Christ Inanity and Greek Ideal

BR 121 .W35 1897 Watson, John, 1847-1939.
Christianity and idealism
PUBLICATIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

EDITED BY
G. H.
HOWISON,
AND
CIVIL POLITY
LL.D.
MILLS PROFESSOR OF INTELLECTUAL
AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY
VOLUME
II
CHRISTIANITY AND IDEALISM
J^^y^
Christianity and Idealism
The Christian Ideal of
Life in its
Relations
TO THE Greek and Jewish Ideals and

TO Modern Philosophy
BY
JOHN WATSON,
KINGSTON. CANADA
LL.D.
PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IN QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN &
1897
Ail rights reserved
CO., LTD.
Copyright, 1896,
By
the MACMILLAN COMPANY.
TCorfajDotJ
J. S. CusliiiiK
^rcss
Berwick & Smith
& Co.
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Note by the Editor

Introductory Preface
vii
XXI
Part
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE IN RELATION TO THE GREEK AND JE WISH IDEALS
CHAPTER
Historical Connexion of Morality and Religion
CHAPTER n
The Greek Ideal
23
CHAPTER
The Jewish Ideal
III
45
CHAPTER
The Christian Ideal
IV
60
CHAPTER V
Medi^.val Christianity
V
no
yi
CONTENTS
Part
II
MODERN IDEALISM
IN ITS RELATION TO THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE
CHAPTER
VI
PAGE
.
.
General Statement and Defence of Idealism
.121
CHAPTER
Idealism
in
VII
Special
^53
relation
to Agnosticism and the
Sciences
CHAPTER
Idealism and Christianity
VIII
192
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

The
present
the
volume,
press,
is
though the
in
its
first
to
come from
proper order
the second in a series of pubHcations projected
by the Philosophical Union

of California.
of the University
The
first
volume, entitled The
Conception
of God, by Professor
Royce
of
Harvard University and a number

has been thrown out of
its
of his critics,
natural place by
the stress of circumstances, but will presently
be issued, and in due time will be followed by

others from
various writers
of
philosophical
weight.
Each volume
in the series will in a
manner represent
of
the culmination of a group
studies
prosecuted by the
Union, usually
it
during
mainly,
an
of
academic
the
year
will
consist,
contribution
of
made
to
those
preof
studies by
some thinker
have
note whose
vious
writings
formed the
nucleus
at
the year's work, and \\\\o
comes
the invi-
viii
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

of
tation
chief
the
Union
to
take in person
in the work. to
the
and concluding part

society
The
in
whose pursuits are

contains
result
of
these
publications
of
members
nearly
every shade
current
philosophical
opinion:
the positivist, the agnostic, the un-
settled inquirer, all
have their free expression

as well as the idealist of
It
is
and hearing
in
it,
nearly every type.

the
tive
its
true,
however, that
is
dominant tone
and
idealistic.
of
the
Union
affirma-
The decided
able
to
it
majority of
members
are animated by a conviction that

is
;
human
the
thouo;ht
solve
in
the
riddle
of life positively
to
solve
accord with
of
ideal
hopes
and
interests
human
matters
tradi-
nature.
TJiey are convinced that, for better
or worse, enlightened
of
belief
mankind has
leave of
in
taken a
of
final
mere
tion
in
and
blank authority,
It
is
of
miraculism
clear
to
every
that
form.
the
accordingly
them
tice
only safety for

practice
in
human
it
prac-
henceforth, the
all,
of
each or the
practice of
lies
founding
on a
phil-
osophic criticism that shall
be luminous, un-
relenting, penetrating to the bottom,
and that
Erratum.
Page
viii,
line lo
from bottom,
for
"They"
read " Many.'
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

yet, just
ix
because of this unsparing thorough-
ness, will affirm the reality of all those

beliefs
moral
the
and
religious
of
hopes
on
which
achievements
hitherto
western
civilisation
have
of
rested,
and by the undermining

of
which the
stability
society
now
threatens
to give way.
A
from
certain
this
thread
of
continuity,
is
coming
in
affirmative aim,
discernible
the writings that form the

in the
first
two volumes
is
proposed
their
series.
titles
Indeed, this
obvi-
ous
from
The
and
Conception
of
God and
fest
Christianity
Idealism.
Were
one to say that a logical march seems manihere, as

if
there were an advance from
the
question
specific
of
Theism
of
in
general
to
the
more
question
Christian
Theism,
the statement would not be incorrect.

a line in
it
Such
in
the discussion, such
an advance
along the historical course of religious behas

actually
too,
lief,
been
the
in
mind.
of
It
corre-
sponds,
to
course
attack
upon
the ideals of past culture which the negative
philosophical
taken.
criticism
in
our
century
us
has
to
That attack
has
accustomed
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

repeated
sceptical
the
questions
is
Is
there
?
any proof that

there any,
true
?
there
even
that
God
Is
is
?
at
all
events,
Christianity
Are
In any case,
we any longer Theists, are we any longer Christians

of
even
A
the
philosophical
reality
procedure aiming to affirm

the
ideal
elements
naturally
in
our
achieved
civilisation
would
follow
criti-
the path of these questions, and, by a

cal
appreciation
of
at
once
of
their
supports
and
their limits,
would pass
to the justi-
fication of a rational
Theism, and onward to
that of a rational Christianity.
The
ism
present volume thus has for
its
theme
the interdependence of Christianity and Ideal;
of
Christianity regarded, not as histori-
cal theology,
but as an ideal of conduct, and

stated
as
to
Idealism
so
become,
in
the
author's conviction, completely self-consistent,
and thus expressive

self-critical.
of
reason completely
argues, tacitly,
is
Professor
Watson
each
that Christianity
and Idealism, when each

lend
duly
understood,
other
stable
support.
a
large
From
part
this point of view,
no doubt,
called
of
historical
theology
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

Christian will
fall
xi
away, even of that which

as
of
has
been
regarded
the
will
essence
of
Christianity,
in
its
and Christianity
the
be seen as
principle
truth
new but abiding

social
of personal
and
action that
in
marked a
develop-
fresh
and
higher stage
all
human
ment, and that amid

or
accretions
foreign surroundings
real
has
in
ever since been the
prime mover
the
progress of
civilisation.
On
it
the other hand,
Idealism, responding to
a like logic, will assume the form proper to

as
simply
is
the
philosophical
expression
of
of
in
whatever
his
most
characteristic
ideals.
man
animation by rational
light
will
In this
common
for each
each
will
prove the other true;
be seen to be but a different

the
expression
of
same
indivisibly
threefold
Fact
God,
human
responsible freedom, and
human
of
immortality.
Idealism
will
prove to
be nothing more nor less than the principle

morality and
principle
in
religion
on
the one
history
hand,
the
the
of
advancing
on
other,
their
comprehended
fulfilment
in
its
while
Christianity,
now
discerned
its
essence,
distino-uished
from
accidental
xii
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

and
encumbrances,
will
embodiments
seen
to
be
is
be that in germ which
Idealism
in full issue.
Both get
in this
way
the vast
to
his-
and
impressive
sanction
in
that
attaches
of
everything structural
tory.
the
growth
Neither can any longer be viewed as

dis-
an accident or a caprice, but both are

covered
to
be
are
;
intrinsic
in
things
as
things
historically
both
to
be aspects of that
Reason which
constitutive in
is
the reality of the real, both
the
Reality which
is
rational
to
this
through
and
through.
Necessary
massive style of proof, would be an exhibition

of
Christianity in
of
its
historical developearlier
religions,
ment out
especially
and
above
Judaism
and
as
Hellenism,
rising out
and
of
an
exposition of
Idealism
and
over lower philosophies, surmounting in logically
natural
sequence
Empiricism,
Positiv-
ism, Agnosticism,
and the successive inchoate

of
its
or
this
arrested
forms
of
own
in
doctrine.
To
the
course
argument the
set
plan
its
of
present work, as
parts
forth
successive
corre-
and
their
chapters,
manifestly
sponds.
NOTE BY THE EDTTOR

The book forms
author's previous
cer,
xiii
natural
sequel
to
its
work
its
Conitc, Mill,
and Spen-
and, though in
second part beginning
like that with a
polemic against the sceptical

in the thinking of
and agnostic factors

writers
these
and
of Kant, seeks to bring into
view
the
deep affirmative
implication,
the
larger
Idealism, that forms the silent presupposition

of their reasoning,
however
little
suspected by
them.
Directed
upon the negative thought
so prevalent in our century, both works aim

to re-establish
it,
the
human
it
values invaded
by
not
by
thrusting
out
it
as
worthless,
but through supplementing

affirmation
tive
its
by the larger
which
at
once gives to the negaits
relative
justification,
function
yet
in
the the
reasoned
total
truth,
and
exposes
it
one-sidedness
It
that
in
would
view
of
recognise
this
exclusively.
was
perti-
nence to the mental situation

that
of
the
times,
the
Union made the Comte,

its
Mill,
and
Spencer the basis of
studies for the year
1895-96, submitted the criticism advanced in

the
book
to a counter-criticism
by such
of
its
members
as
might
fairly
lay claim to
expert
xiv
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

in the various sciences
knowledge
concerned
theory of
mathematics, physics, biology, the

evolution,
the
history
of
visit
philosophy
the
and
result
invited
the
author to
Union from
his distant
home,
to
complete his part of the
discussion in a series of lectures.

is
The
the book before us.
The
reader, however,
would be insecure
in
assuming that because the
new work
is
issued
at the instance of the Union, the philosophy
set forth in
it
is
regarded by the members as
a final solution of the grave questions agitat-
ing
our
times.
of
Certainly,
the
in
most
active
and
influential
them
are
strong symits
pathy with the general position of

belief in
author:
our responsible freedom, in our im-
mortality,
and
in
God, they regard as lying

civilised
is
at
the foundation
of
society,
and they
think
its
defence
of
only achievable through
some form
pressed
Idealism.
But many
of
them,
imall
and among these the present

with
the
difficulty
writer, are
under which
philosophy labours since Kant, in the effort to

reach the complete ideal desired
rably correlated
truths
of
the
real
insepa-
God,
human
NOTE BY THE EDITOR
XV
freedom, and immortality genuinely personal.
The
as
clue to this threefold union of truths
is
fastened in
human
free-agency,
comprehended
meaning
self-activity
;
profoundly inward and

difficulty
lies
unqualifiedly real
and the
in
seeing
how
the
conception of an immanent
of
God, joined with the seeming impossibility

proving any other
of
God on Kantian
of us
principles
knowledge, can be consistent with such
freedom.
Those
who
are convinced of
this inconsistency are therefore
looking for an-
other
way with Idealism
time has perhaps arrived
can be opened, and a

parture
we believe that the when this other way new philosophical de;
begun.
This
its its
is
not
;
the
let
place,
of
course, to set forth
method
the
mere
hint suffice, that, for
starting-point, wê shall
look to a renewed criticism of Kant, addressed

primarily
to
closing
the
gap which he
left
between
the
Practical
and the Theoretical
Reason, and to establishing an effective instead

of
a merely nominal
it
primacy
of
the
former
over the latter:

that
would be shown, namely,

rcliijious
the
its
moral and
consciousness,
with
postulate of a world of Persons, really
xvi
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

enters
as
free,
constitutive
condition
into
the possibility of
tion
itself,
the world of
sense-percep-
and
is
thus the finally determining
factor in the logic of nature
and
of predictive
natural science.
In this
way
the world of the
moral and religious consciousness would be
embraced
of
in the
;
complete and genuine world
science
knowledge directed upon nature

to
would be shown
be only one special func-
tion of intelligence,
realities
and the world
of absolute
would be recovered
for the intellect.
To
tion
those
of
who may feel that human freedom with

of
the reconciliathe literal

is
im-
manence
the
Divine Being
it
more than
be well
to
human
God
wit can compass,

is
may
for
point out that this

left
the only conception of
possible
by Kant
its
minds who
know-
accept his Analytic^^\\\\
necessary "schelimiting
matism
ledge
"
of
the
Categories,
to
the
still
range of
possible
experience,
and w^ho
would
lay
hold
on
God by
faith.
knowledge rather than by unsupported

If the tenet of
Kant
is
to stand, that
no know-
ledge
is
possible unless the

fall
knowing subject
within
and the known object
one and
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

the
of
xvii
same
self-consciousness,
this
then
the
God
best
knowledge must be
But
?
immanent God,
the
?
and
of
it
human freedom must make

it.
will
is
the
tenet
stand
must
stand
It
in
direct
contradiction with
that
other tenet,
Kant's very starting-point

implies, units
That a perceptive consciousness

mistakably,
some
reality other
is
than
own.
to
for
Which
endure?
the
of
the two tenets
to reign
and
To
us of
the
Union who look

are
new way with
Idealism,' these
the
signal questions for the future of philosophy.
To minds
in
at a loss to find a
God knowable
or,
and yet compatible with their freedom,

other
terms,
with
:
their
genuine
to
reality,
criti-
our word would be

cal
Return
Kant's
starting-point, follow his
critical
method
but
by
interpreting
the
necessary
transcendent
object in the light of
Practical Reason,
do
this
with
give
critical
consistency;
a
at
one
stroke,
his
foundation-tenet
his
logical
footing
and
refute
opposing
tenet,
by
showing that
his world of the
Practical Reais
son, the world of real

of
Persons,
a condition
if
the possibility of
perception
itself,
this
xviii
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

and not a mere experience
of
is
to be objective
mere
is
state
the
particular
subject.
There
no conceivable criterion by which

the consenting judgment of a
an experience could be discriminated as objective,

total
except
society of minds.
differ as
But,
if
they
may from
the
the
author,
of the of
indeed they do
are
differ,
members
the
of
Union
happy
the
in
being
a
agents
his
giving to
world
writing
that
has the solid philosophical worth which they

believe
all,
the
in
present
work
possesses.
After
and
these times of fundamental doubt
especially,
one
to
of
the
greatest philosophical
services
critical
is
rouse
men
to
thoroughly
of
seri-
search into the whole course
ous
this
inor
thought
in
and
only
its
meaning, and
to
do
the
effective
way
by
it
exhibit-
the
encourai>in2:
its
truth
that
has
meaning:, that
in
earnest efforts cannot

indifference,
to
end
mere scepticism,
offer
of
:
or
despair.
confi-
We
dent
this
book
the
reader,
of
its
the
"
secure
wisdom
author's
sentence
phies
The
failures of successive philoso-
are
not
in
any sense absolute
with
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

each step
clearer
believe,
in
xix
advance, the
problem becomes
solution."
live
and
too,
more
that
easy
the
of
We
rela-
work has a
most urgent
less
tion
to the questions
just
:
now.
either
re-
These amount
the entire
to
no
than this
abandonment
nations
of the
moral and
ligious conceptions
upon which the culture

has been
of
our western
tlie
bred, or else
preservation of
free
their living heart despite
the
stripping
away
of
the
coverings in
which they have been protected

ished.
It
is
and
in
nourthis
all-important that
belief
living heart of Christianity shall be rationally
preserved, and that in the process of casting

off
its
foreign
and outworn integuments

lost,
its
vital
substance shall neither be
impaired,
nor adulterated.
To
repeat
the language of
the lamented author of Literature

"
and
Docrnia,
all
An
inevitable
revolution,
of
which we
recognise the beginnings and
the signs, but

farther
re-
which
has
already
spread,
is
perhaps,
than most of us think,

ligion
in
befalling the
which we have been brought up";

its
is
and,
amid
course,
the
greatest
need
of
the times
a deep
and accurate definition
XX
NOTE BY THE EDITOR

it
of Christianity as
really
is,
when
its
belief
is
stated in the highest
and simplest terms, pure

of this, Arnold's
yet sufficing.
effort
For lack
own
this
to
take advantage of
revolution
the tide
to
in
religious
proved
be too great
of
a yielding to the prevailing current

ticism
;
scep-
the distinction between his "Eternal,
not ourselves, that
makes
for righteousness"
of
and the "Unknowable"
the agnostic
be-
came so attenuated
significance,
as to be without practical
and
in
abandoning the person-
ality, sacrificed
the vital quality of God.

its
The
Jesus,
present work, by
comprehensive yet lumiof
nous interpretation
the teaching of
and
its
organic connecting of this with
the
highest philosophic insights,

far
it
we
feel
believe goes
toward settling the desired definition as

is.
For
this
reason,
real
we
that
all
it
will
meet a profoundly
want
in
earnest
it
and quickened minds, and we send

with a large and hopeful confidence.
G.
University of California, Berkeley,
October
27, 1896.
forth
H.
HOWISON.
INTRODUCTORY PREFACE
The
cal
present work has grown out of
lect-
ures recently delivered before the Philosophi-
Union
is
of
the
University of
I.
California.
What
lecture
called Part
"
is
the expansion of a
on
The Greek and
Christian Ideals
of Life,"
and the remainder contains the sub-
stance of two lectures in defence of Idealism,
with a good deal of additional matter.
The
historical
matter
of the first part
does
not pretend to be a complete presentation of

the development of religion.
It
was
my
to
first
intention to attempt such a presentation, but

I
soon found that
it
was impossible
have
com-
press so abundant a material within the limits
assigned
fined
to
me,
and
a
therefore
con-
myself to
statement of
the
general
course of religious development, with a more

particular
consideration
life,
of
the
Greek
and
Jewish ideals of
as
compared with the
xxii
In treating of these topics,
I
Christian.
have
avoided
all
polemical discussion, aiming rather
to give the results of
many
years of reading
and
reflection,
than to occupy space with a
consideration of conflicting views.

ter
The
chap-
on the Christian Ideal
is
based upon a
study of the synoptic gospels, as read in the

light
of
modern
as
far
historical
all, it
and philosophical
criticism.
Here, above
as
seemed advisable
all
to
avoid
possible
purely docentirely
be, as
trinal
topics,
concentrating attention
of life
upon the conception

I
which may
think, constructed
I
from the sayings
of Jesus
himself.
am by no means
Founder
that
of
indifferent to the
development by theologians
ideas of
of the
fundamental
but
it
the
Christianity,
seems
to
me
the wonderful
is
power and
persuasiveness of those ideas
most apparent
when they
It
are exhibited in their

to
naked
purity.
seems almost necessary
say a word
" Idealism."
or two
upon the use
of the
term
The
of
objection has been raised that no school

to the title.
I
thought has an exclusive right
In
answer
to
this
objection
try
to
perhaps
explain
canI
not
do
better
than
why
think
the
xxiii
term
to
"
IdeaHsm
"
may
be fairly
theory
employed
which
I
designate
the
general
is
here advocated.
it
presume
of
will
be
admitted that
doctrine
the
of
originator
the
philosophical
Idealism was Plato, and that Plato conceived

of
the
first
principle of
all
things as reason
it
(N0D9), also
maintaining that
is
in virtue of
reason, as distinguished from sensible perception,
that
man
obtains a
knowledge
I
of
that
principle.
Now, modern
agrees
Idealism, as
under-
stand
points,
it,
with
Plato
its
on
to
these
the
two
and therefore
claim
name
itself
does not seem either arrogant or unreasonable.
No
in
system has a right
to
call
" idealistic,"
in the Platonic sense,
which does
doctrine
of
not
the
some form
this test,
accept
the
rationality
and knowability
of
the
real.
Applying
cism,
real
we must exclude Agnostithat
which
as
to
it
denies
in
we can know
the
re-
is
itself;
Scepticism, which
fuses
lute
admit that we can make any absowhatever,

either
positive
affirmation
;
or
negative
and Sensationalism or Empiricism,

in
which finds
the sensible and
its
custom-
xxiv
modes
of
ary
conjunction the only knovvable
world.
is
To
call
by the name
of
Idealism, as
sometimes done, a doctrine which reduces
all
knowable
is
reality
to
individual
states
or
of
feelings,
surely
an unwarrantable
use
the term.
If
it
is
said
that, interpreted
it.
in
the wide
sense here given to
Idealism must include
systems differing so greatly as those of Descartes

I
and
Hegel, or of Spinoza and
Lotze,
entirely agree.
The systems
Kant,
all
of
Descartes,
Schelling,
to be
is
Spinoza,
Heofel,
of
Leibnitz,
Fichte,
to
and Lotze
seem
me
forms
Idealism,
and the only question

"
how
The
is
far
any
of
them can claim

that
to be true to the
is
principle
test,
its
the
real
rational."
therefore,
of
an
idealistic
philosophy
ability to
provide a system of ideas which
shall best
harmonise with the principle upon

is
which Idealism
cess of
in
its
based
or,
rather, the suc-
an
idealistic
philosophy must consist

that
"
ability
to
prove
is
the
real
is
rational,"
it
and that man

I
capable of knowing
to be rational.
am
very far from affirm-
ing
that
the
hurried sketch of
an
idealistic
philosophy here presented
all
xxv
fulfils
that
demand
irrele-
that
of
is
attempted
is
to expose the
vancy
certain objections
which have been
made from
ism
affirms,
a misunderstanding of
what
Idealline of
and
it
to indicate the
main
thought which
conclusions to
It
must
it
follow,
leads.
and the main
which
may
help to indicate the points in which
Idealism, as here presented, differs from

of
some
has
the
great
if
I
historical
state
forms which
it
assumed,
defective.
wherein these seem to be

it
In doing so,
will
not be possi-
ble to enter into detail, or to support
by
I
rea-
soned proof the conclusions
to
which
have
been
led.
shall
therefore have to
assume
of
I
a general
acquaintance
with
the
history
philosophy on the part of the reader, and
beg him hope

Plato
to take the criticisms
which
shall
make simply
I
as results, the evidence for
which
to give in detail
on another occasion.
may
be called the Father of Idealism,
though, no doubt, his doctrine was a develop-
ment from the Idealism implied

of
in
the N0D9 the
Anaxagoras, and
still
more
clearly in
Socratic view of universals.
How
far,
then,
xxvi
it
may
of
be said that Plato was untrue to his
central idea of the rationality
and knowability
it
the
real
His main
in virtually
defect, as
seems
real
to me,
was
opposing the
"sensible."
to
the
actual
is
or
so-called
This
defect
obvious in his theory, or one of his
theories, that
of
lar
Art consists
"
" in the " imitation
ordinary
defect
sensible " actuality.

his
The
simiit
I
in
Philosophy
of
Religion
here, as
will
not
be necessary to
it
exhibit
have dealt with

but a word
defective
in the
body
of
the work;
to
his
may
be said in
of
regard
Theory
Knowledge.
Just
as
Plato at last rejects Art on the ground that

it
only represents or imitates the
"
sensible,"
so he shows a decided tendency to
separate
the
universal from the particular.

is
He
real
does,
indeed, maintain that whatever
must
as
be
it
self-active
but
in
separating
reason,
exists
in
us,
from sensible perception, he

of
all
virtually
empties reason
objects
content, and
makes
similar
of
its
pure abstractions.
of
The philosophy
defects,
real
Aristotle
in
is
beset
by
though
ideal
him the contrast

is
the
or
and the actual
less
rigid
xxvii
and
is
more obviously
Like
"
in
process
of
being from
is
transcended.
the
to
"
Plato,
he
starts
mimetic
theory of
Art, but
he
led
make
of
assertions
which are contra-
dictory
his
starting-point.
(i)
Thus
such an
he
in-
virtually asserts
that
Art
is
terpretation of
the actual as serves to bring

(2)
out
its
deeper meaning,
that
it
gives rise
that
its
to a feeling of
self-harmony, and
forces
in
(3)
object
reality.
is
spiritual
their
deepest
Yet, since
he never abandoned the an

" imitation " of
view
that
it
Art
is
the
sensible,
cannot be said that he attained to
a self-consistent theory.
The
reason for this
discrepancy comes to light in his Philosophy

of
Religion, where
he does not get beyond
the idea of
is
God
as a self-centred Being,
and
therefore forced to
conceive of the world
as related to
God
in
an external or arbitrary
way.
Similarly, in his
Theory
of
Knowledge,
he shrinks from the admission that the actual

is
rational.
There
is
always in things, as he
thinks,
a
is
recalcitrant
element
of
or
"
matter,"
which
"
the
It
source
is
"contingency"
that
or
chance."
not
merely
human
xxvill
cannot
completely
is
knowledge
and
exist
comprehend
imperfect,
"
the actual, but the actual

therefore
for
itself
the
ideal
"
forms
as
they
the
"
divine
reason,
are
being entirely
different
is
free
from
the
matter,"
in
essentially
"
from
actual,
which
"
form
"
always
more
or less
W'C
sunk
pass
in
matter."
When
from
ancient
to
modern
of the
philosophy,
we
find the
same problem
reconciliation of the real
and the actual con-
fronting us
difficult
but the antagonism seems more

solution, because
of
the
contrast of
the finite and the infinite has been sharpened
by the
explicit claim of the individual to ac-
cept nothing which does not

to his reason.
commend
methods
itself
By
the
Descartes, two
opposite
of
are
employed,
the
of
is
method
abstraction
and
method
definition.
In the use of the
former, he
led
to
maintain that the only

of
permanent or unchanging attribute

is
body
geometrical
extension
in
employing the
latter,
he assumes that there are a number

things,
of
real
each
of
having
definite
or
limited
amount
extension.
Spinoza turns
the former view
xxix
against
the latter, pointing

in the idea of
out that there
is
nothing
pure
it
extension which entitles us to conceive of

as
broken up into
parts.
There can
without
with
there-
fore,
he argues, be no individual bodies, but

a
single
only
limits.
substance
parts
or
Leibnitz, again, agrees
Spinoza
limits,
is
in
holding that
pure space
has
is
no
but the
inference he draws
that space
not an attribute of real substance, but a pure

abstraction,
derived
from our experience
of
the order which obtains

objects of
sense.
among
all
the confused
Thus
the spatial deter-
minations of things, as merely confused ideas,
have no existence from the point

thought
;
of
view
of
view which converts the actual
into pure illusion.
To
Descartes
it
seemed that the human

the ends which
in
mind cannot comprehend

must be supposed
therefore
to
God
and
"
have
creation,
he maintained that we must give

for
final
up the vain search

wisdom."
causes.
All
God's ends are hidden in the inscrutable abyss

of
his
Descartes, however, tacitly

if
assumed
that there are such ends,
only
we
XXX
mTRODUCTORY PREFACE
Such
a'
could discover them.
doctrine
is
mani-
festly self-contradictory,
and therefore Spinoza

this side of
was only following out

tesian doctrine
to
its
the Car-
logical
result
when he
on
denied
final
causes altogether.
Leibnitz,
the other hand, refused to admit that
human
as-
knowledge
is
limited to the orderly
movements
that, with-
of nature, as
both Descartes and Spinoza
sumed, and therefore he maintained
out the idea of final cause, or activity directed
towards an end, we cannot explain the world

at
all.
We
must therefore conceive

"
of every
real
being or
posive.
monad " as Each " monad "

what
is
it,
self-active
is
and pur-
ever striving to
make
explicit
already contained ob"
scurely in
and each
its
represents
"
the whole
all
world from
"
own
point of view, so that
monads," without any actual connexion with
one another, harmonise in their perceptions.
Now
there
[a)
it
is
pure assumption that there
are absolutely independent
"monads,"
all
in w^hich
after-
already exists
obscurely
that
wards comes to more or

an assumption which
less clear expression;
has no better warrant

is
than the preconception that identity
incom-
INTRODUCTORY TREFACE
patible with development,
{b)
xxxi
It is
equally an
"
assumption that each monad

world.
"
represents
the
of
On
there
is
the
Leibnitzian
hypothesis
purely individual beings, each shut up within

itself,
can be no way of proving that

to " represent."
I
there
any world
The
is
only
that
it
real individuality, as
should maintain,
itself
of
beinQ[
which
beings,
"
knows
{c)
because
knows other
explain the
When
of
he comes to
harmony
"
the
monads with
back upon
one another, Leibnitz has to
fall
the idea of the selective activity of the divine

will.
Out
was
of
all
the
possible
worlds which
lay before the divine mind, that
was chosen
Here,
which
the
best
on
the
whole.
therefore, in the final result of
the Leibnitz-
ian
philosophy,
we
see the fundamental dishis

all
crepancy
which
vitiates
whole
is
system.
rational,
The
actual
world
after
not
but only as rational as

a theory which
ferring the
God
God
an
could
make
it
leaves us
no ground
at
all,
for in-
rationality of
but on
limit
the
in
contrary
presupposes
absolute
the
the divine mind.
Thus
it
is,
Idealism
of
Leibnitz, suggestive as
ultimately breaks
xxxii
ill
down
I
contradiction.
Can
Kant
we, then, accept

?
the Critical
Idealism of
cannot do more here than indicate the

in
defects
the
philosophy
regarding
is
of
it
Kant which
as
final.
prevent us from
Its
fundamental imperfection
the
abstract opif
position of the empirical and the ideal, as
the
former
were
not
implicitly
first
the
latter.
This opposition meets us

of
in
his theory
is
knowledge, in which a virtual contrast

is
drawn between what

lies
knowable and what

of
beyond
a
the
boundaries
is
knowledge.
Such
contrast
ultimately
reference
to
unmeaning.
The
can
only reality by
criticise
is
which we
the knowable world of ordinary

a reality which includes, though
experience
it
further
elucidates, that world.
Failing to
recognise this truth, the

is
philosophy of Kant
of
self-
vexed by the perpetual recurrence

in
contradiction
tradiction
(i)
some new form,

is
self-con-
which
never finally transcended,
In
the
Esthetic,
Kant adopts
the
to
comthe
promise, that
space
and time belong
subject, while individual things in
space and
But,
time are relative to an unknown object.
as
xxxiii
these
individuals
is
must enter
into
know-
ledge, he
compelled to regard the
unknown
it
object as a
mere blank, and such an object

is,
cannot be contrasted with anything;

fact,
in
its
is
merely the known wôrld stripped
of
determinateness
and
hypostatised.
Kant
here really criticising the

abstract phase of
itself,
known world by an
of
and pronouncing the

higher than
former to
the
latter.
be
lower
instead
The pure
as the
spatial
object
can
only
be
regarded as higher than

in
is
the
known
world,
so far
and temporal world
seen to be a lower form of the knowable

In this sense, no doubt,
world.
we may say
in
itself,
i.e.
that the undefined object, or thing

indicates
the world
as
as
it
exists
in
idea,
(2)
the world
completely determined.
In
the Analytic,
Kant takes another step
in the
process by which he gives a higher meaning

to
the
thing
in
is
itself.
The
luliolc
of
the
knowable world
unifying
now shown
of
to involve the
activity
the
knowing
subject,
though with the reservation that the object

is
conceived as the source of the undefined

But, in
truth, there
is
"
manifold of sense."
xxxiv
"
no undefined
manifold
in
"
hence the thing

pably than
(3)
itself
for knowledge^ and is, even more palby Kant himthe
before,
magiii 7iominis umbra.
This
is
partly recognised
to
self
when he goes on
in
its
consider
forms,
Unsoul,
conditioned
the
world,
three
(a)
the
and
God.
is
His
criticism
of
Rational Psychology
virtually a recognition
of the truth, that the

ject
is
pure or unrelated sub-
a mere fiction of abstraction.
Yet he
does not draw the proper inference, that the

real
subject
to
exists
only in
and through
a subject
its
is
relations
the
object.
Such
but
not
mechanically
determinable,
it
being
does
self-
conscious
and
self-active,
exist,
not
and could not

nature
were not the system of

(b)
is
what
it
is.
Kant's
valid,
criticism
of
it
Rational
points
Cosmology
that the
so
far
as
out
reflective
of
understanding
seeks to affirm
if
one
two related terms as

;
they
were mutually exclusive
but
Kant
being
does not see that the reconciliation of these

opposites
is
possible without
recourse
of "
had
{c)
to the
unknowable region
of
noumena."
is
The
criticism
Rational
Theology
valid
as
xxxv
of
against
the
dualistic
separation
being and thought, the world and

Kant's
God
but
own
solution
is
inadequate,
because
he regards these oppositions as holding absolutely within the
sphere of the
really
knowable,
whereas
they
are
oppositions
which
carry their
own
refutation with them.
When
he passes from the
Theoretical
to
the Practical Reason,
Kant
at last recognises
is
that the self-conscious subject
synthetic or
productive
real object
in
is
other
words,
that
here
the
not opposed
to the
subject as
something
is
unintelligible, but,
on the contrary,
of
bound up with the very nature

But the shadow
of
the
in
subject.
the
"
thing
itself" still
haunts him, and therefore he conobjective
ceives
ideal
this
world
as
merely
but
an
which demands
realisation,
which
can never be realised.

difficulty
is
The way
out of this
to recognise that the ideal is the
real:
that
is
morality
is
not a mere ''beyond,"
but
actually realised objectively in
human
perma-
institutions,
which
themselves
in
have
nence only as they are

eternal
harmony with the

or,
nature
of
the
world,
in
other
words, with the nature of God.
xxxvi
Critique of Judgnie7it
to
In the
Kant makes
feeling
a final effort
overcome the dualism with

In
aesthetic
which
he
started.
he
finds a sort of
unconscious testimony to the

real,
unity of the phenomenal and the
and
in
organised
beings he meets with
phase of
the head
things which refuses to

either
of
"
come under
the
phenomenal or the noumenal.

the sensible
actual
Thus,
as
by a side gesture," Kant points

of
beyond the abstractions

the
and
supersensible
;
to
their
concrete
unity
but the preconception with which he

prevents
real,
started
ideal
him
from
identifying
the
per-
and the
and the most he can

is,
suade himself to say

to
that
man
is
entitled
a rational faith in God, freedom and im-
mortality,
though these are objects which

of his knowledge.
if
lie
beyond the range

I
should be sorry
suggest the
of
what has been

that
said
is
should
idea
philosophy
in
merely a series
brilliant failures,
which
each new thinker vainly strives to prove the unprovable proposition, that the actual world
when properly understood

as
it
is
rational
rather,
seems
to
me, faith
in
the rationality of
the universe
tion
of
all
is
xxxvii
the incentive and presupposiprogress.
philosophical
Nor
are
the failures of successive philosophies in any
case absolute
with each step in advance the

of
problem becomes clearer and more easy

solution.
How
in
far
the outline
part
of
of
Idealism
essay
contained
is
the second
the
this
I
free
from
objections
which
have
tried to indicate,
must be
Perhaps
left
I
for the reader
to
determine.
that,
lies
if
may
to
venture
value,
to
say
it
has
the
any special
that
value
reality
in
attempt
reconcile
the
of
individual
things,
and
of
especially
the
freedom and individuality
man, with
the fundamental principle of Idealism, that the

actual properly understood
in
is
a manifestation
various
degree of one self-conscious and
self-determining spiritual Being.

