Sensorless control of an induction motor at zero flux frequency

Omer Ikram ul Haq

Master Thesis EJ210X

Supervisor Sjoerd Bosga Examiner Chandur Sadarangani

Department of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics School of Electrical Engineering Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)

Stockholm, 2010

Abstract: This research work describes the difficulties in the implementation of the method developed by Blaschke to control an induction motor at zero flux frequency, by using only stator voltage. A working model of sensor-less vector control for induction motor is developed in this report. Using this model, Blaschkes control methodology is vigorously tested at different operating conditions. The report also explains mathematical relations of the controlled signal(s) under certain assumptions. In the end, simulation results are verified experimentally on a Control Test Bench designed during this thesis work. With the help of the simulations, it is shown that the proposed control methodology is highly dependent on the flux frequency and the load. This is one of the major drawbacks of this method other than its dependency on the motor parameters and mechanical inertia. The simulation results are verified with the help of measurements, which confirm these dependencies of the control methodology. The method appears to be very difficult or impossible to implement in practice. The test bench and part of the implemented control algorithms will be used for further investigations on sensorless control. They will also be used for evaluating other control algorithms, for different types of motors. The control hardware corresponds to that typically used with ABB converters.

Sammanfattning: Denna forskning beskriver svrigheterna att genomfra metoden som har utvecklats av Blaschke fr att styra en asynkronmotor vid noll fldesfrekvens, genom att anvnda endast statornspnningen. En fungerande modell fr sensorlsreglering av en asynkronmotor har utvecklats i denna rapport. Med hjlp av denna modell har Blaschkes reglermetod noggrann testats vid olika driftsfrhllanden. Rapporten frklarar ocks matematiska relationer av de reglersignalerna under vissa antaganden. I slutet verifieras simuleringsresultaten experimentellt p en provbnk som r konstruerade under detta examensarbete. Med hjlp av simuleringarna har det bevisats att de freslagna reglermetoderna r starkt beroende av fldetsfrekvens och belastning. Detta r en av de stora nackdelarna med denna metod vid sidan av sitt beroende p motorparametrarna och mekanisk trghet. Simuleringsresultaten verifieras med hjlp av mtningar, som bekrftar dessa beroenden. Metoden verkar vara mycket svrt eller omjligt att genomfra i praktiken. I provbnk kommer en del av de genomfrda styralgoritmerna att ytterligare underskas fr sensorlsreglering. De kommer ocks att anvndas fr att utvrdera andra regleralgoritmer, fr olika typer av motorer. Reglerhrdvaran motsvarar den som normalt anvnds med ABBomvandlare.

Acknowledgments This master thesis is carried out at ABB AB Corporate Research, Electrical Machines and Motion Control, Vsters in cooperation with Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics, Stockholm. All my acknowledgements go to Allah Almighty who empowered me at every arena. Without His Will I could not be able to carry this study. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Sjoerd Bosga for giving me the opportunity to do this project. He was always there to listen and answer all my queries. I really appreciate his patience, confidence in me and encouragement of my idea throughout which enabled me to accomplish this work. It was my pleasure working with him and getting familiar with other colleges who respected and cherished me around them. I particularly thank Prof. Chandur Sadarangani. His believe in my abilities has led to where I am today. He provided me with this matchless opportunity to come to ABB AB Corporate Research at Vsters and to enjoy invaluable experience of working in such an instructive and multinational environment. I am also indebted to each member at Corporate Research especially Robert Chin, Heinz Lendenmann, Ingo Stroka, Ville Sarkimaki and Rahul Kanchan with whom I had interesting discussions both on technical and non technical issues Special thanks to all my friends Shahid Mehmood, Hongyang Zhang, Qiang Dong, Ali Arzani, Fabio Papandrean, Wenliang Chen and Zhanpeng Shi. Thanks for being my family during this time, and for making the Swedish adventure the best ever. And finally, I would like to dedicate this work to the most important persons in the world for me, my parents. I still remember your emotions when I was leaving for Sweden. Thank you very much for your endless love and encouragement, for the daily transatlantic chatting that has made me even think that the earth is plane because youve never complained about the time difference; for filling my bags with a few cloths, some books but lot of blessings and positive thoughts that have kept me in peace for all this time. I also want to thank my sisters for always remembering me in their happiness and keeping me update with Whats new. I never felt home sick because of you.

Omer Ikram ul Haq Vsters, 2010.

Table of Contents 1 1.1 1.2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 6 HIGH POWER APPLICATION ............................................................................................ 6 LITERATURE RESEARCH................................................................................................. 6 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.3 1.4 Literature on Sensorless control............................................................................ 7 Literature on control of parallel connected motors ................................................. 8

STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................. 9 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... 10 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 Symbols .............................................................................................................. 10 Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 11 Subscripts and superscripts ................................................................................ 11

2 2.1 2.2 2.3

INDUCTION MACHINE EQUATIONS AND NON-LINEAR MOTOR MODEL.................. 12 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 12 CHOICE OF REFERENCE FRAME .................................................................................... 12 TRANSFORMATIONS .................................................................................................... 12 2.3.1 2.3.2 Clarke transformation.......................................................................................... 12 dq0 transformation .............................................................................................. 13 Non-linear induction machine model ................................................................... 15

2.4 2.5 3 3.1

INDUCTION MACHINE EQUATIONS .................................................................................. 13 2.4.1 SUMMARY................................................................................................................... 15 SENSORLESS FIELD ORIENTED VECTOR CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR ....... 15 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................ 16 3.1.1 3.1.2 Machine parameters ........................................................................................... 16 Controller description .......................................................................................... 16 Open-loop control ............................................................................................... 17 Closed-loop Control (with position sensor) .......................................................... 20 Voltage current model implementation ................................................................ 23

3.2

VECTOR CONTROL DESIGN .......................................................................................... 17 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3

3.3 3.4 4 4.1 4.2

DEAD TIME COMPENSATION ......................................................................................... 26 SUMMARY................................................................................................................... 27 ROTOR FLUX ANGLE CORRECTION USING LOW FREQUENCY SIGNAL ................ 29 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 29 FLUX ANGLE CORRECTION MODEL ................................................................................ 29 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 Mathematical relation of Sensitivity analysis Sensitivity analysis of .................................................................. 33 .......................................................................... 35 ...................................................................... 36

4.3

SUMMARY................................................................................................................... 38

5 5.1 5.2 5.3

SIMULATION .................................................................................................................. 39 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 39 MOTOR MODEL IMPROVEMENT ..................................................................................... 39 ANALYSIS ................................................................................................... 40 5.3.1 5.3.2 Linear machine model......................................................................................... 40 Non-linear machine model .................................................................................. 47

5.4 6 6.1

SUMMARY................................................................................................................... 49 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ........................................................................................... 50 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 50 6.1.1 6.1.2 Case1: Load sensitivity ( Case 2: sensitivity ( ) .................................... 50 ) ....................................... 52

6.2 7 7.1 7.2 8 9 10

SUMMARY................................................................................................................... 52 HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP................................... 53 HARDWARE LIST.......................................................................................................... 53 CONTROL TEST BENCH ................................................................................................ 53 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................. 56 FUTURE WORK.............................................................................................................. 57 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 58

APPENDIX A ......................................................................................................................... 62 INDUCTION MACHINE SIMULINK/MATLAB MODELS ..................................................................... 62 APPENDIX B ......................................................................................................................... 65 CLOSED-LOOP MATLAB/SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM .................................................................. 65 APPENDIC C ......................................................................................................................... 70 FLUX ANGLE TRACKING ............................................................................................................ 70 APPENDIX D ......................................................................................................................... 71 MATHEMATICA CODE FOR SOLVING EQUATION ........................................................................... 71 IMPROVED MOTOR MODEL ........................................................................................................ 75 APPENDIX E ......................................................................................................................... 76 CASE1 INDIVIDUAL SIMULATION RESULTS ................................................................................... 76

INTRODUCTION

For more than 35 years there has been a competition between DC machine and AC machine in variable-speed drive applications. Previously the separately excited DC machine was dominating the field of variable speed drives and still DC machines are best solution for special cases where high dynamics and four quadrant operation is required. The aim of the development of the variable speed drive for AC machines is always to match the performance of DC machine drives in a wide range of operating frequencies. The main reason to shift from DC machines to AC machines is because of robust design of the AC machine, The DC machine requires periodic maintenance due to mechanical commutators which also limits the over speeding and overloading capacity of a DC machine. The good thing about DC machines is that they do not require a position or speed sensor. This makes the DC motor control system more robust. Making the induction motor control system Sensorless is a part of making structure of AC drives close to DC drive and increase the robustness of whole system. But shifting from DC machines to AC machines comes with a price, particularly in case of induction machines. The controllers of induction machines are more complex and require more research to stand equal to DC drives. In this thesis work the application of high power AC drives and their limitation such as speed control at very low speeds is focused on. The other counter-part of induction motors are the PMSM (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors). These motors are more efficient and give more torque density then the induction motors. The biggest problem for PMSMs is that they are yet not as common as induction motors and they also have a safety issue, the fault condition. So only induction machines are considered in this study/thesis. 1.1 High power application

In the past just like other fields DC drives were dominating due to less power electronics involved and simpler control. A lot of research has been done in the last decades to develop AC drives to reach the performance of variable-speed DC drives. Very important contribution to the progress of these drive were the increasing developments in power electronics and digital processors, capable of complex (real-time) control algorithms. The main advantage of AC machines over DC machines is the maintenance free operation and simple construction, especially in the case of the induction motor. To increase the robustness of the induction machine drive system a Sensorless field-oriented control by means of the voltage/current model can be developed. This is an ideal way of controlling the induction machine in highly a dynamic environment. But the problem with the Sensorless control, at low speeds the speed estimation becomes inaccurate and it cannot operate at all at zero frequency. This is the main inspiration of this thesis. The aim of this thesis is to study the different algorithms used for controlling the motor at very low speeds and their limitations under certain operating conditions. The literature studies of these different methods used are given in section 1.2 of this chapter. After choosing a possible technique the algorithm is then tested find out its feasibility, e.g. the dependency of the proposed method on different aspects of the motor. 1.2 Literature research

Sensorless control of AC motors has been and is a hot topic of research for at least one decade and there are many different control algorithms researched to make the drive capable of operating the motor close to zero flux frequency without any position or speed sensor. Same is the case with the operation of two or more induction machines connected parallel to a single inverter. Not much research has been done in the field of parallel operation of induction

machine at very low speeds. The literature research in this thesis is divided into two parts, Sensorless control at zero flux frequency and control algorithm for parallel connected induction machines. For this thesis work only Sensorless control at zero flux frequency is considered, Parallel operation of induction machines will be a future challenge. 1.2.1 Literature on Sensorless control A starting point has been taken from the summary of the PhD research done by Leppnen [1], The PhD thesis itself is about the Sensorless control of AC drive, where a low frequency signal is injected and the mechanical dynamics of the motor is observed to control the machine at very low speeds. If the orientation error is zero then the audible noise and torque ripple of the machine are not affected by the injection, this is an advantage of using this system. Similar technique is used by Blaschke in [2] where a pulsating vector is injected in d-axis and then projection of this vector is observed on the d and q axis of the rotor. If the injected current is not projected completely on the d-axis of the flux reference frame then the control system corrects the orientation angle until the error becomes zero. This technique also shares the same benefit as [1]. According to Consoli in [3], this control algorithm is theoretically is very interesting but difficult to implement. Another method to control AC drive at very low speed is to develop a new flux observer as described in [4]. The advantage of this technique is that it is stable in low dynamic environment. A new flux observer model is developed in [5] for wide speed range Sensorless control on which further research was done in [6] to make the observer capable of operating at very low speeds. These observers are very sensitive to the parameters of the machine and the stability at very low speed of the control system depends on the accuracy of these parameters. [7] The alternatives to these techniques are to inject a high frequency signal, either current or voltage and then detect a saliency in the machine. The same technique is used in [8] where flux angle information is taken from zero sequence current. These methods are not practical, as they require an extra sensor on the neutral to measure the zero sequence current or voltage. Angular position of the air gap can also be estimated at low and zero speed by exploiting the interaction between the main field and the injected high-frequency rotating vector. This technique is used in [9]. Usually the frequency is in the range of 500 Hz to 2 KHz for high frequency signal, which is very high for perspective of high power application where low switching frequency for inverter is used to reduce the losses in the inverter. So use of high frequency for flux angle estimation is not a practical way of controlling a high power machine at very low speeds. Low frequency injection methods are more suited for feasible applications. Other than [2] little other progress is made in [10]. Here a low frequency signal is injected and the flux angle information is extracted from the zero-sequence voltage. For this setup a star connected stator winding is required which restricts the control system only for specific motors with winding connected in star. Citation map for Sensorless control is given in Figure 1-1.

