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4 year First Term End Exam Reviewer Physical Science I.

Fundamental Forces Simplest types of force/interaction between 2 objects 4 types FORCE Description Force Carrier Strong Force that binds quarks and hadrons in the nucleus Gluon

th

Strength Strongest

Acts on/Range Quarks/ Short Range

Example The nucleus of an atom is held together by the strong force Magnets

Electro Magnetism

Repels objects with similar electrical charges; Attracts those with Opposite Charges

Photon

2 Strongest

nd

Weak

Gravity

Initiates particle decay Beta Plus Beta Minus Attracting Force that is dependent on mass

W+, W-, Z0 bosons

2 Weakest Weakest

nd

Graviton (in theory)

Any charged object/ Infinitely Ranged Anything/ Short Ranged Everything/ Infinitely Ranged

Proton changes into a neutron The reason why youre sitting on your chair right now

II.

Fundamental Particles The simplest forms of matter Found in the Standard Model o Model that defines all particles using 6 quarks, 6 leptions, 6 antiquarks, 6 anti-leptons, and 4 force carriers o Arranged from left to right in increasing mass Quarks o sub-sub atomic particles o Each quark has a fractional charge Up, Charm, and Top: 2/3 Down, Strange, and Bottom: -1/3 o When quarks come together, they make Hadrons Baryons 3 quarks Proton = Up + Up + Down = +1 charge Neutron = Down + Down + Up = No charge Mesons 2 quarks A quark and its anti-quark o Possess color charges which act similarly to electrical charges, but have more than one type, or flavor Red, Blue, and Green Leptons o sub-sub atomic particles o Vary in Charge Electrons, Muons, and Tau have a charge of -1 Neutrinos dont have a charge o Vary in size with respect to the standard model

Bosons o The force carriers Fermions o Quarks and leptons

III. Gravity (again) Gravitational force is (mass) x (accel due to grav) o Mass; directly related o Distance; inversely squared related Big equation looks like: o (Gravitational Force) = G x (M1) x (M2) d G = Universal gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10^(-11) Nm/kg M1 and M2 are the masses of the 2 objects D is distance between the 2 objects Units is Ns o REMEMBER: Distance is from the center of the object to the other Red line = not distance Blue line = correct distance If factors change. o Mass When the mass of an object increases/decrease by a factor (ex. X 2 OR x 1/2), multiply the resulting gravitational force by the same amount (G force x 2 OR x 1/2) If both masses experience change, both factors are multiplied Ex: M1 x2, M2 x 3; so GF x 6 o Distance If the distance between the 2 objects increases/decreases by a factor, divide your resulting GF by the square of the factor Ex. Distance X 3; so GF / 9 IV. EMF (again) Factors o Charge; directly related o Distance; inversely squared related Big equation looks like: o (EM Force) = K x (Q1) x (Q2) d K = Columbs constant = 8.9 x 10^(9) Nm/C C is charge or Columbs Q1 and Q2 are the charge levels of the 2 objects D is distance between the 2 objects A negative answer (like -3.22) Means the force is attractive. Vice versa for a positive answer If factors change. o Mass When the charge of an object increases/decrease by a factor (ex. X 2 OR x 1/2), multiply the resulting EM force by the same amount (G force x 2 OR x 1/2) If both charges experience change, both factors are multiplied Ex: Q1 x2, Q2 x 3; so EMF x 6

Distance If the distance between the 2 objects increases/decreases by a factor, , divide your resulting EMF by the square of the factor Ex. Distance X 3; so EMF / 9

V.

Grand Unified Theory Basically says that we should have an electromagnetic-weak-gravity force instead of 3 separate forces o Gravity isnt included here because it doesnt have a discovered force carrier yet o Supported by the fact that at high energy levels, all 3 forces have the same force level VI. Radioactivity a process in which energetic particles or energy or waves travel through a medium or space 3 types RADIATION Alpha (a) Description A helium nucleus with 2 protons and 2 neutrons An electron A photon Notes Charge Level +2 Ionizing Level High Ionizing ability Penetration Least penetrating

Beta (b) Gamma (y) o

-1 0

Low Ionizing Ability Very Ionizing

Medium penetration High Penetration

VII.

