Intelligence Tests

Dr. Pappu describe some oI the main events in the historical development oI intelligence testing, and describe a Iew oI the available tests.
Galton's Attempt
The English aristocrat Francis Galton made the Iirst serious attempt to develop measures that would reIlect a person's intelligence. Believing that intelligence was mainly
(though not exclusively) a matter oI having the right genes, Galton reasoned that superior intelligence would be a reIlection oI superior physical development oI brain
and body; iI so, then simple physical measures might provide a reliable index oI intellectual prowess. To investigate this possibility, he set about measuring a variety oI
physical variables, such as reaction time and grip strength, and looked Ior a correlation between these measures and measures oI success in endeavors thought to reIlect
intellectual ability, such as one's class rank in school or one's occupational level. UnIortunately Ior Galton's hypothesis, no such relationship was evident, and Galton's
attempt must be counted a Iailure.
Binet's Success
The Iirst successful test oI intelligence was developed by French psychologist AlIred Binet in response to a request by French public school oIIicials Ior a test that could
identiIy school children at risk oI Ialling behind their peers in academic achievement. The result was the Binet-Simon intelligence test.
The Binet-Simon test consists oI a variety oI items intended to reIlect knowledge and skills the average French school child oI a given age would have. These items are
graded in diIIiculty according to age, so that, Ior example, items the average twelve-year-old would be able to answer, a younger child would tend to miss. The test is
administered individually, one-on-one, by a person trained to do so, and requires upwards oI two hours to complete.
The scoring oI the test produces a number called the child's mental age. The mental age reIlects the level at which the child perIormed on the test -- iI the child
perIormed at the level oI the average ten-year-old, Ior example, then the child would be assigned a mental age oI ten, regardless oI the child's chronological age
(physical age). One compares the child's mental age to his or her chronological age. II the mental age is the same as the chronological age, then the child is average. II
the mental age is higher than the chronological age, then the child is mentally "advanced" or giIted. II the mental age is lower than the chronological age, then the child
is mentally "retarded," or behind his or her peers in intellectual development.
The Binet-Simon test and its successors measure intelligence by assessing intellectual skills and knowledge. They assume that the individual has had the opportunity to
learn these skills and knowledge; iI the person had the opportunity to learn them and did not, then this is assumed to reIlect a deIecit in intelligence. On the other hand, iI
the person has not had the exposure needed to learn these things, the Iailure to demonstrate knowledge oI them says nothing about the person's intelligence. Ignoring this
truth has led to some unwarranted conclusions being drawn based on test results.
The Army Alpha and Beta Tests
During World War I, the U. S. Army saw a need Ior a quick-to-administer intelligence test to be used when deciding what sort oI advanced training a recruit would
receive. Psychologists Lewis Termin, Robert Yerkes, and others collaborated to develop two versions oI the test, known as the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests. The
Alpha test emphasized verbal abilities and was given to everyone. The Beta test emphasized non-verbal abilities and was to be given to those who perIormed poorly on
the Alpha test and were suspected oI having language problems.
A large number oI Army recruits took the Alpha version oI the test and aIter the war, the data were analyzed, with a surprising result. It appeared that the average recruit
had a mental age oI around 13 -- a mild level oI retardation. The reason Ior this had to do mainly with the level oI education oI the recruits rather than low native
intelligence, but Yerkes and others concluded incorrectly that the intelligence deIicit was real, sounding alarm bells about the "menace oI the Ieeble-minded."
The Stanford-Binet
AIter World War II, Lewis Terman oI StanIord University translated the Binet-Simon test into English, adapted it to the American culture and school curriculum, and
called it the Stanford-Binet. This test is still in use today, although it has undergone periodic revision over the years, the last one a signiIicant revision based on a new
model oI intelligence. Initially the scores were reported in terms oI Mental Age, just as in the original. Later, mental age and chronological age were used to compute a
new metric called the Intelligence Quotient, or " This was computed using what is now called the ratio method, which involves plugging the numbers into the
Iollowing Iormula:
(Mental Age/Chronological Age) * 100 I.Q.