Literature base High frequency Low Frequency [7] No Injection Comparison [10] [6]

[8] [9]

[1] [5] [3] [4] [2]

[34] Figure 1-1: Citation map for literature research on Sensorless control

1.2.2 Literature on control of parallel connected motors There are many different methods researched-on in last couple of decades to control two or more indication machines connected in parallel to a single inverter. In [11] new equations for induction machine are developed for two parallel connected induction machines having different parameters. The attractive feature of the purposed control strategy is that, if the two motors have reasonably matched parameters, most of the equation reduces to a single motor equation. The effectiveness of this control methodology is also verified in [12]. The drawback of using this method of controlling for two induction machines connected to a single inverter is that, the control system requires current sensors on the supply of each machine and also if both motors are identical then experimental results show that the system is difficult to control as stated in [13], where same methodology is used to develop a Sensorless vector control for parallel connected induction motors. The stability of dual induction motor drive system is improved in [14] where an adaptive rotor flux observer is used to achieve Sensorless control. Another technique is discussed in [15] where controlled switches are used in between inverter and the motor. The basic idea is to control single motor at a time and after some instance the controller connects the inverter to the second motor. As the motors disconnects for a short interval, it will be difficult to implement voltage/current model for a Sensorless control of the machine. Other than this the drive requires two extra switches to toggle between the motors and use of an extra hardware is highly undesirable in this project.

[16]

[15] [12]

[14] [13] [18]

[11] [17] Figure 1-2: Citation map for literature research on parallel operation of induction motors

Another very interesting methodology for parallel control of induction motors is illustrated in [16]. Disturbance observer is used to detect the slip between the bogie wheel and the rail and the output torque of the motors is altered to optimize the adhesion force between the wheel and the rail. The advantage of this technique is that, it can be used for more than two motors without changing the hardware, also only 3 current sensors on the main supply to the motors are required and equivalent motor parameters are used in control algorithm. The operation of disturbance observer is further discussed in [17]. Disturbance observer detects the slip phenomenon by taking the derivate of the adhesion force coefficient. In some case the resonant frequency of the electric motor coach can disturb the estimated value of adhesion force coefficient. To optimize the disturbance observer, derivate of wheel speed is taken to detect the slip phenomenon [18]. There are no research paper found on the working sensorless control of a parallel connected induction motors at zero flux frequency. 1.3 Structure

The structure of this report is as Section 1 Introduction (this section) describes the purpose and scope for this report as well as the literature research done on the active topic. Section 2 described the MATLAB/Simulink models developed for linear and nonlinear induction motor model through the mathematical equations.

Section 3 describes the development of a sensorless control system in MATLAB/Simulink environment. It also compares the simulated results of the developed control system and the induction machine model with the experimental results, to verify these models. Section 4 describes the mathematical relations of the ideal measuring method proposed by Blaschke in [2], which helps in the evaluation of the simulation and experimental results. Section 5 shows the simulation results of different sensitivity analysis done on the output used for eliminating the error in the estimated rotor flux angle. Section 6 explains the experimental results for case 1 and case 2 simulated in Section 5 Section 7 gives the list of hardware used and circuit diagram of the test bench used. Section 8 concludes the results obtained from the simulation results and the experimental results. Section 9 describes the future challenges and how this method can be used for controlling the induction motor at zero flux frequency. Section 10 gives the source material and further reading references used in this research work. Section 1.4 describes the symbols and abbreviations used in writing of this thesis. Appendix A E gives supplementing information 1.4 Symbols and abbreviations Voltage vector represented in estimated rotating rotor flux reference frame Voltage vector represented in stator flux reference frame Voltage drops due to the injection current Current vector represented in estimated rotating rotor flux reference frame Injection stator current vector represented in actual rotating rotor flux reference frame Injection stator current in stator reference frame Injection rotor current vector represented in actual rotating rotor flux reference frame Injection rotor current in stator reference frame Current vector represented in stator flux reference frame Injection stator current vector represented in estimated rotating rotor flux reference frame Injection stator current vector represented in estimated rotating rotor flux reference frame Rotor current Leakage inductance Rotor and stator leakage inductance Electrical rotor flux frequency in stator reference frame Calculated modulation index before dead time compensation phase

1.4.1 Symbols

10

a,b,c respectively Calculated modulation index after dead time compensation phase a,b,c respectively Change in modulation index by each time step Sign of stator current phase a,b,c respectively Rotor flux Rotor flux in stator reference frame Electrical rotor flux angle in stator reference frame Electrical torque Number of pole pairs Stator resistance Rotor resistance Estimated stator resistance Main inductance (magnetizing inductance) Mechanical rotor speed Load torque Rotor moment of inertia Load moment of inertia Current controller proportional gain Current controller integration reset time Speed controller proportional gain Speed controller integration reset time Change in stator flux in stator reference frame Estimated stator flux in stator reference frame Estimated stator flux Electrical rotor flux angle in stator flux reference frame Electrical stator flux angle Actual electrical rotor flux angle Estimated electrical rotor flux angle 1.4.2 Abbreviations PMSM FOC FOP Permanent magnet synchronous motor Field oriented control Field orientation principle Current controller proportional gain Current controller integrator reset time Voltage current model

UI model

1.4.3 Subscripts and superscripts Variable represents a general variable Representation of and vector in rotor reference frame Representation of and vector in rotor stator frame Representation of a vector in stator flux reference frame Representation of a vector in rotor flux reference frame Reference value of any vector Reference value calculated from lower level reference Estimated value by using U/I model

11

2
2.1

INDUCTION MACHINE EQUATIONS AND NON-LINEAR MOTOR MODEL

Introduction

To obtain a satisfactory control structure for the induction machine, the two components of the stator current vector must be controlled. This can be either the current magnitude and the loading angle or the magnetizing and the torque producing components of the current. The stator magnetizing current is controlled in a way to keep the flux in the machine constant and the torque producing current must be controlled to generate desired torque. To simulate the control system a model of the induction machine is required. The induction machine is used to transform electrical energy to mechanical energy or vice versa and it consists of electric circuitry, electromagnetic circuitry and electro mechanic circuitry. The main objective of the induction machine modeling is to build a simple but sufficient model that describes these circuits and their interconnections. 2.2 Choice of reference frame

The reference frame of the simulation model must typically be a coordinate system in which all quantities in a steady state are at rest, i.e. in which all quantities, appearing as DC quantities are constant. The stator or rotor current vectors or any flux vectors can be considered as a reference axis, as they are rotating at a same speed (synchronously). Decoupling of the Cartesian coordinate of the stator current vector is also desired for more robust control of induction motors. Decoupling of stator current vectors means that they can be controlled separately and independently of each other. Using this strategy will make the control system simple and close to DC machine control architecture. The flux linkage of the rotor windings (rotor flux) can be taken as the reference axis. Burgt and Zhu show that using rotor flux reference frame, both vectors of stator current are completely decoupled in [19] and [20] respectively. The rotor flux represented in its reference frame can be given by the value of its first coordinate as the other coordinate will be zero eq ( 2-1 ) . eq ( 2-1 )

These coordinates with respect to induced voltage of the machine do not correspond with the generally known reactive and active components of the stator current, which are used to calculate the power factor of the machine. 2.3 Transformations

Symmetrical three-phase rotating vectors can be represented by a two phase vector quantity in an appropriate reference frame. This process is known as Space Vector Transformation. By using these transformations, time varying quantities can be handled as a constant and this makes the Control system more simple and easy to implement. The transformation used in this thesis work is explained in section 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. 2.3.1 Clarke transformation Clarke transformation is more commonly known as transformation. This transformation has two different types, Power invariant and Non-power invariant. In this thesis work only Power invariant transformation is used. Clarke transformation is mathematically illustrated in eq ( 2-2 )

12

eq ( 2-2 )

As the idea is to deal with only symmetrical three phase quantities then can be expressed as eq ( 2-3 ).

so eq ( 2-2 )

eq ( 2-3 )

The inverse transformation can be done using eq ( 2-4 )

eq ( 2-4 )

2.3.2 dq0 transformation dqo transformation is used to project the vectors on a specified rotating reference frame to get a constant quantity (In this thesis work the rotating rotor flux is used as a reference, See Section 2.2). Similarly as for Clarke transformation if the three phase rotating quantities are symmetrical then 0-component is eliminated. Mathematically the transformation is expressed as eq ( 2-5 )

eq ( 2-6 ) 2.4 Induction machine equations

Induction machine equations are taken from the Doctoral thesis of Bosga S.G. [21]. These equations combine leakage inductances for stator and rotor . The equations used for modeling the Induction machine and the control system are identical. All quantities used in these equations are electrical quantities, otherwise specified. As the rotor flux is chosen as the reference frame so to transform three phase quantities into two-phase quantities rotor-flux angle in stator reference frame is to be calculated. This can be done by calculating the slip speed seen by rotor and adding up with the rotor speed by using eq ( 2-8 ) and eq ( 2-9 )

13

eq ( 2-7 )

eq ( 2-8 )

eq ( 2-9 ) Where: Electrical Rotor speed in rotor reference frame (Slip speed) Mechanical rotor speed Rotor Resistance Electrical rotor flux frequency in stator reference frame Rotor flux Electrical rotor flux angle in stator reference frame Number of pole pairs

The stator voltage equation in a rotor flux reference frame can be expressed as in eq ( 2-10 ).

eq ( 2-10 )

Where: Stator voltage vector represented in rotating rotor flux reference frame Current vector represented in rotating rotor flux reference frame Total Leakage inductance Electromagnetic torque in induction machine can be calculated as eq ( 2-11 ) Rotor flux magnitude only depends on the d-component of the stator current and mathematically can be written as illustrated in eq ( 2-12 ) eq ( 2-12 )

In eq ( 2-12 ) the main inductance is a constant only for the cases where the flux remains constant and it is accurate enough to use a constant value of main inductance close to its operating point. As for this application the rotor flux is not a constant and saturation effect in the machine is required to verify the Blaschkes method [2] to control the induction machine at very low speeds. This can be done by making a lookup-table of magnetizing current as a function of . The and range depends on the saturation of the machine and lowest possible value (>0) to avoid the calculation errors in the model. The mechanical rotor speed for the machine model is a function of the torque and the moment of inertia. Mathematically the rotor speed can be stated as

14

eq ( 2-13 )

Where: Load torque Rotor moment of inertia Load moment of inertia 2.4.1 Non-linear induction machine model The machine model is developed in MATLAB/Simulink using eq ( 2-7 ) - eq ( 2-13 ). The implementation of these machine equations are illustrated in Appendix A. Using these blocks an accurate enough linear model of induction machine is developed which can be used for simulating and verifying the low frequency current injection technique to estimate the rotor flux position. The block diagram of this model is shown in Figure 2-1 2.5 Summary

In this chapter the equations for the induction motor model are collected and explained. These equations are further used in later chapter for developing a sensorless control system for the induction motor. The complete MATLAB/Simulink model of the induction motor is given in Appendix A. This model is based on the equations (eq ( 2-7 ) - eq ( 2-13 )) collected from [21].

Load properties

Vector Rotator (-) Figure A- 1

Current Calculation Figure A- 4

Flux Calculation Figure A- 5

Speed Calculation Figure A- 6

Slip Calculation Figure A- 3 Vector Rotator (+) Figure A- 2

Figure 2-1: Block diagram of non-linear induction machine model

SENSORLESS FIELD ORIENTED VECTOR CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTOR

The field oriented control (FOC) is widely used for controlling the induction machine precisely and accurately. The control system based on field-orientation principle (FOP) enables the high

15

efficiency and high performance operation of the motor. The FOP defines the conditions to control the magnetic field and output torque in the machine independently. Due to this decoupling of torque and magnetic field, the motor can be operated at an optimal point to give maximum torque per unit Ampere. In this chapter a sensorless field oriented vector control for an induction motor is developed using the eq ( 2-7 ) - eq ( 2-12 ) stated in Section 2. 3.1 Hardware description

The sensorless field oriented vector control for induction machine is designed in steps and each step is simulated and then implemented on a Real-Time system for analyzing the accuracy of the implemented part of the control system. The description of the hardware used for testing are stated in section 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 of this chapter. 3.1.1 Machine parameters The machines chosen for these tests are the ABBs premium efficiency induction motors, (M4BP 160 MLB) [22]. The detailed technical data and parameter description of M4BP 160 MLB is given in Table 3-1. Further motor parameters are estimated using ID-run mode in ACSM-1 drive Table 3-2.