It
would be
to
difficult
I
to
enumerate
all
the
in-
books
which
have been directly or

in
directly
indebted, especially
the
first
the
prepara;
tion
of
part
of
this
essay
but
must not omit

of
to
of
mention the various works

Balliol,
the
Master
and
of
Professor
Pfleiderer, as well as
Leopold Schmidt's Die
xxxviii
alteî
Ethik der
Griechen, Mr.
J ebb's
Growth
and
Mr.
Influence of Classical Greek Poetry, with
the introductions in his edition of Sophocles,
Bosanquet's
History of Êsthetic,
Dr.
Driver's Introduction to the Literature of the
Old Testament and

der
altsy7iagogalen
Schlirer's
Isaiah,
Weber's System
Theologie,
palastinischeî
History of the fewish People, Keim's
fesus of Nazara, and Weizsacker's

tolische Zeitalter.
Das Aposvalu-
In preparing
I
the chapter
on the Christian Ideal

able assistance
also received
from
my
colleague, Professor
Macnaughton.
JOHN WATSON.
Queen's University, Kingston, Canada,
October
i,
1896.
PART
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE IN RELATION TO THE GREEK AND

JEWISH IDEALS
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE
CHAPTER
RELIGION
Christianity, as
it
HISTORICAL CONNEXION OF MORALITY AND
issued
fresh
from the
mind
of
of
its
founder, embodied
a conception
indissol-
life
which brought rehgion into

morality.
uble
connexion with
race was
The whole
idea a
human
gains
conceived of as in
single spiritual organism, in which each

his
man
com-
own
life
perfection
by self-conscious
and
this
identification with all the rest,
munity
because
not
of
was held
is
to
in
be
possible only
man
is
identical
nature,
though
in person,
with the one divine principle

in
all
which
manifested
forms of
is
being.
to
Man,
it
was
therefore
held,
unable
he
come
to
unity
with
himself
until
has
surrendered his whole being to the influence
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OE LIFE

the
of
Holy
Spirit.
On
this
ideal,
view there
is
no basis for the moral

bility of
its
;
and no
from the
accept
possirelig-
realisation, apart
ious
ideal
for
his
man cannot
life
as
is
the
standard of
in
an ideal which
not
absolute
of
harmony with
universe
;
the ultimate prin-
ciple
the
nor,
it
even
if
he
did,
could his effort to realise

the struggle with
for
of
be anything but
an alien power too strong
him, a
struggle as futile as the attempt

of
the Teutonic giant

lift
the northern Saga
to
the
deep-seated
earth
from
life
is
its
founis
dations.
Affirming that the

just in
of
man
moral,
so
far
as
it
in
harmony
rests
with
the
divine
nature,
Christianity
is
upon the
of
evil,
belief that
"goodness
it
the nature
that
an-
things,"
and
it
therefore
maintains
which
regards
as
positive
in
and
to
tagonistic
to
good,
exists
order
to
be
all-
transcended, and
must succumb
the
conquering power of goodness.

man's religious
ing to
his
faith,
Accordingly,
which alone gives meanis
moral
effort,
for the individual
the source of a joyous consciousness of unity
with himself, just because in overcoming the
CONNEXION OF MORALITY AND RELIGION

world he overcomes his
true
that
own lower
be
self.
It
is
the
evil
which
exists without
and
within
him can never

it
completely abol-
ished, but
is
always in process of being

is
abolished
and therefore the Christian
en-
abled to preserve his optimism even in face

of the worst
forms of
evil.
No
faith
one
will
deny that
his
first
in
this
triumphant
Jesus and
followers lived, but
the objection
faith of
may
be raised, that the simple

is
an earlier age
days, or
at
not
possible
for
us in
these
least
not until
the
facts
the
of
doubts and perplexities, which

experience,
the
results
of
of
science,
and
and
it
the
deepened
suggest,
solved.
said,
reflection
our
time
inevitably
re-
have
been
fairly
weighed
The wounds
of reflection,
may
be
are too
deep to be healed by a
child-
like faith in
God and man, which

further,
rests rather
upon sentiment than upon
rational
evidence.
Many
from
will
go even
and maintain that

any case
does
morality not only can, but must, be divorced

religion,
and that
its
in
it
not depend for
support
upon any form
of religious belief.

Various reasons
may
be given for this sepreligion,
aration
will
all
of
morality from
but
they
be found to rest ultimately on the

It
assumption that
Is
not possible for man,
with his limited faculties and knowledge, to

get behind the veil of
reality as
it
is
in
comes simply a
morality
phenomena and grasp Thus the real beitself. name for that which lies
of
beyond the range

is
our
finite
vision,
and
therefore conceived as merely that
course of conduct which

order to
in
we must adopt
placed.
in
make the most of which we happen to be

not
the circumstances
So
the
firm
hold has this
doctrine taken of
mod-
ern mind, that

Christianity, but
merely those who reject

its
even some of
professed
champions, such as Mr. Balfour, regard moral

ideas as the only foundation
upon which even

can
"
provisional theory " of

find
life
be based
of
and we even
moods,
Browning, in one
that
to
his
of
suggesting
is
the
the
limitation
stability
knowledge
essential
and
progress of morality.
An
attempt
will
be made, in
the
second
part of this essay, to
show
that religion
and
morality cannot be separated from each other
without the destruction of both, and that the

essential
identity
is
of
the
human and
idea
of
divine
Chris-
natures, which
tianity,
ical
is
the
central
the legitimate
result of
it
philosoph-
reflection.
Meantime,
out that the whole
history
may be of man
pointed
goes to
with
the
show
that
is
the
connexion
that
of
morality
in
religion
so close
no advance
one has ever
taken place without a correin
sponding advance
distinctive
of
the
other.
is
What
the
is
Christianity
not
union
of morality with religion, but the
comprehenthat
siveness
of
the
principle
upon which
union
is
based.
ideal
of
Every religion embodies the

a
people,
to
it
highest
and the morality

the
special
which corresponds
in
It
is
form
which that
follows
ideal is
sought to be
the
religious
realised.
that,
when
ideal
of
is
no
longer
an
adequate
expression
of
the
more developed
the
consciousness
is
a
to
people,
moral ideal
of
is
also
perceived
the
be
of
in
re-
need
ligion
revision.
Thus
history
inseparable
from
the
history
of
morality.

That
religion
fact,
and morality have,
as a matin
ter
of
always
been connected
the
closest
way, might be
proved by a detailed
examination of the whole history of religion

but,
as
the
proof
would
lead
us
too
far
afield,
one or two instances where the confirst
nexion seems at
sight to be broken will
have to
(i)
It
suffice.
has been
maintained that
in
early
times religion had nothing to do with morality.
That
this
view
show.
is
is
untenable,
it
will
not be
difficult to
One
belief
of the earliest in
forms of religion
totem,
the
god or
who
is at
is
once some being lower than

regarded as the ancestor of
tribe.
man, and yet
a particular family or
The
theory of
Mr. Spencer, that this form of religion originated in the worship of
ancestors
and was
cannot
afterwards
developed into
it
totemism,
be
tive
accepted, because
assumes that primistage

If
man was
able
at
higher
of
devel-
opment than
his
descendants.
primitive
distinction
man was
is
to
draw a
clear
between himself and lower forms

inconceivable that
his
of being,
it
descendants should
have seen no fundamental distinction between

them.
totem,
The
which
truth
is
seems
to
be
a
is
that
plant,
the
ahnost
always
object,
an
animal, or other natural

divine because
it
viewed as
forms the medium for that
haunting sense
ble
of
something incomprehensidivine, of
and therefore
is
which even early
man
and
not entirely destitute.

in
The totem
is
is
the form
it
which
this
feeling
objectified,
then becomes the vehicle for the ideal

tribe.
union of the family or

ligion
of
Thus
rule
the
re-
early
man
is
bound up with the

which
his
life.
elementary moral
ideas
of
The
ceive
over,
only social bond

is
which he can contribe.
that
of
the family or
of
Moretribe,
the
members
each
family or
while they are closely related to one another,

are usually hostile to other families or tribes
and hence the morality which corresponds

this
all
to
of
phase of religion
is
based upon hatred

limited range.
who
fall
beyond
its
Here,
therefore, the correspondence of
religion
and
the
morality
object of
is
obvious:
is
a religion in wliich
worship
viewed as the ancestor

goes with a form
of a certain stock naturally
THE CHRISTIAN- IDEAL OF LIFE

morality
of
of
which
all
involves
stocks.
hatred
of
the
members
as
it
other
This hatred,
of
is
inseparable from
its
the moral ideas

in
early man, finds
expression
of
his
relig-
ion
and hence the totems

are
other families
spirits,
or tribes
regarded as
evil
whose
baneful influence can be counteracted only by
cunning and magical

(2)
spells.
Perhaps
of
it
morality
his
early
religion,
is
but
may be conceded that the man is a faithful reflex of may be held that their it
when an advance has
form
that,
connexion
dissolved
to
is
been
made
It
more developed
to
of
in
society.
easy
understand
history,
the earlier stages of

is
human
whatever
sanctioned
;
by religion should be blindly

at a
followed
but
more advanced
its
stage,
it
when
reflection
begins to claim
progress
in
rights,
is
may
it
seem
that
morality
religion.
rather
hindered
religion,
it
than
aided
by
Was
in
may
be asked, which led
Greece
}
to the
higher morality of the age of Pericles

it
Would
not be truer to say that the religits
ion of Greece was far behind
morality,
its
and
}
offered a stubborn resistance to
progress

" "
The Greek
or
poets," as
Mr.
Max
Mliller says,
had an instinctive aversion to anything exmonstrous, yet they would

relate
cessive
of
their
of
gods
what would
Indians
make
the
most
savage
Red
creep
and shudder."
that morality
Does not
advances
this fact clearly
show
independently of religion, and

in conflict with
it ?
may
even be
The answer
ration
to
of
to this
argument
for the sepais
morality
and
religion
not
far of
seek.
The moral
ideas
of
the
age
to
Pericles
were no doubt antagonistic
the
older religious ideas

thology,
preserved in Greek myin
but they were

religious
perfect
harmony
ruled
with
the
ideas
which
really
the best minds.
The
sanctity which attaches
to religion long preserves traditional forms of

belief
from being openly
assailed, but this
is
quite consistent with a transformation of the
whole
spirit of
the earlier faith.
In estimatin
all
ing the character of a religion

cases
we must
make
allowance
for
the
survival
of
ideas which have lost their

ing,
power and mean-
and concentrate our attention upon the

is
new content which
preserved
in
the
old
10
THE CHRISriAN- IDEAL OF LIFE

The appHcatlon
universal
in
its
earthen vessels.
ciple,
of this prin-
which
is
range,
is
in
the present case obvious.

ion,
The Greek
relig-
like
the
religion
of
every progressive
people, was in continuous process of develop-
ment
but
in
its
later
phases
it
retained
elements which, though

plicitly
they were
not
ex-
rejected,
occupied a very subordinate
place and were practically ignored.

religious
beliefs
of
The
age
real
Greece
in
the
its
of
Pericles were embodied, not in
mythology,
but in the interpretation of the legends given
by Pindar, ^schylus, and Sophocles.

this
is
When
that
once seen,
of
it
becomes obvious
the
relio;ion
Greece, so far from

its
beino^ at
any time on a lower plane than
morality,
was
in all cases
an expression of the highest

ideal
ideal of
which the Greek was capable, an
which he was seeking to realise in the various

forms
(3)
first
of his social
life.
As
the
morality
of
Greece
of
its
seems
at
sight to
be
in
advance
religion,
so
it
may appear
is
that
the religious ideal
of
the Jews
entirely divorced
from their moral

refrain
of
conceptions.
The
continual
their
CONNEXION' OF MORALITY
AND RELIGION
great prophets, especially those of the eighth

century,
is
that
Israel,
while she accepts the
lofty ideal of
God
revealed long ago to their
fathers,
has, in
practice,
forsaken
the
Lord,
ideal.
and
form
is
governed by the lowest ethical

penetrate
When, however, we
of
beneath
it
the
the prophetic utterances,
becomes
to
obvious that the

the rule
of
Jews are no exception
that
the moral
are
and religious ideas

counterpart
refers
of
people
the
precise
each other.
higher
is
The Jewish prophet

of
the
conception
God, with
original
in
which
he
himself
inspired, to an
to
revelation
given
while
by God
in
his
people
the
past,
truth
that
conception
has
been
cruder
gradually evolved out of a lower and
form
of
faith.
It
is
no doubt true that the

insists
is
religious ideal
in
upon which he
the moral ideas
far
advance
it
of
of
its
his
time,
but
is
equally in advance of
of
religious
ideas.
The mass
the
Jewish people had
never freed
of
themselves from the earlier idea
a tribal
god who was gracious
to
Israel
and
terrible to
her enemies; and hence their
morality was not in
harmony with
that ideal
12

an absolutely holy God,
"of
of
purer eyes
than to behold iniquity," which had disclosed

itself
in
the
higher
consciousness
of
the
the
prophets.
The
religious
conceptions of
Jewish people as a whole were, therefore, in

entire
harmony with
is
their
moral conceptions.
The
contradiction
not between a pure and

ideal,
lofty religion
and a low moral

ideal,
but be-
tween the lower
religious
and moral,
beyond which the people had not advanced,

and the higher
ideal
It
embodied
is
in
the
pro-
phetic utterances.
distinction
ish
no doubt a radical
between the Greek and the Jewthat
religion,
the
of
former was simply an

society as
in its
it
idealised
transcript
actually
existed, while
the
of
latter,
higher form,
was a picture
righteous
far-off
it
kingdom
but
that
this
was placed
distinction,
in
some
future;
is,
important as
does not ima

di-
ply
that
the
Jewish religion created
vorce between the ideal and the actual.
For,
of
though the prophets continually speak

time when Israel shall
this
"
"
return
"
to the
Lord,
return
"
is
in
reality
an
advance to a
higher form of religion
and morality.
The

ideal
of
13
the
future
is
always
conceived
to
will
consist in a religious
reformation whicli
regeneration
;
manifest
itself
in
a moral
and
though, at a very late age, the hope of deliverance
from outward and inward

process of development
evil
by
a natural
lost,
had been
aban-
the
its
Jewish
mind never
triumph
It
is
entirely
of
doned
the
that
belief in the
of
good and
evident
of
destruction
evil.
thus
throughout the whole history
Israel
religion
was
in
the most
intimate connexion
with morality.
Without
point
seeking
further
to
elaborate
a
it
which
seems
almost
that
self-evident,
may now
historical
be assumed
as
matter of
real
fact there never has
been any
and
antasfonism
morality
the
of
between
a
people,
the
but,
relisîon
the
on the contrary,
most intimate connexion.

it
How,
life
indeed,
should
is
be
otherwise,
to
since
every religion
of
an
attempt
dissolving
it
prevent
a
the
man
from
into
to
chaos of
fragments
by referring
it
principle which reduces

}
to
order and
coherence
There can
life
be
no morality without the
belief in a
higher
14
than sense and passion, and this beHef must
draw
ciple
hfe.
its
support from faith in a divine prinensures

victory
forget,
is
which
to
the
higher
re-
We
its
must not
goal
however, that
process which
the
it
hgion, hke morahty,
can
reach
ple
is
only
when
leaves
divine
princi-
so comprehensive that
of
life,
explains the
difficulty
whole
solved.
of
is
and
no
un-
Thus
the religious and moral
ideals
a people,
best
of
though
they
in
its
and noblest
sum up all that far life, may fall

That
ideal
nei-
short
ther
an ultimate explanation.
the
Greek nor the
Jewish
had
reached a satisfactory conception of the true

nature and
world,
is
it
relation
of
God, man, and
the
it
will
not be
hard to show; and

that
therefore obvious
higher synthesis
was imperatively demanded.

tant question,
it
But the impornot whether
will
be
said, is
Greece and Judea one

is
likely to
is
a dispute, but
failed,
proposition no
whether Chrisif
tianity
not
also
another, even
it
be
more
splendid, failure.
That
this
is
the only
at
really important
question for us
it
may be
once admitted, but
will
hardly be
denied

that a clear conception of
ideal of life in its
15
what the Christian

is,
permanent essence
to
and
con-
wherein
sists, is
its
superiority
other
ideals
a necessary preparation for an

its
intelli-
gent estimate of
ideal of
life.
claim to be the ultimate

these questions thorcritical
To answer
oughly would involve a

all
estimate
In the
will
of
the
religions of
the world.
pres-
ent
essay,
nothing so ambitious
be
at-
tempted; but perhaps a careful examination
and
comparison
of
the
life
Greek,
Jewîsh,
and
Christian ideals of
as a wider survey.
may
be as convincing
Before entering upon this task

to illustrate
of
it
may
help
somewhat more
chapter,
fully
the
thesis
the
present
that
religion
and
morality have
if
always developed pari passu,

paths which the
we glance
at the different
religious
consciousness
peoples,
has followed
among
different
and the goal which they
have severally attained.
There seems reason

ligions
to
believe that
all
re-
are
either
totemistic
or
have
devel-
oped
regard
from
this
totemism.
We
religion
may,
as,
if
therefore,
form of
not
the

a very early form of religion.
earliest, at least
Traces
in
of
it
are found even in those nations
which
civilisation
originated,
and
life,
which
such as
reached a
much
higher ideal of
Indian, the
it
is,
the Chinese, the
Greek, and the
Jewish
the
and indeed
as
we have
ideal
seen,
of
natural
or
form
in
which the
is
the
family
ideal
is
the
tribe
embodied, since that

tie of
based entirely upon the

thus
blood.
orig-
We
inal
may
regard
totemism as the
all
matrix
from which
other
forms of
religion
were developed.
to a higher
Totemism, however, gives way

form
to
of religion,
whenever a people advances

a
of
anything
like
settled
form
of
society.
all
This second stage
religion,
among
is
the
great nations of antiquity, except the Jewish,
whose
sists
religious
development
of
unique, con-
in
the worship
the
divine as maniof
fested in those universal
powers
the
nature
etc.
the
heavens,
exercise
the
so
of
sun,
winds,
influence
which
the
large
an
upon
natural
life
man, while yet they are

the
see
altogether
beyond
easy
to
control
of
his
will.
Now
it
is
how
people,
who
CONNEXION OP MORALITY AND RELIGION

embodied
natural
their reliQ:ious ideal
also
in
\J
these cfrcat
powers, should
have a higher
moral ideal than races which never got beyond

the stage of totemism.
his
Early
man found
in
totem somethino^ hio-her than himself, but

it
the divinity he ascribed to

in the object as in his
it
was not so much

or at least
own mind,
is
was only
in
the object in the sense that
nothing can exist which
not in some wây

But,
in
a manifestation of the divine.

divine
is
when
the
found
in
objects,
which
force or
splendour surpass the weak physical energy

of
man, the object selected
is
not altogether
inadequate as a symbol of that spiritual power
which man
universal
is
feeling
it
after;
and
as
it
is
object,
of
is
not an
inappropriate
unity
blood.
of
medium
Thus
the
embracing a
the
new ideal of a social number of tribes allied in

the
worship of
great
powers
nature supplies a religious ideal which helps

to unite all
the
members
of
allied
tribes
by
the
bond
of a
common
faith.
From
is
the worship of these natural powers
the hio-her races advance to the stao-e of what

ordinarily called
polytheism.
The
transi-

is
tion
effected
by the tendency
to personify
those powers, and thus to bring them nearer

to
man.
It
is
at
this
point takes
that
place,
a a
in
highly
diver-
significant
divergence
gence which determines the direction
which
the subsequent development takes place.
The
of
Egyptian and Indian do indeed personify the

gods, and thus for the time
lift
them out
of
the
lower rank of
mere powers
nature,
their
but they do not Jutmanisc them.
Hence
Tlie
polytheism takes the form of what Mr.

Miiller
Max
tenis
has
to
called
henotheism.
well as
dency
unity, as
multiplicity,
in
operation
from
the
very
dawn
of
religion.
Even
races
who have
not advanced
beyond
the primitive stage of totemism always have a
god who
is
regarded as higher than the other

is
totems, and in nature-worship the heavens

naturally taken as the highest
embodiment
unification
of
is
the divine.
therefore
The tendency
the
to
present from
first,
but in
it
the
henotheistic phase of
polytheism
assumes
the peculiar form that each god becomes at

the
time
of
worsliip
the
only
one who
of
is
present
to
the
consciousness
the
wor-
CONNEXJON OF MORAL/TV AND RELIGION

shipper,
19
and hence to him are attributed

beinoall
for
at
the
time
the
attributes
which
a
other times are distributed

of
among
of
number
directing
is
gods.
Now
to this
the
importance
attention
that
it
tendency to henotheism
explains
why
the Egyptian and Indian
religions developed, not into
monotheism, but
religion,
into pantheism.
The Greek
on the
other hand, not only personified but humanised the gods,
and the clearly cut types thus

possession
of
formed
the
became a permanent
Hence, when
the
race.
Greek
finally
abandoned polytheism,
into
his religion developed
monotheism, not
into
pantheism
and
in-
so long as he
stinct
of
remained polytheistic the
for
unity
was
satisfied
by conceiving
of the gods,
Zeus
as the Father
and Ruler
or later as the representative of their united

will.
Now, whether polytheism assumes

Greek form,
it
the
henotheistic or the
that
all
it
is
obvious
presents an ideal which serves to unite

a nation by a
it
members of worship. Nor does

the
that
common
to
seem
fanciful
say
polytheism
religious
is
the
natural
form which
nations
the
ideal
assumes among
20
which have been either formed into a single

political unit
by a combination
into
of tribes allied
in
blood, or
number
of
independent
of a
units united only
by the bonds
religion
for
;
common
any
case,
descent and a
it
common
the
in
serves
of
as
vehicle
the
religious
of
ideal
peoples
who cannot
conceive
wider bond than that of the nation, or of the

nation as other than a political
unity based
upon the natural

therefore, tended
tie
of
blood.
Polytheism,
dis-
to
perpetuate absolute
of
tinctions
of
caste,
or
master and
slave,
and
it
naturally
fostered
to
a proud contempt
for all
who belonged
could
their
another nation, and

descent from the
therefore
not claim
gods
have
of
country.
proof,
if
Here, therefore,
further
we
another
proof
were
needed, of the close correspondence between

religion and morality.
Polytheism, as has already been indicated,
develops either into pantheism, or into monotheism.
When
it
is
of
a henotheistic
type,
as in the case of the Egyptians

it
and Indians,
;
naturally takes
the
former direction
the
Greek
religion, with its definitely characterised
21
human
are
ulty,
types, as
naturally follows
the
latter
direction.
Both the Egyptian and the Hindu

poetic
deficient in that
and
of
artistic fac-
which
is
characteristic
the
in
Greek,
and hence they never succeed

freedom and
the
rise
imparting
spirituality to their gods.
With
of
reflection
the tendency to unity,

itself
which has already shown

otheism, carries
multiplicity,
in
their hento
them beyond the tendency
and as their gods have not been
conceived as endowed with intelligence and

will,
they come
to
conceive
of
the
divine
as a purely abstract being, of
which nothing
can be said but that

ious
ideal
it
is.
To
this
religIf
corresponds the ethical

nature
is
ideal.
the
divine
absolutely without
divine
dis-
tinction,
man can become

of
all
only
by
his
the
destruction
that
constitutes
separate individuality.
to the dissolution of
tions,
Thus pantheism
all
leads
fixed
moral distincdenial
of
and
therefore
to
the
any
evil.
radical
"
distinction
is,
between
right."
It
good
can
and
Whatever
is
therefore
look with perfect calmness upon the wildest

aberrations
of
passion,
and
it
leads
in
men
22
of
it

a higher
type to asceticism, only because
regards passion as a form of that universal
illusion, or
Maya, which supposes the

religion,
finite
to be real.
The Greek
race
of
as
the
product of a
re-
poets
and
to
artists,
all
whose nature
sponded gladly
the divine beauty and
order of the world and of

not
thus
pass
into
human
joyless
of
its
life,
could
pantheism.
poets and
Hence, under the influence

philosophers,
ism,
in
it
developed
into
monothe-
which the divine was conceived as

spiritual
single
Being,
It
endowed with
is
in-
telligence
and
will.
significant
this
that
the
their
its
Greeks narrow
only
reached
stage,
when
civic state
had already revealed

the
inadequacy, and
when
bond
of nation-
ality,
which had been hitherto preserved by

to
loyalty
the
national
faith,
had
lost
its
power.
ligion
Thus
was
the
wider conception
of
re-
reflected in the virtual dissolution

It is
of civic
and national morality.
time,
how-
ever, to consider
more
the
carefully the strength
and weakness
This
will
of
Greek
ideal
of
life.
be done in the following chapter.
CHAPTER
II
THE GREEK IDEAL

Starting,
like
the
other
Indo-European
peoples, from the worship of the great powers

of
nature,
the
Greeks developed a form

is
of
religion
which
the
highest
type of poly-
theism.
of
This religion was the embodiment

love
of
that
is
beauty,
truth,
and freedom,
spirit.
which
the
distinctive of
the
Greek
In
Homeric poems, the

of
transition
from the
worship
nature
has
already
been made.
but
hu-
The gods
manised.
of
are not only personified,
Turning
the
of
his
eyes
to
the
expanse
his
heaven,
early
Greek
divine
in
expressed
the
consciousness
the
majestic
form
of
Zeus,
whose nod shook the whole
heavens and the earth.
The
physical splenthe
radi-
dour
of
the
sun became for him
ant form of Apollo, shooting
arrows from his silver bow.

23
down gleaming Thus was grad-
24
ually

formed,
not
without
the
addition
of
new elements and even new

borrowed from
Semitic
gods, sometimes
sources
but
invari-
ably transmuted into higher form, the pan-
theon
of
glorious
of
shapes
which
filled
the
imagination
is
Homer.
The
divine
nature
conceived as manifested in distinct types,

will,
each possessed of intelligence and
and
embodied
in
human
forms, which exhibit the
utmost perfection
of physical beauty.
These
in
gracious forms only differ from
man
the
perfection of their spiritual and physical qualities,
and
in
their
freedom from decay and
death.
ligion
Thus
his
the Greek expresses in his reof
ideal
perfect
of
manhood
and body.
as
the
complete harmony
it
soul
Were
possible to secure and retain for ever physiintellectual,
cal,
and moral beauty, the ideal

realised.
of the early
ideal,
Greek would be
the
That
the
however, was one which did not sepathe

of
rate
good
society.
of
individual
is
from
good
not
Achilles
distinguished,
merely
by
splendid
physical
his
beauty,
powers,
and eloquence, but by

against
burning
indignation
wrong
and,
when
he
THE GREEK IDEAL

carries his resentment against
25
Agamemnon
is
to
an extreme which threatens the destruction

of the
whole Greek
host,
he
punished by
is
an
untimely death.
of
So Zeus
and
just
the
imper-
sonation
the
wise
of
ruler,
Apollo
religious
divine
type
the poetic and

ideal
of
mind,
Athena the
kept
in
valour
directed
and
check
by wise
self-restraint.
The Greek gods

the
are thus the expression of

of
Greek
ideal
society
are
in
which the
as
highest
natural
qualities
valued
means
to the realisation of a free

is
community.
The Homeric king

guardian
the
rights
of
not a despot, but the
the
his
sacred
customs
are
on which
of
subjects
based.
He
does nothing without consulting his council

of
elders,
and the public assembly consists

of citizens.
of the
whole body
is
The world
in
fact,
of
the
gods
an idealised counterpart of the

of
heroic
early
form
society;
and,
the
Greek could only conceive
of
the di-
vine as a
other's
community
and
of gods, living in
each
the
society,
sympathising
with
fortunes of men.
The Homeric eods
are
thus the
embodi-
26

of that free
ment
Greek
this
and joyous existence which
was the
ideal of life of the early Greek.
The
of
in a
religion
;
is
essentially
religion
world
for,
though the Greek believed

of the dead, his heart
shadowy realm
was
set
upon the beauty, the
joy, the sunlight of this

life,
world, and he looked forward to the future
without dread, indeed, but with a melancholy

resignation.
With
life
his
intrepid
intellect
he
had a
clear
and sober apprehension

and the limitations
not yet lost
of the
of
shortness of
hufresh
manity,
but he had
the
exuberance of the youth of the world; and

in devotion to his country
justice,
and
faith in divine
he found
all
that
was needed
free
to satisfy
his
highest
desires.
Entirely
from
slavish dread of the gods, he
came
into their
presence with joyous confidence.
He
did not
forget that his destiny lay on the knees of the
gods, but, having perfect
faitli
in their justice,
he did not prostrate himself before them with

the abject submission of the Asiatic.
Tlie
charm
of
this
conception of
life
has
never failed to exercise a peculiar fascination,
and indeed
it
contains elements which must
THE GREEK IDEAL
27
be embodied in the modern ideal, though these
must be transmuted
fundamental defect
is
into a higher form.
Its
that
it
can be approxi-
mately realised only by those

exceptional
that
it
who
life
possess
gifts
of
nature and fortune, and

as simply
conceives of the highest
the expansion of the natural
life.
The Greek
of the
was destitute
of the
Infinite
of
that profound consciousness
which was characteristic
Jewish
interval
to
is
religion,
and
therefore
is
of
the
wide
between man as he
and as he ous^ht
be.
No
doubt
in
his deepest nature
man
identical with
God, but his deepest nature
reveals itself
only
immediate
self.
when he turns against his Of this truth the Greek had

and
therefore
no
proper
apprehension,
he
never got beyond the ideal of a perfect natural

life,
in
which the
spiritual
and natural were
in
harmony with each
other,
and
of
a State
his
in
which the individual citizen found

satisfaction in devotion to the
com-
plete
common
not
weal.
That
this
limited ideal
is
could
be
permanently satisfactory
ual
shown by the gradlife,
emergence
of a
deeper conception of
which as time went on came more and more
28
THE CHRrSTlA^^ IDEAL OF LIFE

it
into the foreground, until
finally led, in the
poets and philosophers, to a complete trans-
formation of the earlier
belief.
is
Though
form
religions,
the Greek religion

it
the highest
of polytheism,
has, like all polytheistic
the fundamental
defect
of
having
no adequate idea
of
of the unity
and
spirituality
is,
the divine jmture.
This defect
in
the
Greek form
eods.
of polytheism,
made
all
the
more
to the
prominent by the individuality ascribed
The
2:ods,
as
embodied
in
sensible
human
form, are limited in space and time,

their relation to
and hence
conceived.
man
is
inadequately
There can be no proper compreso long as the divine
hension of the unity and spirituality of the

divine
nature,
is
con-
ceived as merely the perfection of the natural.
Beings
who
are regarded as limited in

of
all
space
reality,
and time cannot be the source
and
their relation to
man can
only be external.
Hence
ceived
the Greek o-ods themselves were .conas
having come into existence
at
definite time,
and
their action
upon men was
represented as their actual sensible appearance

to
their favourites.
Athena presents
herself
THE GREEK IDEAL

in
29
human shape
to
to
Achilles,
and persuades
of
him
abandon
;
his
purpose
slaying Again
memnon
Aphrodite hides Paris

flees
life
a cloud
when he Thus the

to be
from the spear
of
Menelaus.
of
man
is
represented as directly
interfered with
by the gods, so that man seems

in their hands.
merely a puppet
is
This
defect
of
inseparable from the
pictorial
form
the
religion,
which necessarily represents
the spiritual as on the

natural.
same plane with the

are
Even
in
Homer, however, there
ele-
ments which show that the Greek
reliction
must ultimately accomplish

sia.
its
own euthanafirst
fail
There was
in
it
from the
a latent
to
contradiction which
fest
itself
could not
manivery
openly at a later time.
The
concreteness
and humanity
of the
gods was
at variance with the instinct for unity,
which
could
with
faith.
neither
the
be
suppressed
nor reconciled
polytheistic
basis of the traditional

instinct
To
of
it
a certain extent that

of
was
the
satisfied
"
by the conception
Zeus
as
Father
gods and men," whose authority,

not absolute,
is
though
is
higher than that
30

But
this
of the other gods.
conception could
;
only be temporarily satisfactory
and, indeed,
even
in
Homer, there
unity,
is
already indicated a
is
deeper sort of
which
inconsistent
with this mere unity of the pictorial imagination.
For Homer,
like
his
successors,
belief
was
strongly
life
impressed with
is
the
that the
of
man
subject to divine control, and

is
that
his
destiny
determined
of
in
accordance
Paris
with
absolute
the
principles
justice.
violates
sacred
bond which united host

falls
and guest, and punishment

self
upon him-
and
all
his kindred.
The Trojans break
the oath to which they had solemnly sworn,
and draw down upon themselves the punish-
ment which they deserved.