Ionizing the ability to either add or remove electrons from nearby particles Alpha and Beta particles use their charges to ionize while Gamma uses the Photoeletric effect where it collides with particles Irradiation treating objects with radiation Radiolytic Product Products of irradiation in organic materials Unique Radiolytic Products compounds made only through radiation Isotopes o Elements with different # of nucleons, but the same # of electrons Basically types of a certain element o Ex: Isotopes of Hydrogen Protium: 1 protons, 0 neutron Deuterium (regular hydrogen): 1 proton, 1 neutron Tritium: 1 protons, 2 neutron Radioactive decay o A process where a material emits a particle 1. Alpha decay emission of a helium nucleus 2. Beta minus decay emission of an electron 3. Beta Plus decay emission of a positron 4. Neutron Emission emission of a neutron (no shit -_-) 5. Proton Emission - wont bother 6. Electron Capture same here 7.Neutron Capture 8. Gamma decay emission of a gamma particle/photon Elements with an asterisk (*) are ready to emit radiation o How to make an equation If you have an emission/decay, the equation should look like this: (Material) -> (Product) + (particle) If you have a capture, the equation should look like this (Material) + (particle) -> (product) Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear reaction are similar to chemical reactions except for the fact that: o Chemical reaction follow the Mass equivalence rule and the Energy equivalence rule o Nuclear Reactions follow a combination of the two Meaning that mass can be converted to energy and vice versa 2 types o Fission Splitting of a big nuclei into individual nuclei o Fusion Combining of small nuclei into a big one Requires thermo-nuclear environments High temperature and pressure which can usually be found in stars Moderators: substances that control neutron speeds o Hard water: slows neutrons down o Control rods: absorbs excess neutrons Mass Defect and Binding Energy o Mass defect (/_\m) is the loss of mass after a reaction. The mass lost is turned into energy Solvable by Fusion: mass of parts mass of product Fission: Mass of Starting particle mass of products o Binding energy is the energy that keeps the particle together, and is also the energy released after a reaction The Fusion Equation Lets say 2 Helium particles fuse into a Beryllium Particle (4 neutrons) o Step 1: get the mass defect Do this by getting the mass of the individual parts Helium has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Given the mass of the proton (for now lets say its 3 amu) and neutron (ummm 2 amu), you multiply the masses to their respective numbers o 2 x 3 = 6 amu of protons; 2 x 2 = 4 amu of neutrons Thats 10 amu per helium. Since we have 2 particles, we have 20 amu all in all Then Get the mass of the product Usually given, so lets say its 18 amu Mass defect for fusion is Parts Product, so 20 18 is 2 amu o Step 2: Convert the mass Since Einsteins equation doesnt use amu, we have to convert our mass defect of 2 amu into kg This is done by multiplying it by 1.6605 x 10^-27 kg For now, lets just say we did this and got 1 KG, for the sake of simplicity o Step 3: E=mc We need E (energy), so plot in the values into the equation (again, this is just an example) E=mc E = (1kg)(3 x 10^8) For now, lets say we got 10 Joules of energy per nucleus o Step 4: Joules per Nucleon If asked how much energy was given off per nucleon, simply divide your given energy (10J/atom) by the number of protons AND neutrons given. The Fission Equation o Pretty much the same thing as Fusion EXCEPT for How you get the Mass Defect Sometimes, youre asked for Energy per gram. In that case, you. Convert the energy you get (energy per atom) into energy per gram by: Energy x 1 mole x Avogadros Number = Energy/Gram Atom atomic mass 1 mole

o Avocados # = 6.02x10^23 If ask how much energy per 5 grams, simply multiply what you get from the equation up there by the number of grams you have

VIII. Half Life The amount of time it takes a material to decay to half its original amount from when the period of time started o Basically, you divide the amount of material by 2 every time a half-life passes Measured in time Formulas o # of Half lives Answer = Time/ Half-life o Amount remaining: Answer = Original amount / 2^(# of half-lives passed) o Original Amount Answer = 2^(# of half-lives passed) x Amount remaining o Amount Decayed Answer = Original Amount (Amount Remaining)

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