Table 3-1: M4BP 160 MLB Technical data (test motor) [22] Property Data Property Data Machine type Induction motor Nominal Power 0.84 Factor Number of pole pairs 2 Nominal Speed 1474 [rpm] Nominal Voltage 400 [V] Nominal frequency 50 [Hz] Nominal Torque 97 [Nm] Nominal Power 15 [K Watts] Nominal Current 29.5 [A]

Table 3-2: M4BP 160 MLB Parameter description (test motor) at room temperature Parameter Value Parameter Value 0.18204 [] 0.09567 [] Stator resistance, Rotor resistance, 5.31 [mH] Magnetizing inductance, 56.02 [mH] Leakage Inductance,
(at nominal operating point , i.e. )

The load machine used is an ABBs synchronous motor. The rotor inertial of load motor is assumed to be equal to the test machines and the parameters used for the speed controller of ACSM-1 (Load drive) are, Proportional gain , Integration time . The schematic diagram of the test bench used is given in Section 7, Figure 7-2. Further detail about the load setup is out of the scope of this thesis. 3.1.2 Controller description Real time controller used for implementing the test control system during this thesis work is AC 800PEC [23]. The control algorithm can be designed in MATLAB/Simulink environment using OPCoDe library specially designed for AC 800PEC. Using Real Time Workshop Simulink model can be translated into C-language and then downloaded on the controller. More detailed description about the programming and accessing the controller can be obtained from the internal ABB source [24]. ABBs ACSM-1 drive is used as a load motor controller with a

16

feedback from a speed encoder generating 1000 pulses per revolution to make it capable of controlling the machine at very low speeds.

Results Documentation

Results Documentation

Start

Open loop control design

Simulation and implementation No

Verification

Yes

Closed loop control design (With position sensor)

Simulation and implementation

Results Documentation

No Results Documentation

Varification

Yes

Verification Yes

Simulation and implementation No

Current injection and position estimation

Verification

Simulation and implementation No

Sensor less control design

Dual Induction machine operation Results Documentation

No

Simulation and Implementation

Verification

End

Figure 3-1: Complete design process of sensorless control of parallel connected induction machine 3.2 Vector control design

The FOC for induction machine is designed in steps as mentioned in Hardware description. The complete control design flowchart is given in Figure 3-1. The current injection technique is discussed in detail in Section 4 3.2.1 Open-loop control The idea of implementing the open loop control system is to simulate and test the model and also the capabilities of the controller hardware. The block diagram of voltage over frequency open loop test control is given in Figure 3-2. The control works on the principle of the linear relationship (approximately) between supplied frequency and stator voltage. The input reference is from 0 to 10 where the maximum means 400 volts line to line with frequency of 50 Hz.

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1
dq

Trigger 1 refrence input 3 Disable over modulation limiter Switch1

0 Frequency Integrator mach_rated_freq/10 Frequency Gain W->Phi

phi RST

Modulator Ref erence; Phase 1

1 Out1 2 Out2 3 Out3

Modulator Ref erence; Phase 2

Product
Modulator Ref erence; Phase 3

dq0 -> RST

Ref erence Ref erence* V_modulation_max

mach_rated_voltage_rms/10 Amplitude Gain

Modulation index checker

Omer Ikram ul Haq Date 2010-06-01

2 U_dc

0.5 PWM U dc --> 3 Phase Rms

Variables "mach_rated_freq" & "mach_rated_voltage_rms" should be in Machine parameter M-file

Figure 3-2: Open loop V/F Control of induction machine

The output of this control is three phase reference voltage supply which can be converted in to a modulation index by dividing them by the . Simulation results In the simulation the reference of the control is ramped to 1 with the machine at no load condition. The simulation results of the open loop control are given in Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4.
Open loop reference input 200 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0
Speed [rpm] Reference

Open loop rotor speed

150

100

50

4 6 Time [Sec]

10

4 6 Time [Sec]

10

Figure 3-3: Simulation results of the reference and the rotor speed of the induction machine

18

Open loop three phase current 30 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

20

10
Current [A]

-10

-20

-30

5 Time [Sec]

10

Figure 3-4: Simulation results of the three phase stator current Implementation results The open loop V/F control is implemented on AC 800PEC as described in section 3.1.2. The measured results are given in Figure 3-5 and Figure 3-6. Test conditions are similar to the simulation.
Open loop reference input
200 Open loop rotor speed

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 Time [s] 8 10 12

Speed [rpm]
150

Reference

100 50

0 0 2 4 6 8 Time [Sec] 10 12

Figure 3-5: Lab test results of the reference and the rotor speed of the induction machine

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Open loop Three phase measured current 25 20 15 10

Current [A]

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25

6 Time [Sec]

10

12

Figure 3-6: Lab test results of the three phase stator current Summary The test results and the simulated results are quite similar except of the amplitude of the currents. The reason could be the inaccuracy of the used motor parameters or due to the load on the motor which was not taken into account in simulation. The dead time effect is also not prominent in the measured current waveforms as it is compensated in PEBB INT Quad board [25] on channel used, in this case Channel A is used for testing the open loop control. 3.2.2 Closed-loop Control (with position sensor) A closed-loop control is developed by using the voltage calculation and slip estimation as illustrated in section 2.4 (Induction machine equations). Discrete PI controllers are used to control the d and q stator currents and the tuning of and are done by trial-anderror. To get the approximate values of the constants loop-shaping method is used, detail about this method is given in [26]. The MATLAB/Simulink block diagram of implementation of closed-loop current controller is given in Figure 3-7. The symbols and represent the reference and axis currents respectively and the simulated currents are in coordinates. The detailed description about each sub-system is given in Appendix B. The speed controller is then implemented on the developed current vector controllers (Figure 3-7) to have a complete closed-loop vector control system for an induction machine. The MATLAB/Simulink block diagram of the closed loop vector control system is given in Figure 3-8.

20

rate limiter d
1 i_sd* 2 i_sq*
i_s_q_ref i_s_d_ref

i i

o o

i_sd* i_sq* i_sd i_sq i_sq** i_sd** i_sd* u_sd*

rate limiter q

i_sq*

6 i_alpha 5 i_beta

alf a beta phi_r_s

0B Toggle

on/of f

df lux'_r/dt

u_sdq*un u_sdq* dq RST

Bit2

Current controller

f lux'_r

u_sq*

U_dc

mod_abc mod_abc'

RST ab

VR-IM i_sd Slip Estimator i_sq

dflux_r*_dt Flux_r* Slip_speed Slip angle

p*w_r_s

Voltage limiter

phi

RST -> ab1 U_s_alfa_beta

Voltage calculation dq0 -> RST 540 max_Udc

Adding zero voltage to emulate SVM

4 rotor_position Trigger 3 speed

<>

p No. of pole pairs3 p No. of pole pairs2 -KDelay compensation

Figure 3-7: Current controller (Closed loop) implementation (with position sensor)
rate limiter d
1 ref_d_current 6 ref_speed

i i

o
Current reference generator

w_ref i_sd* w_r f lux_r* i_sq* i_sd*

rate limiter speed

Terminator
i_s_q_ref i_sq* U_s_alf a_beta

1 U_s_alfa_beta

Torque estimator 2 w_r 3 Trigger rotor_position 4 i_beta 5 i_alpha

i_alpha i_beta Flux_r* rotor_position speed

Close loop current controller

Figure 3-8: Closed loop vector control with speed controller

The description about the sub-systems is given in Appendix B. The axis current reference vector from Current reference generator block is not used to keep controller the flux level in the machine manually and independently. The current set points are calculated using eq ( 3-1 ) and eq ( 3-2 ). The implementation of these equations is also illustrated in Appendix B (Figure B- 8: Current set points block diagram). eq ( 3-1 )

eq ( 3-2 )

The tuning of the speed controller constants (

) is done by trial-and-error method.

21

Simulation results The simulation of the model is done at no-load conditions; ramping up the speed from 0 rpm to 250 rpm at the rate of 100 rpm per sec. The simulated results are shown in Figure 3-9.
Speed controller responce 300 250
Speed [rpm]

Current controller responce 15

n* r

i* sd 10 isd i* sq 5 isq

150 100 50 0

Current [A]

200

nr

-5
0 2 4 6 Time [Sec] 8 10

4 6 Time [Sec]

10

Figure 3-9: Close-loop speed and current controller response Implementation results The simulated control system is then implemented on a real time system (AC 800PEC) and test under same simulated condition to verify the model. An identical speed sensor was used as in high power application. The interfacing of the speed senor is also explained in [27]. The test results are given in Figure 3-10.
Measured rotor speed 250 200
Speed [rpm]

Measured current responce 10 8

Current [A]

i* sd isd i* sq isq

150 100 50 0 0 2 4 6 8 Time [Sec] 10 12 n* r nr

6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 Time [Sec] 10

12

Figure 3-10: Measured closed-loop speed and current controller response Summary The current controller and speed controller follow their reference precisely. This verifies the machine model as well as the close loop vector control. There is an issue which should be taken care of in further development of the control system which is, at very low speeds the dead time effect of IGBT converter is influencing the control as can be seen in rotor speed plot Figure 3-10. This effect could also be due to the speed sensor. The reference speed is controlled though a potentiometer and is difficult to give an exact reference, this is why the reference speed is not exactly at 0.

22

3.2.3 Voltage current model implementation The Voltage current model is used to estimate the magnetic flux and the flux angle without using the feedback from the measured position or speed of an induction machine. The advantage of using the UI model is to get rid of these position sensors used in the AC drive. This estimation becomes inaccurate at low flux speeds. The UI model used in this thesis work is taken from the PhD thesis of Van der Burgt [19], in which he used feedback loops to correct the estimations at lower speeds. Still theoretically it is impossible to re-construct the flux vector using the information from the voltage and the current vectors at zero flux frequency. For making the control stable at lower frequencies the current injection method is used which will be discussed in later sections of this thesis. The mathematical equations used to calculate the rotor flux are given in eq ( 3-3 ) to eq ( 3-8 ). The quantities in rotor flux reference frame are without super-scripts. eq ( 3-3 ) eq ( 3-4 )

eq ( 3-5 ) eq ( 3-6 ) eq ( 3-7 )

eq ( 3-8 )

The stator flux frequency can be calculated as, eq ( 3-9 )

eq ( 3-10 )

eq ( 3-11 )

In these equations and are the feedback gains used to stabilize the UI model. According to Van der Burgt, flux derivative feedback with a constant gain is the best solution for high flux speeds (frequency). Flux magnitude is also used, but must be taken proportional to the frequency. At (very) low flux frequency, flux magnitude feedback with constant gain is the best solution.

23

2 2

alf a beta theta

d q

i_sAlfaBeta

Out In Out In

l_sigma*i_sd*

VRr_s*i_sq*
Out In Out In

3 flux*_s S3 S3 l_sigma*i_sq*

r_s*i_sd*
alf a 2 beta theta q

In1 Out1

u_sAlfaBeta

Integrator 0 S2
f lux_r_q

f lux_r_d f lux_r_d f lux_r_q p*phi_s_s f lux_r* p*phi_r_s p*w_r_s

VR-

1 flux_r~ 3 2 p*phi_r_s~

Flux Angle tracking p*w_s_s Unit Delay1 1/z

p*w_r_s~

Look-Up Table

W->Phi
p*phi_s_s

Out1 In1

Frequency Integrator

Time based gain w_s_s*Ts

Figure 3-11: Voltage Current model (in stator-flux coordinate)

The feedback constants depend on the stator flux frequency and can be given mathematically as

eq ( 3-12 )

eq ( 3-13 ) The stability of the UI model dependings on the accuracy of stator resistance and one more feedback can also be used for further stability in the region very close to zero flux frequencies. The implementation of the equation of eq ( 3-3 ) to eq ( 3-13 ) is given in Figure 3-11. The unit delay 1 Simulink block is used in this figure to avoid the algebraic loop during simulating this model. Time based gain block is used for compensating the effect of the unit delay 1 block on estimated rotor angle. Flux angle tracking To calculate it is required to differentiate the rotor flux angle as given in eq ( 3-11 ). But this result in noise in the calculated signal and by filtering out the noise a delay is added in the system which affects the dynamics of the system. To avoid differentiation another technique is used named as Flux angle tracking. The block diagram of Flux angle tracking sub-system is given in Figure 3-12. The PI controlled loop acts like a second order filter, As the rotor flux frequency is the filtered version of stator flux frequency. The tuning of the PI controller depends on the parameters of the machine and explained mathematically in Appendix C.

