Islam and Ecology: Toward Retrieval and Reconstruction Author(s): S. Nomanul Haq Source: Daedalus, Vol. 130, No.

4, Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change? (Fall, 2001), pp. 141-177 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027722 . Accessed: 03/09/2011 17:09
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S. Nomanul

Haq

Islam and Ecology: and Reconstruction Toward Retrieval

of the question of Islam and ecology one fundamental to begin with of a observation ought we call the in the construction historical kind: of what consideration modern be Islam has had world, one cannot sure, possibly of, the phenomenon generally or that which we refer tion, in view see the formidable But this only an indirect role to play. To nor meaningfully as the scientific the Renaissance, influence was of

imagine, known to as intellectual

speak revolu? without on

keeping Latin Christendom. here we cess?in

of Islam

the complexities that often were ways

legacy and ironies alien

appropriated?and the historical of Islam

to the world

pro? itself.

The reception in both the Islamic and Christian worlds of the work of the towering giant Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham, d. 1038),
or case was that of the great in point. a Avicenna constitutes (Ibn Sin?, d. 1037), who revolutionized the field of optics, Alhazen, even as he became in the Islamic world a central an outstanding philoso? in Europe well authority but his devel? system was lines in Islam, where a Reciter"1 than

ignored in the West. scientific Avicenna, figure was the medical pher and physician, into the seventeenth abstract seen more century;

early oped on highly he was often Hellenized these

mystical-spiritual as a "Visionary

career it is the Latin of Indeed, in the modern not the elabo? world, figures ration of their thought by latter-day Muslims. I use the term "modern in its standard world" sense?signi? rational that thinker. endured fying both the world-system and the worldview that began

S. Nomanul

Haq

is a visiting

assistant

professor

at

the University

of Pennsylvania.

141

142
their

S.Nomanul
joint career

Haq
in Western culture came This after the passage of the

European Dark Ages, and which,

complex what we not only of development, process call the Enlightenment. by a set of spectacular all of which were

after going through a highly

modern to full maturity during is marked world and and

achievements, Western milieu; that our the given has terms us become of collective

technological in the produced a Weltbild, it ismarked also by a set of attitudes, in our era the dominant framework of global cultivated the only framework we as defining recognize This Weltbild has theories, its

scientific

life, our

its views

modern

always of power and questions politically charged coer was it has been feverishly this Weltbild, control: argued, the larger part of the globe we call the upon cively imposed in a strictly historical rather world. Here, operating developing worldview than moral

governmental At the same

discourse. contemporary its economic of human nature, its lifestyles, and its secular system, time, there lurk on the

ideology. horizon of the

one phenomenon to be thrown ought perspective, we do see disappearing from the developing into sharp relief: and institutions?a all indigenous world systems practically in the recent about past largely by brought disappearance direct colonial tance. largely acquired military European policy, the These days, a result of Western staggering colonization, and sometimes effected attended of forces as a matter by fierce of deliberate local resis?

destruction market

is systems indigenous whose reach has now world's developing of its and lifestyle

majority, of education, of organs media?all taken The

apparatus its industries,

The dimensions. global the dress and technique, economy,

and finance, system banking and bureaucratic agencies practices, public-health its print and electronic above all, and, government, in general, been and institutions these entities have, the Western of Western of the world models. or have been constructed in

from

emulation

on the Western societies developing of sheer raises the overwhelming world question inevitably note health. We the issue of public for example, survival. Take, not only that indigenous have institutions of health and healing we note as well either died or been irrevocably marginalized; dependence that modern life has brought with it illnesses, epidemics, and

Islam and Ecology

as

143

injuries that could not possibly be handled by these institutions

or as they stand on the periphery This they stood, today. means on West? world that the developing desperately depends ern pharmaceutical industries and medical and establishments; this in turn means to an a need train intricate for hard doctors web and equipment this then weaves tion, All tion of currency and health to buy dependence, we take drugs and and frustra? professionals;

and political fatalities, issues rap at our these of Islam and has ecology.

of need, machinations. doors In the when Islamic

attitudes

referred social educated extreme, Western reformist

in response developed a highly to as Western hegemony, of the finds resentment and contemporary crude

up the ques? a whole world range to what is generally loaded of term. In the Islam?whose

spectrum elite?one bitter on

world

rulers and high officials

typically belong

to a small Western

in the middle.2 somewhere Thus, lying is found much literature Muslims claim? among contemporary achievements of modernity, all success? ing that all intellectual ful present-day in scientific theories and technological ideas,

the other, tendencies

on the one attitudes apologetic as is perceived whatever against all manner of Islamic revivalist and

their most minute detail are to be found in the Qur'?n,

Muslims cieties were to be of At Considering this incommensurable, of today's control of to search. Islamic literature result fell writers Western from and and Western teaches from into place

if only
so? the that

environmental mony hands. of the

problems the West?the the same time, crisis

world the world

the hege? the wrong the blame and sci?

other Muslim

ecological entities technology, and This technology, second

upon squarely to be distinct conceived distinct both of

science Islamic

ence ogy.

in substance

in morphol?

line but

moderate; relatively atic nonetheless. Here lies

argument, it happens irony. to and

to the first, is compared to be intractably problem? seventy years ago, Sir

a profound belongs He put live."3 fact of

Some

Hamilton
Western foundations of the

Gibb articulated a fundamental historical

society. and is an integral it strongly: "Islam words, Islam's community

fact: Islam

in its foundations

In other

part of the larger cannot its deny a conscious recognition with the West is

fundamental

144
essential century, ment of that India contrast

S.NomanulHaq
to and the its very survival. Like al-B?run? Islamic in the twelfth move? the spirit of the and twentieth by was side the with "true" because modernist

reflecting nineteenth stands side

Islam

to what

he called This

Gibb centuries, argued in the Western world, those of oriental societies, Islam had found itself?

and East Asia.4

to Classi? made itself?heir and consciously and had creatively in many that are nontrivial, cal Civilization. ways Moreover, as can indeed be characterized Islamic culture legitimately

embodying

Hellenism.

Sir Hamilton
civilizations at the same sundered of that So we of this world of

had expressed
Islam and

it more

two picturesquely?the were "nourished wrote, air..., sis, we [only] have artificially

he Europe, the same springs, breathing at the Renaissance."5

Notwithstanding
here

the specific details of Hamilton

an outline a constructive flows note from that descends

Gibb's

the?
in a

it is a methodology fact, thinker. modern Muslim role in the construction foundations historical Islamic

methodology; the ideas of many even

the modern

world

Islam's though in its is indirect, an from directly

It is more than illuminat? milieu. intellectual obscuring to suppose between that there is an inherent ing incompatibility or a total historical break be? Islam and the Christian West, once the intellectual tween between Islam them. But community we may the is acknowledged, world and the modern recognize Islamic tutions. need?we standing classical one may against roots At the of contemporary same time?and the and insti? ideas, preoccupations, to a more this speaks urgent resources for under? intellectual global concerns can be found into

see that may some of today's Islamic civilization seek

pressing

in the Islamic tradition itself. Indeed, given the durability of the

that Gibb's ideas from thesis Islam that brings legitimately the environmental an enormous to guide threaten inter focus, the struggle our globe

problems task.

today.6 We face both stance case

It requires,

of the complexities and the historical

the contemporary context of the

alia, a grasp of world and the sub? and legacy; revision. and it In the

Islamic

much reconstruction, adjustment, at hand, due to its all the more the task becomes daunting to purely issue cannot nature.7 The theoretical real as compared involves

Islam and Ecology

be handled

145

over are glossed if its real dimensions meaningfully The ques? in the glow of a sophisticated theoretical discourse. economics distributive and tions of power and control, justice, and tac? the currents of market forces, finance, policy-making are all directly and social values?these tical politics, lifestyles relevant here. And to and this means several that the manner ethics, disciplinary in a com? belongs at once: domains social issue is essentially in this domain, of the con? it is Islamic

plex

sciences,

it ought Still, cerned with theoretical concerned

religion to be noted with

them. among that this essay

narrowly its scope is narrower still: it under? tradition. Indeed, religious certain Qur'?nic takes only to reconstruct concepts, doctrinally as the Pro? to expound is known certain of what imperatives Tradition, legal car? and articulation reconstruction, exposition, a view to recovering Islamic material religious serve to illuminate our how Islamic culture regards concerns is most is that and guide Islamic think? and to articulate briefly certain Islamic

and even matters; sources the normative

phetic

categories?a ried out with

in the internal interesting, this enterprise, Islam, by its nature, not a partial would be considered but a comprehensive task, to be all-embracing. since is claimed, For religion literally, sources means traditional Islam, examining religious examining the universal under which fall all aspects of life?since canopy context of traditional all aspects are religious aspects. SOURCES very outset that the Qur'?n,

that might current environmental global them. But what ing about

THE NATURE It should be

OF THE NORMATIVE understood at the

believed

to be the actual speech of God

revealed through an

or a is not a book of laws, or a manual of procedures, angel, nor meant to of tales; is it a systematic collection treatise or principles. ethical As the experts doctrines convey say, the on its own has to be received terms?that is, as a genre Qur'?n unto highly diction, where itself.8 A striking feature its of to of this sacred Islamic text its is its cadence, stylized use and its elegant one meaning leads rhetorical language another structure, "semantic with by a fertile literary

