Social dimensions of climate-induced migration in Nepal

Paper presented in Climate Change and Migration in Asia and the Pacific Researchers workshop and Regional Conference 14-16 September. ADB Headquarters - Manila, Philippines Nirmal Kumar BK Kathmandu University, Nepal
DISCLAIMER: The views expressed in this paper are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The countries listed in this paper do not imply any view on ADB's part as to sovereignty or independent status or necessarily conform to ADB's terminology.

Context
Climate Change Induced Natural Disasters in Nepal
Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF): Nepal has 2323 glacial lakes with area larger than 0.003 Km2 , major source of river flow. Drought: In the periods of 36 years, from 1971 to 2007, more than 150 drought events were reported in Nepal affecting more than 330000 hectare of agriculture land mainly in Terai and western hills/mountainous. Forest fire: In the periods of 36 years, from 1971 to 2007, more than 3880 forest fire events were reported in Nepal lead to 1108 death, 186 missing person, and affecting more than 218,278 people.

Flood and Landslides From 1998 to 2002 floods and landslides occurred some 256 times on average in one year and affecting on average 24 264 families annually. Each year it cause the loss of 300 lives . These natural disasters are major shocks and push factors for migration particularly in far western development region of the Nepal.

Research Sites

Research Methedology
The study applied multistage and systematic stratified sampling methods to locate primary sampling unit (settlements) and ultimate sampling unit (households) respectively.

The study applied both qualitative and quantitative methods of social science research to collect and analyse the data.
Major tools used to collect the data are: Resource and hot spot mapping Time line Seasonal calendar Venn diagram Ranking Focus groups discussion Major tools used to analyse the information Impact analysis Trend analysis SWOT analysis Stakeholders analysis

Major results and findings

The finding shows that
The Vulnerability of Climate change induced incidences is socially determined. The environmentally forced migration is also socially determined. Therefore, socially excluded groups are more vulnerable from climate change, is major shocks to them causing migration alternative job or permanent displacement to another parts of country. Both formal and informal social institutions determine vulnerability to climate change events to the groups and their adaptive capacity in the original region forcing them to migrate in another area.

Informal social Institutions

Pattern-client relationship The caste based patron client institutions like bista and haliya of Bajura and Achham district and Kamaiya of Kailali district are major institutions where lower caste and indigenous people worked for higher caste people, in terns they paid grains at harvest time. The lower caste groups should give priority to do agricultural work for the high caste people. Therefore, they have very little time to look after their field. As a result they left their land uncultivated Institutions of settlement: The settlement of socially excluded groups in hazardous location. Landslide of August 2010 due to heavy rainfall in Brahabise VDC of Bajura district destroyed seven households of dalit community. In Phulbari VDC of Kailali, 52 households were destroyed by flood. Of them, 50% from local indigenous, 40% dalits and 10% from other. 50% migrated to India. Most of socially advantaged and indigenous return and located to other sides.

Informal social Institutions

Untouchablity and caste based discriminations. Climate change induced drought has been increasing water scarcity needs for drinking and irrigation. The institution of untouchability has increased water scarcity to untouchable groups . Social networking: Also there are limited informal relationships of friendships, working partners, school partners, etc with the marginal groups.

These sorts of exclusions and limitation in the social relations has been limiting the information sharing about climate change which increase the exposure of these groups , limit the resistance power of the groups to climate change.
The sharing of capital and food in the periods of crisis and starvation favours the high caste people than low caste people.

Informal social institutions

The caste and gender based occupation The occupation in Nepal is structured based on caste and gender position of households and its members. It is found that the institutionalised occupations of marginal groups are more intense and longer exposure and less resiliency with increasing temperature, hailstorm, drought etc because these occupation are directly attached with nature. The institution of Wage labour: The division of labour in the study sites found coincide with caste and gender division of role in society. They experience high burden of climate sensitive diseases in marginal groups, including malaria, diarrhoea, and malnutrition, respiratory infections, and diarrhoea. It is found that the wage labour lossed the job during the drought and forced to migrate India

Formal social institution

Land tenure In Nepal land tenure is determined by social institution and set of rules which allow high caste group to own land in the form of Birta, Jagir, Rakam where the low caste people and women are not entitled to land. The productivity of land is based on caste. The land of higher caste people are irrigated, fertile where the land of low caste people is unirrigated and barren. The drought has more impacts on the land and production of low caste people. Which cause earlier migration to India. The unequal distribution of land has increased the duration of chronic food insecurity to them. Therefore, lengthen the duration of migration to India. Institutions of Educations As the marginal groups are less educated, the women, dalits and other marginal groups less participate in the dialogue about CC. They face more haphazard climatic incidences and losses from it.

Formal social institution

Health Institutions The dalits and other marginal groups lack clean water and sanitation as well as poor health services. They lacks latrine in their homes and use public land for defection. The poor personal hygiene makes favourable to climatically induced pest and disease to them. Adaptation policies: The extension programmes are oriented towards the land-based activities where the dalits and women have very less access. Therefore, most of the dalit community and women employ reactive or autonomous adaptation while other social groups use proactive and planned adaptation.

Recomendations
It is necessary to analyze and include the institutional and social dimension of climate change adaptation and migration when analysing and designing policies.

For successful adaptation practices the intervention should focus on the restructuring institutional aspect and removing the barriers of caste and gender based wage labour and caste based patron client relationships and this aspect should be converted to market level exchange.
The institution of social fund and insurances that could support the marginalized community seems very much effective intervention in these regards.

The access to institution of health, information sharing, employment opportunities are vital for building resilience of the poor with climate change hazards and coping with it..

Thank you