24

e IC SIC ff

1 z

Frequency Integrator1 W->Phi

PI-Controller 1 flux_r_d
d alpha beta

VR-1
alf a d beta theta q

3 p*w_r_s
Out1 In1

2 flux_r_q

q theta

1 flux_r* 2 p*phi_r_s

Time based gain w_s_s*Ts

VR+ 3 p*phi_s_s

Figure 3-12: Flux angle tracking block diagram Rotor speed estimation The speed of the rotor can be calculated by rearranging the eq ( 2-7 ) and eq ( 2-8 ). After rearranging the rotor speed can be expressed as eq ( 3-14 )

Simulation The developed model is simulated under no load condition and the speed of the machine is ramped up to 250 rpm at time 1 sec. The simulation results are given in Figure 3-13.
Sensorless vector control simulation result 300 250 n** r n* r

Sensorless vector control currents simulation 20 15

Currents [A]

Speed [rpm]

200 150 100 50 0 0 2 4 6 Time [Sec] 8

nr

i* sd isd isq i* sq

10 5 0 -5

10

4 6 Time [Sec]

10

Figure 3-13: Simulation of sensorless vector control for induction machine Implementation The UI model is tested on a real system under the similar conditions as the simulation for verification. The experimental results show that below 50 rpm the rotor speed estimation is not correct under no-load condition. This is because of the wrong estimation of rotor flux angle. The effect to this wrong estimation also shows up in the current controller where the currents

25

are drifting away from their references. Due to this reason the speed is ramped up from 40 rpm instead of 0 rpm. The test results of the model are given in the Figure 3-14.
Sensorless speed responce 250 n* r nr
Current [A]

Sensorless current responce 15 i* sd 10 isd i* sq 5 isq

Speed [rpm]

200 150 100 50 0 2 4 6 Time [Sec] 8 10

n** r

12

6 8 Time [Sec]

10

12

Figure 3-14: Test results of the developed sensorless vector control for induction machine In simulation and implementation results all currents are in estimated reference frame (since the real rotor flux in the machine is unkown) Summary The simulation results in Figure 3-13, are taken under ideal conditions. There is no offset in the measured currents and the inverter is not modeled in the simulation. In reality, it is very difficult to create these ideal conditions. Due to this reason UI model is working perfectly fine in the simulations but become unstable in implemented results (Figure 3-14.) at low speeds. To simulate accurate results a model of inverter should be implemented in the simulation but as this thesis concentrate on the results at zero flux frequency, inverter model do not change the results much at this operating point. 3.3 Dead time compensation

In PEBB INT Quad FPGA Functional Specification [25] the dead time compensation implemented for MSR (Channel A) is 2.5 but the actual commutation delay time is 3.5 . The current wave forms are shown in Figure 3-15. The dead time compensation technique used in channel A of PEBB module [25] is unknown but an added dead time compensation can be included in the software of the control by implementing the mathematical eq ( 3-15 ). The implemented version of eq ( 3-15 ) on

eq ( 3-15 )

Where

Modulation index phase a,b,c respectively Change in modulation index by each time step Stator current phase a,b,c respectively MATLAB/Simulink environment is given in Appendix B.

26

The converter in use is not the same one the PEBB is tuned for and the compensation technique used is also not known. Due to this reason is found by manual tuning. Best result for the compensation is obtained around . Experiment results are shown in Figure 3-16, Figure 3-17, Figure 3-18 and Figure 3-19 at and respectivly. 3.4 Summary

A sensorless field oriented vector control has been developed for induction machine in three steps, Open-loop control (V/F control), Closed-loop control and sensorless control. The analysis of the final sensorless FOC shows that at low speeds (low flux frequency as the motor is running as no-load) the rotor-flux position and speed are not accurate, due to the instability of the UI model. As a future task the stability of UI model can be improved by using online stator resistance estimation and stator flux feedbacks as mentioned by Burgt [19].

<PEBB_MSR_I_U>

15 10 5

<PEBB_MSR_I_V> <PEBB_MSR_I_W>

is [A]

0 -5 -10 -15 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time [s] 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 3-15: Commutation delay effect without any software dead time compensation

15 10 5

<PEBB_MSR_I_U> <PEBB_MSR_I_V> <PEBB_MSR_I_W>

is []A

0 -5 -10 -15 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time [s] 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 3-16: Dead time compensation with

27

15
<PEBB_MSR_I_U>

10 5
is [A]

<PEBB_MSR_I_V> <PEBB_MSR_I_W>

0 -5 -10 -15 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time [s] 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 3-17: Dead time compensation with

15 10 5
is [A]

<PEBB_MSR_I_U> <PEBB_MSR_I_V> <PEBB_MSR_I_W>

0 -5 -10 -15 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 Time [s] 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8

Figure 3-18: Dead time compensation with

15 10 5
is [A]

<PEBB_MSR_I_U> <PEBB_MSR_I_V> <PEBB_MSR_I_W>

0 -5 -10 -15 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time [s] 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 3-19: Dead time compensation with

28

4
4.1

ROTOR FLUX ANGLE CORRECTION USING LOW FREQUENCY SIGNAL

Introduction

Blaschke in [2] explained a correction method used for correcting the estimated rotor flux angle at zero flux frequency using a low frequency current injection method. In this chapter, this technique is analyzed mathematically and then later simulated and tested vigorously. The purpose of analyzing the problem mathematically is to find out the exact solution of different scenarios under few assumptions. This would help to estimate the results of simulation and test under different conditions. The flow chart for the verification of correction methodology is given in Figure 4-1.
Results Documentation Assumptions

Chapter 4

Chapter 6
Sensitivity analysis Mathematical Relation Analysing the problem Start Results Documentation End Yes

No

Result Verification

Yes

Implementation on a real system

Results

Result Verification

Simulation model

Simulating different senarios

Results

Chapter 5
Results Documentation

No

Figure 4-1: Verification process of Blaschkes estimated flux angle correction method using low frequency current injection method 4.2 Flux angle correction model

The flux angle correction model is based on the research done by Blaschke in [2] where a low frequency pulsating current signal is injected on the d-axis of the stator current and depending on the operating point of the motor, information about the error in estimated rotor flux angle can be extracted. If the motor is operating in unsaturated region then the pulsation in rotor current vector will be in the same direction as in stator current vector. If the motor is operating in a saturated region then the pulsating vector will be in a slightly different direction compared to pulsations in stator current vector This effect of saturation can be represented as a transfer function as shown in Figure 3-15. The transfer coefficients and are given in eq ( 4-1 ) and eq ( 4-2 ) respectively.
iss1 Vector Rotator is1 -ir1 e11 Vector Rotator is2 e22 -ir2 + -irs2 -irs1

is

s2

rs

Figure 4-2: Current transfer block diagram for sufficiently fast and small variations [2]

29

eq ( 4-1 ) eq ( 4-2 )

Estimated saturation curve 1.2 Measured saturation curve Interpolated saturation curve 1

0.8
Flux [V-s]

0.6

0.4

0.2

10 15 20 Magnetizing current [A]

25

30

Figure 4-3: Estimated saturation curve These transfer functions are only valid for small variations and high enough injection frequency that it does not disturb the rotor flux, in other words . This depends on rotor time constant , where . Furthermore, it has been assumed that no saturation occurs in leakage flux paths, i.e. is constant. The transfer function is highly dependent on the operating point. is the angle of operating point from the origin and is the angle of tangent as shown in Figure 4-3. To get the accurate information at each operating point, an interpolated saturation curve is plotted using a 5 degree polynomial derived by polyfit function in MATLAB. By doing this accurate air gap flux is calculated at any magnetizing current level. The variation in angle with the increase in the magnetizing current can be seen in Figure 4-4. The original magnetizing For the test motor the transfer functions are shown in Figure 4-5. For the value of rotor leakage inductance is calculated by using eq ( 4-3 )

30

eq ( 4-3 ) eq ( 4-4 )

Variation in & 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05

Angle [rad]

0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0

10 15 20 Magnetizing current [A]

25

30

Figure 4-4: Variation in angles

and

with respect to magnetizing current

Due to difference in the gains of the transfer function coefficients (e11 and e22) with respect to magnetizing current, an angle appears in between stator current and rotor current. If the estimated rotor flux angle is equal to the actual rotor flux angle then the injected current will be completely projected on the actual d-axis stator current ( ) and there will no q-axis component of injected current. This will reduce the stator rotor current shifting angle to zero even if the motor is operating in saturated region. It can be shown that the phase shift angle is directly proportional to the error in between the estimated rotor flux angle and actual rotor flux angle . This phenomenon can easily be explained mathematically as in eq ( 4-5 ) eq ( 4-7 ) and vector representation in Figure 4-6.

eq ( 4-5 ) For small angles only eq ( 4-6 )

eq ( 4-7 )

31

Variation in coefficients (e11 & e22) 1

0.9
Transfer coefficients (e11 & e22)

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

e11 e22 0 5 10 15 20 Magnetizing current [A] 25 30

Figure 4-5: Variation in Transfer function (e11 and e22) with respect to magnetizing current

(a)

(b)

Figure 4-6: (a) Vector representation of injected current. (b) Linear relation between

and

As the rotor currents cannot be measured practically in cage induction motors an indirect method of estimating the rotor current vector by measuring stator voltage can be used. As the stator voltage depends on stator current and rotor current vector. For the injected currents the voltage vector can be represented as eq ( 4-8 )

32

isq *

fa1+ga1 Used for estimation of Stator resistance Us d & q Vector Rotator High pass filter Usq Vector Rotator + Low pass filter

Uss isd * isd & q ** Vector Rotator + Induction machine is s *

Usd Vector Rotator Low pass filter

fa1 fa2

i = a

Vector Rotator

ga'1 ga'2

rs* UI model Correction controller

fa2+ga2 Used for angle correction

Figure 4-7: Block diagram of rotor flux angle correction using low frequency injection correction The same technique is used to estimate the error is the estimated flux angle in [2]. The block diagram of the estimator used is given in Figure 4-7. According to Blaschke the term is dependent on the error angle and this term is then used for correcting the error in estimated flux angle. The mathematical relation for is also calculated in section 4.2.1. 4.2.1 Mathematical relation of

Consider a current fed induction machine and for a particular operating point the stator currents are given as,

eq ( 4-9 )

The injection current vector can be defined as, eq ( 4-10 )

Where Injection amplitude Injection frequency Also eq ( 4-11 )

For measuring the error in the estimated flux angle, the injection current vector is super imposed on the stator current vector. So the stator current seen by the machine is the sum of actually stator current reference with addition of injection current vector.

33

eq ( 4-12 )

This stator current reference are rotated in estimated rotor flux reference frame given by eq ( 4-11 ) and then rotated back in to actual rotor flux reference frame . These stator currents are given as

eq ( 4-13 )

These currents are converted into rotor currents using the transfer coefficients given in eq ( 4-1 ) and eq ( 4-2 ). The rotor currents are expressed as

and

eq ( 4-14 )

Rotor current is then rotated in to stator reference frame and then back to estimated reference frame to get . To implement the voltage equation eq ( 4-8 ), The component of injection current have to be separated from rotor current . If an ideal high pass filter is used all than constants should be eliminated, i.e. Variables which are not dependent on time . The rotor currents will become after passing through an ideal high pass filter

eq ( 4-15 )

And derivative of high pass filtered rotor current can be expressed as

eq ( 4-16 )

The approximate voltage equation can be written as in eq ( 4-17 )

eq ( 4-17 )

34

The voltage equation eq ( 4-17 ) is rotated with negative sequence respectively. After adding low pass filter the expression can be written as

and

to get positive and and filtering them using an ideal

eq ( 4-18 )

The solved expression shows that the term is highly dependent on the operating point of the motor (saturation) and the error in the estimated rotor flux angle. Further analysis of these derived equations is done in section 4.2.2 and 4.2.3. The mathematical expressions have been solved using mathematical calculation tool Mathematica. The code for calculating the expression is given in Appendix D. 4.2.2 Sensitivity analysis

The sensitivity analysis of terms with injection current amplitude of 5 A is done with respect to the variation in air-gap magnetizing current and error is the estimated rotor flux angle .. This term can be utilized for online estimation of stator resistance as it is composed of rotor resistance and stator resistance . By online estimation of stator resistance, temperature on the winding of the motor can also be estimated. By doing this total number of sensors used in developing a robust control of an induction machine can be reduced.