depth, fusion of

146
associated not rich and

S.NomanulHaq
so much scholars have characterized the Qur'?n Thus, as a doctrinal as a textbook but "more valuably to religious subtle stimulus If this text imagination."10 ideas."9

a concrete an imaginative recon? is to yield it requires system, on the part of the reader; struction in principle, this reconstruc? even though tion cannot claim it may epistemological finality, on grounds consensus. of overwhelming community is precisely This the position of classical Islam. to the question of the cosmos With and its relationship regard to human one notes moves at three that the Qur'?n beings, stand firm levels simultaneously?metaphysical, one examines But when these they turn out notion of the semantically principle Qur'?nic conceptual between, of to and interdigitate: natural world logically levels on and naturalistic, in the totality the one hand, the natural the up with and human. of the Qur'?n, the Qur'?nic environment very concept is of

bound

God; on the other hand, this notion

the very creation

is linked with

the general

humanity. our concerns, we Qur'?n, the ontological ments. At particular As we

of humanity. The three levels of do not manifest any independent discourse, therefore, of, or a conceptual self-sufficiency discontinuity the three realms of the divine, of nature, and of to is of fundamental this linkage Indeed, importance for can in our see that reconstruction of the historical-naturalistic this means and the divine the cosmology of is linked that this there and all natural the to

transcendental-eternal, separation the human, to attitude shall

is no a

between

environ?

level, psychological as a whole. the world

generates

of significance it stands being, itself,

see, the Qur'?n nature. Because as a sign to some

pointing of being principle is an emblem nicates as the with Islamic at

(aya, transcendental

the transcendental emphasizes nature cannot its own explain of something ?y?t) plural beyond that bestows the entity and its objects. Nature, then, commu? which God through say that into the of by this insofar flow of and

the world upon it is a means of God; One may humanity. tradition is, God's verses embodies allows in one the of

legitimately for God's entry realm bounded two modes

history time?nature other

all?that

space

the

mode

significantly,

being the

Word, namely, of the Qur'?n

the Qur'?n are also

the entry, itself. Most ?y?t,

called

Islam and Ecology

and signs, the objects in the of the on same emblematic world each vein?and and this means verses natural the Qur'?nic other.

147
that are

metaphysically On the naturalistic an

a par with plane,

system integral governed God's command (amr, plural aw?mir). embody run of things ena of nature in the general follow late

as the Qur'?n speaks of the cosmos a set of immutable laws that by The phenom? a strict system nature cannot vio?

marked

since and uniformity, by regularity its amr, that is, its immutable laws. In this naturalistic vein, we to nourish, exists find the Qur'?n that the cosmos teaching in sustain the process of life?all of life, and and support, life. Though human life does have centrality human particular in the Qur'?nic it is a centrality system, in by a set of moral and metaphysical examine A that in more detail fact as we about the proceed. in the Qur'?n is story genesis to the angels that he is about on the earth?in other words, Earth is here remarkable mediated controls; and reigned this we shall

it speaks of God announcing a khalifa to create (vicegerent) committed the

Adam and his "equal half"

(zauj)11were bound for Earth even

not a being, not exist in a nature position in any sum?

Life on transgression. before they an integral of the very concept of the human part fall from glory; the human does punitive being nor state of disgrace in the world is of nature, sense unredeemed.12 To the Qur'?nic expound

marily,
made of the

the very principle of the vicegerency

human entire beings natural his servants world.

of God

(khil?fa)

(eabd, plural Hb?d), custodians Human exist by virtue of a beings

primordial
their have measure and own taken

covenant

(m?thaq) whereby

they have testified

of a trust There that

to

nature, theomorphic themselves upon

and by virtue in pre-eternity.

they is a due

(qadr)

humanity

to things, in the cosmos, and a balance (mfz?n) not to disturb or is transcendentally committed

violate
The cal,

this qadr and mfz?n;

is the fundamental of three dimensions

indeed, the fulfillment

of this

commitment

and naturalistic, and manner, complex the others. from isolation anchored in the divine,

moral of humanity. imperative the Qur'?nic discourse?metaphysi? in a thus mutually human?are related one of them cannot in be understood any Nature both in its Qur'?nic is conception and morally. The metaphysically

148
expression heavens be when larger

S.NomanulHaq
is and strong: on the "But earth; as of to God And He all belongs it is who things in the

encompasseth

(Muh?t) all things" (4:126); note that the word Muhft

translated legitimately notion the Qur'?n's framework of this "environment."13 nature So we is reconstructed

can also
see in that the

connected inherently and all these notions, transcendental realm

it appears Islamic source, supreme its notions with and humanity? of God as we have in the their roots seen, have and then issue forth in the moral-histori? often atmo? of of

cal field.
When we come to the Hadith Traditions, we have to as Prophetic referred Here sphere altogether. authenticated formally the corpus literature, we are in a different a vast body the words of collections and actions

reports of Islam, the Prophet and sometimes of his companions who a derivative The collection and authentication enjoy authority. was an enormous at articulating of Hadith aimed undertaking Islam had action standing prophetic binding. But the (7/ra years whole only after as a function, to be translated and laws. (fiqh) way of and into Indeed, sharVa for this purpose a viable body material the God's of source Hadith Science than into the Way concrete for tradition was

about

(sharVa) codes of the under? of the

one was An

established

(sunna).

authenticated

legally

impressive did al-Hadtth) after the

called the discipline not develop until more and death of the Prophet, had century and Sahth a come

of Hadith two hundred a

in the meantime It was being. first Correct

of fabricated Hadith corpus in the middle of the ninth

that

(Sahth) collection
much authentication.

of Hadith

appeared;

this was
rigorous collections

established
of process were com?

systematizing, sifting, Five more massive the hundred

But given the very years. piled during following and the inherent size of the corpus of these transmitted reports in the very nature of the chain of transmitters complications even the six Correct in authen? collections vary widely (isn?d), as a in Hadith Note that and content. authentication, ticity general rather rule, practically than to the actual all attention (matn) was content to the isn?d paid transmitted. of what was

Islam and Ecology

It is for reasons in reconstructing is not ecology such as these that

149

the Islamic position a straightforward are task. Hadith collections sense describe as a one may in a qualified manuals of what con? and independent isolated body of case law. An ecological cern to be found a present-day is not here?this is develop? ment?but spread all over the the reports concerning and concerning land of buildings, livestock, and Hadith and so on. general cultivation water one does of Hadith, find body status and meaning of nature, construction and agriculture, birds, plants, fact that the of him? two re? These

material the use of Hadith on the environment and

one In addition, also contains corpus land them distribution

resources, animals, notes the remarkable the and in two fateful consecration.

doctrines

haram,

lated notions were

articulated sions, on were Islamic designating hand,

indeed developed
particularly some places their

by Muslim
environmental

legists who
dimen? Him?

as protected ethics

sanctuaries. on

and haram developed

the one and subsequently legal code.

into legislative principles of land equity

of environmental into the other, and of the larger body and environmen? questions in hand; they are intercon? the Islamic religious norms

incorporated Note that ethical hand

tal questions nected. The most and Hadith.

are here moving systematic One may source

of codified

is that of fiqh-law, developed on the foundations

comprehensive the minutest legitimately for the whole blueprint detail of external human

of the Qur'?n

is the say that fiqh-law of Muslim life, covering both public and conduct,

this enormous private. Within body of legal regulations?which a dogmatic since the fiqh disci? have now character acquired is now practically is par? dormant?the of him? pline principle

school, one of the four ticularly well developed in the M?liki legal schools followed by the vast majority of Muslims. But we note in the formally articulated and generally codified Islamic
writings from directly legal several other environmental material sources concepts (us?l), derived the Qur'?n the two primary

and Hadith.
One Some is that of maw?t, concept on maw?t have worked /?g/7-legists such "wasteland." literally in great the detail;

150
concept canals, tenance, directly are fiqh use law of

S.NomanulHaq
typically and other rights out of rules resources, control. Similarly, and conceptual the moral and the hunting, birds. Once Islamic the same appears water in the extensive their discussions distribution for ethos example, of the on rivers, and main? arising two us?l

governing

animals, is meant

concerns

including to implement to one and belong

and treatment, welfare, note how Islamic again, ethics?legal functional and moral framework.

HUMAN QUR'?NIC Moving seventh

NATURE

AND THE NATURAL WORLD:

EXCURSUS on s?ra the transcendental famous extracted their entire Am the Qur'?n plane, verse known sonorous and humanity from the children in its presents to embody the its creator: "And

that covenant Lord cord,

primordial when your their spinal

between

upon themselves, You No doubt narrative sciousness Lord?), mystical to the tially

here, bi-rabbikum is the expression alastu (Am I not your in the reverberated alastu that the interrogative has see this day. We of Islam until chambers and poetic

progeny I not your Lord? And they replied, saying, So powerful is the bear witness!"14 are, we con? so deeply in the Muslim entrenched and

from of Adam, them witness and made

here that humanity

lordship theomorphic. to

in the very principle of its being has testified

In other recognize supreme the To nature is essen? human words, state. is to be in a natural God to human he

of God.