an absolute
of
faith in
There was thus

could
not
the
a
righteous judgments
faith
the
gods.
Such
the
be
reconciled
lawlessness,
in
with
caprice,
partiality,
and
which were ascribed

character.
to
the gods
their individual
as
For they are

accepted
represented
not
only violating
at
moral laws, but as

other,
variance with one anfavouritism.

partly
and guilty
of gross
This
unreconciled
antagonism was
due
to
THE GREEK WEAL
the survival of earlier and less elevated ideas

of
the
divine
nature,
to
which custom and

it
tradition lent an
adventitious sanctity, but
was
also
of
inseparable
from the anthropomorreligion.
phism
of
the
Greek
is
The
conflict
competing ideas
conception
is
especially
apparent in
character as
the
of
Zeus, whose
an individual
has
widely
different
from what
been called his

of
official
character as the
of
exponent
the
common
men
;
will
the
gods.
Sometimes Homer speaks

ing or punishing
is
of
Zeus as rewardthis
sometimes
power
In the
vested
in
is
the
gods as a
the
wîole.
of
Iliad Zeus while

yet
called
guardian
oaths,
Agamemnon
"
speaks of the suffer"
ings inflicted by
the gods
upon those who

transition
swear
falsely.
In the Odyssey there are even
passages
in
which
an abrupt
is
made from
will
(1.
the gods to Zeus, as

If
when TelemaZeus
the
suitors
chus invokes the gods, "

punish
the
perchance
of
wickedness
378)."
This tendency to conceive of Zeus

sole
as
is
the
administrator
of
justice,
which
poems,
manifest
even
in
the
Homeric
becomes more and more pronounced, so that
32
in
THE CHRISTIAN WEAL OF LHE

the period between
wars,
it
Homer and
the
Per-
sian
is
is
ahiiost
invariably Zeus
who
spoken of as the guardian of moral order.

explicit
Thus, without any

theism,
there
it.
rejection of poly-
was
continual
tendency to
the spokes-
transcend
Isocrates,
who
is
man, not
but of
time,
of
philosophers
like
Anaxagoras,
sense
of
the
educated
the
of
common
his
of
explains
poetic
representation
Zeus as king
tendency
to
the
gods by the natural

divine
figure
the
government
Besides
faith,
after the fashion of

this
an earthly
of
state.
explicit
criticism
the
popular
the striving after a higher idea of the divine

is
shown
the
in
the
reverential
calling
feeling
which
of
led
worshipper, in
"
upon one
the gods to add,
or by whatever
name thou
mayst
desire
to
be
called."
But nothing
shows more
clearly the
tendency to go beof
yond the
indefinite
is
earlier
mode
thought than the

the
terms by which
divine
power
designated
by the prose
of " the
writers.
They
"
still,
no doubt, speak
gods," but they

as
usually
employ
such
expressions
the
divine," "the god,"
"the daemonic," when they
THE GREEK IDEAL

have to speak of the moral government
the world.
33 of
There
is
thus In the development of Greek
thought a clearly marked tendency to unity,

manifesting
itself,
on the one hand,
in
the
conception
of
Zeus as the exponent

of the
of the
common
will
gods
and, on the other
hand, in the conception of "something divine,"
which was
gods
that
of the
not
definitely
faith.
embodied
It
in
the
popular
has been held

a
" fate,"
the
Greek conception
as v/ell
of
to
which the gods

indicates
a
as
men
are subject,
certain
pantheistic
tendency
in
in
the
Greek mind, which was

as personal.
only kept
check by the opposite tendency

of the divine
to conceive
This view seems

to
to
imply
that
every
attempt
transcend
particularism and anthropomorphism indicates

It seems movement towards pantheism. more natural to say tliat the movement be-
yond polytheism may be either towards pantheism or monotheism, and

direction which the
that the
special
movement
the
takes will
be
determined by the peculiar form of the polytheism
which
forms
starting-point.
In
34
the Greek mind, which humanised the gods, the

reaction
against
particularism
was
natof
urally
" fate "
towards
monotheism.
The
idea
was therefore conceived, not
as a
mere
external necessity, but as a rational law, and
the gods were regarded as subject to

in the sense that
it
only
even the divine nature was
not beyond law.
The more
government
clearer
firmly the conception of a moral

of
the
world was grasped, the

of the
was the apprehension

it.
apparent
exceptions to
In
Homer and
man
is
Hesiod, faith
of
re-
in divine justice
assumes the simple form

pious
directly
life.
belief
that
the
warded by a happy and fortunate

Odyssey
Ulysses says,
just,
In the
that
is
when
king
is
pious and
the land
fruitful
and the
people prosperous.
the just man,
Hesiod declares that on

his
who keeps
It
oath,
Zeus be-
stows more renown and a fairer posterity than
on the unjust.
impiety never
ness,
was a popular
to be
belief
that
fails
punished by blind-
madness, or death.
To
the
objection
that the innocent were sometimes unfortunate,

it
was answered that they were involved
in
THE GREEK IDEAL

the
35
misfortunes of the wicked.
The
similar
difBculty that the wicked are often prosperous
was met by saying that divine

it
justice,
though
may
be deLayed, always overtakes them in
the end.
The same
of
idea
is
expressed in the
well-known saying
"
an unknown poet, that
the mills of the gods grind slow but very
small."
of
further
modification
of
the
idea
divine
retribution
was
that,
though
the
is
wicked man may himself escape, misfortune

sure to
fall
upon
his posterity.
We
but
also find
of
among
the
the
Greeks a growing scepticism

of
reality
divine
justice,
the
best
minds surmounted
view
of the
this scepticism
by a deeper
relation
between the divine and
human,
a view which
so
was most
fully devel-
oped by i^schylus and Sophocles.

poets, in fact, the current religious
In these
and moral
in
ideas were
ethical
deepened
as
to
result
an
monotheism, though they never consurrendered

faith.
sciously
the
polytheism
of
the
popular
^schylus, the poet

at
of the
men who fought

faith
Marathon and Salamis, has unbounded

gods
of his country.
in the
At
the
same time
36
his

plastic
of
imagination
works
freely
on the
mass
legendary material which he found

into the
ready to his hand, and
old
bottles
he pours the new wine of a higher conception

of the divine nature
and the destiny

is
of
man.
This transforming process

reconstruction
of
exhibited in his
of
the
myth
of
Prometheus.
Zeus,
order,
the
representative
intelligence
and
finds
when he has dethroned Chronos,

of
on the earth the miserable race
men.
Their
champion, the Titan Prometheus,

flashing
it
steals " the
fire,
mother
of all arts,"
and conveys
his insolence
to
men
in a
hollow reed.
For
and deceit he must undergo proportional punishment, until he has repented and submitted
to the sovereign will of Zeus.
intensifies his
it
Suffering but
spirit,
proud and rebellious
and
is
only after long ages of punishment, and

of
through the influence

like
Heracles, the
god-
man, whose
life
is
has been spent in
toil for
others, that he
his
at last
induced to give up
purpose of revenge.
There seems
little
doubt that here, as elsewhere, ^schylus seeks

to
show
that the world
is
governed with absoof life

is
lute justice,
and that the true lesson
THE GREEK IDEAL

to
37
sets
submit to the divine

his
will.
When man
up
of
own
rebellious will
against the Ruler
the
universe, he
must expect divine punFates and

the mindful
ishment.
The
triple
Erinyes jealously guard the sanctity of the

primal
ties.
The doom
for
of
Troy
is
the divine
punishment
violated
hospitality. his
Agaare
memnon
stained
lus
perishes
because
daughter's
hands
with
his
blood,
^schy-
explicitly
of the
rejects
:
the old doctrine of the

is
envy
the
gods
it
sinful rebellion against
divine
law which
brings punishment in
its train.
The
sins of the fathers are
no doubt
visited
falls
upon the
children, but the curse never
upon those whose hands are pure.
The
new
house of Atreus seems the prey of a malign,

inevitable fate, but only because in each
representative there
is
a frenzy of wickedness,
an infatuate hardening; of the heart.
When,
in-
therefore, a pure scion of this accursed stock
appears, the curse
is
is
removed
peace
reign
;
he suffers
at
last
deed, but
returns in
his
end
and
over
he
honour
to
the
house
which he has
cleansed.
Thus
the
Erinyes
become the Eumenides: the
stern law of jus-
38

gracious face to those
tice turns at last a
who
fear
and honour the gods.

Zeus as
the whole order
still
But, while yEschylus conceives of
the divine representative of

of society, the divine
law
is
conceived by
him
as
an external law to which
man must
law of
submit.
Sophocles, on the other hand, while

of a divine
he endorses the conception

justice,
seeks to
show
that this law operates
in
man
as the law of his
own
reason.
CEdipus
of
unwittingly violates
family,
his
the
sacred
bond
the
and punishment inevitably follows; but

is
punishment
also the recoil
upon himself
of his defiant self-assertion,
and
therefore,
when
he recognises that his suffering was not unmerited, he

will
is
at
last
reconciled to the divine

himself.
and comes
in
to
harmony with
for,
Yet
even
Sophocles the limitation of the Greek

life is
ideal of
manifest;
though he views
from
self-
suffering as a
means
of purification
assertion and overweening pride, he docs not
reach the conception that in self-sacrifice the

true nature of
man
reach
is
revealed
is
the highest
point to which he attains

that
the
conception
man
can
happiness only by vol-
THE GREEK IDEAL

untary submission to
is
39
will,
the
divine
reason.
which
only
also the law of his
own
It is
in
Euripides that we find something like an

of
is
anticipation
realisation
the
Christian
idea
that
self-
attained
through
self-sacrifice.
is
In
Euripides, however, this result
reached
by a surrender
of his faith in the divine justice.
Man, he seems
but this
to say, is
capable of heroic
of natural affec-
self-sacrifice at the
tion,
is
prompting
the law of
human
in
nature, not
is
is
of the divine nature.
Thus
him morality
divorced from religion, and therefore there
over
all
his
work the sadness which
inevitably
follows from a sceptical distrust of
the exist-
ence of any objective principle of goodness.
This division
not be
final,
of
religion
and morality could

of Plato
and hence the attempts

to restore
and Aristotle
the broken harmony

of
by a higher conception
the divine nature.

of
Though
religion
the
transformation
of
the
Greek
a
by the great poets
Greece was
continuous movement towards a more spiritual
view
an
in
of
the divine nature,
it
did not involve
explicit
breach
of
with
polytheism,
except
the
case
Euripides.
yEschylus
and
40
THE CHRFSTIAN WEAL OF LIFE

though
they virtually
affirm
will,
Sophocles,
the
are
unity and spirituality of the divine
not in conscious antagonism to the

faith.
popular
in-
Such an antagonism was, however,

so
evitable,
soon as philosophical
to ask
reflection
arose,
and proceeded
how
far
mythology
could
be accepted as
could
a
historical
truth.
The
profirst
question
not
be
raised
without
ducing
temporary
were
scepticism.
The
philosophers
nesfative
in
*"
therefore
almost
entirely
tradi-
their attitude
It
towards the
tional faith.
was only with Socrates and
his followers that a perception of the rational
element
hended.
implied
in
mythology
is
was
appre-
Hence, while Plato

of
severe in his
representa-
condemnation
tions
of
the
unworthy
nature
that
in
the
divine
Homer and
imaoi native
Hesiod,
he
recosfnises
faith
the
form which that
assumed was a necesthe race and

a
" lie,"
sary stage in the education of

of
the
individual.
l3ut
it
Poetry
a
"
is
no
is
doubt,
is
noble
lie."
Plato
here seeking to separate the form from the

* " life
"Whether
is
there are gods or not
cannot
tell," said
Protagoras;
too short for such obscure problems."
THE GREEK IDEAL
matter, the spirit from the earthly tabernacle

in
which
it
is
enclosed.
The
divine, as
he
deis
contends,
ceitful.
is
not immoral, malicious,
or
What
he
is
really
seeking to show
that the divine nature transcends the sensible,
and
is
the ultimate source of
all
truth, beauty,
in
and goodness.
instance,
reject
Plato
does not,
pictorial
the
first
the
representations
of the popular imagination,
which he no doubt
regarded as inseparable from the poetic garb
endeared to the Greek heart by the hallowing

associations of
ages
but he insists that the
gods must not be portrayed as violating the

sanctities of
moral law, as inflicting
evil
upon
lower
truth-
man from envy, or as appearing in forms. The gods are absolutely good,
ful,
and
beautiful,
and therefore are eternally

It-
and unchangeably the same.
is
obvious,
however, that Plato does not at bottom believe

that the divine nature can be
represented in
sensible form at
all,
and hence we cannot be

his
"
surprised that, with

art as
imperfect
sensible
theory of
reality,
an
"
imitation
of
the
more he
reflects
upon the distorting influence
of all imaginative representations of the divine
42

more
dissatisfied
nature, the
at
last
he becomes, until
re-
he concludes, though with great

is
luctance, that there

in that ideal city of
no place
for the
poet
which he dreamed such
beautiful, philosophical dreams.
The
is
prepara-
tion for
this
extreme view
is
already
made
in the contention that poetry

if it
a "lie," even
is
"
noble
lie,"
and
in
the denial that
evil
can in any sense proceed from God, or
that the divine can ever be manifested except

in its
own
absolutely perfect form.

is
For the
it
representation of what
false,
though
may
be necessary as an educational device, has no

ultimate justification
tion of evil
;
the
Manichean separais
from the divine
at the
same time
the exclusion of
God from
the actual world
and the only perfect form

be the supersensible.
of the divine
must
Thus, by the natural

is
development
last led to
of
Greek thought, Plato
at
re-
maintain a spiritual monotheism,

in its
sembling
of
main features the conception
God, which by an independent path was
reached by the
stages of
their
Hebrew people
history.
in
the later
In
his
revolt from
the pictorial representations of the divine, he
THE GREEK IDEAL

is
43
led to conceive of
God
as
dwelling in a
transcendent region beyond the actual world,
and
this,
though
of
necessary step
in
the
is
evolution
the
religious
of
consciousness,
The Infinite cannot be severed from the finite, God from man, without becoming itself finite, unless we
not
the
last
word
religion.
are prepared to regard the finite as pure

sion.
illu-
Nor does
the
ideal,
Aristotle,
though he protests
of
against
Platonic
separation
the
real
and the
on which
succeed in avoiding the rock
Plato's philosophy of religion

;
makes
as a
shipwreck
for
he too conceives of
God
purely contemplative being, alone with

self,
Him-
and
self-sufficient
in
His
isolation,
who
hews
acts
upon the world only

of
as the sculptor
and shapes the block
marble, which can

its
never be quite divested of

ness.
If
material gross-
this is at all
a fair account of the the-
ology of Plato and Aristotle,

that their solutions are not
tive
we must admit final. The ne2:aconscious-
movement by which
of
the creations of art

religious
and the products

ness
in
its
the
imaginative form
have
been
re-
44
jected,

and the
first
unquestioning faith in
the outward manifestation of reason in nature
and human Hfe

cast of
"
sickHed
is
o'er
with the pale
thought,"
only imperfectly supple-
mented
the
the
real
by a positive
is
movement
to
in
lie
which
virtually declared
beyond
actual.
For,
is
so
long as the world of
our experience
irrational
regarded as containing an
the
element,
human
"
spirit
must
either
fall
back baffled upon the phenomenal,

fly
or seek to
beyond the
flaming walls of
the world
It
is,
"
by some other organ than reason.

not
surprising
that
therefore,
Plato
and Aristotle were
succeeded,
on
the
one
of
hand by the
other
individualistic
philosophies
the Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, and on

the
hand by the
in
"
Neo-platonists
and
ref"
Gnostics,
who
despair of reason took
uge
"
in
a supposed
immediate intuition
or
ecstasy."
CHAPTER
III
THE JEWISH IDEAL
The
religion of
Greece, as
a
we have
seen,
developed
from
humanistic
of
its
polytheism,
through the influence
great poets and
philosophers, into monotheism.

polytheistic
Even
in
its
stage
there
was a marked
ten-
dency towards
not realised
unity,
but this tendency was

affirmed
the
until
of
Plato
unity
and
spirituality
the
divine
nature.
The
to
religion of
Israel
reached the same point by
more
direct
path.
that
There
Israel
to
seems
be
clear evidence
had passed from

the
primitive
totemism
of
worship
of
great
in to
powers
nature
of
before
the
the captivity
is
Egypt.
be found
Evidence
in
former stage
the
household gods or
in
tera-
phim, and of the latter

tion of
the early concepof
Jehovah as the God

seat
the tempest,
who had His
on Mount
45
Sinai.
What
is
46

development
it
unique in the
of
Israel
is
of
the
rehgion
that
passed without a break

nature,
to
from the worship

of
of
the worship
in-
Jehovah,
without going
through the
termediate stage of polytheism.

iarity
This peculcharacter
arose
of
from
the
the
whole
and
history
people.
Israel
Unlike the Greeks,

artistic
the
people of
had no
faculty,
and what
nioved
them_Jll_iiature was
not
the beauty of the world, but the tremendous
energy manifested
in its
more
terrible aspects.
The
divine
power they saw manifested
in the
thunder, and in the tempest which broke on

the mountains of Sinai and rolled across the
desert.
This great and

of
terrible
Lord was,
from
ser-
from the time

vitude
in
their deliverance
Egypt
under
their
of
great
leader
of
Moses,
all
the
common
object
worship
the tribes.
Thus even
them
united
before their politi-
cal union, the belief in
Jehovah was the bond

as
which
kept
people,
and
after the loss of

it
their national independence

all
kept them separate and distinct from

nations.
It
is
other
true
that,
after
their
settlement in Canaan, there was a continual
THE JEWISH IDEAL

struggle between those
47
who worshipped only

in
Jehovah and those who saw no harm
com-
bining His worship with that of other gods;

but the great
name
of
Jehovah never
failed
to reunite all the tribes in their struo-ole for
independence, and so to prevent
them from
tide
being
merged
life.
in
the
surrounding
the
of
Canaanite
And when
the
monarchy was
conscious-
founded, and the religion of Jehovah became

the
national
religion,
intense
ness of their great past and the anticipation

of
still
greater future
in
made
it
impossible
that
their faith
lost.
Jehovah should ever be
completely
Up
all
to the time of the great prophets, Jehoof
vah was conceived only as the greatest

gods, the
God
of
Israel,
who went
in
before
them
in battle
and led them
to victory,
and
their
of
who was pledged to aid His people time of need. Thus the religious
Israel
faith
was bound up with a

of
its
belief
It
in
the
permanence
nationality.
was the
work
tional
of
the
of
great
prophets to free the conits
ception
Jehovah from
In
exclusively nathis
character.
effectino-
chanore,
48
THE CHRISTIAN WEAL OF LIFE

but developing what was
the
first.
they were
in
impHcit
the
conception from
He who
in the
was
at first
conceived to be manifested
terrible aspects of
great
and
nature
came
to
be
regarded as raised entirely above

of
nature,
and the God

the
battles
was transformed into

Hence, though Jeho-
God
is
of
holiness.
vah
still
conceived as standingr in a more

Israel
intimate
tions,
it
relation to
is
than to other nathis
maintained that
if
relation can
in
continue
only
Israel
is
pre-eminent
I
righteousness.
all
"
You
all
only have
known
I
of
will
the families of
the earth, therefore
punish
you
for
your
iniquities."
Israel
of
must no longer regard

she continues
will
herself
as
secure
the divine favour, irrespective of her conduct:

if
to
dishonour Jehovah, her

destroyed.
insists
nationality
be
This
is
the
idea
which
Isaiah
upon with
the
in
such
kingfull
fervour
and power.
Even when
Israel
doms
tide of
of
Judah and
were
the
prosperity, the prophet

of
discovered in
class
them the seeds

superstition
decay.
The upper
unbelief.
was materialised, and the lower

and
practical
class full of
The
re-
THE JEWISH IDEAL

suit
49
was inevitable:
left
their cities will be wasted
and the land
desolate,
will
though,
as
the
prophet believes, there
always be a remre-
nant to form the nucleus of a new and

generate
great
nation.
Jehovah
will
employ the
people
heathen powers as an
of
Israel.
instrument for
the
fail
punishment
in
who
the
practice
of
justice
and
mercy
cannot hope for the favour of a
righteous
and holy God.

It
is
obvious that in this

idea of Jehovah as
the old
Israel
new conception the God only of

Acis
has
been virtually transcended.
cordingly the prophets deny that there
any
God
but Jehovah, and, therefore, declare that
He
has relations to other nations as well as
to Israel.
interests
terests of
of
all
He
of
governs the world, not

in
in
the
one nation only, but
the in-
righteousness.
He
is
the
Creator
things,
and the Ruler
of
the universe,
though
Israel.
He
has specially revealed Himself to
In the later prophets a further advance
is
made.
tions,
Jehovah
but
is
not only the
God
of naindi-
He
is
directly related to the
50

soul.
vidual
natural
This
advance
of
followed
as
a
of
consequence
the
conception
God
is
as a
God
of righteousness.
is
God who
beyond nature, and
essentially spiritual,
cannot be permanently conceived as related

only to the nation.
Holiness depends upon
the inner state of the soul, and therefore the

relation
of
man
"
to
God
is
a personal
one.
Hence Jeremiah and Ezekiel

responsibility.
assert personal
his
Every one
shall die for

;
own
die."
iniquity,"
"
says
Jeremiah
and
Ezekiel
it
declares that
the soul that sinneth,
shall
With
holy,
the conception of
for
God
as absolutely
and the demand
perfect
purity
of
heart and conduct, there arose the conscious-
ness of the opposition between the finite and

the infinite, the actual and the ideal.
Thus
is
the religion of
religion
of
Israel,
unlike the Greek,
prophecy.
The
prophet,
mainlittle
taining that
man was
his
originally
made "a
lower than
God," and contrasting with this

present
the
sinfulness,
perfect relation
looks
forward to a time
when
unity with
God
which has been
lost shall
be restored.
THE JEWISH IDEAL

The higher conception
diately
of religion
and mo-
raHty taught by the prophets was not imme-
accepted
by the people, though the

narrated
in
successive
reforms
it
the
itself
histories
to
show
that
had commended
It
the
that
best minds.
was only with the
exile
the people obtained a firm grasp of the idea

that
they were
the
custodians
of
the
its
one
true religion.
This conviction finds
most
perfect expression in the second
Isaiah,
who
is
declares that the peculiar mission of Israel

to
make known
will
the true
God
to the heathen.
"
There
entirely
always be a faithful
to
remnant
Jehovah,
devoted
if
the
service
of
who, even
will
they suffer for the sins of others,
be the means of leading
many
to
right-
eousness.
With
the cessation of the fresh spring of
prophetic utterance, the Jewish conception of
God tended to become more and more abstract. The way was prepared for this change
by the formation, under Ezra and Nehemiah,
of a sort of theocratic
commonwealth, a comlittle
pact
and
homogeneous
state,
devoted
mainly to the worship of Jehovah.
With
the
52
establishment of this community, the separation

of
Israel
from the
rest
of
the
world,
and the subsequent worship

scripture,
of
the letter of
were inevitable.
Jerusalem became
of
the
universally
acknowledged centre
of
the
religion
and worship
to
Jehovah,
to
all
which
parts
from time
time
Israelites
from
of the earth
flocked to offer sacrifice in the

this
temple.
ficial
Though
it
centralisation
of
of
sacri-
worship was a bond
union
as
to
the
despised race,
tional
was not
effective
a nait
bond, while on the other hand
was
Indi-
hostile to the wider

rectly, the
bond
the
of
humanity.
centralisation of
rise
worship in Jeruinstitution
of
salem
gave
to
the
synagogue.
sequences.
national,
ful
This change had important conReligion became no longer merely
but individual.
of
The most
religion
of
beauti-
flower
this
personal
was
its
sacred
lyrical
poetry.
Many
the
psalms,
most
of
which are admitted
to belono- to the
centuries after the exile, express the pure and
pious feeling called

the
forth
by the reading
of
Law and
the prophets in the synagogue.

of
There was, however, another consequence
THE JEWISH WEAL

the
dotal
53
change.
cultus
The importance
in
of
the
sacer-
Jerusalem
receded into
the
background.
The
Levite became of less conin the
sequence than the Rabbi skilled
Law.
all
Thus
the
the
Law came
the
to
be the centre of
Israelite.
thoughts of
pious
The
whole education
of the people, in the family,
the school, and the synagogue, was intended

to
make them
a "people
of
the
law."
No
final
longer did Jehovah reveal

the direct inspiration of
revelation of
His
will
through
a prophet.
Himself had been given in the

sole
Law, and the

find out
of
duty of His people was to

of the
by a careful examination
words
once
Scripture
all.
what had
been
revealed
for
Shut out from the
direct consciousof
ness
of
God, the conception
His nature
became more and more

"the
abstract.
He was
raised
to
Holy One," the "Absolute,"
an
infinite distance
above the world and man,

profane.
even to name
thus
whom was
be
with
Religion
came
of
to
regarded, not as the com-
munion
relation
of
man man
God, but as the rioht
before God.
The Law took

by God.
It
is
the place formerly occupied
54

with
the
eternal
identified
wisdom,
which
arose from the
unknown depths
of the divine
nature
it
is
the image or daughter of God,

of the
which was before the creation
world,
and
in the
contemplation of which the divine
life is
passed.
of
God, the
all
As Law
expressing the whole nature

is
the ultimate
revelation,
;
valid for
time and even for eternity
it
is
the true food of the soul, the tree of
life,
the
re-
source of
all
knowledge.
The
essence of
ligion, therefore, consists
in love of the
Law,
as exhibited in
its
its
study and in observance of

the
precepts.
to
Thus
Law
at
once unites
her from
its
Israel
Jehovah, and
separates
the whole heathen world, which by

tion
of
rejec-
the
Law
at
Sinai
adopted a hostile
attitude toward Jehovah.
As
and
conformity to the
source
of
all
Law was
the standard
righteousness,
of the
God was
the
bound by the terms

into
covenant entered
pious
with
in
Israel
to
recompense
Israelite
its
proportion to his
observance of
precepts.
As
it
this
proportion
that
was
at
not
always observed,
future
was held
some
time
the
balance
would be
restored.
THE JEWISH IDEAL

The whole
the
religious
life
55
thus revolved around

to the
these two poles,
conformity
reward.
of
life.
Law and
a
hope
of
future
Under such
For that
purely external conception, religion and morality
were emptied
free
and spontaneous devotion

is
to
goodness which
life,
of the very essence of the spiritual
was
substituted the mechanical observance of rules
imposed by external authority.

to
The Law was

expressed the
it
be obeyed, not because
it
true nature of man, but because
had been
to
ordained by
Him who had power

As
flow
its
reward
and
not
punish.
various
precepts
principle,
were
the
seen
life
to
from
any
moral
was conceived
to consist in strict
obedience to every detail of the Law.

all
Where
was equally imposed by God, every requireof the
ment
Law had
Thus
the
same absolute claim
to obedience.
there was, in St. PauFs
phrase,
"
a zeal for God, but not according to
knowledge."
life
To
the
conscientious
Israelite,
was made an intolerable burden, while the
rigid adherent of the
Law
could hardly escape
from a proud and boastful self-righteousness.
The
logical
consequences
of
this
legalistic
56

and morality are most clearly seen
life
religion
in
the
and theory
to
its
of
the
Pharisees,
spirit
who
has
carried
rules
out
extreme the
post-exilic
which
It
the
whole
period.
sometimes been said that the Pharisees were

the patriotic party, as contrasted with the Sadducees,
who were always ready
to sacrifice their
country and even the national religion from

motives of worldly prudence.
It
would seem,
however, that the main spring of action in the

Pharisees was not love of country, but love of
the Law.
so
And
by the
Law
they meant, not
much
the written as the
" oral " law,
which
of
had been gradually formed by the labours

the scribes.
"
The
Pharisees,^' says Josephus,
"have imposed upon the people many laws taken from the tradition of the fathers, which
are not written in the
an extension of the
Law Law was
of
Moses."
Such
inevitable.
A
is
law
rise
accepted upon authority necessarily gives

to casuistry, the
moment an attempt
life
;
made
to
to
make
it
a complete guide of
and the
precedents thus established naturally
come
be regarded as an unfolding of what

contained
in
is
already
the
law.
What
distinguished
THE JEWISH IDEAL

the
57
to
Pharisees
was
their
claim
pecuHar
strictness in the interpretation

of the
and observance
Law, or rather
of the " traditions of the

of the laws relating to
fathers,"
and especially
cleanness
and uncleanness.
Israel,
They regarded
in
themselves as the true
distinction
not only from the heathen, but from the less
scrupulous of their
own countrymen.
to
That
ex-
cessive zeal for the letter of the
Law was
their
ruling motive
seems
be proved
by their
attitude to successive dynasties.
During the
Maccabean
cause
;
conflict,
they adopted the popular
but when the insurrection proved suc-
cessful,
and the Asmoneans showed
indiffer-
ence to the Law, the Pharisees turned against

them.
Their zeal for the
Law won
the people
to their side,
and henceforth they completely

life.
ruled the public
Even
the direction of
public worship was in the hands of the Pharisees,
though
the
priestly
Sadducees
were
nominally the head of the Sanhedrim.
The
Sadducees were the wealthy, aristocratic party,

and therefore belonged mainly
to
the priest-
hood, which, as far back as the Persian period,
governed
the
Jewish
state
and
formed
its
58

They
differed
nobility.
in
from the Pharisees

Pentateuch and
acknowledging only the
the prophets as binding, to the exclusion of the whole mass of legal decisions which had
been
established
by
the
Pharisaic
scribes.
faith,
The Sadducees
held fast by the older

to
mainly because they were averse
the big-
otry and exclusiveness of the Pharisees.
As
of
matter
of
fact
their
position
as
men
affairs,
and
their contact with foreign culture,

to
had made them comparatively indifferent

the religion of their fathers.
The
ism.
Messianic
hopes
of
the
of
Pharisees
their
legal-
were the natural complement
They believed that, in terms of the covenant made at Sinai, God was bound to reward those who obeyed the Law, and therefore that the political
and individual
evils to
which the saints were subjected could only

be temporary.
to a
ward
They time when
therefore
looked
for-
the whole world would
be united under the sceptre of Israel into a

universal monarchy, over which
the
Messiah
should be ruler and judge.

era,
In this glorious
also
the
pious
individual
would
be
re-
THE JEWISH IDEAL

warded.
urrection
59
in
The
of
general
the
belief
was
" res-
just,"
though
some
also
expected
general
resurrection,
when
the
the
wicked should
eous rewarded.
to
of
be punished and
right-
The
in
reign of
the saints was
be ushered
by the direct intervention

rule
of
God, when
the
Satan and
his
God The Messiah, the Kinoof Israel, chosen by God from all eternity, should come down from heaven, where He was already in communion with God, and
angels should give place to the rule of
and
His anointed.
establish
upon earth the reign

While
this
of
righteous-
ness
and peace.
the
of
was the
in
form
the
which
Messianic
the
scribes
hope assumed
and
of
minds
Pharisees,
there
in
were not wanting men
finer
type,
whose minds
and
it
was accompanied by the

of
exevil,
pectation of the triumph

of
good over
the deliverance of
man from
the evil
atti-
of his
own
heart.
consideration of the
tude of Jesus toward the

sianic
Law and
will
the Mesto
hopes of his time
help
bring
out the distinctive features of the Christian,

as distinguished
from the Jewish,
ideal of
life.
CHAPTER
IV
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL
The
the
istic
first
step
of
toward
legahstic
the
overthrow
of
whole
of
set
ideas,
character-
later
Judaism, was taken

It
is
by John
did
the Baptist.
true that
the
Baptist
not
break with the legal piety of his time,

"
but his watchword,
Repent, for
hand," was
the
in
king-
dom
a
of
heaven
of
is
at
essence
legal-
denial
the
principle
upon which
ism rested.
For, according to that principle,
the delay of the
kingdom
of
heaven was not

Israel,
due
to the unrighteousness of
but to
the inscrutable
designs of providence, which

his
permitted
afflict
Satan with
saints
host
of
angels
of
to
the
to
and
their
deprive
them
the
reward
of the
which
diligent
observance
reign of the
Law
could
entitled them.
The
saints
only
come with
the miraculous
Baptist,
advent of the Messiah.