Figure 4-8: Sensitivity analysis of

35

From Figure 4-8 it can be seen in the saturated region the term is not constant because of difference in transfer coefficient and . If term is used to correct the error angle then and can be plotted against magnetizing current only at , as shown in Figure 4-9. As is composed of stator resistance and rotor resistance . it can be used for online estimation of stator resistance by compensating the additional signals.

1.75

1.7

1.65
fa1 + ga1

1.6

1.55

1.5

10 15 20 Magnetizing current [A]

25

30

Figure 4-9: Sensitivity analysis of

at

4.2.3 Sensitivity analysis of

The sensitivity analysis of second term shows that the is dependent on the error in the estimated rotor flux angle , if the motor is operating in saturated region as indicated by Figure 4-11. The peak point is reached at the error angle of electrical radians and for this particular motor the peak amplitude of can be achieved at the magnetizing current of 30 A (the nominal magnetizing current is 16 A).. A 2D plot is also shown in Figure 4-10 at 4 different current levels and it can be seen that the maximum amplitude of is observed at 30 A. This is because of the limited information available regarding the magnetizing curve. (i.e up to 30 A) The injection current amplitude is used for calculating all the operating conditions.

36

0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02

fa2 + ga2

Magnetizing current Magnetizing current Magnetizing current Magnetizing current

11 A 16 A 20 A 30 A

0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.1 -4

-3

-2

-1

[rad]

Figure 4-10: Sensitivity analysis of

at different loadings and at zero flux frequency

Figure 4-11: Sensitivity analysis of

37

4.3

Summary

A mathematical expression is derived to estimate the output of and under the assumptions that injection frequency is high enough that the rotor flux do not vary due to pulsating current, the load inertia is very high so that the speed of the motor does not oscillate and the leakage inductance is constant i.e. does not change with magnetizing current. The problem with these assumptions is that the derivative of rotor flux increase with injection frequency which will affect the output of voltage calculation and so to the output of . This point is not considered by Blaschke. The further in detail study is carried out in the next chapter by simulating different operating conditions and dependency on the parameters of the motor used.

38

5
5.1

SIMULATION
Introduction

The algorithm to estimate the error in the estimated rotor flux reference frame using a low frequency injection method proposed by Blaschke in [2] is simulated using the Simulink model developed in Section 3 of this thesis. While developing the previous motor model the leakage inductance is considered as the combined effect of and . In [2] by Blaschke, saturation as a function of air-gap magnetizing current is used. So an improved motor model is required. This improved model is then used to simulate the output of under different flux frequencies, load torque and also variation with respect to the parameters of the motor used. The block diagram of the model used for these simulations is given in Figure 5-1.

isq *

q-axis Current controller

Vector Rotator isd * d-axis Current controller Voltage calculation

Us (d,q)*

fa1+ga1 Used for estimation of Stator resistance Us (, )* Us(, ) Usd & q Vector Rotator U High pass U filter fa1 Vector Rotator Low pass filter fa2

Vector Rotator +

Induction machine + Load

Vector Rotator

Vector Rotator +

Low pass filter

ga1

ga2

rs Slip calculation

fa2+ga2 Used for correcting the error in estimated angle

Figure 5-1: Block diagram of simulated model for the sensitivity analysis

5.2

Motor model improvement

Previously a linear model of induction motor with combined leakage inductances was developed in which saturation depends on the rotor flux level. For better correspondence with Blaschkes results and reality, a model is needed in which saturation depends on the air-gap flux instead. Stator and rotor leakage inductance must then be considered separately. To do so, saturation dependent on rotor flux is replaced by the saturation substructure developed by Nillesen [28]. The saturation sub structure is given in Figure 5-2 and the complete improved MATLAB/Simulink model is given in Appendix D, Figure D- 1. In the Figure 5-2, is the linear change in magnetizing current with respect to air gap flux. It is mathematically given as in eq ( 5-1 ). eq ( 5-1 )

As the flux level starts entering the saturated region, the output of the look-up-table starts increasing. This increase introduces the non-linearity in the system

39

Sz(l)

l ABS LookUp l1 l2

So lr lr

iss2

1 rr 1 + So.lr -irs2

iss1

1 rr 1 + So.lr -irs2 rr

Figure 5-2: Saturation substructure [28]

5.3

analysis

In this thesis report sensitivity analysis of is done only. The error angle detection model is first tested with a linear machine model to document the effect on the output of with respect to different variations. It will also help us to learn about the limitations and the ways for practical implementation of this method. According to the Blaschke, in the linear region of operation the expected output is zero for all error angles . A non-linear model of motor is also used for the analysis of to find out the effect of saturation on the output and what is the difference between the results taken using a linear model and non-linear model. Conclusions of all simulated results are given in section 4.3 for both simulations with linear and non-linear motor models. 5.3.1 Linear machine model The developed method of measuring the error angle is simulated with a linear motor model. Several different cases are studied under different simulation scenarios. The studied cases are given in Section 5.3.1 to Section 5.3.2 for load dependency, flux frequency dependency, parameter dependency and injection signal parameter dependency.

40

Case 1: Load sensitivity (

The load on the machine is varied from -100 % to 100% of the nominal load (95 Nm). The speed is controlled is such a way that the flux frequency is always close to zero. For this purpose a PI controller is used which adjusts the speed so that the average of flux frequency is zero. The simulated result for this case is given in Figure 5-3. The simulation result for each load is given in Appendix E Figure E- 1 to Figure E- 7. Case 2: sensitivity ( )

In this simulation scenario the load of the machine is kept zero so that the speed of the machine is equal to the flux frequency of the motor at steady state. Then the speed of the machine is varied to achieve flux frequencies of -5% to 5%. The simulated results are given in Figure 5-4 and results for each flux frequency are given in Appendix E Figure E- 8 to Figure E- 13. Case 3: Parameter sensitivity ( )

The parameters of the motor are varied in between twice and half of the actual value. The results variation in rotor resistance , stator resistance , main inductance , rotor leakage inductance and stator leakage inductance are given in Figure 5-5, Figure 5-6, Figure 5-7, Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9 respectively. The change in the amplitude of is also shown for the plots where significant change in is observed. Case 4: Injection amplitude, frequency and load inertia sensitivity The sensitivity of with respect to variation in injection frequency, injection amplitude and total load inertia is given in Figure 5-10, Figure 5-12 and Figure 5-13 respectively. The change in rotor flux is given in Appendix E Figure E- 14 - Figure E- 16. To document the effect of injection frequency, the cut-off frequency of the high pass filter is changed from 15 Hz to 1 Hz.
fa2+ga`2 dependency on m el (Load) 0.15

0.1

0.05

fa2+ga`2

-0.05

mel = 100% mel = 50% mel = 25% mel = 0%

-0.1

mel = -15% mel = -50% mel = -100%

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-3:

dependency on load torque

41

fa2+ga`2 dependency on s (Flux frequency) r 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
fa2+ga`2

-0.1

s = 5% r s = 2% r

-0.2

s = 1% r s = 0% r s = -1% r s = -2% r

-0.3

-0.4 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4

s = -5% r

0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-4:

dependency on flux frequency

fa2+ga`2 dependency on rr

0.1
fa2+ga`2

0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6

0.5

2*r r rr 0.5*r r

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

[rad]

-0.5

d/dt(r) [T/Sec]

1
-1 0.5 1 1.5 2 x 10
-4

[V]

2*r r rr 0.5*r r

-1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-5:

and

dependency on rotor resistance

42

fa2+ga`2 dependency on rs 0.1

fa2+ga`2

0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 [rad] 0.2 0.4 0.6
2*r s rs 0.5*r s

d/dt(r) [T/Sec]
[V]

1 0
2*r s

-1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 [rad] 0.2 0.4 0.6

rs 0.5*r s

Figure 5-6:

and

dependency on stator resistance

fa2+ga`2 dependency on l 0.1

fa2+ga`2

0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1

0.4 0.2-0.6 0 -0.2

2*l l 0.5*l

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

[rad]

[V]

d/dt(r) [T/Sec]

1
-0.4 5 10 15 x 10
-5

2*l

-1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

l 0.5*l

[rad]

Figure 5-7:

and

dependency on main inductance

43

fa2+ga`2 dependency on lr 0.1

fa2+ga`2

0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

2*lr lr 0.5*lr

0.4 0.2 0 -0.2

[rad]

d/dt(r) [T/Sec]
[V]

-0.4 0.0279 0.0279 0.028 0.028

2*lr lr 0.5*lr

-1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-8:

and

dependency on rotor leakage inductance

fa2+ga`2 dependency on l s

0.1
fa2+ga`2

0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

2*ls ls 0.5*ls

[rad]
[V]

d/dt(r) [T/Sec]

2*ls ls 0.5*ls

-1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-9:

and

dependency on stator leakage inductance

44

fa2+ga2 dependency on injection frequency at = 0.2 rad 0.05 0.045 0.04 0.035 0.03
fa2+ga2

0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 10

20

30

40 50 60 70 Injection frequency [Hz]

80

90

100

Figure 5-10: Effect of injection frequency on

Injection frequency [Hz]

100

50

30

40

50

60

70

80 Time [s]

90

100

110

120

130

0.5
d/dt(r) [V]
0.5

0
0

-0.5 30 40 50 60 70 80 Time [s]

-0.590 38.9

100
39

110
39.1 39.2

120
39.3

130

Figure 5-11: Variation in

with respect to injection frequency

45

fa2+ga`2 dependency on i 0.15

0.1

0.05
fa2+ga`2

-0.05

-0.1

10* i 5* i 2* i -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-12:

dependency on injection current amplitude

fa2+ga`2 dependency on jtotal 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1

fa2+ga`2

0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.25 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 [rad] 0.2 jtotal = 10*jrotor jtotal = 5*jrotor jtotal = jrotor 0.4 0.6

Figure 5-13:

dependency on total system moment of inertia

46

5.3.2 Non-linear machine model The linear machine model is replaced by a non-linear model given in Section 5.2. Case 1 and Case 2 are repeated under same condition other than the flux levels. The flux level is fixed at 1 V-s (Figure 4-3) to make sure the motor is operating in the saturated region. To achieve this flux level 20 A of is used. Case1: Load sensitivity ( )

In case 1 the load on the machine is varied and rotor speed is controlled in such a way that flux frequency is equal to zero. The sensitivity of with respect to at different load levels is given in Figure 5-14. Difference of of linear model and nonlinear model for 0% load torque is also given in Figure 5-15. Case 2: sensitivity ( ) at flux frequency levels are given in Figure 5-16

Sensitivity analysis of

fa2+ga`2 dependency on Load torque m el 0.15

0.1

0.05

fa2+ga`2

0
mel = 100%

-0.05

mel = 50% mel = 25% mel = 0% mel = -15% mel = -50% mel = -100%

-0.1

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0 [rad]

0.2

0.4

0.6

Figure 5-14:

dependency on load torque

(Non-linear model)

47

Comparison of fa2+ga`2 obtained from Linear and Non-linear models at load m el = 0 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02
fa2+ga`2

0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 Linear model Non-Linear model Difference Filtered difference -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[rad]
Figure 5-15: Comparison between obtained from linear and non-linear motor models

fa2+ga`2 dependency on flux frequency s r 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
fa2+ga`2

-0.1

s = 5% r s = 2% r s = 1% r s = 0% r

-0.2

-0.3

s = -1% r s = -2% r s = -5% r

-0.4 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4

0.6

[rad]

Figure 5-16:

dependency on flux frequencies

(Non-linear model)

48

5.4

Summary

Simulation results are obtained under several different operating conditions, with linear and non-linear motor models. By analyzing the simulation results obtained from linear motor model it is shown that (unlike assumed by Blaschke) the by just taking the high enough injection frequency, the effect of injection current on flux variation cannot be neglected. The amplitude of the variation in the rotor flux will decrease with the increase in injection frequency, but the amplitude of the derivative of the rotor flux remains constant Figure 5-11, this point is not taken into account by Blaschke [2]. This effect on is also visible in Figure 5-10. In the plot, a linear motor model is used and error angle is kept constant at 0.2 rad. The injection frequency is than varied from 0 Hz to 100Hz. It can be seen that as the injection frequency increases the offset in becomes constant. This constant behavior at high frequencies is further-more highly dependent on the parameters used for current controllers. The current controllers should be fast enough to follow the reference currents precisely. The offset in the output is highly dependent on the load as well as the flux frequency which makes this method very difficult to implement on a real system. This effect can be observed in the simulated results with both linear and non-linear motor models as shown in Figure 5-3, Figure 5-4, Figure 5-14 and Figure 5-16 at different loads and flux frequencies respectively. The major drawback of this method is that at error angle , the output is deviated away from zero for any non-zero load and flux frequency. In Figure 5-15, the difference of obtained from the non-linear model simulation and the linear model simulation at (i.e. 0.009) is almost equal to the mathematically calculated value in section 4.2.3 (i.e. 0.01). The difference could be because of the non-ideal behavior of the first order filter used in the system. This difference between the linear and the non-linear motor model verifies the effect of saturation in . In Figure 5-13, dependency with respect to moment of inertia is analyzed. This measuring method is also highly dependent on the speed controller parameters and the total mechanical moment of inertia. For this method to work correctly, the speed controller of the load machine should be fast enough that it removes the oscillations in the speed and moment of inertia should be high enough that it can damp out any oscillations in the speed produced by the injected current. If the system inertia is small and speed controller is slow then oscillations in the rotor speed can be observed. These oscillations can be used for sensorless control according to Leppnen [1].