Indeed, God had made human beings in the best of forms;15 and,
furthermore, this and creature, beings,

subjected

(shakhkhara
in the next

lakum, "He subjected to you") all that

earth.16 breath

is in the heavens But, then, cal exaltation

links this metaphysi? the Qur'?n a weighty to Humankind's moral burden. supe? or or control in its enjoying lies not power any higher riority in the fact that it it lies rather created among beings; authority creature is. This such as no other before is accountable God, accountability arises at this out their that of this the trust (al-am?na) entails no origin. a kind to that It of human be transcendental am?na does should

accepted beings at once observed trusteeship, and

reading

offense

global the Qur'?nic

Islam and Ecology

of trust: "We did indeed offer concept and the Earth and the mountains?but kind Note tive. called selves We burden is unfair here And that note to the itself and the Trust they refused to carry

151

to the Heavens it,

being afraid of it. But the human being carried it:Ho! human?
cosmological also the last foolhardy."17 ethos of sentence?so a transcendental enormous narra? was the

the Qur'?n a "tender rebuke," and see

it by way of what recognizes human unfair calling beings dimension to itself of

Rahman to them? human absolute

foolhardy. here the moral-naturalistic cannot

arrogate Humanity theomorphism. or unbridled over nature: in the very principle control of power was to following its being, committed God's sharVa, humanity not given to humanity his Way. this sharVa was Furthermore, as a fully articulated body of laws; rather, it was spread all

over God's signs (?y?t) in the form of indicators with probative value (adilla). Recall that the term ?y?t designates both the
verses of the source cannot we have of the Qur'?n natural world. for be the as well Thus as the phenomena the natural world and the objects a bona is fide

and therefore understanding (fiqh) of sharVa, to human whims. as considered subservient Indeed, to be on the earth for human is part of noted, beings

the divine plan; to be human

of history. There text to consider to deem salvation nature as no

is by definition

to be in the flow

con? in the Qur'?nic is, then, justification in historical existence time a curse, or human as something or to consider to grace, opposed of the humbling of one the natural Mircea by that the

a process

all may say Eliade, supernatural. Echoing is capable of revealing itself as cosmic nature, indeed, sacrality. too is the ethical evident thrust of the frequent Qur'?nic Quite declaration that God has made the natural world to" "subject human to man's mand below). made moral beings. (amr), We This clearly does not mean that nature unbridled, exploitative powers?for not that of the human that nature obeys being, note that the expression sakhkhara lakum it is God's is subject com? (see

("he to you...") with its attending appears subject always . . .And He hath made So: "It is all from Him. dimension. and whatsoever indeed are portents is

to you whatsoever is in the heavens subject in the earth?It is all from Him. Lo! herein

152
for

S.NomanulHaq
those who reflect."18 rhetorical The point force: is made frequently and with

overwhelming He has made and

moon,

subject to you the night and the day, the sun and the are in subjection the stars?they by His command in this are signs for those who reflect! (amr): Surely, And the things on this earth which He has multiplied in colors in this is a sign for those who recollect! diverse?indeed, It isHe Who had made the sea subject [to His law], that ye may eat thereof flesh, tender and fresh, and that ye may extract there? to wear?See, from ornaments how the ships plough the waves! So seek of the bounty of God: Perhaps ye shall be grateful!19 ye

Nature's

on the one hand, to the human intellect, intelligibility and its quality of yielding itself to human works and sustaining on the other, human both flow from the same principle of life,
amr:

Seest thou not that by His command (amr) God has made subject to you all that is on the earth? And that by His command He has to you the ships that sail through made the sea? He subject withholds the sky from falling on the earth?but for His leave. For God isMost Compassionate It is He Who gave you and then He will most ungrateful!20 In this fundamental. cosmology at realms human for social of bring to humankind. and Most Merciful and then He will cause you to die, life, is you back to life again: Ah, humankind

natural-transcendental The

linkage,

Qur'?n promulgates a cosmology that justice, the human As and for the

the moral one what takes into

question call may its fold

is a

two

once, within the cosmic. justice runs earlier

the cosmic?or, rather, a concern the human realm,

the Qur'?nic text, even in its throughout verses whose is on metaphysical focus chronologically the Beginning and the End, issues of God, such as the oneness

and the finitude of the world. The dignity of the disabled,21 the
rights trade and cerns which and of the indigent and of dealings,23 admonishment are to be feeding found particularly the poor,24 of orphans,22 condemnation in honesty of greed,

against from

are, by general the most sublime

con? wealth25?all these hoarding the earliest of the Qur'?nic verses, the most consensus, scholarly powerful in their stylistic embellishment.

Islam and Ecology

But mic virtue these concerns human justice; of their operate relations within thus very link the universal acquire core of between as to their natural field

153
of cos? by This and their The

effectively moral law?natural customary Qur'?n declares

at the location a conceptual forges law

meaning law. law run

natural

is never

violated

not moral law ought course; of the existence of a cosmic speaks that everything except God

things be violated.

balance

is "measured

is given is, everything qadr, taqdir)?that in the larger cosmic whole?and of being and its place of the amr the meaning of an (command) precisely I shall take a little later. The

and (mlz?n) out" (qadar, its natural principle this is

a entity, same message is up again concept in a moral to any "God intends no injustice expressed language: creatures. of His To Him all that is in the heavens and belongs the earth."26

The dread of humankind

the ard), hortations drop world created catastrophe such it loom

"corrupting

the earth" (fas?d f?l

will

and ex? unleash, transgression so large that they hang like a back? against in the Qur'?nic of justice. The creation of the cosmology was not a frivolous or trivial act: "And We have not the heavens and Created that the earth of those with and and what who divine reject is therein [the is the view purpose? truth] or who nature is so with such is if good

lessly?that are ungrateful."27 coherently regularity it, what And and

interconnected order,

deliberation, and works integrated, prime miracle:

it is God's terror:

done to it or in it, good will return; if evil iswrought

accrues is sheer

to it or in

and think them solid [and stationary] but you see mountains are fleeting like clouds?such is the artistry of God Who has they [the creation] of everything. He iswell acquainted well-completed with all that you do. If any do good, good will accrue to them therefrom; and they will be secure from the terror of the Doom. And if any do evil, their faces will be thrown headlong into the Fire.28 It ought that prima all be to be recognized verses that the Qur'?n does contain that the natural world and facie give the impression its creatures exist for the sake of human but it would beings, a gross to view such declarations in a oversimplification

154
moral

S.NomanulHaq
vacuum. "In considering all these verses," wrote the

(d. 1328), outstanding jurist of medieval Islam Ibn Taymiyya "it must be remembered that God in his wisdom brought into
being these creatures verses for God reasons beings. of these."29 the carry earth There three and In these human serving benefits [human] only explains to note in this context that among not have to Islam does faiths, the to "subdue" the the natural world. other than

It is interesting grand monotheistic seek

the burden is a clear

of any scriptural imperative over to establish "dominion" and

as to where answer to the question explicit an over the natural world, the dominion and belongs so obvious answer in the overall drift of the Qur'?n that it is "Knowest thou not that to God belongeth rhetorically: expressed And and the earth!?"30 of the heavens the dominion again: to whom "Yea, Ironic to God belongs the dominion of the heavens and the

earth. And to God

is the final goal

[of all]."31

be? it may seem, human superiority?humans though in the best of forms and humans taqwtm), (ft ahsani ing created in the Islamic the noblest of crea? tradition considered being out to be a supremely hum? tures (ashraf al-makhl?q?t)?turns

bling quality. And the Qur'?n does humble humanity by saying

that than heavens human have signed natural and the the creation creation and beings: exclusive to all Yet of of the rest of the cosmos is a matter the than creation "Assuredly people: is [a matter] greater most understand people greater of the of do not

the earth claim living

the creation

not!"32 We

communities, their inviolable nor bird like

to the earth, has as? for "the earth He are creatures all living creatures."33 And their own their own habitat, with laws, natural "And there is no animal rights: its two wings but that they flies with in are

the earth communities

that

yourselves."34 collectively written in the tenth cen?