No matter what the child's chronological age, iI the mental age matches the chronological age, then the I.Q. will equal 100. An I.Q. oI 100 thus indicates a child oI
average intellectual development. II the mental age is above the chronological age (a more giIted than average child), then the I.Q. is above 100; iI the mental age is
below the chronological age (a developmentally retarded child), then the I.Q. is below 100.
The Wechsler Tests
Psychologist David Wechsler was unhappy with available intelligence tests such as the StanIord-Binet, as he Ielt that they placed too much emphasis on verbal abilities.
To correct this problem he devised his own versions, similar to the StanIord-Binet in some ways, but including a number oI tasks, called 5erformance tasks, that did not
require much in the way oI verbal ability (like the old Army Beta test). Scoring the test yields three separate I.Q.s: A verbal ", which correlates well with the
StanIord-Binet I.Q., a 5erformance " (based on those non-verbal items), and an overall ", which is the average oI the other two.
Comparing the verbal and perIormance I.Q.s can reveal possible problems that would not show up when using a test that reports only a single I.Q. For example, iI the
perIormance I.Q. is quite a bit higher than the verbal I.Q., this could indicate the the person has some sort oI speciIic language problem. Further, more speciIic tests
would be indicated to identiIy the problem.
There are two Wechsler Intelligence tests as Iollows:
O The echsler ntelligence Scale for Children (WISC) -- Ior children up to the age oI 15 or 16
O The echsler Adult ntelligence Scale -- Ior adults
Standardizing Intelligence Test Results
As I mentioned above, the old "ratio method" oI computing I.Q. is no longer used. The currently used method is called the deviation method, and is based on the Iact
that I.Q. scores tend to closely Iollow a mathematical distribution known as the normal distribution, otherwise known as the "bell curve." The normal distribution shows
essentially the relative number oI scores in the population that have each possible value oI the variable being plotted (e.g., the number oI scores having an I.Q. value oI
90, 91, 92, etc.). The curve has the shape oI a bell, with Iew scores appearing at extreme distances on either side oI the center and a large bulge oI scores at and around
the center. Once we "map" the I.Q. scores onto the normal distribution, we can state what percentage oI scores Iall at or below any given I.Q. value -- the percentile
rank oI that score. For example, a person having an I.Q. oI 115 on a Wechsler test would Iall at the 84th percentile, having outscored 84 oI the population on the I.Q.
test.
To map the I.Q. scores onto the normal distribution, we give the test to a large standardization sample and compute the mean (average) and standard deviation (a
measure oI score variability) Ior the group. These statistics are then used in a conversion Iormula to convert the "raw" scores Irom the test into standard I.Q. scores
having a predetermined mean and standard deviation. (For the Wechsler tests the mean will be set to 100 and the standard deviation to 15 I.Q. points.)
The main advantage oI the deviation method is that, regardless oI the age group, a given I.Q. value will place a person at the same percentile rank. This is not necessarily
true when using the ratio method.
Second set
Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests (IQ tests) are designed to give an intelligence quotient derived Irom a set oI standardized test scores.
IQ Tests
Intelligence tests come in many Iorms, and some tests use a single type oI item or question. Most tests yield both an overall score and individual subtest scores.
Regardless oI design, all IQ tests attempt to measure the same general intelligence. Component tests are generally designed and selected because they are Iound to be
predictive oI later intellectual development, such as educational achievement. IQ also correlates with job perIormance, socioeconomic advancement, and "social
pathologies". Recent work has demonstrated links between IQ and health, longevity, and Iunctional literacy.
Definition of IQ
The Iollowing has been adapted Irom the Wikipedia website.
For people living in the prevailing conditions oI the developed world, IQ is highly heritable, and by adulthood the inIluence oI Iamily environment on IQ is undetectable.
That is, signiIicant variation in IQ between adults can be attributed to genetic variation, with the remaining variation attributable to environmental sources that are not
shared within Iamilies. In the United States, marked variation in IQ occurs within Iamilies, with siblings diIIering on average by around 12 points. On average, IQ scores
are stable over a person's liIetime, but some individuals undergo large changes. For example, scores can be aIIected by the presence oI learning disabilities.