60
The
on the
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

other delay
of
6
of
hand, found
in
the
explanation
of
of
the
the
in
manifestation
the sinfulness
the
kingdom
in
heaven
men, not
the
inscrutable
for
designs
of
God.
called
repentance,
and,
by
of
Hence he demanding
sin,
from every one a confession

tually denied
fied
in
he
vir-
that
the
Pharisees were
justi-
regarding
themselves as
righteous.
The
but
the
evils
from which
the
men
suffered
of
evil
were
spirits,
not due
to
malevolence
corrupt
the
to their
own
of
hearts.
No
of
doubt
heaven
blessings
kingdom
in
could only come from above, but only those
need hope to participate
them who were
conscious of the evil of their
own
hearts,
and
sought the righteousness of God.
The
"
king-
dom
sary
of
heaven was
for
at
it
hand, and
the neces-
preparation
was
change
of
mind."
The
tion
all
effect of this
message upon the Pharito

for,
sees could
only be
;
arouse
in
their indigna-
and rancour
demanding from
heart,
a confession of sin
a
and a change of
the Baptist struck

self-righteousness
powerful blow at their

spiritual
and
pride
and,
62
in

virtually affirming
that
righteousness
did
not consist in the scrupulous observance of

the Law, he denied the very foundation
upon
which they based their expectation

reward.
of future
To
those finer
spirits,
on the other
of
hand,
who were
Baptist
painfully conscious
sinfulness, the
their
own weakness and

of of
preaching
the
came
as
welcome solution
and helped
to
their spiritual
perplexities,
restore their faith in the justice of God.
Among
significance
those
of
who
the
at
once discerned the
Baptist's
summons
in
to
repentance was Jesus,

tism, as
who submitted
belief
to bap-
a sign
of
of
his
the
funda-
mental truth
in the
John's doctrine, and, indeed,

of
beginning
the
of
his ministry,
"
adopted as
the
his
own
watchword,
is
Repent, for
kingdom
eousness,
heaven
at hand."
But, while
Jesus thus
it it
endorsed the new way of right-
soon
became evident
that
he
gave
to
another and a deeper meaning.
In the
Beatitudes this
new point
is
of
view
is
already indicated.
tist
Repentance
by the Bap-
conceived as the moral preparation for a
deliverance
from
evil
which
is
still
future;
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

by Jesus
it
63
in
is
regarded
as
consisting
personal consciousness of the infinite love of
God.
able
Thus
from
is
the moral revolution

religious.
is
inseparof
of
the
The kingdom
in
heaven
those
already present
the
faith
souls
in
who have
of
an
absolute
the
goodness
God, a
faith
which
finds expres-
sion in unselfish devotion to their fellow-men,
and which
rejoices
in
revilings
and persecu-
tions as the process through
which goodness
gradually overcomes
evil.
The
rent
ideal of life
which
is
indicated in the
Beatitudes was an entire reversal of the curconception,

in
especially
as
of
it
had been
the
of
formulated
the
teaching
the
scribes
and Pharisees.
tion
Even
for,
method
the
exposi-
was
in
new;
all
whereas
accepted
teachers
clusions
cases
sought to deduce conof
from the
letter
scripture,
of
by a
laborious
and ingenious system

his
exegesis,
Jesus
threw out
ideas
in
the
form
of
aphorisms, which
shone by their own

free
light.
And
if
his
method was thus
and un-
conventional,
how much more
revolutionary
seemed
to
be the substance of his teaching
64
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OE LIEE
Ignoring the authority of the
Law
and
the
prophets, he seemed to assert an independent

basis for the
and, in
in
new truth which he proclaimed, making righteousness consist entirely

regeneration,
spiritual
he
of
apparently
despised
the
whole
body
truth
which
had. been revealed by
God
himself to
Moses
and the prophets.

against
It
was, therefore, charged
him
that, in
abrogating the Law, he

of relig-
was destroying the very foundation

ion
and
morality.
fails to
which never
ple
The objection is one be made when the princiis
of external authority
attacked.
When
Socrates sought to trace back the customary

religious
principle,
and moral ideas
of his
time to their
he was accused of denying the gods
of his country,
and corrupting the minds
of
the youth
and the similar charge was brought

Paul, that in destroying the au-
against
thority
St.
of
the
Law, he
was
virtually
the
advocate of licentiousness and impiety.
The
it;
i.e,
answer
of Jesus
was, that
so
far
from abro-
gating the Mosaic law he
"fulfilled"
brought to light the principle which gave

its
it
binding
force.
The Law,
as he contends.
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

is
65
abol-
of
eternal
obligation,
as
I
I
and cannot be
ished
"
so
lono^
heaven and earth endure.
Think not
that
came
to destroy the law

to destroy but
life
it
and the prophets;

to
fulfil."
came not
of
The new way
does
not
abolish the Law, but shows that

abolished.
of basing
it
cannot be
On
its
the other hand, the old
way
cus-
upon external authority and

very foundation.
is
tom destroys
The source
the ex-
of all morality
to be found, not in
ternal act, but in the inner spirit
from which
is
the act proceeds, and

it
when
is
this
once seen
of
becomes evident that the legalism

and Pharisees
the
scribes
antagonistic to
any
genuine morality.
The Law which

nal
as
It
is
thus declared to be eteris
and indestructible
distinguished
is
the
its
Law
in its moral,
from
ceremonial,
part.
the
Law
as
interpreted from the point
of
view of the prophets.

ethical
is
This distinction
of
the
from the ceremonial part

an important advance.
could
of the
It
is
Law
for
of itself
a distinction which
the
scribes
have
no meaning
and
Pharisees,
who had no
between what
criterion
by which
to separate
66

upon the unchanging nature
a
of
was based
man and what

development
seen, a
of
held good only under special

at
circumstances and
given
stage
in
the
humanity.
is
For, as
we have
this is
law which
is
accepted purely upon
authority,
all
equally binding.
But
not
the
all
for
not only does Jesus
distinguish
of the
ethical
from the ceremonial part
Law, but he goes back beyond the
traditional
morality of his day to the fundamental moral

ideas expressed in the
Law and
principle
the prophets,
and
they
disengages
rest.
the
upon
which
Thus he
its
is
enabled to grasp the

universality,
Law
in
purity
and
and
to
contrast
it
with the unspiritual interpretations
of the scribes.
Take,
not
kill."
e.g.
the
command
in of
"
Thou
shalt
The
scribes,
accordance
with
their usual conception
morality as a sys-
tem
add
be
tion
of
external
rewards
and
punishments,
kill,
the gloss:
in
"Whosoever
of
shall
shall
danger
the
the
is
judgment."
thus
The
to
life,
sanc-
of
in
Law
made
consist,
not
the
the sacredncss of
of
human
here
but in
fear
punishment
or
hereafter.
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

The
is
67
is
is
principle
upon which the Law
based
to
therefore
destroyed.
The
of
appeal
that
purely selfish
the
motive,
and with
the
appeal
disap-
whole moral
Jesus,
aspect
Law
pears.
on the other hand,

rests
insists that
the
command
in
its
upon the purely moral
principle
lated
of love,
and that the
Law
is
vioex-
essence,
of
not merely in
this
treme expression
all
its
hatred, but in hatred in

evil
forms, or rather in that

is
disposi-
tion
which
the source of
all
hatred.
in
The
itself;
life,
outward act has no moral meanins^
murder
is
not the mere taking away of

life
but the taking away of

one's fellow-man
of
;
from hatred
to
and therefore anger, want
sympathy, and contempt, as springing from
the
same corrupt source, the unloving
heart,
are worthy of the
most extreme punishment,
the "hell of
fire."
Thus
the
of
Law
taint
in
is
seen to
exclude the
whole range
the
malevolent pasof
sions and even
faintest
justified
hatred.
Jesus
was therefore
saying that
the righteousness of
his followers
of
it
must "exscribes
ceed
the
righteousness
the
and
in
Pharisees,"
and "exceed"
not
merely
68

The
distinction, in fact,
degree, but in kind.

is
infinite.
The
scribes, in conceiving moral-
ity to
consist
rule,
solely in conformity to an
of
ex-
ternal
irrespective
the
motive from
did
which the act proceeded,
virtually
away
with the whole principle of morality; and, by

their
reduction
of
morality
to
system
of
external
rewards and punishments, they vio-
lated the very essence of morality,
which
rests
upon the universal principle
of brotherly love.
is
To
this
it
is
added that morality
the pre-
requisite of
all
true worship: no genuine re-
ligious act can be
performed by the
man who
back
the
nourishes in his
heart a Qfrudoê asâinst his
neighbour.
Lastly,
Jesus
traces
ethical principle of love to one's
neighbour to
a fundamental identity in the nature of
and man
nourishes
hatred
it
brings upon the
God man who
own punishment, just because he is violating what is his own real self; and hence, though he may escape external punishits
ment, he cannot possibly escape the most

rible of all
ter-
punishments, that which
consists
in the loss of
the blessedness wliich springs

of unity with
from the consciousness
God.
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL The same

moral laws
the
;
69
to
principle
in to
all
its
is
applied
other
cases
Jesus
traces
back
command
as
source in the nature of

nature
man
identical
in
with
this
God.
At
to
the close of
his treatment of
of
theme he
so
it
expands the principle
morality
as
embrace
finity.
all
men, and he elevates

said:
into in-
The Law had

thy brother in
"Thou
heart,
shalt not
hate
thine
thou shalt
not
ple,
be angry with the
children of thy peothyself
thou shalt love thy neighbour as
(Lev. xix. 17, 18)."
From
this
precept came
:
the characteristic Pharisaic deduction

shalt be
"
Thou
angry with the stranger, thou shalt

enemies."
hate thine
Thus
national
hatred
was not only condoned, but was actually made

a principle of action, and surrounded with
all
the sanctity and solemnity
of a
divine com-
mand.
Now
" it
even Plato reached the concep-
tion that
injustice."
was better
to suffer than to
do
Jesus goes altogether beyond this

"
negative attitude.
Love your enemies, and

This
It
is
is,
pray for them that persecute you."

indeed,
a
"new commandment."
Christian
ethics
the
very
core of
that
which
70
THE CHRISTTAN IDEAL OF LTFE

it
gives
its
superiority,
its
and makes
it
incon-
ceivable
that
principle
this
can ever be tran-
scended.
principle
is
Moreover,
supreme
ethical
immediately connected with the

Christian
idea
of
distinctively
God, as the
"Father"
no
limits.
of
men, whose love has absolutely

a symbol of this all-embracing
his
As
"
love,
evil
he
maketh
sun
to
rise
on
rain
the
and the good, and sendeth

just
his
on
the
and the unjust."
"Therefore," con-
cludes
Jesus,
"Ye
is
is,
shall
be perfect as
i.e.
your
finite
heavenly Father
perfect";
is
man,
and
sinful as
life,
he
yet capable of living a
divine
scale
of
repeating on
an
infinitesimal
of
the
large
all-embracing charity
his
heavenly
" Father."
"
Jesus has thus vindicated the
Law "
moral
as an
expression
of
the
fundamental
ideas
It
is
which constitute the soul

evident, however, that
in
of. society.
tracing back those
ideas to their source, he has raised
them
to a
;
plane which was never dreamt of before

other words, he
in
has
virtually
abolished
the the
conception of
Jewish
man and God upon which

rested.
religion
At
the
same time
THE CHRISTIAN WEAL

the
71
new way
a
of life
is
not an absolute change,
but
for
development.
The moral
toil
laws
won
they
humanity by the
people
and suffering
lost,
of the
Jewish
were
not
though
underwent
expansion
and
specification
by
the appreciation of the principle of universal
brotherhood.
Of
this
double relation Jesus
was
perfectly
conscious.
Hence,
while
on
the one hand

tion
of
he affirms the eternal
obli^ra-
the
Law, he asserts with equal
deci-
sion that the

to
new
principle
which he brought
new world from the " From the old as by an impassable barrier. days of John the Baptist until now the kinglight
separates
the
dom
of
of
heaven suffereth violence, and

take
it
men
the
violence
by
force.
For
all
prophets and the
Law
prophesied until John."

is
The
for
"
kingdom
first
of
heaven," as he implies,
revealed
as
it
is,
i.e.
the
time
as
actually present,
it
and men are pressing into

has
only
now
that
it
been
of
revealed.
The
prophets
spoke
future
kingdom,
living merely in the

at
hope that somehow and

brins^
some time
God would
about
the
reign of righteousness upon the earth.
Now
72
THE CHRFSTTAN IDEAL OF LIFE

live
men
in the
glad consciousness that the
reign of righteousness, which to the prophets
seemed
afar off, has
actually begun.
Hence
Jesus speaks of the Baptist as having reached

a
"
higher stage of truth than the prophets.

Verily
I
say
unto you,
among them
Baptist."
is
that
are born of
women, there hath not

John
the
arisen a
greater
than
But
but
he
immediately adds: "Yet he that

in
little
the
kingdom
radical
of
is
heaven
is
greater
than
he."
So
the change introduced by

that
it
the
new
it
revelation
lifts
those
who
accept
Baptist,
of
to a higher plane of truth than the
who
still
conceived of the kingdom
heaven as
future,
and who had not

that the
dis-
covered the central truth

of
kingdom
in
heaven was capable

it
of
being realised the

to
moment
was discovered
consist
an
unlimited love to
God and man.
Thus Jesus
Nor
was perfectly aware that old things had passed

away, and
all
tilings
had become new.
had he any doubt
of the absolute truth of his
own
ered
doctrine.
"
All things have been deliv-
unto
me
of
my
Father;
and
no
one
knowcth the Son, save the Father,
neither
THE
doth any
CHRlSTlAISr
IDEAL
73
know
the Father save the Son, and
he to whomsoever the Son willeth to reveal

him."
to the
"
The
I
revelation
which he had
to
make
world was an entirely new revelation.

say unto you that
Verily
many
prophets
to
and righteous men have earnestly desired

see what
to liear
ye
see,
and have not seen
it,
and
it."
what ye hear and have not heard

is
Yet, while he declares that his gospel
new,
pre-
Jesus
has
too
much
insight
into
the
sentiment
of the truth,
which
half consciously
worked
in the highest
minds
of the past, not to
be aware that the principle

into the full
felt
which he brought
light
of
day had been vaguely
by religious men
in all ages.
ple of evolution of
which so
The princimuch is now said

than by Jesus.
all
has never been applied more precisely to the
development
of religious ideas of
The
ideas
Jesus
are
so
closely
connected, flowing
principle, that
it
as they
do from a single
is
impossible to treat of one
aspect of his teaching without

to the other aspects.
some reference
it
Hence
has not been
possible to speak of his attitude
towards the
Law
without to some extent anticipating what
74
THE CHR/STIAJV IDEAL OF LIFE

now
to be said in
has
connexion with his
atti-
tude to the Messianic hopes of his country-
men.
In what follows
it
will
be advisable to
(i)
consider this question in relation to general view of the scribes,

(2)
the
the higher view,
rather felt than clearly formulated, by
men
of a
more
spiritual type.
The
points of agreement
of
between these two classes

wicked men and
mind
lay in the
conviction that the world had been given over

to to
;
the machinations of
the devil and his angels
but that a time was

things would
coming when
this
state of
be
completely reversed, and a reign of righteousness set up upon the earth under the Messiah.
But while there was a general agreement on

these points, there was a radical difference in
the
conception of
in the
first
"
righteousness," and
as a
consequence
Let us look
scribes
(i)
conception of the Messiah.

at
the general view of the
and Pharisees.
already seen, their dissatis-
As we have
faction with the evil of the present
was closely
connected with their

it
le<j:alistic
ideas.
of
To them
seemed
that,
by the terms
the covenant
peculiar peo-
made between God and His own
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

pie,
75
Israel
had a right
to
national
all
indepennations,
;
dence, and even to sovereignty over

as a reward for her devotion to
at least she
Jehovah
or
was
entitled to expect this reward
when she
contract.
fully
implemented her part

this
of the
Starting from
legal
point of
as
view, the evil of the present
was explained
flowing from a failure to

covenant.
ship to
fulfil
the terms of the
God "does
not exercise His kinsf-
its full
extent, but
on the contrary
ex-
poses His people to the heathen world-powers,

to chastise
them
Law.
for their sins."
By
"
sins " the
Pharisees, of course,
ity to the
meant a want
and
of
conform-
Because
of this disobedience,
pain
and
sorrow
prevailed,
especially
those mental diseases which were directly referred to
demoniac possession.
For the same
reason Israel groaned under the iron despot-
ism of Rome.
It
is
obvious that the future

in
kingdom
by the
of
God, which was to be ushered
Messiah, could only be conceived as
consisting in the absence of pain and suffering,

in
dominion over the heathen, and

saints,
i.e.
in the rule
of the
of those
who were
rigid in
the practice of the Law.
y6
THE
CHRISTTAISr
IDEAL OF LIEE
ideal of a
Now
the
Pharisaic
kingdom
of
heaven, consisting in the absence of pain and

suffering,
in
earthly sovereignty, and in the
rule of Pharisaic saints,
was one which Jesus
could not possibly endorse.

the whole conception
Denying
it
in limine
rested,
upon which
he
could admit neither the Pharisaic conception

of
the present, nor their vulgar ideal of the
future.
The legalistic idea of a contract between God and Israel, the terms of which were that the pious Israelite who conformed
to the letter of the
Law had
a right to freedom
from suffering and to external sovereignty, was

for
him a profoundly immoral and

;
irreligious
conception
and the assumption that the gov-
ernment was
to
of
God was
not just and
righteous
him blasphemous.
The world had

of
never ceased to be the object of God's loving

care,
and therefore the coming

of
the
king-
dom
spirit
God
could not
mean
in
a sudden and
miraculous manifestation of His power.

of
The
God was
to the
present
the
world of
nature and in the consciousness of man.

obstacle
The
It
reign of righteousness was in
the blindness and sin of man, not in God.
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

was want
and
of faith,
it,
77
and the
sin
which inevitably
the
suffering
flowed from
evil
that
explained
of the present.
We
have seen how Jesus opposes
to
the
legalism of the Pharisees his conception of a
righteousness which consists in active efforts

for
the
moral purification of the individual
soul, a purification
which could proceed only

Absolute
faith
from love
in the
all
God and man. goodness of God was

to
the key-note of
his teaching.
But
if,
as Jesus maintained,
the essential
creatures,
nature
of
God
is
love
for
all
and especially for man, how did he

suffering and evil
of
?
explain the existence of
How
to of
was the righteous government

reconciled with the apparent
?
God
its
be
evil
triumph
shuts
The
the
optimism
which
eyes
to
misery and wickedness of

false
the
world was to him a
and delusive creed.
The wretchedness and

too
palpable.
clear
evil of
man were
facts
only
Jesus faced
the
of
with a
force.
suf-
perfectly
consciousness
their
No
one was ever more sensitive to the

;
ferings of others than he
but
lie
refused to
see in suffering a proof of the indifference or
'j^

God.
it
injustice of
His explanation
is
of
sufferin
ing was that
necessary step
the
to
whole process by which

higher
plane.
man
of
is
lifted
To
the
Pharisees
suffering
was the
result of the
want
it
obedience to the
to
Law, and therefore
seemed
them
that,
with the advent of the Messiah, and the destruction of

all
who
transgressed the Law, suf-
fering would
in the
disappear.
Jesus
also
believes
gradual disappearance of suffering, but

it
he refuses to connect
ity to the
with external conform-
Law.
The
destruction of suffering
efforts of
must come from the
loving hearts,
not from any miraculous change in the conditions

of
human
life.
Suffering
is
not,
or
at least not merely, a
punishment
for sin, but
a divinely ordained
means
for calling out the
higher energies of the soul.
As
also
in
the view of
the Pharisees suffering
was the
result of transgression of the

of Israel
Law, so
was the oppression
by heathen
powers.
Hence they
believed that,
when
the
of
Messiah should come, the

Israel
independence
would be
restored,
and the whole world
should come under the sway of " the saints."
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

Now,
it
79
Jesus, as
has been maintained

patriot, sliared in
that
an ardent
the hopes of his

to the future
countrymen, and looked forward

sovereignty
accepted.
of
Israel.
This
if
view cannot be
F'or {a)
even
Jesus cherished the

of
Israel,
hope
of
the
external
sovereignty
he could not possibly accept the ideal

Pharisees.
of the
An
Israel in
which the whole govhands

of " saints
ernment should be
of the Pharisaic type
ful
in the
was something too dread-
to contemplate.
No
doubt Jesus was
in-
tensely patriotic in the sense of desiring that

Israel
should
be
the
leader in the spiritual

it
regeneration of the world, and

that
in
is
probable
the
earlier
days of his ministry he
cherished
the hope of
persuading his coun-
trymen
whether
that
to
accept
the
new
that
revelation.
it
But,
this
was so or
to
not,
is
manifest
he
came
see
the
deep-rooted
prejudices and externalism of the mass of the

people, and the
malignant opposition
of
tlie
ruling
classes,
were too strong

this
to
it
be
o\'er-
come.
Recognising
clearly,
was imshould
possible for
him
to believe that
Israel
be raised to a supremacy over the heathen.
8o
(b)

Belief in the future rule of
Israel
was
in-
separably connected in the Jewish mind with

the advent of the throne of
world.
his
a Messiah,
who should ascend

rule over a subject
David and
therefore,
When,
in his
Jesus
admitted to
disciples
that
the
Messiah
had already
come
of
own
person, he plainly acknow-
ledged that he had abandoned the whole set

ideas
upon which the future

of
Israel
political su-
premacy
of
was based.
The kingdom
it
heaven had already come, and
was not
In this
an earthly but a spiritual kingdom.
kingdom he who was least was indeed the spiritual power of the
greatest,
and
true Messiah
the power
taining
that
of loving service
was contrasted
rul[c)
with the earthly power which consisted in

ing over a subject people,
the
While mainheaven
has
to
kingdom
of
of
of
already
come, Jesus counsels submission
the established
in
power
rule
Rome, showing
righteousness
political
that
his
mind
the
was
not
of
dependent upon the

Israel.
supremacy
of
His answer to the mother
Zebe-
dee's
children has been strangely cited as a

that
proof
he looked forward
to the
earthly
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

rule of the "saints."
Nothing,
in fact,
could
more
clearly
of
show
that, in his
mind, the kingof
dom
the
heaven was entirely independent
earthly power.
To
the naive materialism
of
good woman, who desired that her two

sit,
sons should
one on his right hand and

left,
the other on his
he answered: "Can ye
baptism
be
baptised
with
the
wherewith
have to be baptised.^"
clares rank in the
sist
In other words, he deof
kingdom
heaven
to con-
in enlarged possibilities of loving service,
not in outward
he significantly
pomp and sovereignty. And " To sit on my right adds

:
hand or on
the future
is
my
left
is
not mine to give,"

of
i.e.
in the
hands
God.
The
atti-
tude of Jesus, as we
may
be sure, was one of
such absolute trust
in
God, that he was quite
prepared to accept the continued political de-
pendence
of
Israel,
if
that were
the will of
of his
life
God
and indeed towards the end
he seems to have seen perfectly clearly that

the popular conception of the Messiah, which,
in spite of all his efforts to turn
it
into a
new
channel, had taken firm hold upon the public
mind, and was encouraged for their
own ends
82

result In the
by the Pharisees, could only

plete subjugation of Israel
of the
com-
and the destruction
temple service.
In any case, the kingspiritual in its
dom
of
heaven was so purely

it
character that
could not possibly be con-
nected in the mind of Jesus with the political
supremacy
of
Israel.
No
doubt he wisely
sheep of the
limited his efforts to "the lost
house
in
of Israel," but this limitation
was never
in
his
mind connected with
a belief
the
future political sovereignty or even indepen-
dence of
sire
Israel,
but only with his ardent dethe

spiritual
to secure
salvation of
his
countrymen, and through their instrumentality
of
the
whole human
race.
The
bitterall
ness and hatred of the Pharisees, and of
who
of
cherished ambitious hopes for the future

largely explained
Israel, is
by the way
all
in
which
ished
Jesus
trampled
upon
their
cher-
prejudices
and
political
expectations.
Not only did he

them
tear off
the
garb
of
self-
righteousness which they had wrapped around

;
not only did he denounce them as enereligion
mies of true
and morality; but he
counselled what they regarded as a tame sub-
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

mission to the oppressive
83
of
heathen power
Rome.
ideal
Such
a profound antagonism of ideals
could only have one issue: the worldly material
must triumph
for a time, only to be ulti-
mately overcome by the intrinsically stronger

ideal.
Of
this
issue
Jesus was clearly conhis disciples
scious,
and therefore he warned
that he
would be the victim
of the
unholy rage
;
of the rulers
and their blind followers
while
yet
he announced with absolute confidence
that the
good cause would ultimately
prevail.
His optimism was therefore so profound and

so robust, that even the worst expression of
hatred and rancour did not destroy his faith.
The
passionate hatred with which he was pur-
sued to the death was interpreted by him as a

perversion
of the
is
inextinguishable
desire for
goodness which
sciousness of
inseparable from the con"
self.
Father, forgive them, for

is
they
know
not what they do,"
the expres-
sion of
an optimism which
rises
evil.
triumphant
over even the worst form of

(2)
The
souls
attitude
of
Jesus
towards
those
ap-
pious
who were
of
evil
disturbed by the
parent
triumph
without
and within,
84

from
the
stern
was very different
and un-
compromising antagonism which he displayed

toward
ordinary
the
Pharisees.
What
as
disturbed
so
the
pious
of
Jew was, not

the
wicked,
Israel
much
the
the
prosperity
ity
the
prosper-
of
the
heathen.
was
"
chosen
people of God, and yet the

Gentiles,"
left
sinners of the
ix.
the
unholy nations,
given
rites,
who had
up
to
Jehovah
and
themselves
idolatry
and unclean
seemed
than
to receive
greater favour from
God
the
people
whom He
faithful to
had chosen and who had remained
Him.
His special perplexity was

of
the
apparent
injustice
God.
in
A
the
partial
belief
answer was no
that
sins,
doubt found
God was
and that
chastising His people for their
He made
the
use of the heathen,

of
wicked as they were, as the instruments

His
will.
But
pious
in
doned the
the
belief
of
that
Jew never abansome far-off time

be
restored
of
favour
God would
to
Israel,
and that an awful day

for the heathen.
reckoning
would come
Now, Jesus does not absolutely deny

there
is
that
certain
justification
in
the
con-
THE CHRISTIAN- IDEAL

trast
85
between the heathen and the Jew.

also,
To
him
the moral wickedness of the heathen

of
;
and the grossness

tions
their religious
concep-
seem palpable
but he entirely denies
the
assumption that the Jew has any claim

to
is
upon God
that there
justice
of of
be freed from
oppression, or
anything incompatible with the

in
first
Israel.
God The
the
political
oppression
assumption arises from

to
conceiving of righteousness as obedience
an external
law;
the
second, from
life.
mis-
apprehension of the true end of
Hence
of
he seeks
world
istic
is
to
show
that
the
course
the
not to be
of
explained
on the
legal-
supposition
an
external
system
a
of
rewards
and
punishments,
or
of
special
claim on the part of the Jew to the favour

of
God.
The
rio^hteous
man
as
a
has no
rio-Jit
to
an external reward for his righteousness
the
Jew has
not
external
of
no
claim
Jew
of
to
the
life
favour of God.
is
For the end

prosperity,
human
is
but
this
the
develop-
ment
the
spirit.
When
once ad-
mitted, the difficulty arising from the apparent
triumph
of
the wicked
assumes an entirely
86

aspect.
new
of
External prosperity
elevation.
"
is
no
it
test
spiritual
What
shall
profit
man
life
if
?
he gains the whole world and loses
his
"
The
true nature of
for
in
man
is
seen,
not
of
in
this
his
desire
the
perishable
things
thirst
world,
but
"hunger
Nothing
in
and
can
the
after
righteousness."
satisfy
man
spirit,
is
but
the
orowth
him
that
of
divine
and
he in
whom
spirit
dwells
not disturbed by the want of those things

of
which are the mere accidents

not
its
existence,
essence.
What
is
is
called
the
pros-
perity of
the
wicked
idea
the
to
not
true prosperity.
This
that
is
the
of
which
Jesus
enforces
the
in
part
Sermon
on
Mount
which he seems
have addressed to those
who came
to
hear him, attracted by somethemselves.

"
thing kindred in
for yourselves
Lay not up
lay
treasures
upon earth; but
up
for yourselves treasures in heaven."

life
The
pos-
true
of
does not consist in the attainment
finite
and limited ends, but

of
in
the
session
that
which
is
eternal
of
and
imlife,
perishable.
therefore,
The beginning
consists
in
spiritual
an entire surrender
of
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

the
finite.
^J
But
this
is
only
the
negative
is
side of his teaching: the
positive
to of
side
the
direction of
the or
whole being
the
the
"
infinite
and
in
eternal,
laying
up
treasures
heaven."
This, of course, does not

is
mean
all
that
man
to
separate
himself
from
earthly concerns,
and
set
his affections
upon
the future
life,
in
the
sense of looking forit
ward
to
reward which
the present
life.
is
hopeless
"
to
expect in
treasures
fications,
"
The
in
heavenly
qualiin
do not consist
either
of
outward
but
there
or
here,
"change
whole
all
mind,"
which
transforms
light
single,
the
spirit,
and throws a new

" If
upon
thy
things.
thine
eye
be
whole body
the
"
shall be full of light."