One
famous

is here reminded of a medieval Arabic fable found in the

Ras a9 il (Epistles)

tury by the fraternity that called itself Ikhw?n al-Saf?9

(Breth?

ren of Purity). fable constructed and dramatically This colorful a company their case before who of animals is about present of whether the question the king of the jinn raising (g?nies), so in what are superior to animals, and if human respect. beings The verdict is "natural and inevitable":35 human beings are

Islam and Ecology

to the animals?but superior or functional status. moral heavy moral burden, for their down of not They the because are they superior custodians animals creature,

155

enjoy any higher because of their of the are reads earth. not. As The

being

God's
verdict,

regents on the earth (Khalifat Allah

handed acts; nonhuman by a nonhuman . . . that

f?l-Ard),

they are
further:

accountable

Let man

not imagine to the just because he is superior it is that we are all slaves of animals they are his slaves. Rather . . .Let man not the Almighty and must obey His commands forget to his Maker for the way in which he treats that he is accountable all animals, for his behavior towards his just as he is accountable . . ,36 fellow human beings. Man bears a heavy responsibility. naturalism an analytical world, and the nature-prophecy into the Qur'?nic characteristics parallel discourse

qur'?nic

If one makes on the created fall into

excursion three

of nature defining have first, that natural sharp perspective: phenomena internal and elegance, and that they are coherence, regularity, as a whole that nature its second, has, within self-sustaining; no logical or metaphysical being, is an embodiment that nature finally, warrant of God's and, more or, mercy, the creation of to exist;

own

is expressed that God's mercy fully, nature. These characteristics, defining in the Qur'?nic in a doctrinal narrative from one

through one notes, do not appear or even textual isolation of in the

are frequently another?they spoken in the same passages, and in the same breath, a conceptual whole. they make The ever natural its own

same

vein;

together,

of autonomy of nature?that it is regulated principle by in the fact that when? laws?manifests itself forcefully the Qur'?n of the actual of processes cosmological speaks it does the human so quite being often?it was in speaks a natural cre?

phenomena?and terms. Thus, naturalistic

ation: Adam was fashioned out of baked clay (sals?l), from mud molded into shape (ham?9 masn?n);37 from dust (tur?b);38 from a blood clot (ealaq);39 from earth (tin)40 that produced through
a confluence tions logical as of natural reproductive account: an extract, processes In fact, there semen.41 that func? sul?la, a fully bio? exists

156

S.NomanulHaq

extract of clay. We did create from a reproductive Humankind as a drop of sperm in a receptacle, secure. Then Then We placed it we made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood. Then of that clot We made a fetus lump. Then We made out of that lump bones and the bones with the Best of flesh ... So blessed be God, clothed
Creators!42

References and some 31

natural

natural natural nature, forces, phenomena, out of its 114 s?ras in the Qur'?n; abound beings are named In all cases, after these. the physical world is described in a naturalistic forces Thus, and we in framework, that occur processes see here the contours

to

physical and with uniformly regularity. naturalism: of a theistic

in its real operation of the framework

do they not look at the sky above them? How We have built Why! it and adorned it and there are no gaps in it? have spread it out, and set thereon moun? And the earth?We therein all manner of beautiful tains, standing firm, and produced for the observation and commemoration of every This, being who reflects. And We send down from the sky rain, charged with blessings. And We produce therewith gardens and grains for harvests. And tall and stately palm trees with shoots of fruit stalks, piled over one servants. And We give new life for God's another?as provision to the land dead. . . .43 therewith growth. created In an even more emerges: And firm have spread it out, set thereon mountains the earth?We therein all kinds of things in due and produced and immovable, And We therein have provided balance livelihood (mauz?n). sustenance you and for those whose (rizq) does not (ma'?yish)?for sources depend on you. And there is not a thing but its bountiful robust expression of naturalism, the refrain re

are with Us; and nought do We send down unless it be in due and knowable measure (bi-qadrim ma'l?m). to fertilize vegetation in abundance, And We send down winds from the sky, therewith providing then cause the rain to descend in plenty?though of its you are not the guardians you with water
sources. . . .44

out of baked clay, from mud molded We fashioned humankind into shape. And, in the time preceding, We had fashioned the jinn from the fire of scorching winds.45

Islam and Ecology

Qur'?n, the avowing The

157

of natural the principle causation, then, admits as the proximate, sum total of natural processes in the world. causative forces operating efficient autonomous, It is the fertility and the natural of the earth, we see, qualities of water, and favorable themselves?that it was it was as rain clay that a natural winds?in phenomena all vegetation; certain natural words, but proximately causally explain that revived dead and uncultivable other constituted entity. the Besides, substratum in what for the is to be

land, and human animal

legitimately considered an anthropological vein, all this in its turn is causally related to human livelihood (ma'?yish) and
actual brings subsistence into clear of the human activities view community?the and processes narrative such as here land

of gardens, of harvest, cultivation, fertility, production yielding as distinct it speaks of real, fruits and grains; from metaphysi? with its attending economic and cal, human (rizq), provision social ramifications.

It is the dual principle

examined

of cosmic

justice, which

we

have

and this thoroughgoing naturalism that ex? earlier, a central of Qur'?nic doctrine ethics?that of culm al plains a moral tenet this doctrine embodies Indeed, nafs (self-injury).46 a to carry that seems the seeds of comprehensive ecological As philosophy. in the it exists part laws of nature; of nature element I have said elsewhere,47 entity, entity, in the reality, actual world beings fully to as as are the an immediate they are palpable a natural other human subject

larger cosmic or destroy the balance of the natural environment age, offend, or destroy to damage, is inflicted offend, injury oneself. Any is self-'m\\iry, "the other" this is a prime upon %ulm al-nafs?and in the foundations doctrinal element of Qur'?nic ethics: "Who? ever transgresses the bounds of God has done wrong but to and again: "God wronged them not, but themselves himself";48 The rule is that wrongdoing recoils they wronged."49 ultimately back upon the perpetrator?for when is willfully the balance too into its fold.50 this disturbance takes the culprit disturbed, On the other hand, the naturalistic is of the Qur'?n posture attended that has fundamental posture by an epistemological

integral in the exists

just like any in the overall

participating balance that (m?z?n) ecological whole. And this means that to dam?

158
heuristic

S.NomanulHaq
and methodological There knowledge. a due balance consequences is nothing (mauz?n), for the human in the cosmos and nothing everything, ma'l?m), laws to to that we and search is not that does

for natural not

possess

fully differentiated

and measured
the human measure

out in a way
intellect; (bi-qadrim immutable and

that it is beyond
read, the

the comprehension of in a knowable exists

cosmos
point nature,

is thus, in principle,
is compelling: laws these there are both

intelligible. The
exist uniform

epistemological
regulate

systematic subject reason casts and they are captured when human its cognition, we net. Indeed, in the Qur'?nic count? narrative find virtually in the less exhortations for the use of reason, often appearing exert your mind!" of the subjunctive: you may pathos "Perhaps or "They might or "May you not see?" or reflect!" perchance or "What! Would "Would intellect?" your you not exercise you we a Qur'?nic reason not out?" have here So, heuristically, an explo? for a scientific of the cosmos, anchorage exploration ration with which has been humanity squarely charged. This acteristic links the second with both char? discourse defining as it appears in the Qur'?n and the method? we of its epistemological which stance, implications of nature out a funda? I have been pointing Throughout, of the Qur'?nic that it iden? narrative?namely, in the and ground of the real and the temporal a link. And and the eternal, constantly forging our

ological just examined. mental tifies so the the

feature locus

transcendental nature

we element of nature noted: second already defining it has no logical is nonultimate, its own being for within or metaphysical warrant to exist. Nature exists because only

God had bestowed

bring was about its own an act

existence
existence; of divine

upon

its being. A plant did not

existence and thus

it received

became a sign (?ya) of something beyond

itself. And again,

it

that humankind mercy (rahma) through in existence, itself lay no inherent for within prin? found itself to cause is that the this existence. The ontological point ciple in historical time is a flowing of a existence of nature process cosmic Let me the word one may observance take of God's amr. notion that of amr again. Recall up the Qur'?nic means At the mechanistic "command." level, literally amr to be a denotation consider of a universal opera

Islam and Ecology

principle role assigned in the larger in tive whereby and takes cosmic

159

its created natural every entity plays as an integral its assigned element place amr is the specific whole. Thus, principle

of being of each thing in relation

inhering from God. it according can be This to the put commands

to that of all other things,

it uniquely laws way: nature receives of nature

command that

in another

why "Do they, by the Qur'?n: to God, than it is to Him obedience other that while that in the heavens and the earth submits everyone [and everything] So once concep? (aslama)}"51 again, we have here an integral ena is declared muslim tual the system in which the back the transcendental is coherently linked in and naturalistic, recoils mately But temporal. into the Nature originates transcendental. ulti?

express God's bly violate?and

commands, this explains

cannot

the entire world

possi? of phenom? then, seek an

to

at the operational is the methodological level?and here can be viewed to be a system of inde? point?amr legitimately and laws of nature. pendent, self-governing, self-sustaining Thus and it was that of into the amr an of a mango seed to grow into a mango tree; a bird; and that of sperm to hatch to into egg an embryo; a to sustain and that of the oceans In the scientific

develop from

multiplicity

of life in their bosom; and that of the sun to rise

of the physi? investigation in this process cal world, of the human intellect's discov? then, no nonrational laws as such, no nonnaturalistic, ery of natural But there is a caveat: need be invoked. such investiga? principle tion mains moral nature mercy. is without suspended from which scendental law, God's given Indeed, chosen by reference, without and therefore meaningless, ultimately imperatives?that if it re? in the tran? is, being anchored issues forth moral

the far horizon.

shar?'a. is an embodiment is not bound of God's by any other to the once ob?