The definition of IQ
Originally, IQ was calculated with the Iormula. A 10-year-old who scored as high as the average 13-year-old, Ior example, would have an IQ oI 130 100 (13/10)}.
Because this Iormula only worked Ior children, it was replaced by a projection oI the measured rank on the Gaussian bell curve with a center value (average IQ) oI 100,
and a standard deviation oI 15 or occasionally 16. Thus the modern version oI the IQ is a mathematical transIormation oI the rank (see quartile, percentile, percentile
rank), which is the primary result oI an IQ test. To diIIerentiate the two scores, modern scores are sometimes reIerred to as "deviance IQ", while the age-speciIic scores
are reIerred to as "ratio IQ".
History
In 1905, the French psychologist AlIred Binet published the Iirst modern intelligence test, the Binet-Simon intelligence scale. His principal goal was to identiIy students
who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. Along with his collaborator Theodore Simon, Binet published revisions oI his intelligence scale in 1908
and 1911, the last appearing just beIore his untimely death. In 1912, the abbreviation oI "intelligence quotient" or I.Q., a translation oI the German Intelligenz-Quotient,
was coined by the German psychologist William Stern.
A Iurther reIinement oI the Binet-Simon scale was published in 1916 by Lewis M. Terman, Irom StanIord University, who incorporated Stern's proposal that an
individual's intelligence level be measured as an intelligence quotient (I.Q.). Terman's test, which he named the StanIord-Binet Intelligence Scale Iormed the basis Ior
one oI the modern intelligence tests still commonly used today.
In 1939 David Wechsler published the Iirst intelligence test explicitly designed Ior an adult population, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or WAIS. Since
publication oI the WAIS, Wechsler extended his scale downward to create the Wechsler Intelligence Scale Ior Children, or WISC, which is still in common usage. The
Wechsler scales contained separate subscores Ior verbal and perIormance IQ, thus being less dependent on overall verbal ability than early versions oI the StanIord-
Binet scale, and was the Iirst intelligence scale to base scores on a standardized normal distribution rather than an age-based quotient. Since the publication oI the WAIS,
almost all intelligence scales have adopted the normal distribution method oI scoring. The use oI the normal distribution scoring method makes the term "intelligence
quotient" an inaccurate description oI the intelligence measurement, but I.Q. still enjoys colloquial usage, and is used to describe all oI the intelligence scales currently in
use.
IQ and general intelligence factor
Modern IQ tests produce scores Ior diIIerent areas (e.g., language Iluency, three-dimensional thinking, etc.), with the summary score calculated Irom subtest scores. The
average score, according to the bell curve, is 100. Individual subtest scores tend to correlate with one another, even when seemingly disparate in content.
Analysis oI individuals' scores on the subtests oI a single IQ test or the scores Irom a variety oI diIIerent IQ tests (e.g., StanIord-Binet, WISC-R, Raven's Progressive
Matrices, Cattell Culture Fair III, Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test, and others) reveal that they all measure a single common Iactor and various Iactors that are
speciIic to each test. This kind oI Iactor analysis has led to the theory that underlying these disparate cognitive tasks is a single Iactor, termed the general intelligence
Iactor (or g), that corresponds with the common-sense concept oI intelligence. In the normal population, g and IQ are roughly 90 correlated and are oIten used
interchangeably.
Various IQ tests measure a standard deviation with diIIerent number oI points. Thus, when an IQ score is stated, the standard deviation used should also be stated. A
result oI 124 in a test with a 24-point standard deviation corresponds to a score oI 115 in a test with a 15-point deviation.
Where an individual has scores that do not correlate with each other, there is a good reason to look Ior a learning disability or other cause Ior the lack oI correlation.
Tests have been chosen Ior inclusion because they display the ability to use this method to predict later diIIiculties in learning.
Influences of genetics and environment
The role oI genes and environment (nature and nurture) in determining IQ has been debated Ior decades and the degree to which nature versus nurture inIluences the
development oI human traits (especially intelligence) is one oI the most intractable scholarly controversies oI modern times.