"
is
So when
mind's eye
single,
the whole world
assumes a new aspect.

of the soul
is
This transformation
creation of the world
in-
the
new
the
mind
to
which everything seemed an
soluble
riddle
now
of in
sees
the
confused
fall
and
their
indistinct
mass
objects
into
of
proper
whole.
place
the
organic
unity
the
All finite ends are universalised

viewêd
when
they are
by reference
to
God, and
88
all

worthy action
is
then seen to consist in

"
the service of
God.
Ye cannot
of
serve
God
and mammon."
Now,
if
the true
life
man
consists in the
re-
service of
God, the wicked must not be

in
garded as prosperous, but as miserable

extreme.
the
the
calls
They have
of
is
lost
what Dante
"good
the
intellect,"
all
that
to
rational
good which
the source of
joy and peace.
There can be no need
to "justify the
ways
of
God" by any far-fetched attempt why wickedness is rewarded and

ness punished.
explain
righteous-
Wickedness
is
is
7iever rewarded,
It
is
and righteousness
no reward
ishment to
never punished.
it
to "lose one's life":

"
is
no pun-
save
one's
life."
For he who
while
seeks the lower misses the
higher,
he
who
to
seeks the higher has

In
the lower "added
him."
other words,
devotion to
to all that
is
uni-
versal or impersonal
for the
good
of the
ends whole
makes
the secret of
blessedness.
By giving up
self,
is
his exclusive self

is
man And
life
gains a wider
this true self
which
the true
self.
but another
in
God.
For the only
name reason why
for
in
THE CHRISTIAN WEAL

this
is
89
higher Hfe
is
man
in
is
in
unity with himself
because he
unity with the whole teni.e.
dency
of the world,
with the
will of
God.
In his earlier teaching Jesus seeks to com-
mend
as in
the
new way
of truth
by showing that
the love of
God
life.
is
revealed in nature as well
human
We
have seen how,
in later
Judaism,
the
decay of prophetic
to the letter of the
inspiration
and devotion
in
Law
in
resulted
ultimately
making God
name
for
an
in-
definable
Power, not
revealed
the world,
veil.
but
concealed behind an
the
impenetrable
Thus
tendency, which
was always
its
pres-
ent in the Jewish religion, reached
climax.
Now
of
Jesus
entirely reverses
this
conception
purely
transcendent
God.
God
is
is
in-
deed the Creator

seen, not
in
of the world, but
He
best
the great and terrible forces of

its
nature, but in
silent
and orderly processes,
and
the
in the
life
purposive energy which works in

flower and bird and
beast.
of
He
things
does not stand apart from nature in lonely

isolation,
but
His
spirit
pervades
its
all
and quickens them by

in
presence.
the
Hence
his
parables
Jesus
finds
evidence of
90

the
God's goodness in
of the
ordinary occurrences
is
homely
light
is
earth.
There
a tender and
solemn
cause
on the most familiar things befelt
God
to
be present in them, not

Especially in the
life
hidden behind them.
and
of
growth
the
of
nature
Jesus
finds evidence
continuous and loving care of God.

penetrative
activity
With
imagination
of
he
sees
in
the the
of
is
formative
God working
clothes
is
beauty with which

the
field,
He
;
the
grass
which to-day
oven
in
and to-morrow
lilies,
cast into the
the
clothed in a
glory exceeding
art
;
all
the splendour of
human
in the in
insignificant
mustard-seed, which
all
expands
harmony with
the
the skyey influroot,
ences into
leaves,
in
its
organic
unity of
stem,
and blossoms, with the birds swaying

branches.
the
Thus God works not

things
itpou
but
through
which have
is
come
from His hands.

chine, wielded
l3ut
it
Nature
not a dead maof
by the hands
that
omnipotence,
principle
is
instinct with
eternal
of life
which
exliibits itself in
the ever-recur-
ring cycle of changes, inorganic and organic.
To
the
eye of Jesus, nature
is
thus a mani-
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

festation of
91
the
wisdom and loving

if it
care
that
of
God who
and he asks
is
credible
He
takes such pains to fashion and provide

life
for the
of plant
"
and animal
the
is
less inter-
ested
in
man.
Behold,
not,
birds
of
the
heaven, that they sow

reap, nor gather into
neither
do they
barns,
and your heav-
enly
Father feedeth them.
Are
not ye
of
much more value than they?" The "free and friendly eyes"
with which
Jesus in the earlier years of his ministry con-
templated nature never deserted him; but, as

the malevolence and opposition of the scribes
and
Pharisees
with
their
blinded
followers
increased, the
problem
a deeper faith.
trial
demanded even There was to him no real

of evil
of faith in the external prosperity of the
wicked, for he saw that the wicked received

precisely
the
reward
which
their
acts
de-
manded
but the apparent success of the op-
position to the
work
of
God seemed
to
demand
faith
another explanation.
in
Having absolute
yet
the
in
saving power of love, he

the
found
his
that
majority of
his
countrymen
revelation only provoked a
more bigoted
be-
92
lief

in
their
of
own
unspiritual
ideas
and
hatred
the
truth that was growing in in-
tensity until, as
his
he foresaw, the
sacrifice
of
own
life
would be the inevitable

it
result.
similar result,
was evident
the
to
him, must
all
follow the diffusion of
truth in
ages.
The
play
conflict of principles
all "
must ever
all
call into
that
is
best and
that
I
that
to
is
worst in
man.
Think not
:
came
to
send peace
on the earth
a
came not
is
send peace, but

of
sword."
How
to
this
weakness
?
the
in
good cause
be
explained
Has God
truth, as the majority believed,
given over the
world to the rule of Satan
The answer
depth
evil
of
Jesus
reveals
the
infinite
of
his
is
optimism.
The triumph
It
of the
cause
no triumph, but a defeat.

it
For
the the
in
what does
itself,
consist.^
is
cannot
but
kill
truth
which
eternal,
only
body
of those
whose
is
lives are a witness of its
power.
as
There
nothing
in of
life
so pathetic
the
temporary
triumph
bad cause
for that
triumph means
tliat
for a time
men
bless-
in tlicir delusion are shut out
from the
edness of unity
witli
God, and therefore with
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

themselves.
93
On
the
other
hand, those
who
this
Hve
in the truth
have the whole tendency of

side,
things
on their
and conscious
of
they cannot be touched in the centre of their

being.
evil
is,
Still
the problem remains:

triumph.^
is
it
why does
answer
apparently
that
its
partial
triumph
only apparent
it
is
never complete, and
has no
permanency.
is
But more than
this
its
temporary triumph
all
essential to the full disclosure of
that the
truth
contains.
its
The
it
false
principle
must
its its
show
bitter fruits,
and must accomplish

completely reveals
it
perfect
work before
true nature.
Hence, the more

its
outwardly
triumphs and shows

surely
is
evil
nature, the
for its final
is,
more
over-
the
way prepared
the carcase
throw.
vultures
"Where
truth
there are the
gathered together."
Man
can
if
only
for
seek
for
and goodness, and
time he turns his energies against

cause,
it
the good
is
not in the spirit of a being
who
his
desires evil
his real
for
man
is
not a devil, but in
being a "son of God"
but
false.
in
confusion of the true with the

the
Hence
is
outward success
of
the
bad cause
94

Just as
real failure.
man cannot
find rest In
satisfied
any
finite
end, so he
can never be
permanently with anything short

It
is
of the truth.
the
truth
he
is
really seeking,
and
at
last
the truth
must
prevail.
evil
Thus Jesus
a "soul
of
finds
in
the
worst form of
good-
ness."
The
wôrld
is
through and through
the product of divine love.
Now, with
yet
this
grasp of the principle that

prevail, while
the good cause

it
must ultimately
a
conflict
implies
with
the
opposite
principle of
of
evil,
Jesus saw that the
kingdom
of
heaven was a process, a development

hio-her
in
its
the
struQô-le
with
the
lower.
princi-
Nothing can ultimately withstand the

ple
evil
of
goodness
but in his
for a
blindness
and
will
man may
it.
time turn his enerthe
gies
against
Hence
slow growth of
the
that
"kingdom
it
of heaven,"
growth so slow
often seems to be arrest or even retro-
gression.
This idea
is
expressed
l^y
Jesus in
a variety of figures.
is
Tlic
kingdom
the
of
heaven
in
compared
to the leaven, of
which was "hid
three
measures
meal
till
whole was
of
leavened."
The most
slrikiug expression
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

the idea, however,
is
95
given in that wonderful
parable preserved in the oldest of the gospels,

the gospel
of
if
Mark: "So
is
the
kingdom
rise
of
heaven as
man
should cast seed into the
ground, and should sleep and

night,
up,
day and
and the seed should spring and grow

not how.
he knoweth
For
first
the
earth
bringeth forth fruit of herself;
the blade,
then the
ear,
then
fruit
the
is
full
corn in the ear.
But when the
ripe,
immediately he
is
putteth in the sickle, for the harvest
come."
The
hope
attitude of Jesus towards the Messianic
of his
countrymen
at
once follows from

of
his conception of the
kingdom
heaven as
already present, and yet as a process of conflict
with
evil.
Holding these views he could not
possibly believe in any sudden or miraculous
change which should break the continuity

tween the present and the future.
refused to attest
his divine
be-
Hence he
their
mission by signs
Pharisees, in
and wonders.
When
the
usual crass materialism,

i.
demanded
a "sisfn,"
of
demanded
that Jesus should virtually
deny
the presence of
of
God
in the
ordinary processes
nature and in
the
normal experiences
96

life
human
his
answer was:
"An
it
evil
and
adulterous generation seeketh after a sign, and

there shall no sign be given to
of the
but the sign
prophet Jonah."
saw, that no
"
What
sign
"
he meant was,
could authenti-
as
Luke
cate his mission but the truth
which he pro-
claimed.
if
Truth "shines by
its
own
light;"
and
men
" will
not hear Moses and the prophets,

if
neither would they believe
one were to
rise
from the dead."
Hence
Jesus,
though he em-
ploys the apocalyptic imagery current in his

day, entirely transforms the current conception
of
the
future
success
of
of
the
kingdom
evil,
of
heaven.
affirms,
is
The triumph
good over
as
he
not to be effected by catastrophe
and revolution, but

labours of those
faith
only by
live
the
persistent
who
in
the truth.
His
does not rest upon a superstitious belief
in a
sudden interposition from heaven.
In his
eyes good can be developed only through the

lovincr
efforts
of
those
in
whom
the
divine
Spirit operates,
and who "let

that
others,
their
light so
shine
among men
Thus
his
seeing
their
is
good works,
heaven."
glorify their
Father which
in
optimism flows from abso-
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

lute trust in tlie
QOfnition that
97
in a recis
goodness
of
God, and
nature
man
in his ideal
"
son
of
God."
For
this reason
he believes that to
it is
the success of the
kingdom
This
essential that
each individual should have a personal experi-
ence of the truth.
is
indicated by the
the mustard-seed.
images
of
the
leaven and
He
does not expect the triumph of goodness

of society, or
from any external arrangements
rather he conceives of these as but the partial
expression
in
of
truth which
must
first
exist
those whose
hearts are open to the

time,
is
truth.
At
the
same
since
the
very
essence of Jesus' teaching

social nature of
the
essentially
man, the principle which he

itself
announced could not but manifest
in a
transformation of social and political institutions,
though these can never be more than

expression
the
of
partial
in
of
the
of
idea
of
is
a king-
dom
in
which
spirit
God
in
present
dis-
each
member
and
the wliolc, at
once
tincruishino:
unitino^
them
an oroanic
unity.
In
this
conception
of
spiritual
commulos-
nity, in
which each has found himself by
98

finds
ing himself, Jesus

lonorinQT for
the
answer
evil
to
that
dehverance from the
of their
own
day.
hearts which was the saving salt in the

of
aspirations
the
pious
refuses
to
souls
to
of
his
own
when
evil
tells
Just
of
as
he
postpone the
kingdom
good
is
heaven
some
far-off day,
shall
conquer
evil,
maintaining that
;
already overcome in principle
so he
those
who
"
labour and are heavy-laden," long-
ing for a deliverance in which they have but

faint belief, that the
in
is
way
to the
conquest of
evil
themselves
in
is
now
open.
And
the secret the
identification
with
their
brethren,
sons of the one Father.

of
This was the secret

nothing
that
triumphant optimism which
could destroy in him.

in the title
This idea
is
expressed
which he most frequently applied

the
"
to
is
himself,
Son
of
Man."
This term
often used in the
Old Testament,
to express the
for in-
stance, in Ezekiel,
weakness
with
and dependence
the
of
man,
of
as
contrasted
In
power and majesty

it
God.
Daniel,
again,
refers
not
to
personal
of
Messiah,
but
to
the
collective
body
great,
the saints, as
beasts.
contrasted
with
the
victorious
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

the
"
99
symbols
of
the
powerful
world-empires.
is
The
as
core of Daniel's Messianic hope
the
universal
if,
dominion
of
the
saints."
^'
Now
not
seems probable, Jesus adopted the term

it
from Daniel, he meant by

merely the spirituality
his
of
to indicate,
his
kingdom, but
race.
own
case,
identity
with
the
whole
of
In
title
any
is
the essential
meaning
the
that
Jesus conceived himself as
part and
parcel of humanity: in other words, he found
the
secret
its
of
life
in
complete identification
its
with
sins.
joys
and sorrows,
he
successes and
And
man,
because
was
called
thus
the
the
identified
"
with
he
is
also
Son
of in
God."
He was
one
in
with
Father
nature, though
not
person, since
he was
throuQ^h
conscious of himself as the

wiiich
the eternal love of

to
medium God was

power
he
of
is,
revealed
and
in
communicated
his
men.
the
as
Nothing can,
of
love.
view,
withstand
sinful
Man, weak and
must
sucfor
It
cumb
to
the
is
omnipotence
goodness,
goodness
the spirit of the living God.

full
was with a
sense of
the
importance of
^
* Schiirer's
History of the Jewish People
2. 2.
138.
lOO

that,
the question
Hfe,
towards the close

:
of
his
he asked the disciples
"
Who
do ye say
that the
in
Son
of
of
Man
Son
is ? "
flash
insight,
of
And when Peter, answered: "Thou art

the
living
the Christ, the
God," he
disciples
of
immediately goes on to warn

that
elders
the
he
must "suffer
priests
many
things
the
and chief
and the
scribes,
and
be killed."
it
He was
the Messiah, just because
was
his
mission to effect the deliverance
of
mankind, not
through
outward triumph,
but through
disciples, with
suffering
and death.
To
the
their preconception of a
Mes-
siah
who should come

power and
invested with miracuthis
lous
dignity,
was
"hard
for
saying"; and the same apostle,

a
who had
horror
"
:
moment
of
got a glimpse of the divine human-
ity
it
Jesus,
now
thee.
exclaims
in
Be
far
from
thee."
Lord:
this
shall
never be
unto
Thus even
of
Peter
puts himself
that
on the side
suffering
those
w^ho imagined
a
in
Messiah
was
contradiction
terms.
He had
life
not learned the lesson of the

of
divine
and teaching
Jesus
the
Master,
the
and
therefore
rebukes him for
mate-
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

rialism of his conception
:
loi
"
Thou
art a
stum-
bling-block
unto
me
for
thou mindest not

of
the things of
It
is
God, but the things

self-assertion
men."
tri-
not
by
and outward
that
umph, but by suffering and death,

true
the
the
shall
Christ
and
his
followers
can save
his
life
world:
lose
it
:
"Whosoever would save

and whosoever
it."
shall lose his life for
my
sake shall gain
As he
Messiah,
final
transforms the ordinary idea of the

so
Jesus
of
gives
to
the
a
belief
in
judgment
no
the
world
new
as
and
deeper meaning.
eous
are
The wicked and

who
the right-
longer distinguished
those
it,
who obey
indifferent
the law from those
violate
but as those
to
who
love
from those who are
their
fellow-men.
The whole
we have
those
the
system of external rewards and punishments

is
swept away, and
in its place
of
one fundamental distinction

lives
whose
are
ruled by the spirit of brotherhood,

live
and those who

Judgment, when
for
tliemselves.
Under
Last
the guise of the current imagery of a

all
men
shall
be gathered
together to receive their hnal sentence, Jesus
102
inculcates the truth that the spiritual status

of
men
is
ah'eady
is
determined by the prin-
ciple
which
"
outwardly expressed in their

as ye did
it
actions.
Inasmuch
unto one of
it
these
my
brethren, even these least, ye did
unto me."
the current
Thus while he
belief
leaves untouched
in
a future
judgment, he
brings to the test of
human
action an entirely
new
life,
standard.
Not the pious works upon
which men pride themselves, but the unselfish

determines the eternal destiny of man.
lives
He who
good
of
the divine
life
is
he who, like
the
his
the Master, has mero;ed his
the whole,
own Q:ood in and who has proved

but
love of
man by
the ordinary tender charities

little,
which seem so
mean so much. From what has been said we can understand

"
the sense in which Jesus speaks of
Faith."
To
the scribes and
Pharisees religion meant
acceptance of the teaching of the doctors of

the Law, as based
scripture.
upon
their interpretations of
Thus
for the
ordinary Jew there
was a double
wall of partition raised
between
him and God.
Not only had he no
direct con-
sciousness of the divine nature, and therefore
THE CHRISTTAN IDEAL

of his
103
own
nature, but even the revelations of
truth which were contained in scripture

to
came
him through the
distorted
medium
of tradi-
tion.
No
doubt
it
was impossible
to read the
inspired words of legislator and prophet with-
out catching something of their spirit; but so

overlaid was the sacred text with the prosaic
and deadening interpretations

which were dinned into
school,
for
of
the
scribes,
his ears at
it
home,
at
and
in the
synagogue, that
was hard
tradi-
him
to pierce
through the mass of

truth
tional
laid
ideas
to
the
which
they overof this
and obscured.
One consequence
revelation of
traditionalism was an incapacity to judge for
himself
when
new
truth
was
presented to him.
obstacles
This was one of the great

Jesus
which
met
in
his
effort
to
bring his countrymen into living contact with

the truth.
The
leaden weight of custom lay

of
heavy upon the minds
"the people of the

effort could they
Law," and only by a powerful

shake
tion
off the
mass
of prejudice
and superstito regard as
which they had been taught

God.
the revelation of
difliculty
And
this
intellectual
was intensified by the
spiritual arro-
104
ofance

which had been ensfendered
in
their
minds by the
traditional belief in their unique
position as the people of Jehovah.
Thus
the
Jew had
fore
to free
both his
intellect
and
his con-
science from the fetters of
traditionalism be-
he was in a position to look straight at
the truth.
This explains
why
Jesus
insists
upon
" faith "
as a child-like
attitude.
Only
arti-
those from whose minds and hearts the

ficial veil of
custom and pride

in a position
of race
had been
removed were
to accept the
new
revelation of truth.
in the sense of
It is in this
sense,
and not
unreasoning credulity, that he

"
commends
the truth.
the "faith
of those
who welcomed
is
Thus
for
him "faith"
is
that open;
ness to light which
form
of reason
it
is,
in fact, reason in its purest form.
What
Jesus
called
upon men
to
believe
he
supported,
not by an appeal to authority, but by an appeal to trutli

itself.
He
asked them to look
with open eyes at the evidences of God's goodness as exhibited in the world of nature
;
to
examine their own

ings of the holy
hearts,
and
to read the say-
and
insight.
men of old with intelligence To the persistent demand for
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

supernatural
"
105
signs
"
of his divine mission,
he
refused to listen, seeing in
them but another
form
all
of that
crude materialism which infected
their ideas.
saving "faith" he found in

of
those
few whose consciousness
their
own
that,
it
weakness and sinfulness was so strong

under the influence
of
his
life
and words,
removed the mist

and overcame the
Jew.
ual
" " is
of tradition
from their minds,
racial pride so natural in a
Faith
thus that union of intellect-
candour and moral simplicity which flows

It
from the vision of God.
cannot be trans-
ferred externally from one person to another,
but
is
possible only in
all
him who has surren-
dered
that
ministers to self-righteousness
It
is
and
selfishness.
thus another
name
for
the consciousness of
unity and reconciliation

"
it.
with
God, and for that
enthusiasm of hu" Faith," in other
manity" which flows from

words,
is
the personal side of the whole conof

tlie
sciousness
"
it
kingdom
:
of
heaven,"
spirit
as
Jesus
understood
it
is
the
of
which
are
at
operates in every
reconciled
member
God, and
those
who
with
are
therefore
unity with themselves and witli one anotlier.
I06

doubt
essence
this faith
it
No
in
has various degrees, but

It
is
is
always the same.

it
also
recognised
to
by Jesus that
grows from age
age
for,
while he speaks of the

as
Law and
of
the
prophets
giving a
revelation
the
divine nature, he also maintains that he has
himself given a higher revelation of
God
than
was possible
righteous
to them.
"
Many
prophets
and
men have
earnestly desired to see

it,
what ye see and have not seen

hear what ye hear and have
Here, as always, Jesus
of
and
to
it."
not
heard
holds by both
identity
ages,
of
sides
the
truth
the
essential
in
all
the
religious
consciousness
and the
process of expansion which

it
it
undergoes as
comes
There
to a fuller consciousness of
first.
what
it
contained implicitly from the

is
one
other
aspect
of
Christ's
over.
teaching
which
the
in of
must
not
be
passed
Although
connected
pearance
Messianic
the
hope
was
usually
ap-
Jewish
earthly
mind with the

Messiah,
an
and
it
the
resurrection of the dead for judgment,

also held
of
was
by many that
after the
long reign
the saints there should follow an eternity
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

of
bliss
107
or
woe
in
another world.
Now,
that
although Jesus
gave a new meaning to the
kingdom
of
heaven,
and
insisted
it
already existed in the consciousness of those
who were
trine
of
reconciled to
God and devoted
to
the good of humanity, he also held the doc-
personal
immortality.
When
of
the im-
Sadducees came, demanding a proof

mortality, he appealed to the
words
of script-
Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob," adding that " God is not the God of the dead
ure
:
"I am the God
of
but of the living."

appropriateness
against
selves
in
There was an especial

this
reply
as
directed
the
Sadducees,
faithful
who
prided
them-
upon being
as
to the teaching of
scripture,
tional
sees.
distinguished
from
the
tradi-
interpretation
But, as
accepted by the
Phari-
we have
without
light
of
seen, Jesus does

of
not
accept
even the teaching

"
the
"Law and
the prophets
first
bringing to bear
upon
it
the
his
sciousness,
that these
and
hence
own higher conwe may be certain

argic-
words were more than an
mentiim ad honiincm, intended to silence the
I08
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE The meaning

the
of
Sadducees.
Jesus seems to
be that, as the consciousness of the hving
God
involves
in
consciousness
nature
eternal
of
man
as
identical
his
essential
in
with
God,
we must
of
this
is
believe
the
continuance
see
fundamental
in
relation.
To
to
what
that
in
man
his
his
true
nature
is
know
with
is.
life
comes from
of
God, and that only

his
the
consciousness
union
does he learn what in essence he

essence of
existence,
God The
as
man
and
is
his
life,
i.e.
his
conscious
eternal
this
must
be
as
is
God.
The
true destiny of
this
man
to live in
union with God, and

taken from
destiny cannot
be
is.
him by God whose son he

conceives of
Thus
Jesus, as he
God
as
the
ever-living
Father, also
conceives of
beings with an immortal destiny.

existence
of
men as The future

as
man he
of
also
conceives
higher stage
"
being,
i.e.
when they
enjoy
a
shall
be
as
the
angels,"
shall
clearer
shall
vision of
last
God, and
when goodness
evil,
at
have overcome
in
and no longer be
conflict
forced to engage
it.
perpetual
with
While Jesus thus maintains the personal
THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL

immortality of man, he does not base
it
109
upon
hfe
a proof of
the reaHty of his view of
on the contrary, he bases immortality upon
God and the essential identity For he asserts in nature of God and man. that those who will not be convinced of the
the belief
in
truth
by
"
Moses and the prophets

"
"
would
from
not
believe
even
if
one were
to rise
the dead."
therefore
is
The
order of
ideas in his
mind
It
is
God, sonship, immortality.

of
our knowledofe of the nature

reveals to us his Fatherhood,
God which
his Fatherhis
and
hood
is
the proof of
the immortality of
children.
CHAPTER V
MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY
In
the
to
last
chapter an
attempt has been

life,
made
as
will
present the Christian ideal of
set
forth
by
its
Founder.
to deal with
No
attempt
here be
made
and
that imposbuilt
ing edifice
of
doctrine
the
which was
other
up
and
by
by
St.
Paul
apostles
of
the
subsequent
but
it
reflection
will
Christian
theologians;
help
to
throw the
if
teaching of
contrast with
Jesus
it
into
bolder
relief,
we
the Christianity of the Middle
Ages.
When we
to
pass from the religion of
Jesus
mediaeval Christianity,
into
entered
genial
we seem The another world.

with
to
have
free
and
glance
which our Lord contem-
plated nature, the triumphant optimism of his
conception of
faith
in
human
life,
and
the
his
absolute
of
the
realisation
of
kingdom
MEDIAEVAL CHRlSTIANirV
in
heaven here and now, have been replaced by

a hard
external
and almost mechanical idea

world,
of
the
of
by
stern
evil
denunciation
of society,
the
utter
perversity and
and
of
re-
by
the
postponement
of
the
kingdom
has this
heaven to the future
life.
How
markable
change
come
over the
this
Christian
consciousness?
To
task,
answer
question
would be a long
three
and
shall
in
only state
mediaeval
main
characteristics
life,
the
conception of
originated.
(i)
trying to indicate
how they
I
The
is
first
characteristic to
belief
which
shall
refer
the
universal
that
the "kino^-
dom
life,
of heaven," to use the
term which Jesus
so often employs, could not be realised in this
but was entirely a thing of the future
life.
We
can trace the gradual growth
of this con-
viction.
terrible
The
shock
crucifixion of their
to
to
Lord was
a
is
his
disciples,
and there
a
2food
it
reason
believe
that
for
moment
of
caused
their belief
in his
life
Messiahship to
waver.
But, as the divine
and sayings
the Master
came back
to their
remembrance,
they began to understand what he had him-
112
self

always affirmed
that
his
kingxlom was
a spiritual one, which could be realised only
by the destruction
righteousness.
of evil
and the triumph

still
of
Yet they
great
a
clung to the
could be
idea
that
so
revolution
accomplished only by a sudden and miraculous change; and hence in the Apostolic
Age
the
Christian, imperfectly liberated
from the
materialism of the ordinary Messianic conception,
imagined that the complete triumph
of
righteousness would take place in a few years
by the second coming

lish
will.
of the
of
Lord
to estab-
upon earth the reign

Living
of
peace and good
in this faith, the primitive
comto
munity
interfere
Christians
existing
made no attempt
institutions,
civil
with
or
ecclesiastical,
but
were
content
of
to
prepare
for the
imminent advent
went
on,
the
Lord.
But
as time
and
still
the Lord
did not
appear, his advent
came
the
to
seem more and
more remote.
himself living
civilisation of
Meantime the Christian found

in
midst of the decaying

there was
little
Rome, and
won-
der that the conversion of the world should
seem an almost impossible task:
MEDLEVAL CHRISTIANITY
Stout was
its
113
arm, each thew and bone
Seemed
But ah
!
puissant and alive,

heart,
its
its
it
heart was stone,
And
so
could not thrive,
"How
tion
can
these
bones live?" he
can
this
naturally
exclaimed.
How
mass
of
corrup-
be transformed into the divine
image?
Moreover, try as they might to avoid collision

with the secular power of the
the
Roman
they
empire,
Christians
found
that
could
not
meet together
for
mutual encouragement and

suspicion
stimulation, without drawing
upon
the
themselves
as
secret
society
;
plotting
overthrow
of the
empire
and, indeed, though
they had no such purpose, the Christian ideal
was antagonistic
last
to the
pagan, and must at

it,
meet with and overcome

was the persecutions
or be
of
this
itself
subdued.
of ideals
The outward symbol

to
war
which the
Christians were subjected in

third centuries.
to
the second and
Thus the present world came appear more and more a wilderness througli
little
which the
pelled
to
band
of
Christians was comsolitary,
march, sad and

heavenly land.
on their
way
to the
This sombre cast
114
of
^-^^ CHRISTIAN IDEAL
OF LIFE
thought never vanished from the Christian

till
consciousness
the
modern
age,
and per-
haps
it
cannot be said to have quite vanished
even now.
the
One might have supposed

hopeful
spirit
that
more
of
an
earlier
age
would have come back when Christianity had,

by
its
resistless energy,
compelled the
of
Roman
to
of the
empire,
in
the
person
it.
Constantine,
make terms with

fierce
pire,
But the inrush
northern hordes into the
Roman emto
and
their
facile
conversion
Chris-
tianity,
confirmed in a new way the "other"
worldliness
to their
all
its
of the
Church.
For Christianity,
in
its
rude and undisciplined minds, was
deeper aspects unintelligible, and
doctrines could only be accepted in blind and
unquestioning
faith.
superstitious
rever-
ence for the Church did
not restrain
of passion,
them
from the wildest excesses

only
will
and the
self-
curb to their brutal violence and
was the hope

of future
of future
reward or the
dread
retribution.
Thus mediaeval
the barbarin
Christianity,
unable to overcome
ism and lawlessness of the world,

of
sort
life.
despair sought comfort in the future
MEDIAE VAL CHRISTIANITY

This
is
15
the
spirit
which
it
rules
the whole of
of the tasks
the Middle Ages, and

of the
was one
Reformation to awaken anew the conof
sciousness of the infinite significance
the
present
life,
life
as
preparation for the future

all
and and
to
all
quicken
the institutions of so-
ciety
the powders of the individual soul
with the divine spirit of pristine Christianity.

(2)
A
is
second characteristic
of the mediaeval
period
a belief in the absolute authority of

all
the Church in
ship,
matters of faith and wor-
and the consequent distinction between

This idea had
as that as
its
the clergy and the laity.

roots in the
to
same principle
which led
essentially
the
conception of religion
a future world.
the hope of
The rude
his
self-will
bar-
barian
of
could
not
comprehend the doctrines

nor
could
the
Church,
be
broken except by a powder to which he was

forced to bend his stubborn
will.
Hence
in
its
the
Church demanded
ing,
implicit faith
to
its
teach-
and absolute submission

is
it
authority.
soil
Nor
easy to see
how
otherwise the
could have been prepared in which the

seed of the
Reformation was
to erow.
new The
Il6

Church was, on the
;
discipline of the mediaeval
whole, as salutary as
cipline
is
it
was inevitable
but
dis-
justifiable only as a preparation for
the exercise of independence and reason; and
hence the time inevitably came when men, having outgrown the stage of pupilage, asserted
their indefeasible
right
to
a rational liberty.
This was the claim made by Luther when he

unfurled "the banner of the free
(3)
spirit."
The
to
last
I
characteristic
shall refer
is
of
the
Middle
Ages
as
which
the opposition
to its full rights to
of faith
and reason.
from
To come
that
the universal religion Christianity had

itself
all
free
was accidental and

of
its
temporary
herents.
in the conceptions
first
ad-
The first step in this taken when St. Paul disengaged

accidents of
its its
process
it
was
from the
Jewish origin and presented
essence in a clear and definite form.
But
the process could not end here, for every age
has
its
own preconceptions and
its
own
diffi-
culties.
When
Christianity went
it
beyond the
had
ex-
boundaries of Judea,
had
to
meet and overit
come
the dualism of Greek thought, as
met and overcome Jewish narrowness and
MEDL^VAL CHRISTIANITY
cluslveness.
\\y
The victory was only imperfectly accomplished. The reconciling principle of the essential identity of the human and divine
could not be abandoned without the destruction of
the central
idea of
Christianity, but
the
of
Church did not
entirely escape the
danger
making theology
a transcendent
theory of
the absolutely inscrutable nature of God.

this imperfect stage of
At
re-
development Christian
dogma was
of the of
for a time arrested, so that
when
flection arose with Scholasticism the doctrines
Church were assumed

truth,
to be expressions
absolute
although
they contained
ele-
certain mysterious
and incomprehensible
ments.
There
is
indeed in the development
of Scholasticism itself a
of the
growing consciousness
antagonism
as
of reason to the
dogmas
of
the
Church
commonly understood,
a con-
sciousness which in
Occam even
"
reaches the
form
of a belief that there are doctrines

"
which
" rea-
are not only
beyond
but
"
contrary to
son
but the schoolmen never lost their faith
in the truth of the
dogmas, though they passed

iit
from credo
7it
intelligam to intclligo
crcdani,
and ended with credo quia
iiiipossible.
When
Il8

came
to be explicitly affirmed that the
it
thus
doctrines of the
j-^/^rrational
Church contained not merely

for reason, frusitself
but irrational elements, the be-
ginning
of the
its
end was near
trated in
in
in
attempt to find unity with

fall
an authoritative creed, could only
back
despair upon a universal scepticism or set

a
about
reconstruction
of
its
the
creed
itself.
Thus Scholasticism dug

as
own grave
as well
the grave of mediaeval theology, and pre-
pared the way for that great modern move-
ment which beân with the Renaissance and Of one the Reformation and is still going on.
we may be perfect harmony

thing
sure, that
nothing short of a
of
science, art,
and religion
can permanently
spirit.
satisfy the liberated
human
it
At such
harmony
it
is
the hard task
of
is
philosophy to aim, and only in so far as

secured can
we hope
for the return of that
half-vanished faith in the omnipotence of good-
ness with which Jesus was so abundantly

It is
filled.
therefore proposed, in the second part of
this
work, to ask
how
far
an
idealistic
phi-
losophy enables us to retain the fundamental

conception of
life
which was enunciated by
the Founder of
Christianity.
PART
II
MODERN IDEALISM IN ITS RELATION TO THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE
CHAPTER
VI
GENERAL STATEMENT AND DEFENCE OF IDEALISM

In his Foundations of Belief,
raises of
Mr. Balfour
theory
an
objection
to
the ideahstic
knowledge, a consideration of which

clearly
may
here
diis
help to bring out more
what
is
meant
by
Idealism.
This
objection
is
rected primarily against
what
claimed
to
be the doctrine of the late T. H. Green, but

it
is
thought
all
to
apply
the
with
equal
force
against
who hold
In
idealistic
view of
will
the world.
what follows no attempt
be
made
to
It
defend Green from Mr. Balfour's

does not appear to
to
attack.
me
a
"
true
that
of
all
Green reduced the world

relations
"
;
network
avoid
but
it
seems better
the
to
disputes which turn upon

of
interpretation
to
an
author
who
is
I
not
here
defend
himself,
and therefore
shall
deal
from an
difficulty
independent point of view with the
122

his usual
which Mr. Balfour has stated with

force
and clearness.
Balfour
all "
The main charge made by Mr.

against Idealism
is
that
it
reduces
ex-
perience
to
an
experience
of
relations,"
of
or
" constitutes the
universe out
categories."
Now,
that
it
is
no doubt
true, says
our author,
"
we cannot reduce
chaos
"
the
universe to
or
an
unrelated
tions
all
"
;
of
impressions
sensa-
but
must we not
is
also grant that in
experience there
it
refractory
element
in iso-
which, though
lation,
its
cannot be presented
refuses
of
nevertheless
in a
wholly to
relations
}
merge
If so,
?
being
network
this
"
whence does
irreducible
is
element arise
source
that
of of
The mind, we
lations.
is
are told,
is
the
re-
What
}
the
"
source of
in
which
related
The
thing
itself "
it
Kant
and
" raises
more
the
difficulties
than
solves,"
indeed,
followers
of
Kant
themselves
point out that this hypothetical cause of that
which
is
"given"
in
experience
cannot be
known
"
as a cause, or even
rid of
as existing.
difficulty
it.
But
we do not get
the
by get-
ting rid of Kant's solution of
His dictum
STATEMENT AND DEFENCE OF IDEALISM

still
123
seems
to
remain
true, that
'
without matit
ter categories are empty.'
And, indeed,
is
hard to see
how
it
is
possible to conceive a
is
universe in which nothing

for the relations
to be permitted
to
subsist
between.
Relais
tions surely imply

lated,
something which
is,
re-
and
if
that something
'
in the
absence
of relations,
ings,'
nothing for
in
us as thinking be-
so
relations
the
absence
of
that
something are mere symbols emptied

signification." ^
of their
Mr.
Balfour,
it
would
that
seem,
rejects
is
the
re-
sensationalist
theory
knowledge
of
ducible to
ings,
an
association
also rejects
individual feel-
and he
the
Kantian
"
refer-
ence of impressions of sense to a

itself "
;
thing
in
but he
is
unable
to
see
how
the
world can be explained without the retention

of a "
matter
"
to supply the
concrete
filling
for the otherwise
empty
categories.
to
His own
that
view
would therefore seem

world
involves
a "
"
be
the
ele-
knowable
ments,
two
distinct
matter of sense
and the concep"
tions or relations
* Balfour's
by which that
Am.
matter
"
is
Foundations of Belief.
ed., pp. 144-5.
124
^-^^ CHRIST/A AT
IDEAL OF LIFE
formed.
Where
it,
he differs from Idealism, as he

is
understands
in
denying that
all
reality
can
be reduced to relations of thought or
pure conceptions.
criticism, therefore,
The
it
force of Mr. Balfour's
depends upon two assumpis
tions
firstly,
that
possible to retain the
Kantian
doctrine
of
"matter
of
sense"
after the rejection of