And this leads us finally to the third defining characteristic of

nature the Qur'?n: that God's will given chasm of of utter

will,
have

and given further that God

the

is omnipotent,
nothingness Louis

he could well

as opposed Gardet

creation of a full plenitude of being. That he chose the latter is

a manifestation served and his that his mercy (rahma). in the totality of the Qur'?nic are inseparable: teaching two "These God's mercy

omnipotence

perfections,"

160
he wrote, contrasted

S.Nomanul
"are and the

Haq
two poles of divine at the same action, God's creative action time

is a complementary."52 not only of his mercy?for did he bestow expression special sustenance his creation; he also provided for that upon being and sent guidance for that creation; and made himself creation, was to which the very end (al-?kbir)53 the entire created world commanded by him to return finally. are references to the bounty in the Qur'?n Plentiful of nature as an unfalsifiable of God's mercy. this is the Indeed, expression

very tion

a collec? The Merciful, al-Rahman, chapter in the codex for its stylistic its unique beauty, and rhyme and cadence, and its lush imagery. rhythm Speaking and the naturalistic cosmic of nature's order eloquently bounty as constituting divine favors and blessings, and asking rhetori? refrain of the of verses how they can possibly be denied, the Qur'?n says:

cally

The sun and the moon follow courses exactly computed. And the stars and the trees, both alike bow in adoration. And the Firma? ... It isHe Who ment?God has raised it high, and set the Balance is fruit and date has spread out the earth for His creatures: Therein palms, with
stalk for

their clusters
and

sheathed.

Also
plants.

corn, with
. . .

its leaves and

fodder,

sweet-smelling

the resounding that serves here as the question which of the favors of your Lord will you deny?" "So, to the world in a naturalistic "He vein: back turning Again, . . . from sounding like the potter's human created clay, beings is a He them between let free the two seas that meet together, . . .Out of them come barrier that they do not transgress pearls comes ..." "Of God the finale: seeks Then and coral. [its From this arises refrain: creature in the heavens and on the earth. every in a new splendor does He shine!" The undercurrent Every day of the favors of flows on: "So which refrain of the intervening sustenance]

your Lord will you deny?"54

But this vast plenitude of being we we call the cosmos was also

an embodiment
(hid?ya) not given

of God's
The

tanzfl

(sending down)
have of

of guidance

to humanity. ready-made corpus Rather,

sharVa, in the form of divine it is up

fully spelled-out a moral order.

is noted, already a systematic, and fixed, instructions of for the creation to humankind to exercise its

Islam and Ecology

moral struct and and intellectual reconstruct

161

con? its amr, and perpetually faculties, an understanding sharVa God's through

(fiqh) of the guiding

modes?one Thus, ics of for

signs (adilla) that are provided

the natural constituting refer to as the Qur'?nic the status of a legitimate status of ever-new that process

in two
world. dynam? source

of them the ?y?t Iwould virtue of what by nature is accorded tanz?U very of knowledge a dynamic And

the

sharfa?a

sanctioned. structions

is divinely con? shar?'a

it is, since human could never claim, nor knowledge or finality. is it capable of acquiring, certainty epistemological in a clear But then God's also came in a direct tanzfl guidance this second mode of sending and articulate (bay?n); language

down adilla was the Qur'?n,

that is, the Speech (Kal?m) of God

a remarkable and revelation, in numerous Indeed, is coupled with the this has connection metaphysical and thereby Qur'?nic revelation

Given himself. here this, we have entities between natural equivalence between nature of and the passages of the verses Muslim creation prophecy. of nature

the Qur'?n, to speak of an sages the two; cal parallel between the two.55 just as nature so does the Qur'?n, is referred the former So (tabyfn)57 of these and

and

intimate

God,56 while cation

they spoke the inexhaustible represents but even more so?since,

led many medieval and ontologi even of the identity of logoi of in fact,

?y?t).59 (?y?t

(nusarrifu'l-?y?t),5S The verses bayyyin?t), Note this

(bayyyin?t). and nature,

of these ?y?t the detailing of these ?y?t (fassalna'l are often of the Qur'?n said to be clear ?y?t or manifestations clarifications or, simply, to this last expression is never that applied a hierarchy of God's hierar? signs?a remains epistemologically prior. in the form of real-historical exist is delivered revelation by a real-historical who is no god and And no yourselves."60 supernatural is just as nature excellence. Just

to as ?y?t, the latter home the bringing ?y?t,

is the clarifi?

creates

the Qur'?n chy in which as natural entities Just objects, Prophet, being a guide, receive and the but so God's a human is "from so receives

apostle amongst

as nature

a guide is the Prophet (h?dt)61 and follows God's amr, "a spirit from amr"62 that (God's) rest God's to follow. of humanity ought and manifest express ?y?t,

entities,

the Prophet the Prophet himself as natural And just so was God's mercy,

par so does

162

S.NomanulHaq

to receive God's the one chosen Prophet Muhammad, speech, to all beings."63 his ?y?t, but a mercy (rahma) "nothing Given the uncompromising and radical monotheism of Islam, can never nature status. divine idea of nature acquire Any worship view, nature Prophet, this, we would one and his notes crack a further this in very core of Islam. But with and delicate between parallelism The Qur'?n does of obeying the speak the

prophecy.

to In juxtaposition from God. authority deriving an interpretation of the great fourteenth-century place commentator Ibn Kathir: When the Qur'?n calls God Qur'?n it means "the Lord of the worlds the Lord (Rabb al-(?lamfn),"64

of different kinds of creatures, says Ibn Kathir. Muslims

he points and who out, made that

affirm,

to the Creator who made them they submit all other worlds. the commentator But, then, to the signs "Muslims also submit themselves of the adds: existence of the Creator and his unity. This meaning secondary exists root because

comes from the same the word salam?n (worlds) means stems the word of which which (alam, [out 'sign']." at the matter in looking in this Note is not alone that Ibn Kathir one may So the Qur'?n teaches obedience say that while way.65 as God's to the Prophet it also teaches commander, delegated obedience tremendous a divine natural to the laws for of nature. This and the cosmos, respect stricture the prohibiting environment. an generates also implies, or attitude inter of of alia, the

destruction

injury

PRACTICAL

ISSUES: MODELS

OF CONDUCT

AND

ISLAMIC LAW

In the famous Correct

870), been we read created

(Sahlh) Hadith

collection of al-Buk?ri

(d.

purification."66 in itself, but means the a place ground.

"The earth has the elegant saying of the Prophet: as a mosque and as a means of for me (masjid) not only pure to declare the whole earth Indeed, it touches, is to elevate of that which also purifying

it both materially

and symbolically.

The word masjid

involves the

literally

of prostration, Thus, by virtue

and prostration of this Hadith,

touching in its earth

entirety standard principle,

and manifests acquires an elaboration situation: which in this particular

a And here we have sacrality. of a Qur'?nic and extension case appears in 5:6. It is, in

Islam and Ecology effect, a bringing of a Qur'?nic

action be into One and conduct. sense, Hadith, as a practical for the actual as a discipline, enterprise: practice of In one important described simply detailed may rules

163 fold of

rule into the human

can of course it is a phenom? the

enon of translating broad and general principles of the Qur'?n

say that Hadith But more than adds sometimes new even community. into the domain brings metaphysics status too, that, it has an independent to those in the issues found practical

of history. for Hadith Qur'?n,

Qur'?nic differing a practical mains

them or choosing between amending on the same question. But it re? positions nonetheless?the life of the Prophet, enterprise

his established tradition (sunna), is a perfect model for all Muslims to follow; indeed, emulation (ittib?() of this model is a
are corpora Hadith collections of feature, of prophetic authenticated clas? reports traditions, thematically a single broad the body under consti? of reports theme sified; tutes a Book and these books constitute (Kit?b), strung together the whole belong collection. the vast majority In the Sunni Islamic world?and most of authoritative to this of of Muslims?the the cited has corpus collections "Correct for requirement a standard As the Muslim.

Hadith
Sitta),67

collections
among which the Bukh?ri in

are held

to be the "Six Corrects"

al-Bukh?ri" The range 88 Books.