As it relates to intelligence, overall, except in unusual cases, the role oI genes and heredity is Iar greater than the role oI environment. However, environmental Iactors
can, and do, play a role in determining IQ in extreme situations. Proper childhood nutrition appears critical Ior cognitive development; malnutrition can lower IQ. Other
research indicates environmental Iactors such as prenatal exposure to toxins, duration oI breastIeeding, and micronutrient deIiciency can aIIect IQ. In the developed
world, there are some Iamily eIIects on the IQ oI children, accounting Ior up to a quarter oI the variance. However, by adulthood, this correlation disappears, so that the
IQ oI adults living in the prevailing conditions oI the developed world may be more heritable.
It is reasonable to expect that genetic inIluences on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs.
Heritability measures in inIancy are as low as 20, around 40 in middle childhood, and as high as 80 in adulthood.
The heritability oI IQ measures the extent to which the IQ oI children appears to be inIluenced by the IQ oI parents. Because the heritability oI IQ is less than 100, the
IQ oI children tends to "regress" towards the mean IQ oI the population. That is, high IQ parents tend to have children who are less bright than their parents, whereas
low IQ parents tend to have children who are brighter than their parents.
The Flynn effect
The Flynn eIIect is named aIter James R. Flynn, a New Zealand based political scientist. He discovered that IQ scores worldwide appear to be slowly rising at a rate oI
around three IQ points per decade. Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller Iamilies, better education, greater environmental
complexity, and heterosis. Tests are thereIore renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores oI 100, Ior example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV
(2003). Hence it is diIIicult to compare IQ scores measured years apart, unless this is compensated Ior. There is recent evidence that the tendency Ior intelligence scores
to rise has ended in some Iirst world countries.


Sex and intelligence
Most studies show that despite sometimes signiIicant diIIerences in subtest scores, men and women have the same average IQ. Women perIorm better on tests oI
memory and verbal proIiciency Ior example, while men perIorm better on tests oI mathematical and spatial ability. Although gender-related diIIerences in average IQ
are insigniIicant, male scores display a higher variance: there are more men than women with both very high and very low IQs.
Legal issues
Legal barriers, most prominently the U.S. Civil Rights Act, as interpreted in the 1971 United States Supreme Court decision Griggs v. Duke Power Co., have prevented
American employers Irom using cognitive ability tests as a controlling Iactor in selecting employees where (1) the use oI the test would have a disparate impact on hiring
by race and (2) where the test is not shown to be directly relevant to the job or class oI jobs at issue. Instead, where there is not direct relevance to the job or class oI jobs
at issue, tests have only been legally permitted to be used in conjunction with a subjective appraisal process. The U.S. military uses the Armed Forces QualiIying Test
(AFQT), as higher scores correlate with signiIicant increases in eIIectiveness oI both individual soldiers and units,and MicrosoIt is known Ior using non-illegal tests that
correlate with IQ tests as part oI the interview process, weighing the results even more than experience in many cases.
Title VII oI the Civil Rights Act generally prohibits employment practices that are unIair or discriminatory. One provision oI Title VII, codiIied at 42 USC 2000e-2(h),
speciIically provides that it is not an "unlawIul employment practice Ior an employer to give and to act upon the results oI any proIessionally developed ability test
provided that such test, its administration or action upon the results is not designed, intended or used to discriminate because oI race, color, religion, sex or national
origin." This statute was interpreted by the Supreme Court in Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 US 424 (1971). In Griggs, the Court ruled that the reliance solely on a
general IQ test that was not Iound to be speciIically relevant to the job at issue was a discriminatory practice where it had a "disparate impact" on hiring. The Court gave
considerable weight in its ruling to an Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulation interpreting Section 2002e-2(h)'s reIerence to a "proIessionally developed
ability test" to mean "a test which Iairly measures the knowledge or skills required by the particular job or class oI jobs which the applicant seeks, or which Iairly aIIords
the employer a chance to measure the applicant's ability to perIorm a particular job or class oI jobs." In other words, the use oI any particular test would need to be
shown to be relevant to the particular job or class oI jobs at issue.
