A microwave oven, or simply a microwave, is a kitchen appliance that heats food by dielectric heating.

This is accomplished by using microwave radiation to heat polarized molecules within the food. This excitation is fairly uniform, leading to food being more evenly heated throughout (except in dense objects) than generally occurs in other cooking techniques. The first personal microwave was introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation. Basic microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently, but, unlike conventional ovens, do not brown or bake food. This makes them unsuitable for cooking certain foods, or to achieve certain culinary effects. Additional kinds of heat sources can be added to microwave packaging, or into combination microwave ovens, to add these additional effects. PRINCIPLE A microwave oven works by passing non-ionizing microwave radiation, usually at a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)a wavelength of 122 millimetres (4.80 in)through the food. Microwave radiation is between common radio and infrared frequencies. Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a positive charge at one end and a negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the microwaves. This molecular movement represents heat which is then dispersed as the rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion. Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water (than on frozen water, where the molecules are not free to rotate) and on fats and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment).[8]Microwave heating is sometimes explained as a resonance of water molecules, but this is incorrect: such resonance only occurs in water vapor at much higher frequencies, at about 20 GHz.[9]Moreover, large industrial/commercial microwave ovens operating at the common large industrial-oven microwave heating frequency of 915 MHzwavelength 328 millimetres (12.9 in)also heat water and food perfectly well.[10] Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting. A common misconception is that microwave ovens cook food "from the inside out," meaning from the center of the entire mass of food outwards. In reality, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of food in a manner somewhat similar to heat from other methods. The misconception arises because microwaves penetrate dry non-conductive substances at the surfaces of many common foods, and thus often induce initial heat more deeply than other methods. Depending on water content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with microwave ovens, in contrast

tobroiling (infrared) or convection heating, which deposit heat thinly at the food surface. Penetration depth of microwaves is dependent on food composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies (longer wavelengths) penetrating further. Microwaves cook from the inside out only in the sense that each molecule is generating heat from "inside" and radiating it "outward". [edit]Design This section includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations.
Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (January 2010)

A magnetron with section removed (magnet is not shown)

A microwave oven consists of: a high voltage power source, commonly a simple transformer or an electronic power converter,

which passes energy to the magnetron a high voltage capacitor connected to the magnetron, transformer and via a diode to the case. a cavity magnetron, which converts high-voltage electric energy to microwave radiation a magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller) a waveguide (to control the direction of the microwaves) a cooking chamber

Nearly all modern microwave ovens have a control panel with an LED, liquid crystal or vacuum fluorescent display (early models used an analog dial-typetimer). The control panel keypad always contains a Start button and a Stop button (the latter sometimes also performing a Clear function), numeric buttons for entering the cook time, a button for selecting the power level (usually decrementing by 10 from 100 to 50, or using words such as High, Medium High and Medium; see more below), and a Defrost button. Other buttons may be present which name the type of food to be cooked, such as meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, frozen vegetables, frozen entres, and popcorn, which when pressed cook the item for a preprogrammed time. In such cases a button for warming non-carbonated beverages (implying coffee) will also be present, along with another for heating and boiling water (including tea). Mid-

priced and higher models generally feature a "sensor cook" button as well. The display can generally show the time of day, adjustment of which varies by model and is usually necessary after a loss of power or for seasonal time changes. The frequencies used in microwave ovens were chosen based on two constraints. The first is that they should be in one of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands set aside for noncommunication purposes. Three additional ISM bands exist in the microwave frequencies, but are not used for microwave cooking. Two of them are centered on 5.8 GHz and 24.125 GHz, but are not used for microwave cooking because of the very high cost of power generation at these frequencies. The third, centered on 433.92 MHz, is a narrow band that would require expensive equipment to generate sufficient power without creating interference outside the band, and is only available in some countries. For household purposes, 2.45 GHz has the advantage over 915 MHz in that 915 MHz is only an ISM band in the ITU Region 2 while 2.45 GHz is available worldwide. Most microwave ovens allow users to choose between several power levels. In most ovens, however, there is no change in the intensity of the microwave radiation; instead, the magnetron is turned on and off in duty cycles of several seconds at a time. This can actually be heard (a change in the humming sound from the oven), or observed when microwaving airy foods which may inflate during heating phases and deflate when the magnetron is turned off. For such an oven, the magnetron is driven by a linear transformer which can only feasibly be switched completely on or off. Newer models have inverter power supplies which use pulse width modulation to provide effectively-continuous heating at reduced power so that foods are heated more evenly at a given power level and can be heated more quickly without being damaged by uneven heating. The cooking chamber itself is a Faraday cage which prevents the microwaves from escaping. The oven door usually has a window for easy viewing, but the window has a layer of conductive mesh some distance from the outer panel to maintain the shielding. Because the size of the perforations in the mesh are much less than the microwaves' wavelength, most of the microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while visible light (with a much shorter wavelength) can. [edit]Variants