49

6
6.1

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Introduction

To verify the simulation results, the measuring method is implemented on a real system. For this purpose a general purpose Control Test Bench has been developed. Further detail about the Control Test Bench and the experimental setup is given in Section 7 of this thesis. The Experimental results are taken under the same operating conditions as in simulations for Case 1 and Case 2. 6.1.1 Case1: Load sensitivity ( )

In this experimental case the load sensitivity is measured at 3 different torque levels. The torque is measured through the estimated load torque calculated by ACSM-1 (load drive). The accuracy of this estimation is not known. For measuring the load sensitivity, the amplitude of the injection signal is reduced to 1 A from 5 A. An alternative to the reduction of the injection signal amplitude is to increase the injection signal frequency. To do so, the response time of the current controllers should be fast. But it has some practical limits due to the inaccuracy of used motor parameters. This does not allow the use of high injection frequency. In Figure 6-1, measured variation in with respect to the injection signal frequency at constant error angle is shown. Due to the slow response of the current controllers at higher injection signal frequencies tends to increase. Below 20 Hz of injection signal frequency, falls rapidly this is because the injection frequency is so low that it starts to affect the motor speed (which is not sufficiently kept constant by the speed controller). The data in the Figure 6-1 and Figure 6-2 are measured with the cut-off frequency of 1 Hz for first order high pass filter. The reduced amplitude for injection signal is used for measuring the dependency of on the load because the mechanical inertia of the total system was not high enough to damp out the oscillations produced by the injection current when is varied. As the amplitude and have a linear relation, the measured output will be a factor of 1/5 of the actual value. The total apparent inertia of the system is dependent on the parameters of the load drive speed controller. These parameters were set manually for the optimal operation. The measured results obtained using the injection frequency amplitude of 2 is given in Appendix E, Figure E- 17 to show how the higher amplitude affects the output of the controlled signal (i.e. ).
0.2 0.15

fa2+ga`2

0.1 0.05 0 10

20

30

40 50 Injection Frequency [Hz]

60

70

80

Figure 6-1: Measured variation in with respect to the injection frequency at constant error angle

50

The measured results are given in Figure 6-2. The measured results are probably not exactly at the stated load. The effect of this inexact measurement can be seen , as at is not exactly at zero. This shows that there is some load on the motor. The flux frequency is precisely kept at 0, as a DC voltage is supplied by putting in the control system.
Measured sensitivity of fa2+ga`2 with respect to error angle " " at diffrent load torque 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
fa2+ga`2

0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

mload 42% mload 30% mload 0% mload -30% mload -42%

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

[rad]

Figure 6-2: Measured sensitivity of

with respect to error angle at different load torque

Measured sensitivity of fa2+ga`2 with respect to error angle " " at different flux frequencies s r 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
fa2+ga`2

0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1

s 5% r s 2% r s 1% r s 0% r s -1% r s -2% r s -5% r

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

[rad]

Figure 6-3: Measured sensitivity analysis of frequencies

with respect to

at different flux

51

6.1.2 Case 2:

sensitivity (

In this case the torque is zero and the flux frequency is varied, in exactly the same way in the simulation. The measured results are given in Figure 6-3. For this case the high pass filter with the cut-off frequency of 15 Hz is used. This is the reason why the zero flux frequency curve in Figure 6-3 is different from the zero torque curve in Figure 6-2. The amplitudes of measured at different flux frequencies are also higher than the simulated results in Figure 5-14. The reason of this difference is the total moment of inertia. The moment of inertia of the hardware is not high enough to damp out the variation in the speed. According to Figure 5-13, if the total inertia is small than the amplitude of will be large at any and this is exactly what is witnessed in Figure 6-3. Other than this the response of to the variation in is almost the same as in simulation results except at high for positive flux frequencies and high for negative flux frequencies. Here the experimental results differ from the simulated results and the reason for this deviation is not known. 6.2 Summary

The response of the measured results in Figure 6-2 and Figure 6-3 should correspond to the simulated results in Figure 5-14 and Figure 5-16 respectively. The experimental results are of higher amplitude then the simulated results. The difference in the amplitude of these signals is due to the lower moment of inertia in the experimental setup. The dependency of this method on the load and flux frequency is also verified with the help of these experiments. This dependency makes this method only useable at no load and at zero flux frequency.

52

HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The hardware used for testing the methodology of controlling the motor at very low flux frequencies is mostly developed by ABB except the IGBT inverter and the speed sensor. The brief list of the hardware used in this experimental setup is given in section 7.1. 7.1 Hardware list

The list of the hardware used to develop the test machine setup is given in Table 7-1 and the setup used for load machine is given in Table 7-2.

Table 7-1: Test machine hardware list Hardware Description AC 800PEC [23] Real time controller module with VxWorks real time operating system COMBI IO [29] Specially designed sub-module. It provides with special function I/Os which are not covered in basic module. RCI Commissioning module Universal sub-module of AC 800PEC for I/Os interfacing. Used for taking in the reference and giving out the rotating flux vectors as well as stator current vectors. PEBB module [25] The PEBB interface quad module is a universal remote I/O device to drive up to four IGBT bridges with up to 4 * 6 pulses within a Power Electronic Building Block (PEBB). SKiiP 132GD120-3DU [30] 6 Pack IGBT inverter with integrated gate driver M4BP 160 MLB [22] 15 kW, 4 poles, LV process performance premium efficiency cast iron motor MiniCoder GEL 2471 [31] Speed sensor for electrically conducting toothed-wheels

Hardware ACSM-1 [32] Load motor Speed encoder [33] 7.2

Table 7-2: Test load machine hardware list Description ABB Commercial drive for synchronous and asynchronous servo motors. 15 kW Synchronous motor 1000 pulses/rev, Hengstler, High resolution speed encoder

Control test bench

During this thesis work a general control test bench is developed using two drives AC 800PEC and ACSM-1. These drives are connected to a common DC link source. In future this control test bench will be expanded to 4 motors, 2 motors connected to AC 800PEC and 2 motors connected to two individual ACSM-1 drives. The beauty of this test bench is that any motor can be connected to each drive without changing any terminal connection, as two different kinds of motors are used in this setup. The schematic diagram of the initial setup is given in Figure 7-2

53

Figure 7-1: Control test bench Picture

54

50A

Incoming contactor

Main switch + Emergency stop Motor selector

=
1

1000uF

400V

~ ~ ~
1
540V

Y
M2

M1

13

ACSM1
50A

* 1k 1650uF

PEC800

=
~ ~ ~

* Switch can be enabled only if ACSM1 is powered, i.e. when there is voltage at the DC link. It will drop (open) otherwise.

Figure 7-2: Control test bench schematic

55

CONCLUSIONS

During this thesis research, a sensorless vector control system for induction motors is developed for testing the rotor flux angle correction method proposed by Blaschke in [2]. This method is implemented on a general purpose Control Test Bench designed during this thesis research for the verification of the proposed method. Derivation of mathematical relations, simulations and Lab experiments are also the part of this thesis research. By analyzing the simulation and experiment results, the implementation of the correction method developed by Blaschke seems to be very difficult in reality. This is due to its dependency on the variation in the flux frequency and the load. This is one of the major drawbacks of this method. According to Blaschke, by increasing the injection frequency, the effect of the injected current on the rotor flux can be neglected. With the help of simulation, it is shown that even at higher injection frequencies its effect on the rotor flux cannot be neglected. These simulation results are furthermore highly dependent on the response time of the current controllers. If the current controllers are slow, at higher injection frequencies they will not be able to follow the current references precisely and this will lead to wrong results. Due to the slow response of the implemented current controllers at higher injection frequencies, tends to increase. The response time of these current controllers is limited due to the inaccuracy of used motor parameters. This measuring method is also dependent on the parameters of motor. With the help of simulations, it is concluded that this method offers better results for the motors having higher rotor time constant then the motors having lower rotor time constant . This gives an impression that this method may work better on motors of bigger size. The research done by Nillesen in [28] on the rotor flux angle correction method for a slip ring induction machine using the same method, does not indicate this problem. This is because; in his MSc thesis he is measuring the rotor current directly through the slip rings. Apparently this method work seamlessly where there is a possibility of measuring the rotor currents directly. The load inertia also affects this measuring method. According to Blaschke, for the proper operation of this method the total mechanical inertia of the system should be high enough to damp out the oscillations in the rotor speed produced by the wrong projection of the injected current. For a particular error angle, the amplitude of the offset in is higher for system having a lower moment of inertia. As these simulated results are taken from a linear motor model, the expected offset is 0. This offset error is due to the mechanical oscillations and other dependencies which are discussed earlier in this section. According to Leppnen [1], these mechanical oscillations can be used for sensorless control of induction motors. As the approach is dependent on so many parameters, it is concluded that the practical implementation of this method seems to be not feasible.

56

FUTURE WORK

The research in the field of estimating the rotor flux angle at zero flux frequency using low frequency injection signal method is at its initial stages and alot of research is required in this field. New methods are needed to be developed that can be used for the control of induction motor at zero flux frequency in an efficient way, with or without using low frequency injection signal. The required control algorithm should not be dependent on the flux frequency and the load. To increase the robustness of the control algorithm, its dependency on the variation in motor parameters should be avoided or compensated. Another challenge is to reach the zero flux frequency using U/I (voltage/current) model. At very low flux frequencies the flux vector cannot be reconstructed accurately and this leads to the instability of the system. The U/I model can be stabilized by using extra feedbacks. The structure of these feedbacks and tuning method is explained in detail by Burgt in [19]. In few applications two or more than two induction motors are connected in parallel to a single inverter. The problem in the implementation of this method is to synchronize the rotor speeds of these motors. A literature research is done in the Section 1.2.2 of this thesis to document the techniques used to tackle this problem. Few of these methods could be implemented together with a newly developed control algorithm which would be capable of operating at zero flux frequency.

57

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Veli-Matti Leppnen, "Low-frequency signal injection method for speed sensorless vector control of induction motors," Helsinki, Finland, PhD Thesis 2003.

[2] Blaschke F, van der Burgt J, and Vandenput A, "Sensorless direct field orientation at zero flux frequency," in IEEE Ann. Ind. Appl. Conf. IAS, San Diego, CA, 1996, pp. 189-196 Vol 1.

[3] A. Consoli, G. Acarcella, and A. Testa, "Sensorless control of AC motors at zero speed," in Proc. of the IEEE int. symp. on ind.l electron. ISIE '99., 1999, pp. 373-379 Vol.1.

[4] Ah-Choy Liew, Lipo T.A. Sng E.K.K., "New observer-based DFO scheme for speed sensorless fieldoriented drives for low-zero-speed operation," IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 959968, September 1998.

[5] H. Rehman, Adnan Derdiyok, Mustafe K. Guven, and Longya Xu, "A new current model flux observer for wide speed range sensorless control of an induction machine," IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 1041-1048, November 2002.

[6] Lascu C., Boldea I., and Blaabjerg F., "Very low speed variable structure control of sensorless induction machines drives without signal injection," IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 591598, March- April 2005.

[7] M Barut, S Bogosyan, and M Gokasan, "Experimental evaluation of braided EKF for sensorless control of induction motor," IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 620-632, February 2008.