In the educational context, the 9th Circuit Court oI Appeals interpreted similar state and Iederal statutes to require that IQ Tests not be used in a manner that was
determinative oI tracking students into classes designed Ior the mentally retarded. Larry P. v. Riles, 793 F.2d 969 (9th Cir. 1984).
The Supreme Court oI the United States has utilized IQ test results during the sentencing phase oI some criminal proceedings. The Supreme Court case oI Atkins v.
Virginia, decided June 20, 2002, held that executions oI mentally challenged criminals are "cruel and unusual punishments" prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.
The Social Security Administration also uses IQ results when deciding disability claims. In certain cases, IQ results alone are used (in those cases where the result shows
a "Iull scale IQ oI 59 or less") and in other cases IQ results are used along with other Iactors (Ior a "Iull scale IQ oI 60 through 70") when deciding whether a claimant
qualiIies Ior Social Security Disability beneIits.
In addition, because people with IQs below 80 (the 10th percentile, Department oI DeIense "Category V") are diIIicult to train, Iederal law bars their induction into the
military. As oI 2005, only 4 percent oI the recruits were allowed to score as low as in the 16th to 30th percentile, a grouping known as "Category IV" on the U.S. Armed
Forces' mental-aptitude exam.
Individual versus Group Intelligence Tests
Individual versus Group Intelligence Tests (adapted Irom the Indiana University website)
There are two major types oI intelligence test, those administered to individuals and those administered to groups. The two main individual intelligence tests are the
StanIord-Binet Intelligence Test and the Wechsler tests, i.e. Wechsler Intelligence Test Ior Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Ior
adults. The individual intelligence tests require one-on-one consultation. A list oI some oI the more commonly used intelligence measures is given below. Note that
some oI these are "nonverbal" instruments. These tests rely on little or no verbal expression and are useIul Ior a number oI populations, such as non-native speakers,
children with poor expressive abilities, or students with loss.



For each test, the three part listing includes:
Test
Age Range
Description
Test StanIord-Binet Intelligence Scale, FiIth Edition (SBIS-V)
Age range 2 90
Description An update oI the SB-IV. In addition to providing a Full Scale score, it assesses Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial
Processing, and Working Memory as well as the ability to compare verbal and nonverbal perIormance.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale Ior Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV)
6 16-11
An update oI the WISC-III, this test yields a Full Scale score and scores Ior Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual Reasoning, and Processing speed.
Woodcock-Johnson III Tests oI Cognitive Abilities
2 90
This test gives a measure oI general intellectual ability, as well as looking at working memory and executive Iunction skills.
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)
5 - 17
Based on the 'PASS theory, this test measures Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive cognitive processes.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale WAIS)
16 - 89
An IQ test Ior older children and adults, the WAIS provides a Verbal, PerIormance, and Full Scale score, as well as scores Ior verbal comprehension, perceptual
organization, working memory, and processing speed.
Comprehensive Test oI Nonverbal Intelligence TONI)
6 18-11
Designed to assess children who may be disadvantaged by traditional tests that put a premium on language skills, the CTONI is made up oI six subtests that measure
diIIerent nonverbal intellectual abilities.
Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test &NIT)
5 - 17
Designed to assess children who may be disadvantaged by traditional tests that put a premium on language skills, this test is entirely nonverbal in administration and
response style.
KauIman Assessment Battery Ior Children AB)
2-6 to 12-5
This test measures simultaneous and sequential processing skills, and has subscales that measure academic achievement as well.
Group-administered intelligence tests involve a series oI diIIerent problems and are generally used in mass testing situations such as the military and schools. Examples
oI group tests are:
Multidimensional Aptitude Battery
The Cognitive Abilities test
Scholastic Assessment Tests
There has been a trend towards the use oI multiple choice items. Many oI theses tests have separately timed sub-tests. A major distinction made between types oI items
is verbal and non-verbal. In recent years there has been a trend away Irom verbal and mathematical items towards non-verbal represented problems in pictures.

