Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction of Dc Motor

DC motors consist of rotor-mounted windings (armature) and stationary windings (field poles). In all DC motors, except permanent magnet brushless motors, current must be conducted to the armature windings by passing current through carbon brushes that slide over a set of copper surfaces called a commutator, which is mounted on the rotor. The commutator bars are soldered to armature coils. The brush/commutator combination makes a sliding switch that energizes particular portions of the armature, based on the position of the rotor. This process creates north and south magnetic poles on the rotor that are attracted to or repelled by north and south poles on the stator, which are formed by passing direct current through the field windings. It's this magnetic attraction and repulsion that causes the rotor to rotate. The greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed control. Since speed is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux produced by the poles, adjusting the armature voltage and/or the field current will change the rotor speed. Today, adjustable frequency drives can provide precise speed control for AC motors, but they do so at the expense of power quality, as the solid-state switching devices in the drives produce a rich harmonic spectrum. The DC motor has no adverse effects on power quality.

Fig 1: Typical Brushed Motor in Cross Section

The dynamic behavior of the DC machine is mainly determined by the type of the connection between the excitation winding and the armature winding including the commutation and compensation winding:

Separately excited DC machine: excitation and armature winding supplied at separate voltages. Shunt DC machine: excitation and armature winding are connected in parallel (i.e. fed by the same source). Series-wound machine: the excitation and the armature winding connected in series; if the stator is laminated, series-wound machines can operate at AC current. Compound machine: This is a combination of shunt DC machine and series-wound machine (both shunt and series winding are available).

In special cases shunt-, series-, and separate excitation can be combined There are three methods of controlling the speed of the shunt and separately excited dc motor, armature voltage speed control, field flux speed control and armature resistance speed conrol (speed may be controlled by changing Ra).

1.2 Introduction of Simulink/MATLAB

Simulink is an environment for multi domain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a customizable set of block libraries that let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varying systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and image processing. Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well as provide tools for design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks. Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an extensive range of tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations, create batch processing scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal, parameter, and test data.

1.3 Background and History of DC Motor

At the most basic level, electric motors exist to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. This is done by way of two interacting magnetic fields -- one stationary, and another attached to a part that can move. A number of types of electric motors exist, but most BEAMbots use DC motors1 in some form or another. DC motors have the potential for very high torque capabilities (although this is generally a function of the physical size of the motor), are easy to miniaturize, and can be "throttled" via adjusting their supply voltage. DC motors are also not only the simplest, but the oldest electric motors. The basic principles of electromagnetic induction were discovered in the early 1800's by Oersted, Gauss, and Faraday. By 1820, Hans Christian Oersted and Andre Marie Ampere had discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field. The next 15 years saw a flurry of cross-Atlantic experimentation and innovation, leading finally to a simple DC rotary motor. A number of men were involved in the work, so proper credit for the first DC motor is really a function of just how broadly you choose to define the word "motor." 1.3.1 Michael Faraday (U.K.) Fabled experimenter Michael Faraday decided to confirm or refute a number of speculations surrounding Oersted's and Ampere's results. Faraday set to work devising an experiment to demonstrate whether or not a current-carrying wire produced a circular magnetic field around it, and in October of 1821 succeeded in demonstrating this. Faraday took a dish of mercury and placed a fixed magnet in the middle; above this, he dangled a freely moving wire (the free end of the wire was long enough to dip into the mercury). When he connected a battery to form a circuit, the current-carrying wire circled around the magnet. Faraday then reversed the setup, this time with a fixed wire and a dangling magnet -- again the free part circled around the fixed part. This was the first demonstration of the conversion of electrical energy into motion, and as a result, Faraday is often credited with the invention of the electric motor.

Fig 2: Faradays Motor

Bear in mind, though, that Faraday's electric motor is really just a lab demonstration, as you can't harness it for useful work. 1.3.2 Joseph Henry (U.S.) it took ten years, but by the summer of 1831 Joseph Henry had improved on Faraday's experimental motor. Henry built a simple device whose moving part was a straight electromagnet rocking on a horizontal axis. Its polarity was reversed automatically by its motion as pairs of wires projecting from its ends made connections alternately with two electrochemical cells. Two vertical permanent magnets alternately attracted and repelled the ends of the electromagnet, making it rock back and forth at 75 cycles per minute. Henry considered his little machine to be merely a "philosophical toy," but nevertheless believed it was important as the first demonstration of continuous motion produced by magnetic attraction and repulsion. While being more mechanically useful than Faraday's motor, and being the first real use of electromagnets in a motor, it was still by and large a lab experiment.