[8] Caruana C., Asher G.M., and Clare J., "Sensorless vector control at low and zero frequency considering zero-sequency current in delta connected cage induction motor," in IEEE 29th Ann. conf. of Ind. Electron. Soc. IECON '03, 2003, pp. 1460-1465 Vol.2.

[9] A. Consoli, G. Scarcella, and A. Testa, "A new zero frequency flux position detection approach for direct field oriented control drives," IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 797-804, May-June 2000.

[10] Consoli A. et al., "Low frequency signal demodulation based sensorless technique for induction motor drive at low speed," IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 207-215, February 2006.

58

[11] Kelecy P.M. and Lorenz R.D., "Control methodology for single inverter, prallel connected dual induction motor drives for electric vehicles," in IEEE Ann. Power Electron. Specialists Conf. PESC, Taipei, June 1994, pp. 987 - 991 Vol 2.

[12] Wang Ruxi, Wang Yue, Dong Qiang, He Yanhui, and Wang Zhaoan, "Study of control methodology for single inverter parallel connected dual induction motors based on the dynamic model," in IEEE Power Electron. Specialists Conf. PESC, Jeju, June, 2006, pp. 1-7.

[13] K Matsuse, Y Kouno, H Kawai, and S Yokomizo, "A speed-sensorless vector control method of parallel-connected dual induction motor fed bu a single inverter," IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 1566-1571, Novermber - December Nov/Dec 2002.

[14] Matsuse K., Kawai H., Kouno Y., and Oikawa J., "Charateristics of speed sensorless vector controlled dual induction motor drive connected in parallel fed by a single inverter," IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 153 - 161, January - February Jan/Feb 2004.

[15] F.J. Perez-Pinal and R Nunez C. Alvarez, "A novel speed control approach in parallel-connected induction motor by using a single inverter and electronics virtual line shafting," in IEEE Power Electron. Specialists Conf. PESC, Recife, June 2005, pp. 1339 - 1345.

[16] Kadowaki S. et al., "Antislip readhesion control based on speed-sensorless vector control and disturbance observer for electric commuter train - Series205-5000 of the East Japan Railway," IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 2001-2008, August 2007.

[17] Kiyoshi Ohishi, Yasuki Ogawa, Ichiro Miyashita, and Shinobu Yasukawa, "Anti-slip re-adhesion control of electric motor coach based on force control using disturbance observer," in IEEE Ind. Appl. Conf., vol. 2, Rome, October, 2000, pp. 1001-1007 Vol 2.

[18] Satoshi Kadowaki, Kiyoshi Ohishi, Ichiro Miyashita, and Shinobu Yasukawa, "Re-adhesion control of electric motor coach based on disturbance observer and sensorless vector control," in IEEE Power Conv. Conf. 2002 PCC, vol. 3, Osaka, Japan, 2002, pp. 1020-1025 Vol 3.

[19] Jos van der Burgt, "The Voltage/Current model in field oriented AC drived at very low flux frequencies," Eindhoven University, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, PhD Thesis 16 April, 1996.

[20] Zhu S., "Control schemes and stability of voltage source inverter fed field-oriented synchronous machines," Belgium, PhD Thesis 1993.

59

[21] Sjoerd G. Bosga, "Asymmetrical supply of induction machines, Remedial operating strategies in case of converter faults," Eindhoven University, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, PhD Thesis 1997.

[22] ABB, LV motors. (2008) Low oltage process performace motors (Catalogue). [Online]. http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot259.nsf/veritydisplay/1449e152838bfc54c125771a0049 b8a8/$File/Catalog_process%20performance%20motors_EN_04_2010RevB_lowres.pdf

[23] ABB, "AC 800 PEC Hardware guide," ABB, Zurich, Switzerland, System Documentation 3BHS258390ZAB E01, June, 2008.

[24] ABB, "AC 800PEC Toolbox," ABB, Zurich, Switzerland, Tool box user manual 3BHS2452255 ZAB E01,.

[25] ABB , "PEBB INT Quad FPGA," ABB, Zurich, Switzerland, System documentation 3BHS131042 ZAB E41, 2008.

[26] Stefan stlund, Electrical Machines and Drives (Book), Hans-peter Nee et al., Eds. Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Electrical Enginnering, 2009.

[27] Omer Ikram Ul Haq, "Interfacing of a single speed sensor and watch dog circuit for inverter gate pulse," ABB, Vasteras, Sweden, General Report SECRC/PT/RM-10/310, 2010.

[28] M.E.Nillesen, "A new model for obtaining the flux position in a slip ring induction machine," Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven, Master thesis 1997.

[29] ABB, "Combi IO (UA D143 A)," ABB, Zurich, Switzerland, Datasheet ZAB 3BHS126434 E01, 2003.

[30] SEMIKRON, "SKiiP (R) 2, 6-Pack - integrated intelligent Power System," SEMIKRON, Features and Specifications SKiiP 132GD120-3DU, 28-02-2007.

[31] Lenord Bauer & Co. GmbH, "Speed sensor, MiniCoder GEL2471 for electrically conducting toothed wheels (Technical information)," Lenord Bauer, Oberhausen, Germany, Manual MiniCoder GEL2471, Version 2.04.

60

[32] ABB. (2009) ACSM-1 technical catalogue. [Online]. http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot201.nsf/veritydisplay/6bb6fb35783c76e3c125765f0065c b59/$File/ACSM1technicalcatalogueREVE_EN.pdf

[33] Hengstler GmbH. (2010, August) Technical data sheet. [Online]. http://www.hengstler.com/gfx/file/shop/encoder/Datasheet_RI58D_2010_07_14_09_45_35_en.pdf

[34] M. Schroedl, "Sensorless control of induction motors at low speeds and standstill," in IEEE Int. Conf. Elect. Mach., Manchester, 1992, pp. 863-867.

61

APPENDIX A
Induction machine Simulink/MATLAB models

1 alfa Product Sum 2 beta Product1 1 d

2 Product2 Sum1 q

cos costheta

Product3

3 theta

sin sintheta

Figure A- 1: Negative vector rotator (Implementation of eq ( 2-5 ))

1 d Product Sum 2 q Product1 1 alfa

2 Product2 Sum1 beta

cos costheta 3 theta sin sintheta

Product3

Figure A- 2: Positive vector rotator (Implementation of eq ( 2-6 ))

62

3
W_mech w_r

2 flux_r 1 i_sq

f lux_r'

r_r r_r' p*w_r_r p

p*w_r p*W_mech

Slip calculation p_w_r_s 1 2 p*phi_r_s

p*w_r_s p*phi_r_s

p*phi_r_r

1 s

1 s p*theta_r

Figure A- 3: Slip estimation (Implementation of eq ( 2-7 ) - eq ( 2-9 ))

3 dflux_r'/dt
df lux_r'/dt

r_s r_sd*i_sd

1 u_sd

u_sd

-K1/l_sigma

1 s i_sd

i_sd

1 i_sd

5 p*w_r_s 4 flux_r' w_s*flux_r'

w_s*psi_sq

i_sd

w_s*i_sd 2 u_sq
u_sq

-K1/l_sigma1

1 s i_sq

i_sq

2 i_sq

r_s r_sq*i_sq Voltage to current calculation

Figure A- 4: Voltage equation (implementation of eq ( 2-10 ))

63

flux_r --> i_r (lookup table)

i_r

1 i_sd

r_r r_r'

df lux_r'/dt

1 s flux_r'

f lux_r'

1 flux_r

Figure A- 5: Rotor flux calculation (Implementation of eq ( 2-12 ))

Torque Calculation flux_r 5 p 4 i_sq 1 m_load 3 J_rotor 2 J_load pole pairs

m

Speed Calculation

1 s integrator

1 w_r

Figure A- 6: Motor Torque and Speed calculation (Implementation of eq ( 2-12 ) and eq ( 2-13 ))

64

APPENDIX B
Closed-loop MATLAB/Simulink block diagram Figure B- 1 is the implementation of eq ( 2-2 ) - eq ( 2-4 ) and eq ( 2-12 ). For integrating speed into angle special frequency integrator is used which integrates the speed for the angle in the range of to . By implementing frequency integrator error in the angle can be avoided at higher values due to rounding off the values.
Gain1
f lux_r / l

4 dflux_r*_dt 2 flux_r*

1/L

1 i_sd

i_sd - f lux_r / l

R_R Gain

Ts z-1

f lux_r*

Integrator (forward)

2 i_sq

R_R Divide Gain2

Slip_speed

W->Phi Frequency Integrator1

slip_angle

1 slip angle

i_sq * r_r slip_speed = --------------flux_r flux_r = r_r * INT EGRAT ION (i_sd - flux_r/l) Sample time for calculations T s = 0.25 ms

3 slip_speed

Figure B- 1: Slip estimator for open loop control

Figure B- 2 is used to limit the and output vector of the stator voltage as a function of DC link voltage. It first limits the vector of stator voltage and then vector is limited. This gives a better control of flux and torque and also utilizes the maximum voltage level optimally. Figure B- 3 voltage calculation block diagram is an implementation of eq ( 2-10 ) Figure B- 4 is used to add a 3rd harmonic component of the fundamental frequency in the output voltage. As the 3rd harmonic is a homo-polar component (i.e. same in all three phases) so the voltage seen by machine still will be a sinusoidal but the advantage of using this technique is that, higher voltage levels can be achieved then the level available through DC link voltage. In Figure B- 5 current PI controllers are implemented. It can be seen that there is a unit delay block for the reference currents, used to calculate the error signals for the controllers. The advantage of using a unit delay is to make current controller more stable as measured currents are delayed one time step. Otherwise the controller will try to adjust the measured current in previous time step to the reference generated in present time step. This can make the current controller unstable where larger time steps are used.

65

VL.limfact |u|

2 U_dc |u| 2

limit

u_sd_des_unlim

min

sqrt

1 u_sdq*un

u_sq_des_unlim

max
u_sd_des

-1
u_sd_des

min
u_sq_des

max

1 u_sdq*

First, u_sd_des is limited between -Umax and Umax T hen, u_sq_des is limited so that u_s_des does not exceed Umax -1

Figure B- 2: Voltage limiter block diagram

r_s r_s*i_sd*

3 dflux'_r/dt

1 i_sd*

-Kl_sigma*i_sd*

in out

1 u_sd*

Discrete differentiator

5 p*w_r_s 4 flux'_r 2 i_sq* -Kl_sigma*i_sq*

in out

2 u_sq*

Discrete differentiator1

r_s r_s*i_sq*

Sample time for calculations T s not resolved

Figure B- 3: Voltage calculation open loop control

66

1 1 mod_abc mod_abc'

min

1/2 max

Figure B- 4: Adding zero voltage to emulate SVM block diagram

1 i_sd* 1 z 3 0 i_sd Add

SIC IC y e

1 i_sd**

ff

PI-Controller_q 2 i_sq* 4 0 i_sq Add1

SIC IC y

1 z
e

2 i_sq**

ff

PI-Controller_d 5 on/off Current controller Omer Ikram ul Haq 2010/03/23 For Real time controller PEC

Figure B- 5: Current Controller block diagram

67

3 flux_r* 1 w_ref
m_el* m_el* i_sq* w_ref f lux'_r* i_sd*

1 2 i_sq* i_sd*

2 w_r

w_r

Current setpoints

Speed controller

Figure B- 6: Current reference generator block diagram

1 w_ref 2 w_r
IC e

Subtract
SIC

1 m_el*

ff

PI-Controller

Figure B- 7: Speed controller block diagram

Mind the initial conditions for the flux setpoint, including the initialization of the differentiator!
in out

-Kflux'_r*/r_r 1 i_sd*

Discrete differentiator1 1 flux'_r* 1 z Unit Delay 1 z Unit Delay1 flux'_r*/l 1/l

2 m_el*

2 m_el*/flux'_r* i_sq*

Figure B- 8: Current set points block diagram

68

mod_dt_abc

2 mod'_abc

mod_abc

enable mod_dt 0

-K-

-1

1 SS

i_sabc
0

69

APPENDIC C
Flux angle tracking From the PI controller estimated rotor flux frequency is obtained. This can be given as a function of q- axis rotor-flux in rotor-flux co-ordinate . As from eq ( 2-1 ), it is known that if the estimation of rotor flux angle is correct then should be 0. Mathematically the equation can be written as eq (C -1 )

Where: Is the error signal, in this case So the angle can be obtained by integrating the rotor flux frequency eq (C -2 )

As the q-axis rotor-flux

is rotated by

, at a small error angle and assuming

eq (C -3 ) The eq (C -1 ) will become eq (C -4 )

Solving for eq (C -5 )

The solved equation is a second order low pass filter. In reality rotor-flux frequency is the filtered version of stator flux frequency.