Advantages of group tests:
*can be administered to very large numbers simultaneously
*simpliIied examiner role
*scoring typically more objective
*large, representative samples oIten used leading to better established norms
Disadvantages of group tests:
*examiner has less opportunity to obtain cooperation and maintain interest
*not readily detected iI examinee tired, anxious, unwell
*evidence that emotionally disturbed children do better on individual than group tests *examinee`s responses are more restricted
*normally an individual is tested on all items in a group test and may become boredom over easy items and Irustrated or anxious over diIIicult items
*individual tests typically provide Ior the examiner to choose items based on the test takers prior responses - moving onto quite diIIicult items or back to easier items. So
individual tests oIIer more Ilexibility.
Additional Information
People who want a proIessional evaluation oI their personality and intellectual abilities can get help Irom a mental health proIessional such as a psychologist. For more
inIormation about personality and intelligence tests, please click on the linked websites listed below. Please remember that it is may be considered a breach oI ethics Ior
a proIessional to administer an intelligence test or other psychological test without the person taking the test Iully understanding the nature and purpose oI the test and
without providing Iollow-up by a qualiIied practitioner.









EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND
COMMITTEES IN RETROSPECT
Origin of the Present System of Education
The origin oI the present system oI education which is prevalent in this country today can be traced to the beginning oI the nineteenth century when a controversy had
been raging over the issue whether oriental learning and science should be spread through the medium oI Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian or Western sciences and literature
be spread through English as the medium oI instruction. The Government conducted surveys oI the then prevalent systems oI education with a view to re-organising
education to suit the needs oI the times. Consequent on Macaulay's Minute regarding the educational policy oI the Iuture, Lord William Bentick's Government issued a
communique wherein it was stated " that the great object oI the British Government ought to be the promotion oI European literature and science among the natives oI
India; and that all the Iunds appropriated Ior the purpose oI education alone". The Government Resolution, however, stated that provision should be made Ior the
continuance oI schools and colleges where indigenous learning was being imparted.
Wood's Despatch of 1954 on Education
By 1853 a number oI problems concerning education in the country had risen which required immediate solution. As a result oI an inquiry made by the Government, Sir
Charles Wood, the then Secretary oI state, sent a despatch popularly known as Wood's Despatch *3 ) to the Court oI the Directors oI the East India Company in 1854.
The despatch enunciated the aim oI education as the diIIusion oI the Arts, Science, Philosophy and Literature oI Europe. It laid down that the study oI Indian languages
was to be encouraged and that the English language should be taught wherever there was a

1* Macaulay rejected the claims oI Arabic and Sanskrit as against English, because he considered that English was better than either oI them. See alio S. N. Mukherji,
History oI Education in India, 1966, P.70.
2* Resolution oI March 7, 1835.
3* The Despatch was considered to be the " Magna Carta oI Education oI in India". It was the Iirst authoritative declaration on the part oI the British Parliament about
the educational policy to be Iollowed in India.
2
3
demand Ior it, and that both English and the Indian Languages were to be regarded the media Ior the diIIusion oI European knowledge; a scheme to establish universities
was to be Iormulated, whose Iunctions were to hold examinations and corder degrees. The despatch also recommended that a number oI high schools should-be set up4.
This eventually led to the establishment in the country oI the Iirst three universities in 1857. *5

The Education ommission of 1882
In 1882 the Government oI India appointed a Commission, known as the Hunter Commission, "to enquire into the manner in which, eIIect had been given to the
principles oI the Despatch oI 1854 and to suggest such measures as it may think desirable in order to Iurther carrying out oI the policy therein laid down". The
Commission, inter alia, recommended the gradual withdrawal oI the State Irom the direct support and management oI institutions oI higher education. With regard to
vocational and technical education, the Commission recommended that in the particular class oI high schools there should be two avenues, one leading to the entrance
examination oI the University and the other oI a more practical character intended to Iit the youth Ior commercial, vocational and non-literary pursuits. *6
The &niversities ommission of 1902
The recommendations oI the Hunter Commission led to a rapid expansion oI higher education during the next two decades, giving rise to problems which necessitated
the appointment oI a Commission on January 27, 1902, "to enquire into the condition and prospects oI the universities established in British India; to consider and report
upon any proposals which have been, or may be made Ior improving their constitution and working, and to recommend such measures as may tend to elevate the
standard oI university teaching, and to promote the advancement oI learning". The Commission recommended the reorganisation oI university administration; a much