"
Kant's assumption of a
Ideal-
thing in
seeks
itself "
and, secondly, that
ism
to
construct
the
world
of
out
of
empty conceptions or
Both
lenge.
(i)
relations
I
thought.
of these
assumptions
venture to chal-
The Kantian
"
doctrine of
falls
a "matter of
sense
of
stands
in
or
with the assumption

In the Êsthetic the
is
"thing
of
itself."
problem
knowledge
is
put by Kant in this
way:
What
the element in the perception
of objects as in space
to the subject,
and time which belongs

is
and what
object.^
the element which
belongs to the
that the
lated
Kant's
answer
is,
"form" under which objects

and temporally
matter
this
"
is
are reto
spatially
due
the
subject,
ject.
the
"
so
related
of
"
to the ob-
Now,
in
contrast
form
"
and

"matter,"
it
125
is
obviously
its
assumed that
the
subject has a nature of

of the object,
own independently
of its in
and the object a nature

of
own independently
words,
are
that, as
the subject;
other
existences, subject
and object
the other
unrelated
it
to
each other.
On
hand
is
admitted by Kant that there can
be no knowledge until the subject comes into

relation to the object.
Now, the assumption

very natural
of
the
is
independent
existence of subject and object
no doubt a
assumption, because,
when we
that, in
begin to explain knowledge, we already have
knowledge.
But we must not forget
accounting for the origin of knowledge, we
have no right to assume the very knowledge
we
are seeking to explain.
We
of
cannot
start
from the independent existence

object unless
subject and
we can show
that an indepen-
dent subject and object can be known.
Before
we ask what
w^hat
is
contributed by the subject, and

object,
comes from the
we must be
sure
is
that the
separation of subject and

If
object
admissible.
there
is
no known
subject
which does not imply a known
object, the ele-
126

to the
ment belonging
one cannot be sepa-
rated from the element belonging to the other.
When Kant
of
asks
"
by what means our faculty

to activity but
knowledge should be aroused
by objects," he forgets that neither object nor

subject exists
ledge,
for
knowledge prior
to
know-
and that
to ask
how
"
the subject should

is
be
ask
"
aroused to activity
by the object
to
how
a non-existent object should act upon
a non-existent subject.
This question cannot

it
be answered, because
is
self-contradictory,
for to a self-contradictory question
no answer
can possibly be given.
But though
tion
of
Kant
and
first
starts
from the opposihe takes,

effect
in
subject
object,
the
over-
Esthetic,
throw.
exists
the
step
to
its
The
real object, he
says,
no doubt
apart from the subject, but the

For, in
known
of
object does not.

objects, the
the
perception
relations of
in
space and time

the
subject,
are
the
"
manner
of
which
when
as
aroused to activity," comes to have a conobjects.
sciousness
So
far,
is
therefore,
knowledge goes, the object
not
an
in
inde-
pendent existence, but an existence
and

for a conscious subject.
to
127
Now
in
this
view leads
an important change
the world.
world,
fully
our ordinary con-
ception of
objective
in
itself,
When we
formed
assume an
complete
and
apart from the subject,

subject a
we manifestly
and
make
of
the
mere passive spectator

it
a world from which

a
stands apart
when we assume
nature
of
its
subject with a complex
own, we make the world ento the subject.
tirely foreign
But the moobjective
ment
the
we
ask
how
to the
of
this
world
that
becomes known
subject,
we
the
find
independence
each alternately disap-
pears in the other.
Thus,
subject,
for
it,
if
object
is
apprehended by the
apprehension
tive
and only
the
in this
exists
whole objec-
world
is
absorbed into the subject.

if
On
the
the
tent
other hand,
of
we ask what
we
find
is
the conit
the
subject,
that
is
is
object,
and thus the subject

Kant, however,
absorbed in
not
carry
the
object.
does
over the object as a whole into the subject,
but draws a distinction between the element
which comes from the object and
the
ele-
ment which
is
added
by the
subject.
In
128
this

way the
identification of subject
and ob-
ject is partially arrested,
and an intermediate
region
is
assumed
in
which subject and obeach other.
ject enter into relation with

is
This
the region of knowledge.
But, while this

is
union of subject and object

of
the condition
still
knowable
"
reality,
subject
and object
remain apart as existences.
Here, then, we
as
it
have the
thing in
itself,"
appears in
the yEsthetic.
The compromise which Kant here adopts If we are to asobviously untenable. is sume the independent existence of subject and object, we must not at the same time
assume that the one
is
dependent
for
its
reality
upon the
poral
other.
Since the spatial and tem-
relations
have a meaning only within
knowledge, they can no more belong to the

subject than
to
the
object,
but only to the

arisen for
it
subject in so far as
there has
the consciousness
of
an object determinable
under those
relations.
Why,
then, does
Kant
maintain that space and time are forms of

perception,
not
determinations
of
the
real
He
does so because he has not completely

freed himself from the
object
129
duaHsm
starts.
of subject
and
with which
to
exist
he
subject asobject
sumed
ledge
apart from
the
must
be regarded as a pure blank so far as knowis
concerned
and when
it
begins
to
know we must suppose it to be affected by the Thus it is regarded as purely recepobject.

tive in
its
relation
to
the object, and there-
fore
it
has to wait for the action of the object
upon
ject
it.
Now when we
ask whether the subit
can be purely receptive, or whether

to be at
must not be affirmed

and conscious
of
once receptive
it
being receptive,
becomes
manifest that the whole conception of a purely

receptive
ject
it
subject
is
unmeaning.
If
the subof
it,
is
receptive
without being aware
will
simply exist in a series of individual

without referring those states either to
itself.
states,
an object or to
For such a subject

;
there can be no objective world
for, as
Kant
himself
implies
in
tells
"
us,
the consciousness of objects
the reference of sensation to objects
perception."
On
the
other hand,
of
if
the
subject
tions,
not
is
only exists in a series
affec-
but
conscious of affections as coming
c;o

object,
it
from the
its
must distinguish them

relate
as
own and
far as
yet
it
them
to
the
is
object.
But so
does
a
so,
the object
existing
within
itself.
knowledge,
not
thing
by
Thus
ject
the object has no existence for the subit
except as the subject distinguishes

relates
its
it
from
the
and yet
to itself.
The
in
object
is
product of
own
is
activity,
and hence the

regard to
is
it.
subject cannot be receptive
A
is
subject which
not self-active
for itself
nothing.
a
In truth, a purely receptive subject

in
contradiction
terms.
It
is
only be-
cause
Kant does not distinguish between a

is
subject which
purely sensitive
and
only
by an abuse
a "subject"
of
at
its
language can
all
this
be called
is
and
a subject which
conscious
of
states
as
involving perma-
nent relations, that he allows himself to speak

of the subject as receptive in relation
to the
object.
Whatever the object

and any other object
is,
it
is
for
a
of
subject,
is
a fiction
abstraction.
We
the object as
may known in
as less
legitimately
fuller
contrast
determinateness
with the object

object
is
determinate, but the
in
either case a
known
object, not

a
"
131
thing in
itself."
To
is
contrast a
known
is
with
ab-
an unknown object
surdities,
the greatest of
all
because an unknown object
simply
nothing for the subject, and therefore cannot

be contrasted with anything.
It
follows
from what has been said that

"
there can be no opposition between the

ter "
mat-
and the
that
"
is,
form
" of
knowledge
a
no oppo-
sition,
between
"matter"
which
contrib-
comes from the object and a "form"

uted by the subject.
that
affections
of
We
sense
in
must therefore deny

as
such enter into
or
form
any element
knowable
objects.
Kant himself admits

are merely the
jects are
"
that such affections do
not exist as an object for consciousness, but
manifold
"
out of which ob-
formed: they are the "matter" which

object,
becomes an
its
when
the subject combines
determinations
under
the
form
of
time
into
an image or perception.
of
But when the

object,
it
"manifold
is
sense" becomes an
to
is
no longer a "matter"
which the subject

already a formed
has to give "form," but

matter.
The
subject
does
not
first
receive
the
"
matter of sense," and then impose upon
132
it

own forms
is
;
its
only in so far as the

it
"
matthe
of
ter "
already formed does

at
is
all.
exist for
subject
The
so-called
just
" manifold
sense
"
therefore
the
these
distinguishable
exist
is
aspects of
the world as
subject.
"
for
the
conscious
"
This
sense
world
of
indeed
manifold
;
in
the
its
being infinitely
is
concrete
but
concreteness
not that of
"
an aggregate of particulars, but of a

of
cosmos
experience,"
in
which
all
the
particulars
distinguished are held together in the unity

of a single world,
which
exists only for a
com-
bining self-active subject.

(2)
The
of
denial of the fiction of

destitute
is
a "matter
of
sense," entirely
of
the
unifying
a
activity
intelligence,
therefore
of
all
very
differ-
different thins:
from the denial
ences and the reduction of reality to a "net-
work
of relations."
Mr. Balfour's charge that
Idealism reduces the world to relations, and

therefore
involves
the
absurdity of relations
with nothing to relate, rests upon a misunder-
standing of the
idealistic
theory
of
thought
or intelligence as the constitutive principle of

all
knowledge and
all
reality.
What
Ideal-

ism maintains
exists
is
133
that
the
knowable world
only for
thinking or self-conscious
of
subject,
and that even the simplest phase

activity of
knowledge involves the

ject.
It
is
that sub-
very inadequate and

if
misleading
to
in
speak of thought as
the
relation
it
consisted solely
of separate
elements to one
thus conceived,
those
it
another.
is
When
thought
is
easy to understand
the
why
who
affirm
that
world exists
to
only for
thought are
out
of
supposed
be
constructing
It
is
reality
pure abstractions.
that
this
not
a
difficult to
show
the
conception
is
survival
of
old
untenable opposition of perception
and
thought, as dealing respectively with the particular
and the
universal.
Let
us
I
take
simple case by way of illustration.
perceive
a speck of light in the surrounding darkness.
Taking the old abstract

the simple apprehension
sible object,
ity
view,
of
we have here
a particular sen-
without any exercise of the activ-
of thought.
The
latter
comes
into
play
only
when
compare various perceptions with
each other.
disposed of
Such a doctrine was
virtually
when Kant showed
that the sim-
134
^-^^
CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE
plest perception already involves the synthetic

activity of thought.
My
apprehension
of the
speck of light
is
by no means simple.
The
moment
in
have the sensation,

it
my mind goes
its
to work, seeking to put
in
proper place
experience.
in
relation
to
the
rest
of
my
There are no doubt occasions

vidual
is
my
indi-
life
in
which
this interpretative in
power
I
almost
entirely
abeyance,
sleep,
as
when
have just
awaked
from
or
emerged
the
from a swoon.
But even
is
in these states
activity of intelligence
not entirely absent;
for
at
least
distinguish the speck of light

I
from the surrounding darkness;

with more or less accuracy; and
it
I
locate
it
distinguish
from myself
as a particular
of
object.
Now
in
we have here one

self
the
simplest forms
which the thinking subject builds up

an intelligible world.
for himsensi-
Without the
tivity to light, there
would be
for the subject
no object
at
all;
but without the interpreta-
tive activity
of
thought the sensitivity would

i.e.
have no meaning,
it
would not be grasped

Perof
as a particular phase of a single world.
ception
is,
therefore, not the
mere presence
135
a particular sensation or image, but the dis-
crimination of
its
elements, and the compreas
hension of
conditions
these
involving certain
occur.
fixed
If
under which they
we
exclude the interpretative activity of thought

there
is
for
us no object
It
is
and, therefore, no
of
knowledge.
the
only because this grasp
particular
as
an
instance
is
of
fixed
con-
nexion in experience
ception
is
overlooked, that per-
supposed
to be possible
without the
is
combined distinction and unification which

due But
to
this
the
activity
is
of the
thinking subject.
activity
not the external relation

Sensibility as
of individual
is
sensations.
such
not an object of knowledge, but only partic-
ular sensations grasped as indicating fixed con-
nexions in their occurrence.

is
Hence thought
and
refer-
present in what
is
called sensation, in so far

;
as sensation enters into our experience
when present
ence to
its
it
interprets sensation
by
fixed conditions.
The
content of
within
sensation
docs
it
not
is
fall
without, but
thought; and
this
thought content which
constitutes the world of our perception.
That
world
is
from the
first
a connected whole, in
136
THE
CHRISTTAlSr
is
WEAL OF
LIFE
re-
which every element

ferred
to to
on the one hand
single
world, and
on the other
the one
hand
a single subject.
Nor can
be separated from the other, for the unity of

the world
is
made
possible by the
It
unifying
activity of the
subject.
must
also be obis
served that this unifying activity

activity of a principle
not the
which merely operates

it
through the individual subject:

tially
ject,
is
essen-
the activity of
is
a self-determining sub-
which
conscious of a single world only
in so far as in every
it
phase
of its experience
is
self-active.
is
The degree
is
in
which the
world
comprehended
proportionate to
the self-activity of the intelligent subject; and
thus the world, while

is
it
never loses
its
unity,
continually growing in complexity and sys-
tematic unity.
There
is
a single self-consistis
ent world, because the world

unity,
a systematic
and because reason

is
in all self-conscious
beings
an organic unity, identical in nature,

its
but distinct in
individual
activity.
Mr.
Balfour assumes that the denial of
a given
as
"matter
denial
of
of
sense"
all
is
the
same thing
reality.
the
in
determinate
But,

truth,
137
the
denial
of
the
former
is
essential
It
is
to
in
the preservation of the latter.

so far as the sensible
is
it
only
by-
is
discriminated
thought, that there

of
any determinate object

is
knowledge
and
only
in so
far
as
these
discriminated
elements
are
combined
by the activity
is
of a single subject, that there
any unity
of
experience.
The thinking
him any
object
subject
cannot have before

it
without grasping
ing his
the
by thought, or interpretby reference

a
to
immediate feelings
idea, explicit or implicit, of

reality.
is
connected
system of
therefore,
What
Idealism maintains,
that the impossibility of having
the consciousness of any object which cannot
be combined with the consciousness of

a proof that the world
is
self is
a rational system.
consists in
The whole
the
ulars
to the
it
process of knowledge
ever more complete
reduction of partic-
unity of an organic whole; and,

true that a complete
is
though
of the
that,
is
knowledge
world
never attained. Idealism affirms

complete, the
were
knowledge
to
world
would be found
through.
be rational throu<;h and
Perhaps what has
been
said
will
138
'THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL
OE LITE
is
help to
show
that
what Idealism denies

is
not that
the world
concrete, but
that
its
concreteness can be explained by any theory
which
starts
of
from the
sense,"
fiction of
an irreducible
"matter
to be
i,e,
a "matter"
assumed
being.
absolutely opaque
to a rational
Mr.
Balfour
assumes
that
thought deals
purely with
is
abstractions or
relations,
and
it
on
this
ground that he charges Idealism
with
"constituting the universe out of cate-
gories."
The
falsity of this
view has already

is
been indicated, but the point

that
it
so important
seems advisable
fully,
to
dwell
upon
it
somewhat more
of
especially as even
to
Mr.
Bradley seems to
his
me
to
have lent the weight

I
authority
what
must regard
as
the survival of an obsolete
mode
of thought.
There can be no thought whatever, whether

it
takes the form of conception, judgment, or

is
inference, unless thought

of unity.
itself
principle
This unity, however, must not be
conceived as working by the method of abstraction, but as manifesting itself in the dis-
tinction
and combination
fix
of differences.
We
can,
no doubt,
our attention upon the unity
STATEMENT AND DEEENCE OE IDEALISM

which
Is
139
implied in every act of thought, but

affirm
we cannot
the
that
thought
is
a
is
unity
which excludes differences.

universal
Thought
combining
thought
is
thus
capacity
of
if
differ-
ences in a unity.
Now,
by
its
very nature a unity, there can be no absolute

separation between the various elements which
it
combines
no
It
separation, that
is
is,
within
thought
itself.
perhaps not impossible

elements which
thouo^ht
that there are
real
cannot
itself
reduce to
there
unity,
but within thought

ele-
can
be
no such elements:
not
ments
thought.
which
are
combined
therefore
are
not
the
We
of
cannot
regard
organism
thought as made up of a num-
ber of independent conceptions or ideas hav-
ing no relation to one another; the whole of
our
unity
tutes.
conceptions
taken
together
its
form
the
which
thought
is
by
activity
constiin
real
Conception
thus
the
process
of the
which the distinguishable aspects

world,
or
what we
believe
to
be
the
real
world, are
combined
in the unity of a
single
either
system.
as a
This process
may
be viewed
progressive differentiation or as a
pro-
140
THE CHRIST/AN WEAL OF LIFE
gressive unification.
And
these
two aspects
are essentially correlative: conception reaches
a higher stage according as
it
unites a greater
it
number
of
differences,
and
It
is
cannot unite
imporneglect
without distinguishing.
of great
tance to keep hold of this truth.

it
To
is
is
to
make
a consistent theory of
If
know-
ledge impossible.
of abstraction,
conception
a process
thought can by no possibility
comprehend
subject will
reality.
The importance
its
of the
excuse a few remarks upon the

relation
to
nature
of
"conception" and
judgment.
Conception
may
be regarded as the termina-
tion or as the beginning of a judgment, accord-
ing to our point of view.
In the former case

in
conception condenses, or holds
a transpar-
ent unity, the distinguishable elements which
have been combined

rather
of
it
in a prior
judgment, or
is
the synthetic unity of a
number
prior
judgments.
Thus
the
the
prior
conception
"light"
comprehends
the
object
judgments
entered
it
by
which
"light"
has
into the world of our thought.
Hence
to
is
that
judgment
has
been
supposed
be

merely the
analysis
of
of
141
given
conception.
But no analysis
conception
can
yield
more
than
"
has
previously
been
combined.
The name
light " stands for
more or fewer
thought
so-called
judgments according
of the individual
to the stage of
it.
who employs
is
analytic
judgment
simply the explicit state-
ment
of
judgments already made, and adds
nothing to the wealth of the thought-world.

It
is
true that the resolution of a conception
into the
judgments which
it
presupposes
It
may
is
be the occasion of a
new judgment.
so
when we
ception
for the first time observe that a con-
does
presuppose a number of judg-
ments
but in this case we have done more

its
than merely analyse the conception into

constituent
elements
we
have
brouoht
its
to
light the nature of conception
and
relation
to
judgment.
It is
characteristic of every real

is
judgment
every judgment which
more than the
repro-
duction of a judgment formerly

it
made
that
?
combines
in a
new
unity elements not prethat judg-
viously combined.
Can we then say
ment
is
the combination of conceptions
Not
142
if

this that the conceptions
we mean by
remain
to the
in the
judgment what they were prior
judgment.
conception being the condensed
result of prior
judgments
in
which distinguishunited,
it
able elements of reality have been
forms the starting-point for new judgments,

but
each
of
these
new judgments
grows richer
in
is
the
further comprehension of the real, and therefore
the conception
content
with each judgment.
Thus
to
if,
starting from
the ordinary conception of "light,"

to judge that
it
we go on
a
is
"due
the vibration of
an
aether,"
we do not simply add

and
enriched.
new
Judg-
predicate to the subject, but the

is
conception
itself
is
transformed
ment
cess,
thus conception
is
viewed
as
in
in
pro-
and a conception
any stage
is
that
process.
The
it
distinction
purely
the
relative.
In
judgment
thought
;
unifies
in
elements
the
which
discriminates
are
conception
elements
they
are
viewed
as
united
even while
it
discriminated.
that
For
never
must
be
observed
out
thought
:
unifies
withof
discriminating
is
the
whole
process
and,
thouGjht
concrete
throu^^hout,
as
143
knowledge develops, becomes more and more

concrete.
that
for
We
the
are
therefore
entitled
reality
to
is
say
in
thinking
subject
continual
process, and we are also entitled

is
to say that there
neither thinking subject
nor thought reality outside of the process of

thought.
of being
real
world which
is
is
not capable
thought
for
is
the subject nothing,
and a subject which

ing the real world
If
is
not capable of think-
also nothing.
it
this
view
is
correct,
is
misleading to
say, with
Mr. Bradley, that "in judgment an

predicated
of
idea
is
reality." ^
is
it
For the
which
reality of
which we judge
reality
exists only for thought,
and
has no content
except that which

cess by
it
has received in the proconstituted for thought.
which
it
is
Mr. Bradley
as real
tent,
tells
us that whatever
[a)
we regard
{b)
has two aspects,

"
existence,
conto
and that
thought seems essentially
consist in their division."
Now,
from
it
is
no doubt
true that,
if
we suppose
exists
the real to be some-
thing which
shall
apart
thought,
"
we
have to divide or separate the

*
what
Appearance and Reality,
p. 163.
144
'^^^
CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE

But
there
is
from the
" that."
for
is
us
no
real in addition to the real
which
thought.
Such a
real is a
pure abstraction, and means

possibility of the real.
real
no more than the empty
We
cannot separate in this hypothetical

"
between the
that
"
and the
"
what," because,
"
having no content,
"
it is
neither a
that
"
nor a
what."
The
real
only comes
to
be for us
in so far as
there has gone on a process of
discrimination
gle
reality,
and
unification
of
within a sinreal
by means
which the
has
been constituted as a thought or ideal
reality.
What Mr. me merely

reality
"
is " is
Bradley
a
calls
the
"
that
"
seems
is
to
in-
name
for
the unity which
volved in every phase of the process by which
thought
a
and what
for
he
calls
the
what
name
the
elements which
in
thought
distinguishes
and combines
"
the
The " that has therefore no determinateness when it is separated from the
unity of the real.
"
what
"
it
is
simply pure being, or the bare
potentiality of a thought reality.
Mr. Bradley
allows himself to speak of the
"
what
" as
if
it
were
first "
presented
"
in unity
if
with the
" that,"
and
of
judgment as
it
consisted
in
the
STATEMENT AND DEEENCE OE IDEALISM

"
145
division
"
of the
is
"what " from the

"
"
that."
But
surely there
no
what
"
except that which

its
thought has ah'eady made

ject of
is
own.
The
subit
any judgment has already a content,
true,
and
this
content
we may express
;
in the
form
of a series of
will
judgments
but these judg-
ments
merely reproduce the judgments

:
formerly
made
they will
add
nothing
to
knowledge.
Every new
judgment,
on
the
other hand, determines
the conceived reality
from w^hich we
for
start
it
transforms the reality

it
thought, and thus enriches
by a new
for
determination.
There would be no reason

if
judging
in
at
all
judgment merely consisted

"
detaching a "content
from
it
"
existence,"
and
then proceeding to attach
to
" existence."
"
The
and
"
existence
"
and the
as the
"
content
are one
indivisible,
and
one grows, so also
does the other.

idea implies
existence."
Mr. Bradley says that "an

of
the separation
content from
And no
"
is
doubt
in every
judgment
thought
But, in
is
the
"
content
it is
held
suspended
in
before
the
predicated of the subject.

it is
first
place, so long as
so held, there
no judgment: judgment consists
in determin-
146

And,
is
ing the subject by the predicate.
in the
second place, the content which

cated of the subject
is
is
thus predi-
not the content which
ah'eady involved in the subject, and there-
fore
we cannot say
the scientific
that
"
judgment consists
"
in
the separation of the
what
from the
" that."
is
When
due
man
"
affirms that light
to the vibration of
"
an aether, he does not

already involved in the
separate the
content
conception of the luminous object, and then

predicate this
"
content
"
of the subject
what
he does
is
to
determine
the already qualified

"
subject by a totally
new
content
"
which
it
did not previously possess, and in this deter-
mination
It
of the subject the
judgment
consists.
thus seems to
me
"
that
Mr. Bradley gives

;
countenance to two'
subject
is
fallacies
"
first,
that
the
a mere
that
instead of being the

of
condensed
thought
sists in
;
result of the
whole prior process
and, secondly, that
judgment conthen attributed

in
the separation of a given content from

a content which
is
the
" that,"
to the
"that";
whereas judgment consists

a
the
predication of
new
content, which de"
velops
and enriches the
that."
Whatever

difficulty
147
it
attaches
to
this
view
arises,
as
seems
exists
to
me, from the assumption that reahty

it
apart from the process by which
is
thought.
And no
doubt reahty
is
not
made
it
by thought
of
in the sense of
being the creation

is
the individual
thinking subject, but
made
is
for the subject in the sense that nothing
or can be real for
him which
is
not revealed
it
to
him
in the process
by which he thinks
as
real.
When
Mr. Bradley says that "the subject

is
has unspecified content which

the predicate" (168), he
"
is
not stated in
evidently confusing
as
it
the
subject
it
"
with
reality,
would be
could
be completely determined by thought.

is
But such a subject
not the "that" which

"
is
distinguished from the " what," for the
that
" is
merely the abstraction of
reality,
the abstract
no
"
idea of reality in general which

particular.
is
reality in
Such
"
a subject has no
it
unspecified
content," because
has no content whatever.

" is
But
if
by the
subject
it is
meant the complete

it
system of
reality,
no doubt true that

is
has
"unspecified content which

predicate."
not stated in the
No
single
judgment can express
148

infinite
the
wealth of the totaHty of reaHt}^

is
And
it
not only
this true,
but no single judg-
ment can express

ment.
the wealth of reality even as
exists for the subject
who frames
the judg-
We
can only express the nature of
reality in the totality of
judgments which
ex-
press the nature of reality as

it
known
to us,
and
is
manifestly an inadequate or partial view

to limit
is
which seeks
pect of
it
known
still
reality to that as-
which
expressed in a single judgfurther; not only
ment.
is
But we must go
known
reality not expressed in

it is
any single
judgment, but
not expressed in the whole
system of judgments which embody the knowledge of
man
as
it
exists at
any given time.

I
Our knowledge is not see how it ever can be

reality
complete, and
do not
complete.
In that sense
or
the absolute
must always be unwhich we
known.
is
But unless
reality in its true nature reality
different in kind
it
from the
know,
reality
must be thinkable
is
reality.
Any
other
than that which
thinkable can have

reality,
It
is
no community with thought

be absolutely
but must
unknowable.
is
not
mainis
tained that there
no
reality
which
not

thought by
us,
is
149
but only that the reahty which

reahty.
we know
thought
This
its
reahty
content,
for us,
enters into our thought and forms
and as the content continually expands

so the reality continually expands.
Reflecting
upon
this characteristic of
knowledge, we get
the notion of a completely determined reality,

a reality which would be present to thought
if
thought were absolutely complete.
Such a
therefore
in
reality
we do not
possess,
and
is
it
is
natural to say that there
a defect
the
character of our thought which
prevents
us
from
grasping
reality
in
its
completeness.
to
rest
This explanation seems to
me
upon
the assumption that reality cannot be thought
because thought deals only with abstractions.

But, as
I
have maintained above, thought

;
is
never abstract
it
contains
reality,
within
far as
itself
the
is
whole wealth
of
so
is
reality
known
to us.
The
defect
not in the char-
acter of thought, as distinguished from feeling
or intuition, but in the very nature of
man
as
a being in
process.
whom knowledge is a never-ending What contend for, then, is not that

I
man
has
complete knowledge of
reality,
50
THE CHRIST/AN IDEAL OF LIFE

is
contention which
that reahty in
its
manifestly absurd,
but
me
to
completeness must be a thinkother view seems to
able reality.
Any
lead to the caput
mortuum
of the thing-in-itself,
it
the reality which cannot be thought because

is
unthinkable.
it is
When,
is
therefore, Mr. Bradley
says that
an untenable position to maintain
that " in reality there

is
nothing beyond what

I
made
"
thought's object" (169),
agree with a
is
caveat.
That there
is
nothing which
" is
not
made
if
thought's object
manifestly untrue,
of
is is
the "thought" here spoken

it
thought
as
exists for
is
man.
But,
if
it
meant that
there
in reality
something which cannot be

of
made
this
the
object
I
thought,
because
it
is
unthinkable,
do not see what sort

to
of reality
can be;
me
it
seems
to be
merely a
Reality
reality
name
to
for a metaphysical abstraction.
that cannot
be thought
find
is
a sort of
which
myself
until
unable
I
to
attach
any meaning, and
find
it,
some
I
one
to
who can
admit
its
oive
meaninQ^ to
refuse
possibility.
But
feel certain
tliat
such a person cannot be found, for the obvious reason that

if
this
supposititious
reality

had a meaning,
thinkable.
If
it
151
would no longer be un-
these considerations are at
all
correct, the
is
only reality which has any meaning for us

reality that
this reality
in
is
is
capable of being thought.
And
not for us stationary, but grows

thought, which
is
content as
unifying
the faculty
of
the
distinguishable
in
elements
of
reality,
develops
the
process
by
which
those
elements are more fully distinguished

unified.
and
into
The
reality
w^hich
thus
is
enters
and constitutes our thought
therefore
For, as
is
not abstract but infinitely concrete.
we have
another,
seen, the process of thought
not
to
the mere transition from
one conception
but
it
is
the
is
internal
at the
development
of conception,
which
of
same time the

world.
development
reality,
the
conceived
The
in
therefore,
which thus
is
arises for us
the process of thought

there
is
a system, in which
diversity
revealed
an
ever greater
brought
unity.
far
back
into
this
an
ever
is
more complete
the
into
And
the
reality
absolute,
so
as
absolute
enters
and
seek
constifor
tutes
our
known
world.
To
the
152

beyond the thought
for
us,
;
absolute
reality,
which
living
is
alone
exists
Is
to
seek
the
among
revealed
it
the
to
dead
If
the
absolute
not
us In the reality that
we know,
is
for us nothing.
CHAPTER
VII
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO AGNOSTICISM AND
THE SPECIAL SCIENCES

I.
AGNOSTICISM
In the preceding chapter an attempt has
been made to explain and defend the general
doctrine of
Idealism,
which affirms that

identical
is
the
knowable
it
world
is,
is
with
the
world as
rational
really
and
a systematic or
is
unity.
This
doctrine
to
of
course
In a
diametrically opposed
Agnosticism.
former work"^
it
was maintained that Agnosti-
cism
is
a self-contradictory theory, because in
affirming an absolute limit to

ledge,
it
human knowof a realm of

of
assumes the knowledge

from the realm
reality distinct
phenomena,
two kinds
of
and
tacitly affirms that there arc
intelligence, corresponding to these
two realms.
it
Two
objections have been raised which

