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Shoot Primary Growth --shoots have leaf and bud primordia (young leaves and stems) --eudicots and gymnosperms have vascular bundles arranged in rings; monocots have scattered vascular bundles --leaf veins contain vascular bundles which are connected to shoots Secondary Growth --increase in diameter of plant --from vascular cambium: secondary xylem to inside of cambium; secondary phloem to outside of cambium --cork cambium involved in production of bark (see fig. 35.18); bark is everything extended from the outside of the plant to the vascular cambium --fusiform initials produce tracheids, vessels, xylem fibers, sieve tube members, companion cells, parenchyma, and phloem fibers --ray initials produce vascular rays (parenchyma) --secondary xylem becomes thickened, lignified, and dies; becomes wood
w = s + p
--see fig. 36.5 and 36.6 for examples of water potential --the large central vacuole or tonoplast helps regulate water potential within plant cells --symplast is the continuum of cytoplasm between living cells (connected by plasmodesmata) --apoplast is extracellular space --there are 3 transport routes: 1. cellexternal environmentcell 2. symplast 3. apoplast Roots --epidermis near root tip is site of most absorbtion --water enters and follows symplast and apoplast route --active transport pumps ions into cells (requires ATP)
--endodermis is selective barrier to vascular cylinder; contains waxy suberin (casparian strip); water and minerals must enter the symplast to enter vascular cylinder --xylem tracheids and vessels are apoplast (dead cells) (see fig. 36.9) Xylem Transport --fueled by transpiration from leaves (transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism) --root pressure results at night; roots pump ions into root, water follows; drives water up the stem (maybe 2 meters); can lead to guttation in morning --air/water interface is important in the leaves (see fig. 36.12) --cavitation limits xylem function --youngest secondary xylem transports water; pits allow for detours in cavitated xylem tubes Leaves --guard cells regulate rate of transpiration by increasing or decreasing diameter of stomata --hot, sunny, dry, windy days will result in cavitation; stomatal diameter must decrease --stomatal density is affected by genes and the envt; most are found on the bottom of leaves --water uptake swells guard cells and opens stomata (see fig. 36.15) --K+ enters the cell and water follows --stomata (excluding CAM plants) are generally closed at night --3 factors affect stomatal diameter: 1. blue light receptor 2. carbon dioxide concentration 3. internal clock Xerophyte Adaptations --small, thick leaves w/a waxy cuticle --guard cells on bottom of leaves located in pits --CAM; stomata open at night Phloem Translocation --sieve tubes have plates that connect one cell w/another; cells are basically just cytoplasmcompanion cells provide instruction via their nucleus --phloem sap contains about 30% sucrose --transport is from sugar source to sugar sink; sinks usually receive sugar from nearest source --sugar diffuses down a concentration gradient at sink --positive pressure drives sap in angiosperms (see fig. 36.18)
Nutrition (37)
--plant mineral nutrients come from the soil --biomass (mostly carbon) comes from carbon dioxide in the air --most total mass comes from water --macro and micronutrients are essential requirements for completing plant life cycles; macronutrients are required in large amounts (C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg); micronutrients are required in small amounts (Cl, Fe, Mn, Bo, Zn, Cu, Ni, Mb) --hydroponic culture allows determination of essential nutrients (see table 37.1)
Mineral Deficiency --low Cl leads to yellowing (chlorosis) --low Fe can lead to chlorosis toobiochemical pathways --mobile minerals travel from source to sink --mobile nutrient deficiency affects old tissue first (shunting) --non-mobile nutrient deficiency affects new tissue first Soil --quality depends on texture (particle size) and composition (chemicals) --topsoil is eroded rock plus humus (decayed organic matter); there are soil horizons (see fig. 37.6) --water and minerals cling to soil particles; negative ions are not bound, positive ions are boundroots must perform cation exchange to release positive ions (see fig. 37.6) *Fertilizers contain NPK ratios because these are very important macronutrients; in terrestrial habitats, nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient, followed by phosphorus Nitrogen Absorbtion --absorbed as nitrate (NO3) or ammonium (NH4) --nitrogen fixation is accomplished by nitrogen fixing bacteria that contain nitrogenase enzyme --nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate, which is more easily absorbed --legumes have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules; this process is anaerobic (see fig. 37.10) --nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide ammonium, which plants can use to make amino acids; bacteria are provided with carbohydrates; this is mutualism --roots release flavonoids, which activate bacterial regulatory proteins, which activate bacterial nod genes, which produce bacterial nod factors, which activate nodulin genes in the plant Mycorrhizae --are fungi that increase surface area for absorbtion in roots; fungi are given carbohydrates --ectomycorrhizae cover roots with a sheath; endomycorrhizae penetrate root cells