4. Report oI the University Education Commission, 1948-49, Vol. I, PP. 17-18.
5. These were the Universities oI Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
6. Report oI the University Education Commission, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 20-21. see also Report oI the Secondary Education Commission, op. cit. P. II
In spite oI the speciIic recommendations oI the Commission Ior Iitting the youth Ior-commercial, vocational or non-literary pursuits, neither the public nor the
Government seem to have appreciated the value oI suggestions with the result that the recommendations were Practically ignored.
4
more strict and systematic supervision oI the colleges by the uni- versity; and the imposition oI more exacting conditions oI aIIiliation; a much closer attention to the
conditions under which students live and work; the assumption oI teaching Iunctions by the university within deIined limits; substantial changes in curricula and in the
methods oI examination. As a result oI the recommendations oI this Commission secondary schools came to be more under the domination oI the Universities: under the
Indian Universities Act oI 1904, schools had to be recognised by the Universities, and rules and regulations were Iramed Ior this purpose *7.
Government Resolution on Educational policy in 1913
There was a growing popular demand in the country Ior mass education. A Government Resoultion *8 on education policy was issued in 1913, enunciating three
cardinal principles:
(i) that the standard oI existing institutions should be raised in preIerence to increasing their number;
(ii) that the scheme oI primary and secondary education Ior the average scholar should be steadily diverted to more practical ends; and
(iii) that-provision should be made Ior higher studies and research in India, so that Indian students might get enough Iacilities Ior higher work without having to go.
abroad.
Though the Resolution was immediately carried into eIIect, the out break oI the World War I delayed the developments planned in the Resolution. However, some new
universities were established. *9
The alcutta &niversity ommission of 1917
The next important stage was the appointment oI the Calcutta University Commission in 1917 under the Chairmanship oI the late Sir Michael Sadler. This Commission
went into the question oI secondary education and held the view that the improvement oI

7 Report oI the University Education Commission, Vol. I, op. cit., pp. 22-23 and Report oI the Secondary Education Commission, op. cit., pp. 11-12. See also Mukherji,
cit. pp. 167-68.
8 The Government oI India passed the Resolution on February 21, 1913.
9 Mukherji, op. cit., PP. 187, 188 and 189.
5
secondary education was essential Ior the improvement oI University education. The Commission made the Iollowing important re- commendations:
(i) The dividing line between the University and Secondary courses should properly be drawn at the Intermediate examination than at the Matriculation Examination.
(ii) The Government should, thereIore, create a new type oI institution called the intermediate colleges which would provide Ior instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine,
Engineering and Teaching etc; these colleges were to be run as independent institutions or to be attached to selected high schools.
(iii) The admission test' Ior universities should be the passing oI the Intermediate examination.
(iv) A Board oI Secondary and Intermediate Education, consisting oI the representatives oI Government, Univer- sity, High Schools and Intermediate Colleges be estab-
lished and entrusted with the administration and control oI Secondary Education.
The Sadler Commission Report was a comprehensive one and many oI the universities in India implemented its suggestions. It was also Ior the Iirst time that a
Commission had recommended the attachment oI Intermediate Classes to the high schools and the setting up oI a Board oI Education to control High School and
Intermediate Education. *10




The Hartog ommittee
In 1929, an Auxiliary Committee oI the Indian Statutory Com- mission, known as the Hartog Committee aIter its Chairman Sir Philip Hartog was appointed to review
the position oI education in the country. In the opinion oI this Committee. the Matriculation oI the University still dominated the whole oI the secondary course. In order
to obviate this deIect, the Committee recommended that a large number oI pupils intending to Iollow certain avocation should stop at the middle school stage and there
should be "more diversiIied curricula in the schools". The Committee also recommended diversion oI more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the

10 Report oI the Secondary Education Commission, op. cit. pp. 12-13.
6
end oI the middle stage, preparatory to special instruction in techni- cal and industrial schools". The Committee also reviewed the problems relating to the training oI
teachers and the service conditions oI the secondary teachers".