* Conite^ A/ill^
may
and
Spencer, Chaj).
II.
154

It is
be well to consider.
objected,
firstly,
that
affir-
my
criticism applies only to a

of a
if
dogmatic
reality;
mation or denial
secondly,
mitted,
that
noumenal
and,
adits
even
such a reality
is
it is
not a legitimate inference that
advocates are bound in consistency to assume
two kinds
(i)
of intelligence. to
As
the a
first
point,
it
must be anattitude
is
swered,
that
purely
sceptical
impossible.
Such an
there
is
attitude
would mean,
it
presumably, that he
to
who assumes
is
refuses
say
whether
any
reality
other
than that which

or
known by
reality,
us:
there may,
may
not,
be such a
but
we
are not
in a position to give
any answer either positive

it
or negative.
Now,
is
hard to see
how any
one can
affirm
whether that
not
reality,
we are unable to say which we call reality is or is

that
without
limitation
basing
in
his
affirmation
of
upon some
faculty
of
the
nature
our
knowledge.
Surely the
inability
on our part to determine whether we have

any knowledge
of reality or not, implies that
is
our faculty of knowledge
by
its
very nature
false-
unable to distinguish between truth and
IDEALISM IN RELATIOiV TO AGNOSTICISM

hood.
truth
155
But
if
we cannot distinguish between
and falsehood, no proposition whatever
can be held by us to be either true or false
and therefore our affirmation that we cannot

distinguish
between truth or falsehood canas

true.
If
it
not be
there
the
is
accepted
is
not true,
no
affirmation
whatever,
of
but
only
delusive
appearance
affirmation;
and
to such a delusive
appearance we can attach

either the affirmation
qtcid ;
it is,
no meaning;
it
may be
or denial of reality or
in fact,
some tertmm
monster,
In
that logical
an
if
affirmative-
negative proposition.
short,
you make
any judgment whatever

thing,
which
means anyyour
affirm
you have assumed the

though
in
reality of
judgment,
or
not
of
what you
and
least
deny
your
judgment;
at
thus
you
have assumed that so far
you have
sceptical
touched
attitude
solid
is
reality.
purely
in
thus a contradiction
terms,
an
affirmation
which
denies
that
affirms
nothing,
or
denial
which
nothing.
The
and
to
most
complete
that
his
sceptic
ever
real,
lived
assumed
that
scepticism
was
extent he was a dogmatist.
156
(2) It
THE CHRISTIAN- WEAL OF LIFE

is
further maintained that even
if
the
distinction
real
is
between the phenomenal and the

it
admitted,
does not follow that there

of
must
be
two
to
kinds
intelligence
corre-
sponding
has been
objection
is
these
it
two realms.
After
that
what
this
said,
is
must be obvious
For,
if
unsound.
our intelligence
it
not capable of knowing reality,
must be
because of an absolute limit in the character

of
our intelligence, and

reality,
if
that limit were reto exist,
moved
capable
admitting
it
would be
of
being grasped
phenomenalist,
by
us.
Now,
as
the
dogmatic
and
even,
has
been shown, the so-called sceptical phenomenalist,
assumes
that
there
I
is
reality.
No
had
western thinker, so far as
know, has
is
the courage to affirm that there
no
has
if
reality
whatever:
that
sublime
east.
height
been
is
reached only in the

reality at
all,
it
Now,
there
must be comprehensible by
It
some
is
intelligence.
may
be said that there

at
no such
intelligence, or
least
that
we
de-
cannot
gence.
know
But
that
that
there
is
such an
entitled
intelli-
surely
we
are
to
mand
no affirmation should
be
made
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO AGNOSTICISM

which
is
157
meaningless.
there
The
is
is
})lienomenahst,
then, admits that
reahty,
and
in
so
doing he assumes that he

thing'
saying
some-
which has a meanino-
for
himself,
and
says.
real-
for others
who hear
is
or
read
what he
is
Now
what
a reality which
intelligence
}
not
ity for
some
Make any
and you
at
all,
predifind
cation you
that,
if
like
about
it,
will
you mean anything

is
you mean
If
that
it
present to an
intelligence.
you
it,
refuse
is
to
make any
"
:
predication
about
it
not reality but pure nothingness.
Hence
without
you cannot say
There
is
reality,"
assuming that
say that
it
reality has
a meaning,
is
and
it
to
is
has a meaning
to say that
relative to
some
his
intelligence.
Now
is
the phe-
nomenalist
object
of
affirms
that
reality
not
the
it
intelligence,
and therefore
other
must
be the object of
it
some
all.
intelli-
gence, or
is
nothing
at
And
this other
intelligence cannot involve an

as our intelligence
if
absolute limit,
to do,
is
assumed
because
but only
it
did
it
would not grasp

in
reality
appearance;
other words, the phenomenalist
in affirming the absolute limitation of his
own
158

has tacitly assumed
limits.
I
intelligence
an
intelli-
gence free from

in saying that
tivity
was therefore right

of the rela-
from the doctrine

it
of
knowledge
is
legitimate infer-
ence that there are two kinds of intelligence,
one absolutely limited

lutely unlimited.
trine
I
and the other absoabsurdity of this docinsist
The
again
shall not
upon
shall
is
it
only
repeat
that
an
intelligence
which
that
absolutely limited would never
know
that
limits.
was absolutely
limited, since
in
case
it
would be beyond the assumed
Now
tional
if
it
is
admitted that there
is
a rait
or
intelligible
system
of
things,
all
is
obvious that with this single system

sciences
the
must
it
deal.
Reality
bits
is
one, and to
suppose
split
up into
by the concenof
it,
tration of
attention
upon one phase

an abstraction.
is
to be the victim of
When
we
in
geometry we define a point or

not dealing with a
fixed
relation
"
line,
are
mere
idea,"
but with a
holding for every subject for

is
whom
larly,
there
all
any
reality
whatever.
Simi-
the
judgments
of
geometry imply
relations
in
that
there
are
unchanuinir
the
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO AGNOSTICISM

one system
be
of
159
reality
which alone
is
or can
known, and
the
these
unchanging
of
relations
constitute
far as
it
objectivity
that system, so
of
is
comes within the view
geometry.
a
This does not mean that there

constituted of nothing
tions,
world
rela-
but geometrical
that
but
all
it
does
mean
world from
which
is
geometrical relations are eliminated

If
unthinkable.
geometrical
relations
all
are
not determinations of the real world,

sciences of
as
the
nature are
made
impossible, and,
consequence, the whole of

sciences
as well.
the
is
philo-
sophical
What
said
of
spatial relations, of course, holds
good
also of
temporal relations.
the
And when we
determination
pass from
of
reality
mathematical
to the
matter
dynamical from space and time and motion the same principle
still
to of
re-
explanation
lations
of
applies.
For dynamical
of
are
real
aspects
the
one system
its
reality,
It
while
is
yet they do not exhaust
nature.
as
great
mistake
to
deny
that those relations are determinations of the
absolute
as
to affirm
that in
them we have
of
it.
reached
an
exhaustive
delinition
l6o
THE CHRrSTIAN WEAL OF LIFE

of
world
matter and
motion
is
real
in
the
same
there
sense that a world of space or a world

is
of time
real
withotU dynamical
relations
could be
no
reality
whatever,
but
reality consisting of
these relations alone
world of pure matter and motion

possible
time.
as
is
as im-
world of pure space or pure
They
are real, unchangeable aspects of
existence, but they are
no more than aspects.

real
For, though
there
would be no
world
were the relations or laws of dynamics not

unchangeable, there are other aspects of
ity
real-
which
still
further define existence.
Cer-
tain of these aspects are
brought
to light
by
physics, chemistry,
and biology.
Here again
affirm
we
may
say
that
what the sciences

absolute,
they affirm of
say that
the
at
but
we cannot
the
now
last
we have reached
it.
ultimate or complete determination of
All
the
sciences,
from
mathematics
in
to
biology
that
inclusive,
are
abstract
this
sense,
there are other aspects of reality which they
presuppose.
single
These new aspects

of
reality
of
the one
subject-
system
form
the
matter of the
philosophical
sciences,
which
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO MATHEMATICS

again
i6l
presuppose
logic
or
metaphysic
as
the science which deals

terrelation of
all
directly with the in-
the
principles
upon which
the other sciences are based.
11.
MATHEMATICS
just
is
The view which has

implies
that
been indicated
a
science,
i.e.
mathematics
contains propositions which are true or hold

of
reality.
These propositions
by which the
are,
as
be-
lieve, true
formulations of fundamental condireal
tions or relations
world
is
characterised,
though they are certainly not
a formulation of all those conditions.

is "
What
real-
held
is
not
that
mathematics
of
formulates
the intellectual
if
conditions
sensible
is
ity,"
this
means
that there
an absolute
separation between "sensible reality" and an-
other reality which

sensible.
may be
called
of
"
defined as
realities,
non-
There are not two
but
only one.
is
What
in
is
sensible reality
either the fiction
a world
supposed
it
to
be given
immediate sensation, or
of
is
term for certain aspects
the
one
reality,
62
THE CHRISTIAN- WEAL OF LIFE

is.
the only reality there
To speak
is
of "sen-
sible reality" as contrasted
with non-sensible
to fall
or
supersensible
reality
back into
that untenable phenomenalism, the contradic-
tory character of which has already been maintained.
Mathematics, then, concentrates
its
attention
upon certain very simple conditions

successful in formulating their
or relations of the one and only reality, and,

as
I
believe,
is
nature.
It
may
be objected, however, that this view

re-
of
mathematics takes no account of the
cent doctrine that Euclidean geometry merely

states
the
conditions
of
our space of three

fairly
dimensions.
that
it
Now
it
might
be answered
advocates of
is
incumbent upon
the
imaginary geometry to reconcile their doctrine

with any tenable theory of knowledge.
their hypothetical space
of four or
Does
di-
more
mensions contradict our space

sions
of
?
of three
dimen-
If
it
does,
they deny the principle

themselves,
contradiction,
contradict
and
can
prove neither the reality of a space of

three
four nor a space of
dimensions, since
of
they cannot prove
the
reality
any space
WEAL/SM IN RELATION TO MATHEMATICS

whatever, or of anything
visable,
else.
It
163
seems ad-
however, to deal more directly with
the question.
The
I
discussion will necessarily
be
brief,
but
shall try to indicate the
main
points.
Let
me
repeat that
do not for a
moment deny
the value of imaginary geome-
try as a system of
mathematical symbols.
of
should as soon
of
is
think
denying the value
the Cartesian co-ordinates.
What
deny
the pJiilosopJiical doctrine based
upon the
symbolic constructions of mathematics,

doctrine that a space of four or
sions
is
the
warn
those
more dimenalso
a possible reality.
I
must
views
of
the reader that

ally
cannot deal with the mutuof
discrepant
philosophical
who argue
self
for the
phenomenality
I
our space
of three dimensions.
shall further limit

I
my-
mainly
to
Riemann and Helmholtz.

I
may
mention, however, that
find the conclusions
which
reached several
years ago endorsed

as
by such
eminent
to
logicians
Sigwart and
Wundt, not
(i)
I
speak of Lotze.
in this
find
Riemann, then, arguing

is
is
way
Space
a logical species of which the
logical
genus
extended
magnitude or mul-
64
THE CHRTSTIAIV IDEAL OF LIFE

{Maimigfaltigkeit)
;
tiplicity
hence, though our
space
is
the only one of which

it
we have
actual
experience,
If it is
is
not the only possible space.

is
I
objected that
cite
let
me
Riemann Bruno Erdmann.

the
"antiquated,"
have not read

to take
Erdmann s
interest
in
treatise,
having ceased
after
any
question
my
study of
Riemann and Helmholtz, but I quote the statement of his view from Wundt's Logik (I. 440).
His view
is,
then, that "
been able to find
modern geometry has a more general conception,
under which space

particular species,
may
be subsumed as a
and from which therefore
by the introduction of determinate conditions

the fundamental
properties of space
may be
subis
developed analytically."
tation
in
Now
this
have no hesi-
saying
of space
that
supposed
sumption
under a
logical
genus
blunder, which the best

clearly exposed.
modern
lo2:icians
have
The whole
idea of determin-
ing the real relations of things by the formation

is
of
an ascending series of
resting as
it
abstractions
utterly untenable,
does upon
the mediaeval idea of logic as a purely formal

science.
The
real
world as
it
exists for
our
IDEALISM IN RELATION- TO MATHEMATICS

conceptual thought
tion
is
165
not obtained by abstracin per-
from full-formed individuals given
ception, but by a concrete
process in which
of
the
first
immediate judgments
perception
of
are transformed by the
comprehension
the
fundamental
relations, implied in those
judg-
ments, and brought to
light
is
in
the complex
process in which knowledge
developed.
To
"
run up and down a logical

is
"
Porphyry's tree
a travesty of the process of thought, which
corresponds to nothing "in heaven above, or

the
earth
beneath, or the
if
waters
that the
under the
earth."
But, even
we grant
subsumpis
tion of logical species
under a genus
a valid
is
process,
it
would not prove that our space
only one of several possible species of space.
For the whole account

cal species rests
of the
formation of
losfi-
upon the presupposition

start
is
that
the ultimate
individual.
is
datum from which we
the
Now
the individual in this case
our three-dimensional space, and hence we

of
cannot reason from the general conception
extended magnitude to the possible

several species of space.
reality of
We
can get nothing
out of the conception of extended magnitude
66

it
;
but what we have put into
hence,
when we
end
just
descend the logical tree which we have previously ascended,
we
shall find at the
what we
had
at
had at the beginning, and what
we
the beginning was an individual space,
of three dimensions. this as to say that
Riemann
so far admits
our space of three dimen"
sions
rests
upon
experience," but
is
he
still
supposes that conception
wider than " exis
perience," and hence that there
nothing to
hinder us from supposing a space of four or
more dimensions.
four
or
There
is,
of
course, noth-
ing to hinder us from thinking of a space of
more dimensions, but

of
the
possible
reality
such a space cannot be deduced

of
from the abstract conception

nitude.
is
extended mag-
That conception
contained
is
limited
it,
by what
is
already
under
and there
it,
only one space contained under

species of space.
I
not several
in
hold,
then, that
rea-
soning from logical genus to logical
species,
Riemann has
mined by
what
I
fallen
into the loGîcal mistake of

reality
supposing that possible

logical
can be deterIn
possibility.
let
support of
have said
me
quote a few sentences
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO MATHEMATICS

from Wundt.
"
167
Referring to Erdmann, he says:

at least
This view must
be so far corrected,
in
that the question

relation of
logical
cannot be
regard to a
genus and species

If
in the ordinary to
sense.
genus
is
be formed,
several species
must be given which possess

marks.
certain
common
is
But
in this case
only
one space
given to our perception."

to
And
differ-
then he goes on
point out that
"
we can
never possess an actual image of spaces

ent from ours."
tinues,
"
"
An
be
opposite view," he con-
seems
to
maintained
by some
a
mathematicians,
who
hold that
we can make
sensible picture of spaces of another kind, as

e.g.
a space which consists merely of a plane
or of a spherical or pseudo-spherical surface."*
This brings us to what

fallacy
of
regard as another
the
possible
those
who maintain
to
reality of a space other

(2)
than ours.
Helmholtz seeks
commend
his
view
that a space other than ours can not only be
thought but presented

the fiction of beings
to the imagination,
by
or
living
in
plane,
a sphere, and limited in their consciousness to

*
Wundt's Loîk
I.
440-1.
68
THE CHRISTIAN- IDEAL OF UFE

The whole
in
the plane or the sphere.

tion
supposi-
seems
is
to
me
absurd and self-contradictory.
There
no
difficulty
whatever
thinking of
beings limited to a plane or sphere; for such
beings are to
all
intents
and purposes
;
identical
with the plane or sphere
but what we cannot
do
is
to think of their consciousness as super-
ficial
or spherical.
A
if
superficial or spherical
I
consciousness has no meaning whatever that
can discover.
Now,
our supposititious beings
have not a superficial or spherical consciousness,
we must suppose
is
that the plane or the
sphere
an object which they can think and

But,
if
reason about.
they have before their
consciousness only a plane or a sphere, they

wall
sess,
not have any geometry such
as
we
posof
because a plane
is
the
boundary
to
solid,
and a curve
is
relative
tangent.
Such beings would therefore have no geometry
whatever.
This
seems
obvious
if
we
carry out Helmholtz's suggestion, and suppose
beings limited to
-^
point.
Will any one affirm

as
that a point has any
meaning except
the
boundary
is
of a line
In short, a plane or sphere

it
intelligible only
because
is
a figure in our
JDEALISM IN RELATION TO MATHEMATICS

three-dimensional space.
169
To
reason from the
curvature of a plane or sphere to the curvature

of space
seems
to
me
a palpable fallacy.
Space
has no curvature, though figures in space have.
Let
me
again support
"
my
view by a quotation
with the geomespatial idea
from Wundt.
When we deal
in the of
try of the plane," says

is
Wundt, "our
geometry
consideration
;
no other than
of space;
all
we
merely leave out

relations
spatial
except the plane
we do
the
same
in the investigation of the geometrical properties
of spherical or pseudo-spherical surfaces.
Those
relations of space
from which we thus

apart from
abstract
idea;
have no
existence
our
on the contrary, we require our comonly for the idea
plete space-perception, not

of a
curved surface, but even for the idea of

line,
a surface or a
for
we can no more imline
agine the surface than the
except as in
space
we imagine both not

It is
as
*
independent
spaces, but as figures in space."

(3)
supposed that because functions
of
magnitude can be converted into geometrical

relations of
a thinkable space, there

* Ibid.
I.
may be
441.
I/O
THE CHRISTIAN' IDEAL OF LIFE

who
enjoy the consciousness of a space
beings
of
11
dimensions.
Surely this
is
an untenable
in
inference.
We
can think of systems

of
which
re-
four, five, or
any number
the
elements are
quired, instead of
three
elements which
space demands for the determination of the

position of a point.
But, in order to give a
geometrical meaning to analytical operations,
we have
sions.
to refer to
our space of three dimen-
"It
is
self-evident," says
Wundt,
"
that
mathematical speculations, which infer that our

space must be related to
a four-dimensional
as the surface
is
magnitude
in the
same way
related to our space, cannot of themselves be
the basis for the imaginability of four

or
a space
of
more
dimensions.
This
question
that
itself,
stands upon precisely the same level as
with which the older ontology occupied

viz.
whether the actual world

all
is
I
or
is
not the
best of
possible worlds."*
will
conclude
result of
it
with a passage from Sigwart.

these enquiries," says Sigwart,
is
"
The
" is
not that
left
to
experience
to
decide
of
whether we
Euclid, or a
are to
assume the plane space

* Ibid.
I.
443-
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO THE SCIENCES

space which
that
is
\y\
in
some way curved

relations
but only
of
from
the
purely logical
standpoint
of
analysis
the
quantitative
space
are not to be derived as

of a
the necessary form
manifold which varies in three directions,
but that on the contrary they are actual, be-
cause based upon an unanalysable necessity of
our space-perception, which

ferent from
in
is
essentially dif-
any law which can be expressed

numerical relations.
numbers and
They
open up no
possibility of extending our space-
perception, or of representing a non-Euclidian
geometry not merely
in
analytical
formulae,
but also for actual perception;

ject to those laws of
we remain
sub-
space according to which
we
first
think of
it,
and
it
is
as certain that
Euclid will remain unrefuted in geometry, as

it is
that Aristotle in his principle of contradic-
tion has outlived the
Hegelian
"
logic."
III.
THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

is
conclude, then, that there

"
nothincr in
to support
the speculations of
pangeometry
English
tr., II.
"
* Sigwart's Logic.
566.
172

view of phenomenalists either that our
the
consciousness has certain forms of perception

peculiar to
itself,
as
Hehiiholtz maintains, or
as others hold that there
may
all
be an external
world which
dimensions.
lies
in a
space of four or more

forth
To
of
set
the objections
to write a
I
which beset these views would be

whole
have system
at
philosophy,
in
but
hope
least
succeeded
indicating
some
is,
of them.
The world
it
of the
mathematician
however, very far from being reality in

completeness;
tion
of
its
exists
only as the construc-
the mathematician, though that conrests
struction
upon unchangeable
relations
or
conditions of
the one reality which alone

to the physical
exists.
Hence, when we pass
sciences
we have made
There
are,
a considerable advance
in the determination of those relations or conditions.

tal
however, two fundamen-
mistakes which
we must here seek
to
avoid:
the mistake of supposing that science

"
merely
describes
"
the world of sensible perthe
ception, as
Kirchhoff seems to say, and
mistake of imagining that the laws of science

are
more than an abstract or
partial determi-
IDEALISM IN RELATION- TO THE SCIENCES

nation of
reality.
173
The theory of knowledge which many scientific men advance, when they
leave their
of
proper task and assume the role

is
the logician,
usually a curious
mixture
of these opposite errors.
Our
things
first
lie
view of the world naturally
is
that
before us in perception, and that,
in order to
know them, we must

themselves,
take
them
as
they present
all
carefully
excluding
preconceptions, and
accurately observing
their qualities
of
and determining the quantity
each quality.
Without observation
of this
kind there can be no science of nature, but

it
can hardly be said yet to be science

least,
it
or,
at
can be called science only when

is
the
facts
observer
guided
of
in
his
selection
of
by ideas
relation.
is
What
in
underlies the
pres-
scientific
observation
nature
of
a faith
ence
in
conditions
or
relations
all
which
changes
remain
permanent
It
under
the
of particulars.
must be observed,
the
ordito
therefore,
that
science
the
transforms
nary view of
world
by penetrating
those permanent conditions or relations which

are not obvious
to
perception, but are only
174
brought to light by the persistent endeavour

to
find
the identical
in
the
different.
is
reality
which science discovers
in
The one way

but
an ideal world, a world which exists only as

a
it
construction of the scientific

is
intellect,
at
the
same time a much

that
truer appre-
hension of reality than

of
ordinary view
is
things from which science

it
developed,
though
contains
may be
Thus
aside
said that the ordinary view
implicitly
more than science

physicist
does
justice to.
the
all
and chemist
relations
virtually
of things,
set
the sensible
fall
not
world,
to
because these
but
outside of
the
real
because
they
do
not
come within leaving them

concrete
chology.
the
scope of
their
science,
be dealt with by the more

of
sciences
If,
physiology
and
psy-
therefore,
we
fail
to observe the
effects
in
transformation which
science
our
ordinary view of the world,

the mistake of
"
we
shall fall into

it
supposing that
of
is
merely a
if
description
"
sensible
reality of
objects,
and
we
insist
upon the
the abstract world

science, for
its
of
relations
upon which
own
purposes, concentrates attention,
we
shall fall

into
this
175
the
opposite
world,
in
mistake of
hypostatising
it
abstract
real
and identifying
its
with
the
world
completeness.
to
These
two defects are closely related

for
it
each other;
is
just
because we overlook the partial

the laws of science
into
or
abstract character of
that
we
that
convert
relations
it
vague
and
shadowy things ; and

see
is
because we do not
science
adopts a negative attitude
towards immediate perception that we suppose

it
to leave sensible reality as

it
it
was before
sci-
entific insight has broken
up,
and are led

tran-
to
regard
laws of
nature as a refined
script of the sensible, instead of being,
what
they
are,
purely conceptual world of fixed
conditions and relations, implied no doubt in

the
world
of
ordinary observation,
but
not
brought into clear

an
object
tells
consciousness
and made
of
direct
consideration.
Thus
itself
Comte
the
blance,
us that science confines
to
investigation of
the
laws
of
the
resemof
coexistence,
and
succession
phe-
nomena, and he assumes that these laws are

simply the generalised restatement or description
of
the
phenomena
themselves.
But
176

is
law
something more than a generahsed

if
re-
statement or description of phenomena,

"
by
phenomena
"
we mean
the objects of ordinary

is
observation.
For a law
as the
contrasted
with
phenomena
changing
permanent
relation in the
is
particular, as that
which
identical
in spite of all differences, as the principle
by
reference to which particulars are seen to be
more
than
mere
reality.
phenomena
or
transitory
phases of
penetrate
Were
we
It
is
it
not
possible
identical,
to
to
such
permanent,
or
unchanging
science
of
relations,
should
have
to
no
the
nature.
is
nothing
for
point
that
of
no law
final,
all
the
develop-
ment
fixed
science, like
in
other developments,
consists
an ever
or
fuller
comprehension
are
of
relations,
what
usually
called
" uniformities," a
development which does not
simply set aside the relations already discovered,

thesis
but
;
combines them
if
in
higher synthe
case,
indeed,
this
were
not
science would
at
it
every fresh advance
throw
down
and
all
that
had
laboriously
built
up
start de novo.
if
Now,
we keep
in
mind these two aspects
FDEAUSM IN RELATION TO THE SCIENCES

of a scientific law,
177
that
it is,
on the one hand,

is
the revelation of
a principle which
estab-
lished only by a necessary but in a sense an

artificial simplification of reality,
and that
this
rela-
principle
is,
after
all,
only a permanent
tion of the changing,
we
shall,
think, be
is
is
led to see that a law of nature, as

"
it it
not a
not
a
description
"
of
phenomena, so
description of "uniformities."
if
"uniformity,"
like
its
we
are to give the

is
word anything
ordinary meaning,
naturally regarded as a
of
customary or frequent repetition
a
;
given
resemblance, sequence, or coexistence

is in this
and
it
sense that Mill and
many
scientific
men who make an
incursion into the field of

It
logic are disposed to interpret a law.

in contrast to this doctrine that
I
was
ventured to
challenge
Mill's
view of induction as based

of
"
upon "resemblance," instead
identity."
"^
The
see,
"identity," of
I
course, as
any one who

will
"
reads what
is
have said with ordinary care

"
not that of a changeless
substance
or
"thing,"
fictions
at
do not admit the
reality of
such
all,
but
of
relation.
No two
* ComtCy Milly
and
Spencer^ pp. 92-3.
1/8

;
individuals are alike
but in
all
their differ-
ences they
this
may
agree in a certain feature, and

is
agreement
the basis of Induction.
of
Now, when we ask what bearing this view a law of nature has upon the question of
it
the relativity of knowledge,
is
no answer
to
say that science
is
entirely neutral.
In one
way
is
that
is
a bare tautology.
;
Science as such
and, of course,
it
not a theory of knowledge

of
having no theory
knowledge,
does not
is
;
tell
us what the ultimate nature of reality

the question
is
but
whether the view
of
reality,
which
in the pursuit of his special object the
scientific
man
naturally
adopts,
can
to
be
re-
garded as ultimate.
The attempt
answer
this question leads us into the region of phi-
losophy, and compels
us to ask what
is
the
is
general view of reality upon which science
based
and the answer, as we may be

fail
certain,
cannot
to be coloured
by the general
theto
ory of knowledge which

those
commends
itself
who seek
to
answer the question.

will
A
find
it
phenomenalist theory of knowledge

support in science for
will
its
doctrine, because
inteqDrct scientific conclusions from
that

point of view, and so in other cases.
tried to explain
I
179
have
why
cannot accept the pheI
nomenalist interpretation.
because, as
it
cannot accept
does not do
it,
seems
to
me,
it
jus-
tice to the real
advance beyond ordinary obserbecause

it
vation which science makes, and
does not take due note of the abstract or partial
character of the scientific view of reality.

this last point
I
On
should like to say a word
or two.
We
nature
are too apt to talk glibly of

"
"
laws of
or
"
uniformities of nature," not seeing

reality are con-
that two discrepant views of
cealed
Is "
beneath
"
this
ambiguous phraseology.
a real unity or organic
nature
simply a term for an aggregate of

is
it
phenomena? or
system
}
Mill tells us that
we cannot properly
Now, waiving the
speak of the "uniformity" of nature, but only

of " uniformities" of nature.
objection
have already made that science
deals with identities
and not with uniformities,

"
and interpreting the term

higher sense,
identity
reality
is
it
uniformity
" in
its
is
obvious that to deny any

nature
is
or
unity in
to
deny that
this is the
an organic system.
But
l80

as sa3dng that
all
same
is
we can know
of reality
that in point of fact
we
find certain relations
which, so far as our experience goes, have not
changed, but which, for aught we can show,
might change and
at an}^
moment.
Thus, under
the denial of the uniformity or unity of nature.

Mill
others
assume the phenomenalist

reality
;
view of knowable
and when they are
asked to substantiate their assumption, they

fall
back
upon
sensationalist
theory
of
knowledge, and a metaphysical theory of the

absolute limitation of
our knowledge to pherejects the

is
nomena.
alist
To one who
sensation-
epistemology and
convinced of
the
self-contradictory
nalist
character of the
phenomeknow-
metaphysic, the denial of the systematic

all
unity of the real seems a denial of
ledge and of
all reality.
content myself with
pointing out this result of the ordinary view

of
laws
of
nature
as
implying nothing but
observed
uniformities,
having
I
already
dwelt
sufficiently
upon what
one
regard as the defects
of sensationalism
it
and phenomenalism.
of the gifts
To me
that
seems
to be
which a true
to
philosophy
conveys,
to
bring
light
IDEALISM
IN-
RELATION TO BIOLOGY
is
i8l
organic unity of nature which

science.
implicit in
For
"
nature
"
has no meaning apart

to
from a unifying inteUigence, and

unity of nature
is
deny the
of intelli-
to
deny the unity

all
gence and
I
to
make
knowledge impossible.
admit, however, or rather contend, that the

lies
organic unity of reality
beyond the horizon

and even
in
of the specialist in physics,

istry
;
chem-
but the biologist, from the character of

is
the objects with which he deals,

riably
real
almost inva-
more
readily disposed to hold that the

is
world
it
an organic unity.
to refer to
is
In proof of
himself,
this
is
enough
Darwin
whose whole doctrine

of
inspired by the idea

fails
it;
such a unity, though he

formulation
of
to
give a
to
philosophical
of
and
the
recent
developments
biology,
which have
been more and more
in this direction.
IV.
BIOLOGY
natural
selection, while
it
The
doctrine of
compels us to abandon the external or mechanical idea of teleology associated with the
name
of
Paley,
is
incompetent
to
explain
82
knowledge or morality.
To
this
view
it
has
been objected that the doctrine of evolution,

as held
by Darwin and many

be
identified
of his followers,
cannot
natural
with
the
I
doctrine
of
selection,
and that
have therefore
the
confused true Darwinism with
views of
objection
Wallace
and
Weissmann.
This
affect
in
does not seem to

the point which
I
me
that,
to
any way
sought to establish.
My
aim was
to
show
is
without assuming anyall
thing but what

a
certain
admitted by
biologists,
philosophical conclusion,
not
conbiolo-
templated or even denied by

gists,
certain
must yet be reached.
That conclusion
legiti-
was that an immanent teleology may be
mately deduced from the doctrine of natural

selection.
It
was not necessary
for
my
pur-
pose to embroil myself in the questions at

issue
between Wallace, Weissmann, and others,

I
while by doing so
should have given occa-
sion for the retort that teleology has nothing

to
do with the biological doctrine
of evolu-
tionary descent.
That
this
is
no fanciful dan-
ger
may
be shown by a single extract from
Huxley's
account
of
the
reception
of
the
IDEALISM IN RELATIOIV TO BIOLOGY

Origin
Letters.
183
of
"
Species
in
Darwin's
rid,"
Life
and
"
Having got
says
Huxley,
in
of
the belief in
sign, as in
chance and the disbelief
de-
no sense appurtenances of evolution^
the third libel

anti-theistic,
itself.
.
upon
that doctrine, that
it
is
might perhaps be
left to shift for
The
come
a
doctrine
of
evolution
does
not even
sidered
this
into contact with theism, con-
as
I
philosophical
;
doctrine." *
but, as
it
To
to
view
entirely assent
seems
me, we may, accepting the

of evolutionary descent,
scientific
doctrine
go on
to base
upon
it
a philosophical
logical
argument
in favour of a teleoIt
view
of
it
the world.
is
may
to
be
said,
however, that
illegitimate
speak
of
Darwinism
of
as
synonymous with the doctrine
natural
selection.
And
no doubt
it
is
true that, in the wider sense of the term, the

biological
doctrine
of
evolution, as
held
by
Darwin, admitted other factors than natural

selection;
but
it
will
be
admitted
that
the
great achievement of
Darwin was the destrucby

all
tion of the old rigid separation of species
the theory of natural selection.