and accessories

A variant of the conventional microwave is the convection microwave. A convection microwave oven is a combination of a standard microwave and a convection oven. It allows food to be cooked quickly, yet come out browned or crisped, as from a convection oven. Convection microwaves are more expensive than conventional microwave ovens. Some convection microwavesthose with exposed heating elementscan produce smoke and burning odors as food spatter from earlier microwave-only use is burned off the heating elements.

More recently, some manufacturers have added high power quartz halogen bulbs to their convection microwave models, marketing them under names such as "Speedcook", "Advantium" and "Optimawave" to emphasize their ability to cook food rapidly and with good browning. The bulbs heat the food's surface with infrared (IR) radiation, browning surfaces as in a conventional oven. The food browns while also being heated by the microwave radiation and heated through conduction through contact with heated air. The IR energy which is delivered to the outer surface of food by the lamps is sufficient to initiate browning caramelization in foods primarily made up of carbohydrates and Maillard reactions in foods primarily made up of protein. These reactions in food produce a texture and taste similar to that typically expected of conventional oven cooking rather than the bland boiled and steamed taste that microwaveonly cooking tends to create. In order to aid browning, sometimes an accessory browning tray is used, usually composed of glass or porcelain. It makes food crisp by oxidising the top layer until it turns brown. Ordinary plasticcookware is unsuitable for this purpose because it could melt. Frozen dinners, pies, and microwave popcorn bags often contain a thin susceptor made from aluminium film in the packaging or included on a small paper tray. The metal film absorbs microwave energy efficiently and consequently becomes extremely hot and radiates in the infrared, concentrating the heating of oil for popcorn or even browning surfaces of frozen foods. Heating packages or trays containing susceptors are designed for single use and are discarded as waste. [edit]Sizes Portable or Desktop This is the smallest size of microwave oven in the market. The common models measure around 28 centimetres (11 in) tall, 38 centimetres (15 in) wide and 25 centimetres (9.8 in) deep. Some of the experimental models on trial are as small as 19 centimetres (7.5 in) tall, 6 centimetres (2.4 in) wide and 15 centimetres (5.9 in) deep. Some of these use 12 V DC power supplies. Compact A compact microwave oven, also called small, is the smallest type typically available. Compacts are the most popular size of microwave oven, dominating the market. A typical model is no more than 50 centimetres (20 in) wide, 35 centimetres (14 in) deep and 30 centimetres (12 in) tall. These ovens are rated between 500 and 1000 watts and have less than 28 litres (0.99 cu ft) in capacity. These ovens are primarily used for reheating food and making microwave meals and popcorn. The largest models can accommodate 2 litres (1.8 imp qt) round casserole dishes and are suitable for light cooking. These ovens are not made to cook large amounts of food. Typically these models cost less than USD$100 (around 50). Medium-capacity

These models' heights and depths are only marginally larger than compacts, but they are typically more than 50 centimetres (20 in) wide. Their interiors are typically between 30 and 45 litres (1.1 and 1.6 cu ft), and power ratings are 10001500 W. These are the common "family sized" microwave ovens. They tend to have a few more "auto-cook" features, and some incorporate grills or even conventional-oven heating elements. Large-capacity These are designed for cooking large meals. Large-capacity ovens can handle 25 by 35 centimetres (9.8 by 14 in) casserole dishes and cook tall items like roasts or turkey breasts, with a large number of "auto-cook" and precise temperature control measures. Large-capacity ovens normally use over 2000 W and have over 60 litres (2.1 cu ft) of capacity. These ovens are normally well over 50 centimetres (20 in) wide, as much as 50 centimetres (20 in) deep, and at least 30 centimetres (12 in) high. Built-in These are built into cabinetry and are typically more expensive than similar sized countertop models. Some models include exhaust fans to allow installation above cooktops. [edit]Microwave-safe

plastics

Many current plastic containers and food wraps are specially designed to withstand microwave radiation. Some products may use the term "microwave safe", may carry a microwave symbol (three lines of waves, one above the other) or simply provide instructions for proper microwave use. Any of these is an indication that a product is suitable for microwaving when used in accordance with the directions provided.[11] [edit]Uses Microwave ovens are generally used for time efficiency in both commercial applications, such as restaurants, in the office and at home, rather than for cooking quality, although some modern recipes using microwave ovens rival recipes using traditional ovens and stoves. Professional chefs generally find microwave ovens to be of limited usefulness because browning, caramelization, and other flavour-enhancing reactions cannot occur due to the temperature range.[12] On the other hand, people who want fast cooking times can use microwave ovens to prepare food or to reheat stored food (including commercially available pre-cooked frozen dishes) in only a few minutes. Microwave ovens can also be used to defrost items that will later be cooked by traditional methods, reducing the time it takes to defrost foods naturally.