(Sih?h
enjoys of sub?

primacy; jects covered Hadith out

these at

is enormously universally

is aimed

comprehending

since wide, all aspects of

private and public, individual and collective life. Diffused through?

one finds concerns, the body of a single Hadith collection a degree to the natural with of urgency, pertaining expressed to human its status, its relation environment, life, and what we concerns as call environmental ethics. These do not appear may isolated fully issues in their into form the own core right, to be sure; integrated that principles a host of naturalistic, of righteous rather, and moral, conduct. they are practical in? land The

its many the Bukh?ri collection among parts Typically, on animal cludes books and separate sacrifice, agriculture and water and irrigation. cultivation, medicine, hunting, "Book ronment, of Agriculture" speaking of is rich in material of the nobility

the envi? concerning of sustainable cultivation

164
land tion "Book section and and

S.Nomanul

Haq
irriga? in the in the

it with moral force. Issues of land encouraging are found the strict law of equal sharing of water of Water," of course, of Distribution but also comes with from of the "Book of Tayammum" all over spread

"Book of Ablution";
performed large number and pastures, earth).

the report I cited at the beginning of this

(ritual ablution one finds a very of animals And

Also, the treatment reports concerning as what one may as well call animal

rights.

in the "Book of Generalities" (al-J?mif) of the famous collection ibn Anas (d. 795), the Master of the al-Muwatt?' of M?lik
M?liki school principle there linked, economic in Hadith having a system a body law, of him??land in its very So we justice. of one finds a reference and protection to the question essence, see that much relevant this material treatment ecological like case law or exists ethics. to the important is consecration?which of as social and exists material

collections, received any of of classified

but

theoretical

in the

such, without framework of All we have and is this

environmental reports,

collections,

is what Hadith is. But in the Islamic legal writings

Hadith ticated legal reports processing writings, of are often the identified into and ? rigorous considered Islamic

the principles
subjected of body the

contained
sophis? These of

in

to a highly

legal theory. summum bonum

the the

culture, output embody literary that literally means of fiqh, a word "understanding," discipline as we have already science of juris? noted. Fiqh, or the Islamic is a systematic theoretical search and fully structured prudence, for God's sharVa, for or Way, that had to be God's gleaned ?y?t. In from and

intellectual

constructed
provided

out of the myriad

reflection

adilla

(here, legal indicators)

concrete

throughout

disciplinary

terms, fiqh is the determination

of the legal status

at through the appli? arrived (hukm) of an act, a determination not epistemologically cation of correct, certain, proce? though These rules of correct had been rules dural (us?l). procedure

established by the middle

structure of

of the ninth century, with

the forma i

of law (us?l al inferences from the sources logical source of fiqh-\aw material The articulated. supreme fiqh) fully next to that, and sometimes the Qur'?n?but of course, was, to it, was to and in addition of the the sunna (custom) parallel

Islam and Ecology Prophet, which was by then available

collections. way may of life, Again, fiqh-laws true are to Islam's as a whole claim meant that

165

in authenticated Hadith
it is a complete to be universal in human articulation manifestation. I have it is com? acts. One of the

scope?that say, of totality The already reported case

all conceivable is, comprehending is the structured that fiqh then, Islam in its external constitutes functional a pertinent of him?

As example. in the Muwatt?9; this principle appears indicated, as a Hadith rather well-known of the Prophet's

panion and the second Rightly Guided

ibn al-Khatt?b, his word having derivative 'Umar ibn al-Khatt?b

(R?shid) caliph
prophetic

'Umar

authority:

... whom he had said to his freedman placed for it is "Beware of the cry of the oppressed of him?, Do admit to him? the owners of small herds of camel and sheep ... By God! this is their land for which they fought in times and which was included in their terms when they pre-Islamic became Muslims. certainly feel that I am an adversary They would in charge answered. but, indeed, had it not been [for having declared their land him?]? never make to be used in the cause of God, Iwould for the cattle a part of people's land bim?."6S I that the principle of him?, which report as issue as well is at once an ecological further, explicate one of distributive twin significance of justice and fairness. This is amply the fact that it is explicitly illustrated the principle by It is clear from this shall

invoked in the "Book of Business Transactions"

respected from Hadith deriving in question the book Mishk?t al-Mas?bth for Lamps), a work

of the highly

a manual of (Niche c. 1116);69 of one al-Baghawi (d. with is concerned the ethics of trade and as well as in the "Book of and

commercial dealings.
a chapter reinforces an ethical with the

In the Sahth of Bukh?ri too it is found in

same title,70

[Equitable and Fair] Distribution

of Water."71 All this further

concern

is both an environmental the point: him? issue of fair public policy. systematically this process a legal is carried out, into entity amenable

But it remained up to the fiqh legists to develop

principle tion, and by definition,

the him?
to

legisla? in the frame?

work
abuse.

of practical
The word,

ethics. In fact, him? had a long history of

literally meaning "protected, forbidden place,"

166
names

S.Nomanul
a pre-Islamic or out

Haq
institution of bounds. and whereby This land was some powerful an indi?

vidual or a ruling chief declared a piece of fertile land forbidden

By dispossession to themselves in power exclusive graz? arrogated the area the ground and cultivation ing, watering, rights within Islam this practice and covered. transformed the abrogated those institution. the camel Thus of God, the land we in the Qur'?n, "O my people, this is is for you a sign Leave it to (?ya). we have in the Bukh?ri of God."72 And the read which a place him? except right to declare a symbol In this way, him? became a of justice and gradually acquired and a in that it denoted (see below), fauna protec? receiving special of the institution of of him? to the public act of ative generally confiscation. exploit? virtue of

him?,

graze on has the Hadith: "Nobody God and His Messenger."73 of redress close and with restoration its flora status to that

of haram

sanctuary,
tion.74

But are

the

environmental apparent, social the not and these

dimensions the M?liki

readily

school

lar, has developed with connection tions were him?: to be maintain First was governed

to be met

dimensions, and ethical for a piece of the whim

preserving balance. Thus, land to qualify and greed or of

law, in particu? their intimate four condi? as a possible Him? was powerful

condition by

of need

fairness. some

individual

or group,
a restricted

but by people's

generally

felt need

to

area; that is, it had to be an act pro bono. we may of what call ecological the condition Second, as him? not be too could the area to be declared proportion, was Third the condi? be disproportionate. large, for this would area under the him? tion of environmental protection?the under

nor was was not to be built upon or commercialized, protection to be cultivated Fourth was the condition it for financial gain. aim of him? was the economic the overriding of social welfare; and outline tected A environmental of areas. similar institution by the legists is that of haram Mecca inviolable zone, sanctuary. territory, of God Himself.76 for ex? the decree Here, is ever put to death. of the game By species articulated a concrete benefit of the people.75 policy This provides the pro? environmental concerning

(or harlm)?sacred a haram was by no animal ample,

Islam and Ecology

extension often works. tion with rivers There and haram Izzi Deen wells, trees became in the writes, natural an section "The environmental devoted harlm discussed institution; to wasteland in found

167
it is

is usually

legal in associa?

planted is [in some parts istration of the hartm zones and of sources

water channels, springs, underground on barren lands or maw?t [wasteland]. a careful of the Islamic world] admin? based on the practice companions in the Hadith and of his exits plants of the Prophet as recorded in an corpora land cultiva?

Muhammad the

the precedent Islamic law."77 that there

It is quite striking of reports abundance tion tion, water and water irrigation, sources

trees, water distribu? crops, livestock, grazing, and their maintenance, wells and rivers, concerning is most

material for our con? promising concerns. in a report in Bukh?ri's Thus, as saying, is quoted the Prophet is none amongst "There Sahlh, a tree, or sows a seed, and then a bird, the believers who plants this rights?all environmental temporary

or a person, or an animal eats thereof, as having but is regarded a charitable which there is great recompense]."78 given gift [for So praiseworthy is the task of a sustainable and noble cultiva? tion of land that even in Paradise which (al-Janna, significantly means "the Garden"), the physical it existing world, beyond to an end. So we does not come read the Prophet his telling companions: One of the inhabitants of Paradise will beseech God to allow him land cultivation. God will ask him, "But are you not in your desired state of being"? "Yes," he will say, "but Iwould still like . to cultivate land" . . When the man will be granted God's leave for this task, he will sow seeds, and plants will soon grow out of them, becoming ripe and mature, ready for reaping. They will as mountains. become colossal God will then say: "O Son of gather"!79 is reported has a palm accords to have shoot said: "When he to one

Adam, In another

the Prophet place, and someone comes, doomsday should it."80 This plant saying all a life: the bounty of nature any good beyond draw from it. may

in his hand, sacrality at Doom? that

is a good or conceivable immediate

a prophetic in itself, even benefits

168

S.NomanulHaq
section on issues the use, owner? concerning one finds a mean? of water,

In the Bukh?ri's

and distribution ship, management, on the word means both "excess" and fadl, which ingful play ... three of people with whom the] types "grace": "[Among on the Day no words, nor God of Resurrection will exchange

will He
". . . [is]

look at them," the Prophet

the one who possesses an

is said to have declared,

excess of water but with?

holds it from others. To him God will say, 'Today I shall withhold from you my grace (fadl?) as you withheld from others the superfluity (fadl) of what you had not created yourself.'"81
Note dental: creator. the moral it was Indeed, here principle not humankind while the real to the transcen? linking is the God that created water; in its legal developments the question of

of wells, the ownership and other natural and rivers, drinking sources a complex became one, one thing remained irrigation water must be shared clear on the moral abundantly plane: equally, to have reaching water water the as the Prophet This taught. is consistently egalitarian and ethical insistently yields principle virtue of this principle, by reported far no

ecological

consequences:

living individual, and this includes animals, can be deprived of

no piece of cultivable if it is available; likewise land, can be left without if of its ownership, irrespective irrigation resources "Book have of Business the capacity. and even more strongly, Again, Transactions" of the Mishk?t the quotes a fundamental of rule: "Muslims declaration fire."82 these Hadith

solemn Prophet's in three share alike One is astounded were principles after layer, point woven mental century majority courses atic

detail, layer in the writings of fiqh-junsts, and by point, ethics. A monu? into the vast fabric of normative legal is the Hid?ya of the twelfth of such work example jurist al-Marghin?ni, held to be the most authoritative

and herbage, things?water, to see how a large number of in their most minute developed

single work into English

discussions

of the Hanafi
In this

school
grand

of

law, followed
already

by the

of Muslims. on wasteland

manual,

translated

in the eighteenth

century,83 one finds detailed dis?

in this connection, (maw?t) system? and, and their main? of water and resources rights

tenance.