*
This was
555-6.
Darwin's Life
and
Letters
Am.
ed., I.
84
I

contended, and
all
that
that
my
argument
this
required
me
of
to
deal
with.
In
taking
view
might have supported myself by the

Huxley.
In
authority
the essay
:
already
"
quoted,
that
eminent biologist says
The
from
suggestion that
the
selective
new
species
of
may
result
action
external
conditions
upon the
idea of
variations
from their
specific
is
type
which individuals present ...

the
the central
Origin of Species and
contains
again,
the quintessence
of Darwinismr
And
a few pages further on:
"Whatever may be
theory," as
I
the ultimate fate of the particular theory put

forth by
Darwin [the "particular

affirm
all
the context shows, being natural selection],
venture
to
that,
so
far as
all
my
know-
ledge goes,
ingr
the ingenuity and
the learn-
of
hostile critics
has
not
enabled them
it
to
adduce a solitary
is
fact, of
which
can be
said this
irreconcilable with the
Darwinian
theory." t
selection
Here Huxley
is "
tells
us that natural
the quijitessence of Darwinism,"

"
and that opponents have not adduced

tary fact, of
a soli-
which
I.
it
can be said
this is irrecon-
* Ibid.
548-9.
t Ibid. I. 552.
rDEALISM TN RELATION TO BIOLOGY

cilable with the
185
Darwinian theory," meaning

Surely what
the theory of natural selection.
Huxley here
tinctive of
means
is
that
what was
dis-
Darwin was the doctrine

It
of natural
selection.
seems unnecessary
point,
to dwell fur-
ther
while,
upon
for
this
but
it
may be worth
cite
other
reasons, to
few
of
Darwin's
own
it
expressions.
call
To
begin with,
what did Darwin
his first great
book
He
he
called
The Origin of Species by Means

Selection.
of Natural
says
:
In
the autobiography
"
The
old
argument from design
in nature, as given
by Paley, which formerly

conclusive,
fails,
seemed
the
. .
to
me
so
noiv that
law of natural selection has been discovered. There seems to be no more design
.
in
the
variability
of
of
organic
beings,
and
in
in
the
action
natural
selection, than
the
course which the wind
blows." ^
This pas-
sage leaves no doubt whatever that in Darwin's
own mind
teleology.
:
his theory
was incompatible
Darvaria-
with
On
is
it
another occasion
not that desio:ned
win writes
tion
" It
makes,
as
seems
to
me,
my
deity
* Ibid. 1. 278-9.
86
THE CHRIST/AN IDEAL OF LIFE
'natural selection' superfluous, but from seeing
what an enormous
bility
field of
undesigned
varia-
there
is
ready for natural selection to
appropriate."
Now
know
have no desire
to nar-
row Darwin's theory more than he narrowed

it
himself.
that Darwin, with his large

his
candour and what may be called
uncon-
scious idealism, follows the facts wherever they

lead
him, and suggests
modifications of
his
doctrine which, as he says on one occasion,

"
lessen the glory of natural selection
"
but
think no one can deny that he
always and
it
consistently rejected teleology, and rejected
mainly
has
"
now
that the law of natural selection
been
discovered."
Now, my argument
see
was, rightly or wrongly, that the law of natural

selection
itself,
when we
all
its
philosophi-
cal not
its
scientific
implications,
teleology,
compels
us to affirm an
it is
immanent
and that
from not taking note
of these implications
of his followers
that
Darwin himself and many
suppose that knowledge and morality

explained by the method of science.
fore
lish
may be
there-
It
seems
to
me
that science does not estab-
teleology, but that a
comprehensive view
IDEALISM IN RELATION TO BIOLOGY

of living beings,
187
and much more

But, after
of
man, does
is
establish teleology.
all, it
mainly
call
I
a question
of
definition
whether we
;
theory scientific or philosophical

quite contented to rest
and
am
my
case on the broad

of
view that Darwin and

are
many
his followers
wrong
in
denying teleology, though they
are perfectly right in denying that mechanical
form
of teleology of
which
is
associated with the
name
It is
Paley.
important to observe that a teleological

the world does not exclude but pre-
view
of
supposes the law of natural causation.
We
which
must therefore be
"
careful to avoid
regarding
purpose
to be
"
as a sort of deus ex macJiina,
is
invoked when the ordinary
scientific
explanation has not yet been discovered.

a conception of
"
Such
purpose
" in
nature seems to
me
a survival of the obsolete idea of external
teleology,
from which the doctrine

to free us.
I
of develop-
ment has helped

in a teleology
have no belief
which does not presuppose the

natural
inviolability of the
If
law of causation.
break could
fall
be found in that law,
we
should have to
back upon the idea that
88
is

no system
of nature,
there
tial
but merely a parof parts.

is
and imperfect arrangement

is
The
based
teleology which
here maintained
upon the recognition
of a fixed order in nature.
What
is
held
is,
that living beings
by
their
of
very nature contain in

unity which
is
them a principle
realised within
the inviolable
system of natural law.
The
firstly,
theory of
natural
selection
assumes,
that the laws of nature are inviolable.

at
This
is
bottom another way
of
saying that,
when we come
suppose that
that there
is
it
to the study of nature,

is
we
pre-
a system of facts, so perfect

in
it.
no break or flaw
Hence
living beings, as well as inorganic things, are
within this system, and there can be no such

dissolution of continuity as that
which
is
sug-
gested by the view of purpose as external or
mechanical.
Secondly,
natural
selection
is
as-
sumes
that in
each living being there

itself
a
to
tendency or impulse to maintain

continue the species.
and
In saying that the doc-
trine of natural selection rests

tion,
it is
on
this
assump-
not meant that the biologist need be

it,
aware
of
or that he employs
it
in his specific

enquiries.
of
189
The
specialist
is
hardly ever aware

starts.
the
preconceptions from which he

is
What
take
maintained
is,
that
reflection
upon
the
the theory of natural selection compels us to

this
view.
to
It
has been said

is
that
impulse
self-maintenance
"
something
wholly conditioned upon and resident within

the material nature of the organism."
is
What
to be understood
"
?
by the
it
"
material nature of
that the craving
"
the organism
Is
meant
for food, for example,
can be attributed to
"
?
the
material nature of the organism
If so,
that
in
impulse must be capable of being expressed
terms of matter and motion.
This seems to
me
a mere confusion of thought, resting
upon
a physical metaphor which conceals the characteristic fact that sensibility
does not belong
to the
is
"
material nature of the organism," but

a certain class of living
the differentia of
beings.
Thirdly,
if
there were no adaptation what-
ever
between
it
organisms and
be
It
is
their
for
environ-
ment,
exist
would
all.
impossible
objected
"
them
there
ice
to
is
at
that
of
also
harmony between
piece
and
IQO

it
the water in which the kind of
floats."
No
I
doubt
but
is
harmony
to
which
refer, as
impHed by the two preceding

is is
characteristics,
one which exists only

internally
in
being which
purposive,
and that cannot be

It
is
said of the piece of ice.
no doubt true
when we have discovered that living beings are purposive, we can no longer speak
that
of
nature as
;
if
it
were merely a mechanical

out,
it
system
but, as
Kant points
is
living
beings which
nature
is
first
clearly suggest to us that
purposive.
And
if
it
is
true, as
have maintained, that we cannot differentiate

living
from non-living beings without apply-
ing the idea of purpose,
we
are
entitled
to
say that reality as a whole must be

preted
inter-
from
the
new
point
It
is
of
view
of
an
arti-
immanent
ficial
teleology.
only by an
is
truncation of reality, such as
a necesphysical
that
sary
device
in
the
pursuit
are
led
of
the
sciences,
that
we
to
suppose
nature
is
merely a mechanical system.
The
peculiar
phenomena
first
of
living beings
compel
us to revise our
inadequate view, and to

is
say that
real
existence
not
merely a me-

chanical
191
but a teleological
far,
system.
refuse
Having
to
gone so
the
of
last
we can hardly
take
step,
and admit that the existence

beings again compels us to
reality,
self-conscious
revise our view of
and
to
admit that
the
of
it
only completely satisfactory explanation

is
that which refers the world to a
self-
conscious, rational, and spiritual principle.
CHAPTER
VIII
IDEALISM AND CHRISTIANITY
The
brought
conclusion
is
to
which
ultimate
we have
been
that
the
conception by
means
is
of
which existence must be explained
that of a self-conscious
principle.
and self-determinimportant to see
ing
Now
is
it
is
precisely
what
involved in this conception,

it
and
to
remove from
all
elements
which
are inconsistent with
its
it
purity and with the
position assigned to
as the
only adequate
a
explanation
of
the
world
of
as
whole.
thorough discussion
this
topic
would de-
mand a complete system of metaphysic, but it may be possible in brief compass to show the inadequacy of certain definitions of God
or the
absolute,
it
and
to
indicate
the definiof
tion
which
would be the task
com-
pletely reasoned
this
system to establish.
will
When
made
has been done, an attempt

192
be

to
193
give
an
outline
of
the
relation
to
of
the
world,
lute.
and especially
of
man,
the
abso-
A
is
consideration of these two questions
will of itself
be sufficient to show that Ideal-
ism
in
essential
life,
harmony with the
Chrisof
tian ideal of
as held
it
by the Founder
Christianity,
in form,
(i)
however
may
differ,
at
least
from popular Christian theology.

is
The absolute ceived when it is

stance.
very inadequately con-
defined
is
simply as
sub-
This view
the inevitable result of
opposing mind and nature, or thought and

reality,
to
each other as abstract opposites.

excludes nature
For,
if
mind
and
nature
mind, we are compelled to seek for the unity

of
both in that which
is
neither, but
is
some-
thing beyond both.

ever,
This "something," howit
cannot be further defined, and hence
remains for knowledge absolutely indeterminate.
Now
is
it
is
strangely supposed that such

of
an elimination
the
distinction
of
nature
and mind
tic
the logical result of
the idealis-
conception of the absolute.

that
When
it
is
maintained
there
can
be
no abstract and
separation of
mind and
nature, subject
94
object,

it
is
argued that mind and nature are

it
identified,
fall
and hence
is
said that
is
we must
back upon a unity which

both.
manifested
indifferently in
to
This objection seems

of
me
to rest
upon a misconception
what
Idealism affirms.
is
What
is
is
really
maintained
indeif
that the conception of

reality
its strict
nature as an
pendent
taken in
nature
in
it
conception
which,
itself.
sense, contradicts
reality,
it
If
is
an independent
of
it
can have
no principle
unity.
For the highest

is
principle
by which
can be determined
its
that of the interdependence of

this
parts,
and
principle
still
leaves the
it
parts
external
to
one another, while
explains the process of
nature as the changes which are produced in
each part by the action upon
it
of the others.
But such a conception does not take us be-
yond the idea

externally
of
an aggregate
of
parts only
to
or
mechanically
related
one
is
another.
On
the other hand,

it
when mind
only be
separated
from nature,
can
con-
ceived as an abstract unity which, as having
no
differences
within
itself,
must
for
ever
re-
remain
in its abstractness.
Now
Idealism

fuses to admit that nature
195
and mind are thus
separated.
It
regards nature as the manifes-
tation of mind,
and mind as the principle

Hence,
for the
of
unity implied in nature.
me-
chanical conception of nature as a system of
interdependent
parts
is
undergoing correspon-
dent changes,
of nature as a
substituted the organic idea
system which develops towards
an
end.
This view transforms the concepnature, not
tion of
by denying that
it
it
is
system,
but
is
by
regarding
as
is
system
which
to
if
rational,
and therefore
intelligible
all
beings in
whom
reason operates.
Now,
to
we have
in
to interpret nature
from the point

is
of
view of reason, the key to nature

mind.
be
found
Hence
the
as
the absolute cannot
be adequately conceived merely as the unity
which
is
beyond
distinction
of
nature
is
and mind, but only

implicit
in
the
unity
which
in
nature
and
explicit
to
mind.
When,
relation
therefore,
of
we seek
question
determine the
of
particular
forms
is
being
far
to
the
is
absolute, the
how
of
each
the
explicit
manifestation
rationality.
"
No
form
of reality
can be regarded as
mere
196

only
as
appearance," but
the
more or
less
adequate manifestation of the principle which

is
the source
and explanation
of
all
reality.
When,
reality,
therefore,
we speak of an "individual" we must remember that its individuby

its
ality is constituted
relation to the whole.
On
the other hand, an individual reality can-
not be defined as nothing but the

relations
to
sum
of its
other
individual
realities.
The
conception of reality as determined purely by

the
relations
of
one thing
to
another overis
looks the principle of

in
all
unity which
present
alike.
This
is
true even of inorganic
things.
Each atom
of
its
oxygen or hydrogen
relations, but
is
nothing apart from

ticipates in the
each par-
universal, so
that an
atom
of
each
into
is
always determined
it
by the
relations
which
it
is
capable of
entering,
while
all
yet
manifests the character peculiar to

of its
atoms
own
is
kind.
The
individuality in
this case is of a very simple character.
Much
more obvious
in
the principle of individuality

beinofs,
the
case
in
of livino^
which do not
relations,
persist
the
same unchangeable
but exhibit a whole series of relations to the
IDEALISM AND CHRIST/AIV/TY

environment.
197
Hence we can only describe

passes.
the nature of a living being by pointing out the cycle of changes through which
it
The
the
its
living being
is
thus
distinguished from
of
non-living
relations,
of its
by the greater complexity
and by the more express exhibiBut

it
tion
individual unity.
is
espe-
cially in self-conscious
beings that individuality

their
and
universality
reach
higher
stage.
Speaking generally, we must

that a being
perfectly
it
therefore
say
is
more
truly individual, the

itself
more
contains within
the principle
of the whole.
We
is
cannot therefore say that

all
the
absolute
manifested equally in
it
bein
ings; indeed, strictly speaking, self-conscious
is
only
beings that the true nature

is
of
the absolute
that
revealed.
is is
Now,
if
it
is
true
only as reason
it
developed in a being
the true principle of
that
truly
does
the
express what
it
whole,
is
manifest
as
it
the
is,
absolute
in
cannot be
realised,
beings
it
lower than man, and that even in

not
realised
this
man
is
in
its
absolute
completeness.
of the
By
conception
in
all
of the
immanence
absolute
forms of
beinsf, toQêther
with
198
the recognition that in
man
at
his
best the
are en-
absolute
is
most
fully
manifested,
we
abled to see that the conception of the absolute
as
merely
persists
is
the
in
unchanging
all
substance
which
forms
of
changing
a conall
existence
ception,
quite
inadequate.
Such
on the one hand, abolishes
the
distinctions of one being from another,
mak-
ing them
hand,
it
all
equally unreal; and, on the other

that
denies
the
absolute
in
all
is
self-
revealing subject,
immanent
forms of
being, but manifested truly only in those that

are self-conscious.
(2)
The
it
absolute
is
is
inadequately conceived
as
when
or,
defined
all
the
power which
is
manifested in
in other
particular forms of reality,

first
words, simply as the
cause
of
or creator of the world.
The conception
in
power or force
is
that of a negative activity

itself
is
which manifests
overcoming
to
is
it.
some
other power which
opposed
energy
The
power
mechanical conception
of
of
is
the
"
doing work," and
always explained as
manifested in opposition to that which resists

it.
All energy
is
therefore by
its
very nature
IDEALISM AND CHR/ST/AN/TV

limited.
199
When, therefore, we speak of infinite power, we virtually transcend the conception

of energy,
for " infinite
"
power must be the

itself
all
energy which includes

energy.
the
in
forms of
Such
a conception takes us
of
beyond
conception
power
altogether.
The
infi-
only kind of power which can be called

nite
is
that
power which
is
is
self-determinant,
in
and such a power
found only
is
self-con-
scious energy, which

it
truly infinite because
returns
all
upon
itself
or
preserves
In
its
unity
in
its
manifestations.
self-conscious
identical.
is
energy, object
and subject are
In
man
this
energy of self-consciousness
not
self-
complete, because
conscious.
man
the
is
not completely
there
But
in
absolute
must
if
be
complete self-consciousness.
Now,
we
the
are compelled to conceive of the absolute as
complete self-consciousness,
there
is
in
absolute the perfect unity of subject and object.
And
as
such
unity
admits
of
no
degrees, there can be no absolute origination

of reality, for this
would mean the absolute

of
origination
of
some phase
conception
of
the absolute.
The
ordinary
creation as the
200
origination of the world out of nothing con-
veys a truth in the form of a self-contradiction

it
expresses the idea of self-determining activ-
ity in the
imaginative form of a transition from
nothing to reality as taking place in time.
blank nothing
is
imagined,
which
all
is
at
bottom merely the abstraction from

minate
this
reality,
deter-
and then
is
it
is
imagined that
blank nothing
succeeded by determiof causality, as
nate reality.
it
The conception
in
is
employed
determining the relation of

is
one phase of
reality to another,
transferred
to the relation
between the absolute and de-
terminate reality.
Now,
as
we have
seen, the
conception of causal connexion has no meaning except as expressing the dependence

particular
other,
of
phases
of
reality
upon
one
an-
and ultimately we are compelled
to rec-
ognise that such interdependence of particular
phases of reality presupposes a self-determining principle.

point of view,
When we
and
in
it
have reached
this
we have transcended
is
it
the cate-
gory
of causality,
therefore inadmis-
sible to
employ
seeking to explain the
relation of the parts to the whole.
But
this

is
20
what
is
done
in
the ordinary conception
of creation, thougli the
inadequacy of the con-
ception
is
virtually admitted
is
when
"
is
the creation
it
of the world
figured as the origination of
from nothing.
as
if
For
"
nothing
to
represented
definite
it
it
were a material
which a
form was given by the action upon

external cause.
It
is
of
an
obvious that this crude
way
of conceiving the relation of the
world to
the absolute must
be discarded.
the
The world
absolute, but
cannot be separated from
must be regarded
as the manifestation or ob-
jectification of the absolute, or, in other words,
as the absolute itself regarded in
its
abstract
opposition
ever,
is
to
itself.
This opposition, how;
merely a distinction
to the absolute
is
for that
which
is
opposed
(3)
the absolute
itself.
The
absolute
a
is
not
adequately con-
ceived as
person, although
is
no doubt the
ade-
conception of personality
much more
we mean
further,
quate as a predicate of the absolute than that

of
power.
is
By a
"
person
"
a being
that
an
individual,
is
and,
an
indi-
vidual
as a
who
capable of conceiving himself

ex-
self.
But personality emphasises the
202
elusive

aspeet
is
of
self-aetivity,
and thus one opposed

to
person
another.
all
separated
from
and
On
this basis of exclusive selfhood
rights are based, a right being the expres-
sion of
the self
in
that
which has no
is
self.
Now,
so far as the absolute
afifirmed to
be
a person, the
is
main idea
and
is
is
that the absolute

it
self-conscious,
to this extent
is
true
that the absolute

lute
is
a person.
But the abso-
not properly conceived as a person in

exclusive self-centred
the
sense of being an
individual.
The conception of inadequate even when applied

is
personality
to
is
it
man,
for
not true that
man
is
merely a person.
The
re-
first
consciousness of exclusive or adverse

to
lations
others
of
must be supplemented by
the
that
conception
is,
man
is
as
essentially
is is
spirit,
as
a being whose true self
found
there-
in relation to
what
not
self.
Man
fore not adequately conceived as an exclusive

self,
but only as a
self
whose true nature
is
to
transcend his exclusiveness and to find himself

in
what seems
at first to
be opposed to him.
In other words,
tive
:
man
is
essentially self-separaself-
he must go out of his apparently

centred
life in
203
order to find himself in a truer
and richer
life.
This conception
of
self-
opposing subject must be applied to the absolute.
The
absolute
spirit,
i.e.
is
not
an
abstract
person, but a
tial
a being
whose essenitself
itself.
nature consists in opposing to

unity with
beings
in
whom
it
realises
This
conception of a self-alienating or
self-distin-
guishing subject seems to

idea which
Trinity.
is
me
the fundamental
expressed in the doctrine of the
We
can
conceive
nothing
higher
in-
than a self-conscious subject, who, in the

finite
fulness of his nature, exhibits his perin
fection
beings
who
realise
themselves in
Schiller
to
ex-
identification
with him.
What
presses in
a figurative
way seems
be the necessary result of
philosophy:
me
to
" Freundlos war der grosse Weltenmeister,

Fiihlte
Mangel, darum schuf er Geister,
Sel'ge Spiegel seiner Seligkeit.
Fand das hochste Wesen schon kein

Schaumt ihm die Unendlichkeit."
Gleiches,
Aus dem Kelch des ganzen Wesenreiches
There
tain
is
at
present
absolute
tendency to mainas
that
the
must be defined
204

than
a
to
somethins: higher
ject.
self-conscious sub-
This view seems

false
me
to
rest
upon
of
the
assumption that the distinction

is
subject
and object
mark
of
limitation.
But
the
it
can only be a mark

that
of limitation
is
i.e.
on
supposition
the
object
in
some
way
disparate from the subject,

is
contains
an element which
view which
absolute,
identical;
its
is
incomprehensible.
is
The
the
here maintained
that, in
subject
and
object
are
absolutely
in other words, that the subject is

If
it
own
object.
is
is
is
objected that in that
case
there
no distinction
that
as
between them,
subject
the
answer
all
the
is
compre-
hends
reality,
there
in the absolute
no
but
distinction
bchvccn
subject
and
object,
there
is
an
infinity of distinctions luithiii the
absolute.
The
absolute,
in
other words,
is
essentially self-distinguishing.
It
has
as
already
the
been maintained
that
is
the
pur-
world,
posive.
this
manifestation of
God,
It
must be observed, however, that

is
purpose
not something superadded to

is
the world, but

It
is
implied
in
its
very nature.
important to make this observation, be-
IDEALISM AND CHRlSTlAAriTV

cause the whole
20
objection to the teleological

arises
view
of
the
world
from
confusing
mechanical
idealistic
with
is
immanent
teleology.
The
view
therefore hostile to the con-
ception of Providence as the external adaptation of events to
an end.
"
Mr. Balfour
tells
us that one cannot
think of
evolution in a
its
God-created wôrld without attributing to
Author the notion

out." *
It
is
of
purpose slowly worked
of course obvious that the con-
ception
of
is
God
implies
that
;
the
process of
evolution
towards an end
but this process

"
cannot be adequately described as a

ential exercise of divine power."
prefer-
We
The
cannot
conceive of the
world as
first
created,
and
then directed towards an

of
end.
reality
self-
the
world
implies
the
continuous
this
determination of
nation
involves
is
God, and
the
self-determi-
process
as
by which
oroanic
the
world
maintained
an
whole.
We
of
so,
cannot, therefore, separate the evolution

the
world
fall
from
its
existence.
If
we do
Kant
we
into the difficulty urged by
against
the
argument from design, that we

*
Foundations of Belief,
p. 328.
206

"
presuppose a
matter
"
to
which the divine

"
Architect gives
unthinkable.
shape.
Such a
matter
"
is
The
in
nearest
approach we can
as that
make
to
it is
some such conception

theory, the
of the primitive
matter from which, according
to the nebular
complex forms
But
of
our solar system have been evolved.

this
in
nebulous matter there

"
is "
already implied
of
all
the
life,
promise and potency

it
forms of
"
and hence
can only be called being a

is
matter
in the relative sense of
less
developed
form
of the
world than
realised in the sub-
sequent stages of
then,
nally
evolution.
The
is
is
purpose,
exter-
which must be affirmed

added
to the world, but
not
already im-
plied in the very existence of the world.
The
world
exists
is
an organic whole, in which each part

its
and has
the
proper nature only in and
through
others.
Hence
is
the
evolution
from lower to higher forms

of accident,
not a matter
but
is
inseparable from the exist-
ence
of
the
world.
distinction,
however,
orders
that
of
must be drawn between

being.
It
is
different
of
only in the case of
man
we
can speak not only of evolution, but
con-

scious
20/
evolution or progress.
The
scientific
doctrine of evolution has enabled

that the law of
all
us
to
see
is
finite
forms of being
law of development;
real
is
in other words, that the
not
the
actual
as
it
first
appears in
in
time, but
actual,
the ideal which

is
is
implicit
in
it
the
and which
principle
it
present
as
the
in
active
determining the process
which
is
manifested.
In the case of beings
lower than
man
this process
does
not
reach
;
the stage of a self-conscious development

at least,
or,
even the highest animals have only

self,
an indefinite consciousness of
fore,
and, there-
can
hardly be said
to
be
capable
of
ideals.
Man,
is
however,
of
not
only
develops,
but he
his
capable
grasping
the
law of
con-
own development,
his
is
and, therefore, of
self
trasting with
immediate
an ideal of
conception
himself in which
of
embodied
to
be,
his
what
he
ought
is.
as
distinguished
of
from w^hat he
ing
This capability
returnis
upon
himself
and setting up
ideals
the fundamental condition of
human
it
progress.
The
ideal,
however,
is
while
is
contrasted
with the actual,
never in contradiction to
2o8

;
the actual
ideal
it
is
but the actual grasped in

that
its
all
nature,
as
end towards which
prior development
it
has been striving.

progress of
thus
Were
be
the
otherwise,
the
It
is
man would
impossible.
obvious that, on
one hand, progress consists in conformity to

the
purpose which
things,
is
involved in the whole
nature of
and,
on the
other
hand,
that this purpose can be realised only through
the free
of
activity
of
man.
The
spiritual
life
man cannot
it
be
imparted
to
him from
a
is
without;
tion
of
consists in
ideal.
It
the conscious realisais,
the
therefore,
life
very
ex-
inadequate conception
of
which
is
pressed in the formula that there

not ourselves which
"
Power
makes
for righteousness." for righteousness

i.e,
The
is
"
Power
"
which makes
the
conscious willing of righteousness,
the conception and realisation of the

of
meaning
the
true
the world.
realised
It
is
true
that
it
righteousness
is
can be
only because
;
law of man's being

operates
scious
It
but
it
is
a law
his
which
only
in
and through
self-con-
life.
is,
then,
the
very
nature
of
all
finite

forms of being
tliat
209
in in
their
reality
consists
a process by which tliey
come
case
to be of
what
idea
they are.
is
In
a
the
man, whose
process,
development
self-conscious
the
development
scendence
of
of
goodness consists
in the tranlife.
his
life
immediate or natural
of
So
he
far
is is
as
the
man
evil
;
is
merely natural,
only because
neither
good nor
it is
he
capable of abstracting from the immelife
diate
of feeling
that
is
he
is
moral.
the
And
possi-
with
this
capacity
bound
up
bility of willing evil.
The
question as to the
existence of
evil
has been
obscured by the
manner
in
which the problem has been put.

fathers,
The church
independently
conceiving
of
man
that
as
created,
maintained
in
he
holi-
was originally perfect

ness,
wisdom and
man.
and that
evil
was introduced into the

first
world by the sin of the
It
need
hardly be said that this explanation not only

explains nothing, but
is
self-contradictory
all
and
of
out
of
harmony with
man.
It
that
we know^
primitive
explains nothing, because

transferred
moral
evil
cannot be externally
to
from one person
another
the very idea of
2IO

evil
It
is
moral
act.
being that
it
proceeds from a free
self-contradictory, because a perfect

will
evil.
being could have no disposition to
And
that
it
is
incompatible
discovery,
with
the
results
it
of
scientific
which make
certain
primitive
man began
to
at the lowest
and
not the
tion
highest stage.
The
state of
is,
perfec-
ascribed
primitive
man
therefore,
the goal and not the starting-point of

ity.
human-
Man
life
was, therefore, in his original state

is
evil, in
the sense that evil

of a
inseparable from
attain
to
the
being
who can
error
good
the
only
through
to
fall
freedom, which
into
involves
evil.
freedom
orioînal
and
The
of
state
of
man was one

The
in
which he
the
of
had the most inadequate conception

world,
himself,
and God.
progress
man
itual
has involved a continual struggle with
the cruder ideal of an earlier age.

life
is
The
spir-
not a primitive endowment, but
the result of long-continued pain and travail.

Evil
is
not an accident
it is
inseparable from
the process by which
man
only
transcends his im-
mediate
perience
life.
It
is
through
has
the
ex-
of
evil
that
man
obtained

consciousness of the
heights of his
the process of
nature.
211
as
depths as
well
the
On
life
the
other hand,
human
has been a contin-
ual transcendence of evil.

is
The
desire of
man
for
goodness and God, and his experience

evil
it
that
is
in
contradiction to his true self

for
makes
impossible
at
him
to
rest
in
it.
Hence
never
it
even
the
evil
;
earliest
stage
man
is
absolutely
true,
he hates his enemy,

his
is
but he sacrifices
his
life,
natural
imor
of
pulses,
tribe.
and even
for
his
family
Thus
life
the
is
imperfect
the
development
his moral
counterpart of his im-
perfect
knowledge
of himself.
The
is
deliverance of
man from
the evil wdiich

life
belongs to his nature, as a being whose

a
process,
is
possible
of
only through
as
in
the
ideal
comprehension
nature
identical
of in
himself
his
with
God.
The
stated.
mediaeval
conception
in
salvation
cannot be accepted
it
the
form
which
is
Man,
it
was
argued,
might
sin
in
conceivably
have
:
been
liberated
from
two ways
either
God
by a
might have pardoned him out

or
of jDure mercy, his

sin
man might have
expiated
212

the
it
humility correspondent to
his euilt.
flicts
is
magnitude
of
But the former,
was
held, con-
with the justice of God; and the latter
impossible, because
man
could not undergo
a humiliation
tion
proportionate to the self-asserin
implied
disobedience to
offered
the will
his
of
in
God.
Hence God
up
Son
man's stead, thus reconciling

with infinite mercy.
It
is
infinite
justice
impossible to
state
this
highly
it
arti-
ficial
doctrine without seeing

conflicting
that
is
the
product of
ideas
which are not

other.
of
properly reconciled
starting-point
sin,
is
with
each
The
the
conception
personal
one
is
of
the central ideas of
Christianity.
Sin
fore
then identified with crime, and thereis

is
God
conceived as an inexorable judge.

not
crime,
But sin
nor can
is
;
God
be
re-
garded as a judge.
Crime
a violation of
it is
the personal rights of another
an offence
against the external order of the state, which
must be expiated by an external punishment.

Sin,
on the other hand,
is
not a violation of
rio^hts,
but a desecration of the ideal nature
of the sinner, the willing of himself as in his
IDEALISM AND CHRfSTlANITY

essence
external
213
he
is
not.
Hence
to
sin
it
requires
no
punishment
it
bring
home
life,
to the
it
sinner:
brings
its
own punishment with

In
in the destruction of the higher
the real-
isation of
which
is
blessedness.
man, by
virtue of the divine principle in him, the con-
sciousness of
God
is
bound up with the con-
sciousness of himself, and he cannot do violence

to the
one without doing violence to the other.
Hence God is not a judge, allotting punishment according to an external law, but the
perfectly
holy
Being, by reference
himself.
to
whom
man condemns
criminal,
after
No
external punishnature.
ment can transform the inner

be more hardened
yet society
tion
his
is
The undergoing punishment, may

in
crime than
ever,
its
and
func-
must punish him, because

criminal
to preserve the social bond,
which by
But
reli-
act
the
has assailed.
gion has in view not the preservation of social

order, but the regeneration of the individual
it
:
deals with
the
inner nature
of
man, not
and
with the result of his act upon society;

hence, unless
it
transforms
its
and
spiritualises
him,
it
entirely fails of
end.
214

sin of
The
Adam, according
God.
in
self
to the mediae-
val theory, consisted in pride, or the attempt

to equalise himself with
The
in
truth im-
plied
in
this
view
is
that
so far as
man
own
seeks
to
realise
his
true
separation
from God, and therefore
in willing his
good
But
in
isolation
from the good
of his fellow-
men, he brings upon himself

this
spiritual
death.
truth
sin
is
is
obscured by the vulgar

the
notion
equalise
that
attempt
of
man
God
to
himself with
God,
notion
obvias
ously based upon the conception of

a
Ruler
whose
majesty must
be
asserted.
This pagan conception, drawn mainly from

the
idea of
Caesar,
is
as
the
representative
of
order and law,

tian idea of
entirely foreign to the Chris-
God.
Even
Plato saw that "in

;
God
there can be no envy
"
and mediaeval
thinkers themselves virtually deny this false
conception of
incarnation as
love of
God, when they speak an expression

Here, in
fact,
of
the
of
the
infinite
God.
we come upon
form, what
of
the only purely Christian idea in the whole

doctrine.
is
Stripped of
is
its
is
artificial
afifirmed
that
it
the
very nature
TDEAUSM AND CHRIST/AN/TV

God
that,
215
to
communicate himself
to finite beinors
loving his creatures with an infinite love,

realise
he can
them.
his
own
blessedness
only in
Man
can therefore be saved from sin
only as he realises in his
own
life
the
self-
communicating
himself the
divine
life.
spirit of
God.
the
In taking
race,
upon
a
burden
This
his
is
of
he
lives
the secret
which Jesus
this
reahsed
secret
in
life,
and
to
is
have made
to
practically our
own
be justified
by
faith.
The
stood,
Christian ideal of
is
life,
as here underall
broad enough
to
embrace
the
elements which in their combination constitute the
complex
in
spirit of the
modern
of
world.
Every advance
for a
fuller
science
is
the preparation
and clearer conception

in
God
of
every
society
improvement
is
the
organisation
a further development of that com-
munity
of free beings
by which the
is
ideal of
an organic unity of humanity

of
in
process
artistic
realisation;
every advance
in
the
interpretation of the world helps to individualise the

all
idea of
the organic unity by which
things are bound together.
The
ideal
of
2l6

Church has tended
the
the
direct
to
of
the
to
to
Hmit Christianity
the moral
ideal,
promotion
the
exclusion of
more comprehensive
is
ideal
full
which recognises that the goal
the
development
full
of
all
the
means by which
is
the
perfection
of
humanity
realised.
The
Christian ideal, as embodied in the teachIt
ing of Jesus, was free from this limitation.
saw God
and
in
the
orderly processes of nature
in the
beauty of the world, as well as in
the loving service of

it
humanity.
all
In principle
therefore
life.
embraced
that
makes
of
for the
higher
The
Christianity
our
day
must
of life
free
itself
from the narrow conception

to
by which Protestantism has tended

its
limit
principle.
of
It
must recognise that
the
ideal
it
Christian
manhood
of
includes
within
the
Greek
ideal
clear
thought
Jewish
ideal
and the love

ideal of
of
of beauty, as well as the
righteousness, and the
Roman
all
law
and
order,
harmonising
by
the
divine spirit of love to

basis
of
God and man, on

which has come
the
to
that
free
spirit
us mainly from our Teutonic ancestors.
OUTLINES OF SOCIAL THEOLOGY.

By WILLIAM DEWITT HYDE,
President of Bowdoin College,
D.D.,
i2mo.
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" President Hyde does not aim to upset established religion, only to point out how the article we now have may be improved on its social side, as to which there will be no dispute that it is wofully lacking, tlis
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his
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HEREDITY AND CHRISTIAN PROBLEMS.

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it
H.
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and
"
is
A popular and instructive discussion of the vexed question of herDr. Bradford discusses it in a robust, intelligent, straightforward, and thoroughly Christian way, and his book will be a solid help to The Christian Advocate. every student of human nature."
edity.
. . .
characteristic feature in the scheme of reform presented by Dr. Bradford is his faith in Christianity as a divine and spiritual power in the world, set to operate along the lines of certam
"
The
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BR 121 .W35 1897 Watson, John, 1847-1939.

Christianity and idealism

PUBLICATIONS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

MILLS PROFESSOR OF INTELLECTUAL

AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY

CHRISTIANITY AND IDEALISM

Christianity and Idealism

The Christian Ideal of

TO THE Greek and Jewish Ideals and

PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IN QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

the MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Norwood Mass. U.S.A.

Note by the Editor

Historical Connexion of Morality and Religion

IN ITS RELATION TO THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL OF LIFE

General Statement and Defence of Idealism

to Agnosticism and the

NOTE BY THE EDITOR

the second in a series of pubHcations projected

by the Philosophical Union

volume, entitled The

Harvard University and a number

the stress of circumstances, but will presently

be issued, and in due time will be followed by

in the series will in a

the culmination of a group

the year's work, and \\\\o

NOTE BY THE EDITOR

and concluding part

whose pursuits are

the positivist, the agnostic, the un-

settled inquirer, all

have their free expression

nearly every type.

are animated by a conviction that

TJiey are convinced that, for better

only safety for

osophic criticism that shall

relenting, penetrating to the bottom,

read " Many.'

NOTE BY THE EDITOR

because of this unsparing thorough-

ness, will affirm the reality of all those

and by the undermining

the writings that form the

one to say that a logical march seems manihere, as

there were an advance from

the statement would not be incorrect.

the discussion, such

along the historical course of religious behas

the ideals of past culture which the negative

NOTE BY THE EDITOR

any proof that

we any longer Theists, are we any longer Christians

procedure aiming to affirm

the path of these questions, and, by a

Theism, and onward to

that of a rational Christianity.

present volume thus has for

the interdependence of Christianity and Ideal;

Christianity regarded, not as histori-

but as an ideal of conduct, and