Microwave ovens are also useful for the ease with which they can perform some traditionally cumbersome kitchen tasks, such as softening butter or melting chocolate. [edit]Efficiency This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (April 2009) A microwave oven converts only part of its electrical input into microwave energy. A typical consumer microwave oven consumes 1100 W of electricity in producing 700 W of microwave power, an efficiency of 64%. The other 400 W are dissipated as heat, mostly in the magnetron tube. Additional power is used to operate the lamps, AC power transformer, magnetron cooling fan, food turntable motor and the control circuits. Such wasted heat, along with heat from the product being microwaved, is exhausted as warm air through cooling vents. [edit]Benefits

and safety features

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Commercial microwave ovens all use a timer in their standard operating mode; when the timer runs out, the oven turns itself off. Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, with the exception of an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem. Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100 C (212 F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is

180 C (356 F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns. The lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared to baking in the oven or frying, because it eliminates the formation of tars and char, which arecarcinogenic.[13] Microwave radiation also penetrates deeper than direct heat, so that the food is heated by its own internal water content. In contrast, direct heat can fry the surface while the inside is still cold. Pre-heating the food in a microwave oven before putting it into the grill or pan reduces the time needed to heat up the food and reduces the formation of carcinogenic char. Unlike frying and baking, microwaving does not produce acrylamide in potatoes,[14] however unlike deep-frying, it is of only limited effectiveness in reducing glycoalkaloid (i.e. Solanine) levels.
[15]

Acrylamide has been found in other microwaved products like popcorn.

[edit]Heating

characteristics
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In a microwave oven, food may be heated for so short a time that it is cooked unevenly, because heat requires time to diffuse through food, and microwaves only penetrate to a limited depth. Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating previously cooked food, and bacterial contamination may not be killed if the safe temperature is not reached, resulting in foodborne illness, as with all inadequate reheating methods. Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave can be mapped out by placing a damp piece ofthermal paper in the oven. When the water saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance

between them a three dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.[16] The second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that overheat. In some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature, microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaway. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting. Video Due to this phenomenon, microwave ovens set at too-high power levels may even start to cook the edges of frozen food while the inside of the food remains frozen. Another case of uneven heating can be observed in baked goods containing berries. In these items, the berries absorb more energy than the drier surrounding bread and cannot dissipate the heat due to the low thermal conductivity of the bread. Often this results in overheating the berries relative to the rest of the food. "Defrost" oven settings use low power levels designed to allow time for heat to be conducted within frozen foods from areas that absorb heat more readily to those which heat more slowly. In turntableequipped ovens, more even heating will take place by placing food off-centre on the turntable tray instead of exactly in the centre. Microwave heating can be deliberately uneven by design. Some microwavable packages (notably pies) may include materials that contain ceramic or aluminum flakes, which are designed to absorb microwaves and heat up, thereby converting microwaves to less penetrating infrared, which aids in baking or crust preparation by depositing more energy shallowly in these areas. Such ceramic patches affixed to cardboard are positioned next to the food, and are typically smokey blue or gray in colour, usually making them easily identifiable; the cardboard sleeves included with Hot Pockets, which have a silver surface on the inside, are a good example of such packaging. Microwavable cardboard packaging may also contain overhead ceramic patches which function in the same way. The technical term for such a microwave-absorbing patch is a susceptor. [edit]Effects

on food and nutrients

Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature.[17] Microwave ovens do convert vitamin B12 from the active to inactive form, making approximately 30-40% of the B12 contained in foods unusable by mammals.[18] Spinach retains nearly all its folate when cooked in a microwave;[17] in comparison, it loses about 77 percent when cooked on a stove, because food on a stove is typically boiled, leaching out nutrients.[17] Steamed vegetables tend to maintain more nutrients when microwaved than when cooked on a stovetop.[19][20][21] Bacon cooked by microwave has significantly lower levels of carcinogenicnitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon.[17][22][23