounds) a. Expensive Managing Stormwater Runoff In newer cities, stormwater and sewage pipe systems are separated Stormwater delivered directly to streams Combined sewer systems cause problems when heavy rainfall Excess stormwater containing raw sewage piped directly into streams and lakes CWA requires cities to create stormwater management programs Septic Tanks Septic tanks- underground sewage containers made of concrete or plastic into which all household wastewater flows Solids settle to the bottom to form sludge Fluids flow into system of perforated pipes buried underground forming a leach field Liquid waste passes through holes in pipes and percolates through soil Soil acts as a natural filter Organic material decomposed by soil bacteria

Drawbacks: -Cannot be used if water table is high -Cannot be used if soil is relatively impermeable -Easily overtaxed -Limited lifespan Alternative Treatment Methods Holding Ponds, Indoor Biological Treatment Facilities, and Other Technologies Direct sewage flow to specially built ponds of marshes Holding ponds can serve as wildlife habitat or grow food Indoor facilities consist of greenhouses with a number of tanks of aquatic plants, microorganisms, and animals that degrade waste materials Composting toilets Specially built wetlands Sewage Sludge: A Resource in Disguise Use sludge as: -Fuel Organic fuel called biogas released during anaerobic bacteria decomposition of organic material in digester Mainly methane -Livestock feed supplement Fair content of nutritional proteins, fats -Soil conditioner and fertilizer Improves ability of soil to retain nutrients, reduces erodibility and promotes the ability of the soil to hold oxygen and moisture -Make building materials Mix sludge, clay and slate Reduce soil erosion and visual pollution of clay mining Slow rate that landfills are filling up Reduce cost of sewage disposal 11.4 Legislating Water Pollution Control 1971- Federal Water Pollution Control Act amended 1977 as US Clean Water Act US Clean Water Act: Classifies surface waters according to their designated use: -Drinking water -Swimming and fishing Most of nations surface waters -Transportation and Agriculture Establishes minimal water quality standards for nations waters Deadlines for industries to reduce/eliminate waste discharges US cities required to provide secondary water treatment Control nonpoint water pollution effluent trading policy Monitoring provided by USGS National Ambient Stream Quality Accounting Network

1974 Safe Drinking Water Act Establishes EPA as main regulator of drinking water quality Establish regulations for pollutants in drinking water Ensure that drinking water from public supplies was filtered and disinfected 1986 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to Know Act Toxics Release Inventory- pollution accounting system Watershed Management Plans Watershed management can regulate nonpoint water pollution Reduce nonpoint sources in watershed Reduce fertilizer use Reduce surface runoff Protect/increase vegetative ground cover Reduce impervious surfaces Buffer zones- vegetative strips along streams, rivers, lakes to reduce surface flow into waters and filter runoff Set aside open spaces Stormwater retention ponds Education programs Watershed protection plans 11.5 Pollution of Oceans FWPCA sets standards and regulates the discharge of pollution into US waters, many of which flow into oceans Laws ban or regulate disposal of waste into ocean Enforcement set to Coast Guard and Army Corp of Engineers UN programs International Maritime Organization- aimed at reducing ocean pollution International Seabed Authority- regulates mining in oceans Sewage Often dumped into neritic zone along US coastline Adverse effects: -High BOD lowers DO levels -Fish kills -Toxic metals reached high levels in fish -Harmful mutations in aquatic organisms 1988 Ocean Dumping Act- banned all ocean garbage dumping Dredge Spoils 80% of waste in US coastal waters is dredge spoil Dredge spoil- sediment scooped from harbor and river bottoms to deepen channels for navigation 15% of this material is disposed of in ocean 1/3 tons of dredged spoil in contaminated with urban and industrial waste and runoff pollutants Enter aquatic food chainshuman consumption Plastic Pollution

Plastic materials kill seabirds, whales, porpoises, seals when ingested or entangled 1. Cannot be digested nor voided once ingested 2. Entanglementdrowning 3. Entanglementstarvation a. Cannot search for or swallow food Sources: -Manufacturers -Human litter -Litter from fishing boats or barges Plastic materials cannot be broken down by bacteria (nonbiodegradable) Plastic items are buoyant Control of Plastic Pollution 1972 London Dumping Convention- agreement to regulate disposal from trash-hauling ships 1973 Marine Pollution Convention- bans ships from dumping trash Recycle more Do not manufacture plastic Oil Pollution 91% of oil in oceans is from human activities Oil Tanker Spills 5% of oil oceans per year Damage of spill exacerbated if: -Protected waters close to land -Cleanup is delayed -Cold waters -Biologically rich waters Routine Ship Maintenance 20% of oil oceans per year from: -Loading and discharging oil -Tank cleaning -Oil ballast discharge Offshore Oil Well Accidents Contribute less oil than tanker spills on annual basis but can be more devastating Land Sources of Oil Pollution >50% of oil oceans per year comes from inland and coastal communities Service stations Motor vehicles Factories storm and sewage drains runoff Air Pollution Airborne hydrocarbons rain down on oceans

13% of oiloceans per year Adverse Effects of Oil Pollution Depends on: -Type and amount of oil -Proximity of spill to biologically sensitive areas -Season of year -Weather -Ocean currents -Wind velocity Greatest impact closest to shore Oil can kill or contaminate sea life Economic effects on locals who makes living from harvesting sea Mimic chemicals that guide marine animals during mating, feeding, homing, and migrating Carcinogens in oil Devastate beaches and recreation Costly cleanup Control of Oil Pollution Oil Pollution Act of 1990- established new provisions for new tanker structural design, retirement of outdated fleet, improved spill response strategies, more rigorous inspection, clearly defined financial responsibility and liability Controls after spill has occurred include: 1. Physical cleanup a. Machines, absorbent pads, hot water, skimmers 2. Decomposition of oil by bacteria 3. In-situ burning a. Controlled burn rapidly removes oil b. Highly visible smoke i. Air pollution c. Localized temperature elevations i. Harm or kill wildlife 11.6 World View of Water Pollution Water pollution problems in less developed countries are much worse than US -Lack of education and training -Lack of funding for treatment plants -Lack of tough pollution control legislation -Lack of enforcement 1980 UN International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade Impeded by population increase, resource demand, and industrial ouput