Islam and Ecology

contains Hid?ya with of Waste Lands" The rights status related There control on of cultivating of adjacent an extensive sections on treatment "Book on the definition

169

the Cultivation

it, the

territories, to aqueducts running is a large section here and direction of

of maw?t, the of adjacent the territories, courses matters water in maw?t, the maw?t, and so on. through

their kinds rivers, courses. drains and water tion on water water here obstruct construction rights, courses, of water are

on waters, issues of including a large section on digging flow, canals, to and cleaning, and rules with respect which a whole sec? is, furthermore, or to alter discusses the right the digging of trenches, the dams, or bridges, water vents?the engines There

minutiae Even

daunting.84 than the abundance of Prophetic reports striking on vegetation is the existence in the Hadith and irrigation of a large body of traditions, corpora admonitions, rules, and stories their treatment, natural animals, concerning rights, dig? more nity, ing and even their about unique horses: individual "In "are same the identities. forehead of Contained in the until for the of

the "Book of Striving" (Jihad) of the Muwatt?3

tradition Prophet the Day animals Prophet not as saying, is quoted of Resurrection."85 is reflected wiping in the the mouth after have tied up welfare compassion in an book with

is the resound?
horses," and bliss and account care

Such

of his horse

his personal

cloth.

Asked why, he replied: "Last night Iwas

looking we Water," The my horse."86 this report: Again,

rebuked [by God]

in Bukh?ri's "Book

for
of

source of reward is the one who ties it by a long rope in a pasture the get a reward equal to what in the pasture or the garden. And crosses one or two hills, then all marks of its hoofs and its dung will be counted as good deeds for its owner. And if it passes by a river and drinks from it, then that . . ,87 will also be regarded as a good deed on the part of its owner.

one to whom his horse is a keeps it in the path of God, and or a garden. Such a person will horse's long rope allows it to eat if the horse breaks its rope and

Appearing
rules that

in the "Book of Jihad" in the Mishk?t

pronounced concerning the

is a set of
treatment of

the Prophet

170
camels.

S.Nomanul
"When

Haq

in fertile country," he said, "give the you travel from the ground, in time camels their due and when you travel at night them go quickly. When of drought make you encamp from the roads, for they are where beasts pass and keep away are the resort concern even exists the most to a place of sensitive rizon there God you much at night."88 for animals does not insects It is remarkable that a from the ho? disappear In the same engagements. book, stern admonishment animal against of your animals to you them subject not otherwise could from the as pulpits, for to convey only reach without

during military a particularly not treat high has made which you a

abuse?"Do

the back

difficulty."89 we Likewise have

fable "While

"Book turned purpose we have principles translated of Abu

of Agriculture": him and toward [of riding]; the Qur'?nic of natural into D?'?d

a man

said, T have I have been created principles and moral ethics. one of amr law And

in Bukh?ri's Prophet was a cow, it riding not been created this for Here for plowing.'"90 and qadr, effectively the and ecological balance, again, in the "Book of

practical (d. 888),

Jihad" of another Sahth (Correct) Hadith

tradition

collection,

the Sunan

note clearly implies?and commentators? is recognized Muslim that this implication by as an individual, is to be considered since the that each animal names of animals tradition proper ("a don? speaks being given this individuation effec? called 'Afir").91 Quite remarkably, key on the part of each and every a unique admits tively identity member constitutes world?as of a given animal an exception I have said species. to the One wonders, of "speciesism" this would then, if Islam the classical

indeed be a highly to pursue.92 fruitful question in the Islamic world is the Hadith Rather well-known story to hellfire of a cat "because who was condemned of a woman . . .God which and it died of starvation. she had imprisoned, 'You are condemned because did not feed the cat, told her, you to drink, nor did you set it free so that and did not give it water elsewhere, it could forms eat of the basis the creatures of the of the earth.'"93 that This the //?/^-legislation is legally for its well-being. animal responsible are unable to provide for their animals, jurists Hadith owner If such further story of an owners stipulate,

Islam and Ecology

then they should sell them, or let them go free in such a way

171
that

they can find food and shelter, or slaughter them if eating their
flesh is permissible. Given the requirement that animals should as far as possible to live out their lives in a natural be allowed in cages is deemed birds unlawful.94 manner, keeping of sections, Large animals and or books, devoted and animal game, exclusively sacrifice, are to the hunting a standard

feature of the Hadith

ethical natural At that the

corpora. All of this is treated with

an

is a particular which focus, underlying environment that ultimately derives same time, this ethical treatment of

of the conception from the Qur'?n. the issue generates itself It as an

both a philosophical
is uniquely fact of actual instructive century "I was work

and a moral attitude to the physical world

is most

an attitude that manifests Islamic, the practices of Islamic societies. to recall E. W. Lane noting in his famous Manners and Customs the Modern at pleased Lane found

nineteenth

of Egyptians: to dumb their humanity observing But animals." had subsequently that the Egyptians to animals, lost some of their traditional and he sensitivity to think that the conduct "I am inclined of Europeans explains: to produce has greatly conduced this effect, for I do not remem? much ber to have where seen acts of either frequent to animals" to be the appears Egyptians' "humanity numerous moral harvest with its of Prophetic teachings ecologi? In fact, there is in the Mishk?t cal ramifications. the saying of the Prophet, "If anyone wrongfully kills [even] a sparrow, [let alone] anything in the We read condemned rated him that he so much he will greater, same collection face how God's vehemently animals; on the curse: an interrogation."96 the Prophet the places The Franks cruelty reside to dumb or are animals except visitors."95 in

the practice of branding saw a donkey branded that he invoked God's the face

is nar? story and it upset face, "God curse the one or

who branded it!" In fact, it is explicitly

messenger forbade striking of

stated here that "God's

animal branding

on its face." Similarly, he is reported to have forbidden all forms of blood sports, including inciting living creatures to fight
with cursed unusual one another, those who intensity of or used as targets?"The them using Prophet a living as targets."97 creature The to be gauged this condemnation is by the

172
fact is an the that

S.Nomanul
these

Haq
speak of the Prophet as of his character feature same vein and with clear and cursing, it is portrayed this in

accounts

ecological a compan? Sunan: "Once sions, we have a story in Abu D?'?d's was seen crumbling ion of the Prophet for some ants up bread with the words, and have 'They are our neighbors rights over
us.'"98

exceptional In the tradition.

dimen?

Islam animal cruel

does

not

prescribe

vegetarianism manner from tradition arrogance

and, and?in

of course, order

killing

of certain kinds of animals for food is permitted, but only if the

is killed and in a specified tendencies arrogant over it. Islamic of human developing?God's has it that and the to prevent name is

pronounced the prevention

inculcation

it is precisely of an

ecological sensitivity whole idea of Dhabh

there tions decreed exist in Hadith concerning that

in which

lies the wisdom (hikma) of the (lawful killing of animals for food). Thus,
collections detailed instruc? exceedingly in the Mishk?t A report slaughtering.

animal

has the Prophet

kill

saying, "God who

should use

is blessed and exalted has

so when in a good way, a good method, and when you cut an you [an animal] use a good method, each of you for animal's throat you should as little pain as his knife and give the animal should sharpen to let one It is declared by the Prophet reprehensible possible."99 or to keep animals of another, the slaughtering animal witness or sharpening to be slaughtered, in their the knife waiting everything be done presence?"Do its throat?"100 The jurist Marginan!, whom as we it was have already met, he writes: has a you wish to slaughter the animal twice: once by

sharpening your blade in front of it and another time by cutting

whole
in the

chapter on Dhabh
finest of its details,

in his Hid?ya;

elaborating

the matter

his manner,

IT is abominable first to throw the animal down on its side, and to sharpen the knife; for it is related that the Prophet once a man who had done so, said to him, "How many deaths observing did you not should die? Why do you intend that this animal IT is abominable knife before you threw it down?" sharpen your or to cut off the head of to let the knife reach the spinal marrow, . . . are, FIRST, because the Prophet has the animal. The reasons then

Islam and Ecology

173

forbidden it unnecessarily because this; and, SECONDLY, aug? ments the pain of the animal, which is prohibited in our LAW.? In short, everything which unnecessarily the pain of the augments ... IT is abominable to seize an animal animal is abominable destined for slaughter by the feet, and drag it... IT is abominable to break the neck of the animal whilst it is in the struggle of
death. . . ,101