70

APPENDIX D
Mathematica Code for solving equation

(*Omer Ikram ul Haq*) (*Date 2010-07-24*) Clear["Global`*"] (*Intilizing Current Vectors*) isrDES=(\[NoBreak]{ {isr1DES}, {isr2DES} }\[NoBreak]); iinj=(\[NoBreak]{ {a*Cos[InjAng*t]}, {0} }\[NoBreak]); isrDESDES = isrDES+iinj; OMEGArsDES = OMEGArs*t + Delta; (*Rotating in Stator reference frame from estimated flux angle*) theta = OMEGArsDES; VRp = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta], -Sin[theta]}, {Sin[theta], Cos[theta]} }\[NoBreak]); iss = Simplify[VRp.isrDESDES]; Print["i_s_r --> i_s_s"] MatrixForm[iss] (*Rotating in actual flux angle stator ref. frame*) theta = OMEGArs*t; VRn = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta ], Sin[theta ]}, {-Sin[theta ], Cos[theta ]} }\[NoBreak]); isrACT = Simplify[VRn.iss]; ref. frame from estimated

Print["i_s_s --> i_s_r (Actual reference frame)"] MatrixForm[isrACT] irrACT = Simplify[isrACT*{e11,e22} ]; Print["i_s_r (Actual reference frame) --> i_r_r (Actual reference frame)"] MatrixForm[irrACT] theta = OMEGArs*t; VRp = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta], -Sin[theta]}, {Sin[theta], Cos[theta]} }\[NoBreak]); irsACT = Simplify[VRp . irrACT];

71

Print["i_r_r (Actual reference frame) --> i_r_s (Actual reference frame)"] MatrixForm[irsACT] theta = OMEGArsDES; VRn = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta ], Sin[theta ]}, {-Sin[theta ], Cos[theta ]} }\[NoBreak]); irrDES =Simplify[VRn.irsACT]; Print["i_r_s (Actual reference frame) --> i_r_r (Estimated reference frame)"] MatrixForm[irrDES] d = Expand[irrDES]; MatrixForm[d] (*Using HPF*) Print["Passing through HPF "] DELTAirrDES = (\[NoBreak]{ {a e112 Cos[Delta]2 Cos[InjAng*t]+a e22 Cos[InjAng*t] Sin[Delta] }, {-(1/2) a e11 Cos[InjAng*t] Sin[2 Delta]+1/2 a e22 Cos[InjAng*t] Sin[2 Delta]} }\[NoBreak]); DELTAirrDES = FullSimplify[DELTAirrDES];

MatrixForm[DELTAirrDES ]

(*Taking derivative*) DervDELTAirrDES[t_] :=DELTAirrDES; DervDELTAirrDES =D[DervDELTAirrDES[t],t]; Derviinj[t_] :=iinj; Derviinj=D[Derviinj[t],t]; MatrixForm[DervDELTAirrDES ] MatrixForm[Derviinj] (*Applying voltage equation*) DELTAusr = FullSimplify[iinj*rs+DELTAirrDES*rr+Derviinj*sigmaLS+DervDELTAi rrDES*sigmaLR]; MatrixForm[DELTAusr ] (*Negative Sequence of injected frequency*) theta = InjAng*t; VRn = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta ], Sin[theta ]}, {-Sin[theta ], Cos[theta ]} }\[NoBreak]);

72

DELTAusrN =Expand[VRn.DELTAusr ]; Print["Delta u_s_r VR-"] Print["Delta U_s_r --> f"] DELTAusrN=TrigReduce[DELTAusrN ] MatrixForm[DELTAusrN ] (*Positive Sequence of injected frequency*) theta = InjAng*t; VRp = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta], -Sin[theta]}, {Sin[theta], Cos[theta]} }\[NoBreak]); Print["Delta u_s_r VR+"] DELTAusrP = Expand[VRp . DELTAusr ]; Print["Delta U_s_r --> g"] MatrixForm[DELTAusrP] fg = Simplify[DELTAusrP+DELTAusrN ]; MatrixForm[fg] (*Varification*) Print["Term 1"] term1=iinj*rs; theta = InjAng*t; VRn = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta ], Sin[theta ]}, {-Sin[theta ], Cos[theta ]} }\[NoBreak]); f1 =Expand[VRn.term1]; MatrixForm[f1] theta = InjAng*t; VRp = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta], -Sin[theta]}, {Sin[theta], Cos[theta]} }\[NoBreak]); g1 = Expand[VRp . term1 ]; MatrixForm[g1] MatrixForm[f1+g1] Print["Term 2"] term2=DELTAirrDES*rr; VRn = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta ], Sin[theta ]}, {-Sin[theta ], Cos[theta ]} }\[NoBreak]); f2 =Expand[VRn.term2]; MatrixForm[f2] theta = InjAng*t; VRp = (\[NoBreak]{ {Cos[theta], -Sin[theta]}, {Sin[theta], Cos[theta]} }\[NoBreak]); g2 = Expand[VRp . term2 ]; MatrixForm[g2]

73

MatrixForm[f2+g2] MatrixForm[DELTAirrDES ] fg=TrigReduce[fg] MatrixForm[fg] (*End Varification*) (*Passing though LPF*) Print["Ideal LPF"] FADDG = Simplify[(\[NoBreak]{ {1/4 (2 a e11 rr+2 a e22 rr+4 a rs+2 a e11 rr Cos[2 Delta]2 a e22 rr Cos[2 Delta])}, {1/4 (-2 a e11 rr Sin[2 Delta]+2 a e22 rr Sin[2 Delta])} }\[NoBreak])]
MatrixForm[FADDG] (*Result*)

74

Unit Delay 1 z
alfa amp betaangle

C/P

Lookup Table1

5 flux_r' 9 dflux_r'/dt1 feedback2 r_s So r_sd*i_sd -Kp m_el 1/l_sigma 0.28

i_sd

Improved motor model

-K- l_sigma_r1 -K- l_sigma_r Scope m_el 8 m_motor

1 -Kfeedback flux_r' 1 r_r' 1 r_r i_sd

alf a

u_salfa

beta

u_sd

1 s

1 s

2 Constant 3 m_load w_s*psi_sd1 w_s*psi_sd -K1/l_sigma1 i_sq feedback1 1 s -Kr_r r_r' 2 p*w_r_r 1 J_rot J_rot

theta

1 s w_r

1 s theta_r=

3 theta_r

u_sq

u_sbeta w_s*psi_sq

VR-

4 w_r

p 4 J_load

p*w_r p p*theta_r

r_s 6 r_sq*i_sq p*w_r_s

p*w_r_s p*phi_r_s

p*phi_r_r

1 s

p*theta_r

7 p*phi_r_s w_r_s'

d q theta

alf a beta

1 i_salfa 2 VR+ i_sbeta

Figure D- 1: Improved motor model with saturation effect

75

APPENDIX E
Case1 individual simulation results
Error angle analysis m load = 0, p*s = 0 r 0.1 0.05
fa2+ga2

0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

[V-s]

1 0 -1 20

r
40

60

fa2+ga2

p*s r 120 140

80 100 Time [sec]

Figure E- 1: Sensitivity analysis of

at no load and zero flux frequency

Error angle analysis m load = 25%, p*s = 0 r 0.1 0.05

fa2+ga2

0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

[V-s]

1 0 -1 20 40

r
60

fa2+ga2 80 100 Time [sec]

p*s r 120 140 160

Figure E- 2: Sensitivity analysis of

at 25% load and zero flux frequency

76

Error angle analysis m load = 50%, p*s = 0 r 0.1 0.05

fa2+ga2

0 -0.05 -0.1

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

[V-s]

0 -1 40

r
60

80

fa2+ga2 100 Time [sec] 120

p*s r 140 160

Figure E- 3: Sensitivity analysis of

at 50% load and zero flux frequency

Error angle analysis m load = 100%, p*s = 0 r 0.1

fa2+ga2

0 -0.1 -0.2

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

1 0 -1 20 40

[V-s]

r
60

fa2+ga2 80 100 Time [sec]

p*s r 120 140 160

Figure E- 4: Sensitivity analysis of

at 100% load and zero flux frequency

77

Error angle analysis m load = -25%, p*s = 0 r 0.1 0.05

fa2+ga2

0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

1 0 -1 20

[V-s]

r
40

60

fa2+ga2 80 100 Time [sec]

p*s r 120 140 160

Figure E- 5: Sensitivity analysis of

at -25% load and zero flux frequency

Error angle analysis m load = -50%, p*s = 0 r 0.1 0.05

fa2+ga2

0 -0.05 -0.1

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

[V-s]

-1 20

r
40

60

fa2+ga2

p*s r 120 140 160

80 100 Time [sec]

Figure E- 6: Sensitivity analysis of

at -50% load and zero flux frequency

78

Error angle analysis m load = -100%, p*s = 0 r 0.2

fa2+ga2

0.1

-0.1
fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

[V-s]

-1 40

r
60

80

fa2+ga2 100 Time [sec]

p*s r 120 140 160

Figure E- 7: Sensitivity analysis of

at -100% load and zero flux frequency

Error angle analysis m load = 0%, p*s = 1% r 0.15 0.1

fa2+ga2

0.05 0 -0.05

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

4 3 2 1 0 -1 20 40 60
r f a2+ga2 p* s r

[V-s]

80 100 Time [sec]

120

140

160

Figure E- 8: Sensitivity analysis of

at 0% load and 1% flux frequency

79

Error angle analysis m load = 0%, p*s = 2% r 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

fa2+ga2

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

6 4 2 0 -2 20
r f a2+ga2 p* s r

[V-s]

40

60

80 100 Time [sec]

120

140

160

Figure E- 9: Sensitivity analysis of

at 0% load and 2% flux frequency

Error angle analysis m load = 0%, p*s = 5% r 0.35

fa2+ga2

0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Error angle [rad] 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

15 10
r f a2+ga2 p* s r

[V-s]

5 0 20 40 60 80 100 Time [sec] 120 140 160

Figure E- 10: Sensitivity analysis of

at 0% load and 5% flux frequency

80

Error angle analysis m load = 0%, p*s = -5% r -0.2

fa2+ga2

-0.3

-0.4
fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce

0.4

0.6

0 -5 -10 -15 20 40 60 80 100 Time [sec] 120 140 160

[V-s]

f a2+ga2

p* s r

Figure E- 11: Sensitivity analysis of

at 0% load and -5% flux frequency

Error angle analysis m load = 0%, p*s = -2% r 0 -0.05

fa2+ga2

-0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

[V-s]

0 -2 -4 -6 20 40 60 80 100 Time [sec] 120 140 160

r f a2+ga2 p* s r

Figure E- 12: Sensitivity analysis of

at 0% load and -2% flux frequency

81

Error angle analysis m load = 0%, p*s = -1% r 0.05 0

fa2+ga2

-0.05 -0.1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 Error angle [rad] Simulation responce 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga2 , [rad], r [T], p*s [rad/sec] r

[V-s]

0
r p* s r

-2

f a2+ga2

-4 20

40

60

80

100 Time [sec]

120

140

160

Figure E- 13: Sensitivity analysis of

at 0% load and -1% flux frequency

82

d/dt(r (10 Hz)) [T/Sec] d/dt(r (20 Hz)) [T/Sec] d/dt(r (50 Hz)) [T/Sec] d/dt(r (100 Hz)) [T/Sec]

[V]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 [rad] 0.2 0.4 0.6

Figure E- 14: Variation in

with respect to change in injection frequency

83

[V]

d/dt(r )(10* i) [T/Sec]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

d/dt(r) (5* i) [T/Sec]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

d/dt(r ) (2* i) [T/Sec]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Figure E- 15: Variation in

with respect to change in injection current

84

[V]

d/dt(r )(10*jrotor) [T/Sec]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

d/dt(r) (5*jrotor) [T/Sec]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

[V]

d/dt(r ) (jrotor) [T/Sec]

1 0 -1 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 [rad] 0.2 0.4 0.6

Figure E- 16: Variation in

with respect to change in system moment of inertia

85

0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 [rad] 0.2 0.4 0.6

fa2+ga`2

Figure E- 17: Measured

at 25% of load with

86