Fig 3: Henrys Motor

1.3.3 William Sturgeon (U.K.) Just a year after Henry's motor was demonstrated, William Sturgeon invented the commutator, and with it the first rotary electric motor -- in many ways a rotary analogue of Henry's oscillating motor. Sturgeon's motor, while still simple, was the first to provide continuous rotary motion and contained essentially all the elements of a modern DC motor. Note that Sturgeon used horseshoe electromagnets to produce both the moving and stationary magnetic fields (to be specific, he built a shunt wound DC motor).

Fig 4: Sturgeons Motor

1.4 Objective of DC Motor

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate rotational motion. Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).

Fig5: D C Motor

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (a.k.a., armature), stator, commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC motors (and all that BEAMers will see), the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength permanent magnets 1. The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. The rotors (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.

Chapter 2 Speed Control of DC Motor

Chapter 3 Chopper fed Drive

3.1 Chopper
A chopper is a static power electronic device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage. A Chopper may be considered as dc equivalent of an ac transformer since they behave in an identical manner. As chopper involves one stage conversion, these are more efficient. . Choppers are now being used all over the world for rapid transit systems. These are also used in trolley cars, marine hoist, forklift trucks and mine haulers. The future electric automobiles are likely to use choppers for their speed control and braking. Chopper systems offer smooth control, high efficiency, faster response and regeneration facility. . The power semiconductor devices used for a chopper circuit can be force commutated thyristor, power BJT, MOSFET and IGBT.GTO based chopper are also used. These devices are generally represented by a switch. When the switch is off, no current can flow. Current flows through the load when switch is on. The power semiconductor devices have on state voltage drop of 0.5V to 2.5V across them. For the sake of simplicity, this voltage drop across these devices is generally neglected. . As mentioned above, a chopper is dc equivalent to an ac transformer, have continuously variable turns ratio. Like a transformer, a chopper can be used to step down or step up the fixed dc input voltage

3.2 Principle of Chopper Operation

A chopper is a high speed on" or off semiconductor switch. It connects source to load and load and disconnect the load from source at a fast speed. In this manner, a chopped load voltage as shown in Fig. is obtained from a constant dc supply of magnitude Vs. For the sake of highlighting the principle of chopper operation, the circuitry used for controlling the on, off periods is not shown. During the period Ton, chopper is on and

load voltage is equal to source voltage Vs. During the period T off, chopper is off, load voltage is zero. In this manner, a chopped dc voltage is produced at the load terminals. . Average Voltage, Vo= (Ton/ (Ton+Toff))*Vs = (Ton/T)*Vs =Vs Ton=on-time. Toff=off-time. T=Ton+Toff = Chopping period. =Ton/Toff

3.3 Control Strategies

The average value of output voltage Vo can be controlled through duty cycle by opening and closing the semiconductor switch periodically. The various control strategies for varying duty cycle are as following: 1. Time ratio Control (TRC) and 2. Current-Limit Control. These are now explained below. 3.3.1. Time ratio Control (TRC) In this control scheme, time ratio Ton/T(duty ratio) is varied. This is realized by two different ways called Constant Frequency System and Variable Frequency System as described below: a) Constant Frequency System In this scheme, on-time is varied but chopping frequency f is kept constant. Variation of Ton means adjustment of pulse width, as such this scheme is also called pulse-widthmodulation scheme.

b) Variable Frequency System In this technique, the chopping frequency f is varied and either (i) on-time Ton is kept constant or (ii) off-time T off is kept constant. This method of controlling duty ratio is also called Frequency-modulation scheme. 3.3.2 Current - Limit Control In this control strategy, the on and off of chopper circuit is decided by the previous set value of load current. The two set values are maximum load current and minimum load current .When the load current reaches the upper limit, chopper is switched off. When the load current falls below lower limit, the chopper is switched on. Switching frequency of chopper can be controlled by setting maximum and minimum level of current. Current limit control involves feedback loop, the trigger circuit for the chopper is therefore more complex. PWM technique is the commonly chosen control strategy for the power control in chopper circuit. 3.4 Converter Topologies for DC Motor Drives 3.4.1 Single quadrant (step down) converter For single quadrant operation the chopper circuit of Fig.4can be used. The average voltage applied to the motor, and hence its speed is controlled by varying the duty cycle of the switch, S. Fig.5 shows the switching waveforms for the circuit. During the on time, ton, the supply voltage, Vdc, is applied to the motor and the armature current starts to increase. Neglecting the on-state resistance of the switch and the armature winding resistance the voltage across the armature inductance is Vdc-Ea and so the rate of rise of armature current is given by