We and animals. Bukh?ri of

have this

already rule makes

Thus, corpus,

of water, equal sharing distinction between human and beings for example, in the "Book of Ablution" of the as well as in other corpora, there is the account no

noted

the

rule

of

a man who along a road and felt thirsty. Finding a well, he into it and drank. When he came out he found a from thirst and licking at the earth. dog painting He therefore went down again into the well and filled his shoe with water and gave it to the dog. For this act God Almighty him his sins. The Prophet was then asked whether man had forgave a reward through animals, and he replied: "In that lives everything lowered
there is a reward."102

was walking himself

"In everything a broad central So we question see of

that the of

lives

there of of

is a reward" Islam's Islamic

principle richness treatment

may environmental material

be considered ethics. the the

the environment

sophistication but the question is complex a and larger. To capture culture, fuller sweep of the question we will have of Islam and ecology, to cast a much to wider net?this essay does not even claim a smaller net; if contribute some of its twine. it offers anything,

ecology, this material

and

to relevant and we also note in the

received

Islamic

ENDNOTES *SeeHenry Corbin, Avicenna Books, 1960). and the Visionary Recital (New York: Pantheon

2Some samples of the first attitude are to be found in Ziauddin Sardar, ed., The Touch of Midas (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984); on resent?
ment John toward Esposito, all things Western, Islam and Politics see the discussion N.Y.: of "Westoxification" University Press, in (Syracuse, Syracuse

174

S.Nomanul

Haq

1984). In the third view one would place the ideas of some of those called see Esposito, Islam and Politics; also Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Chi? Modernists; cago: The University of Chicago Press, 1979). 3Hamilton Gibb, Whither
4Ibid., 377-378.

Islam? (London: Victor Gollancz

Ltd., 1932), 376.

5Ibid., 376. 6See ibid., 377.

7Seyyed H. Nasr is one of the pioneers who have undertaken this exercising task.

"Islam and the Environmental Crisis," The Islamic Quarterly 34 (4) (1991): 217-234; (London: and.Nasr, The Encounter of Man and Nature Allen and Unwin, 1978). SeeNasr, 8Cf.Hanna E. Kassis, A Concordance California Press, 1983). of the Qur'?n (Berkeley: University of

9George F. Hourani, Reason and Tradition bridge University Press, 1985), 86.
10Ibid., 86; my emphasis.

in Islamic Ethics

(Cambridge: Cam?

nThe literal meaning of zauj is, indeed, "equal half"; in the creation story in the second chapter (verse 35) of the Qur'?n, this is the word used for the human being recognized by the tradition as Eve (Haww?).
12For Thomas Aquinas, nature was unredeemed.

13This is pointed out by Nasr,

147:72. Translations of

"Islam and the Environmental

used for this essay are

Crisis," 219.
The Holy Qur'?n,

the Qur'?n

trans. Abdullah Y. Ali (Brentwood, Md.: Amana Corporation, 1989); and The Qur'?n Interpreted, trans. Arthur J. Arberry (New York: Macmillan include Ibn Kathir, Tafstr, in 1955). Commentaries Publishing Company,
Muhammad Qur'?n 1515:l-4. A. al-Karim, al-Sabuni, 1981). ed., Mukhtasar Tafstr ihn Kathir (Beirut: Dar al

16:80-81; 16:5-16; 162:22; 13:17; 14:32-33; 55:1-78; 78:6-16. 43:10-12; 45:12-13;

1733:72. 1845:13. 1916:12-14. 2022:65-66. 2180:l-9.

17:70;

21:31-32;

23:18-22;

2293 (entire); 89:17-18.

2383:1-13. 2489:17-23.

2589:19; 100:6-11.

Islam and Ecology

263:108-109. 2738:27; 2827:88-90. cf. 3:191.

175

19Majm?' Fat?w?,
ronmental Ethics,"

quoted

inMawil

Yousuf

Izzi Deen

(Samarri), "Islamic Envi?

ed. J. Ronald

in Ethics

of Environment

and Development,

Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: The University

190; 302:107. 3124:42. 3240:57. 3355:10. 346:38. my emphasis.

of Arizona Press, 1990),

35Denys Johnson-Davies, The Island of Animals, Adapted from an Arabic Fahle (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), viii.
36Ibid., 75.

3715:26, 28, 33.

3822:5. 3996:1. 406:2; 7:12, etc.

41Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur'?n (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Isl?mica, 1989), 17. This work is a highly learned excursus on Qur'?nic
themes 4223:13-14. 4350:15-11. 4415:19-22. 4515:26-27. 46On culm al-nafs chapter see Hourani, "Islam" Reason in A and Tradition in Islamic Ethics. Philosophy by one of the finest modern scholars of our times.

47See my

Companion

to Environmental

to Philosophy series), ed. Dale Jamieson (Oxford: (Blackwell Companions Blackwell, 2001). It ought to be noted here that this was the first articulation
of my parallels normative 4865:1. 4916:33. ideas on the question of Islam and ecology, and readers in the present this is inevitable since the core essay; sources constant. remains will of note some the primary

50TheQur'?n
wrong) along

is replete with
with several

the verbal form of the root word

other verbal and nominal forms

zalama

(to do

cally arise out of it. But for zulm al-nafs see particularly 2:231; 3:135; 7:23; 11:101; 27:44; 28:16; 34;19; 43:76.

that morphologi?

176
513:83.

5.Nomanul

Haa

52L. Gardet, "God in Islam," Encyclopedia York: Macmillan, 1987), 30.

5357:3. 5455:5-29. 55Rahman, 56See Major Themes, 71.

of Religion,

ed. Mircea

Eliade

(New

18:109-110.

57See2:118, 219, 266; 3:118; 5:75.

5S6:65.1 596:97-98. 609:128. 6113:7. 6245:52. 6321:107. 641:1. draw upon Rahman's Major Themes here.

65See Izzi Deen

(Samarri), "Islamic Environmental

Ethics," 95.

66Sahfh al-Bukh?ri, ed. and trans.M. Muhsin 1:331. ?976-1979),

67These are named after the masters who

Khan (Chicago: Kazi Publications,

them, thus: al-Bukh?ri, Mus?

lim (d. 875), Abu D?'?d IbnMaja (d. 886).

compiled

(d. 888), al-Tirmidhi

(d. 892) al-Nas?'? Rahimuddin

Sh. Muhammad

(d. 916), and (Lahore: Sh.

Ashraf,

6SMuwatt?' of Malik ibn Anas, trans. Muhammad Muhammad Ashraf, 1985), no. 1830.
69Mishk?t al-Masab?h, trans. James Robson (Lahore:

1990), 592.
70Sah?h 71Ibid., 7211:64. 73Sah?h al-Bukh?ri, ed. "Him?," and trans. Khan, 3:558. of Islam, new ed., vol. al-Bukh?rt, 3:558. ed. and trans. Khan, 3:267.

74See J. Chelhold,

in Encyclopaedia

3, ?d. H.

A. R.

Gibb et al. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971), 393. 75Wahba al-Zuhail?, al-Fiqh al-Islam? wa Adillatuhu, vol. 5 (Islamic Law and Its Material Foundations) (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 1984), 23-24; 571-575; quoted in Izzi Deen (Samarri), "Islamic Environmental Ethics," 196.
7617:91. 77Izzi Deen 7SSah?h (Samarri), "Islamic ed. and Environmental trans. Khan, 3:513. Ethics," 190.

al-Bukh?rt,

Islam and Ecology

79Ibid., 80Sunan mental 81Sah?h 82Mishk?t 3:538. al-Baihaq? Ethics," al-Bukh?ri, al-Masab?h, al-Kubr?, 194. ed. and trans. quoted in Izzi Deen (Samarri), "Islamic

177

Environ?

trans.

Khan,

3:557. 640.

Robson,

83Hid?ya of al-Marghnan?, trans. Charles Hamilton (London: T. Bensley, 1791); cited here is the reprint from the 2d ed. of 1870 (Lahore: Premier Book House, 1957).
84Ibid., 4:609-618.

ibn Anas, 85Muwatt?' of M?lik Ashraf, 1985), no. 990.

86Ibid., 87Sahth 88Mishk?t no. 993. ed. and trans. trans.

trans. Rahimuddin

(Lahore: Sh. Muhammad

al-Bukh?ri, al-Masab?h,

Khan,

3:559. 826.

Robson,

89Ibid., 829; translation

90Sah?h al-Bukhar?, ed.

slightly amended.
and trans. Khan, 3:517.

nSunan Ab? D?'?d, 1983), 308-312.

92Haq, 93Sah?h "Islam," al-Bukh?rt, 123.

trans. Wahid

al-Zam?n

(Urdu) (Lahore: Islamic Academy,

ed. The

and Island

trans.

Khan,

3:553. xii.

94Johnson-Davies,

of Animals,

95Quoted in ibid., xv, from the 1836 publication.

96Mishk?t 97Ibid., 872. al-Masab?h, trans. Robson, 874.

98Quoted in Johnson-Davies,
"Mishk?t al-Masab?h, trans.

The Island of Animals,

Robson, 872.

xvii.

100Quoted in Johnson-Davies,
i0lHid?ya, trans. Hamilton, The Island

The Island of Animals,

4:558. of Animals, ix.

ix.

102Johnson-Davies,