The Sapru ommittee
The Sapru Committee appointed in 1934 by the U.P. Government to enquire into the causes oI unemployment in U.P. came to the conclusion that the system oI
education commonly prevalent prepared pubils only Ior examinations and degrees and not Ior any avocation in liIe. The Committee suggested that-
(i) diversiIied courses at the secondary stage should be introduced, one oI these leading to the University degree;'
(ii) the intermediate stage be abolished and the secondary stage be extended by one year;
(iii) the vocational training and education should begin aIter the lower secondary stage; and
(iv) the Degree course at the University should extend over a period oI three years. *12






The Abbot-Wood Report, 1936-37
In prusuance oI the Resolution oI 1935 oI the Central-Advisory Board oI Education (an advisory body set up in 1921), two expert advisers, Messrs. Abbot and Wood
were invited in 1936 to advise the Government "on certain problems oI educational reorganisation and particularly on problems oI vocational education". The Abbot-
Wood Report, submitted in 1937, suggested a complete hierarchy oI vocational institutions parallel with the hierarchy oI institutions imparting general education.
As a result oI their recommendations "a new type oI technical institution called the Polytechnic has come into existence". The provinces also started technical,
commercial or agricultural high -schools conducting non-literary courses *14.

11 Ibid., P. 13.
12 Ibid., PP. 13-14.
13 Messrs. A. Abbor, Iormerly ChieI inspector oI Technical Schools, Board oI Education, England and S. H. Wood, Director oI intelligence, Board oI Education,
England.
14 Ibid., Report oI the Secondary Education, Lawmission op. cit. pp. 14-15.
7
Zakir Hussain ommittee's Report
In 1937, the Congress Ministry assumed responsibility oI administration in seven major Provinces oI India and concentrated their attention on educational reIorms. In
October 1937, an all-India National Educational ConIerence was summoned at Wardha under the presidentship oI Mahatma Gandhi and the Iollowing resolutions were
adopted:
1. That in the opinion oI this conIerence Iree and compulsory education be provided Ior seven years on a nation-wide scale;
2. That the medium oI instruction be the mother- tongue;
3. That the conIerence endorses the proposal made by Mahatma Gandhi that the process oI education throughout this period should centre around some Iorm oI manual
and productive work, and that all other abilities to be developed or training to be given should, as Iar as possible, be integrally related to the central handicraIt chosen
with due regard to the environment oI the child; and
4. That the conIerence expects that this system oI education will be gradually able to cover the remuneration oI teachers.
The conIerence then appointed a committee 'with Dr. Zakir Hussain as its chairman. The Committee submitted its report on December 2, 1937, and the scheme oI
education suggested by it is popularly known as the "Wardha Scheme", the main Ieatures oI which are as Iollows-
(i) A Basic CraIt is to serve as the centre oI instruction. The idea is not to teach some handicraIt side by side with liberal education, but the entire education is to be
imparted through some industry or vocation;
(ii) The scheme is to be selI-supporting to the extent oI covering teachers' salaries and aims at makng pupils selI-supporting aIter the completion oI their course;
(iii) Manual labour is insisted on so that every individual may learn to earn his living through it in liter liIe. It is also considered non-violent, since an individual does not
snatch away the living oI others with the help oI a machine; and

(iv) Instruction is closely coordinated with the child's liIe, i.e., his home and village craIts and occupations.",
The Sargent Report
In 1944, the Central Advisory Board oI Education submitted a comprehensive Report on Post-War Educational Development, known as the Sargent Report, visualising a
system oI universal, compulsory and Iree education Ior all boys and girls between the ages oI 6 and 14, the Senior Basic or the Middle School to be the Iinal stage in the
school career oI majority oI the pupils. The Report also recommended that at the Middle School stage, provision should be made Ior a variety oI courses, extending over
a period oI Iive years aIter the age oI 11. These courses while preserving an essentially cultural character should be designed to prepare the pupils Ior entry into
industrial and commercial occupations as well as into the Universities. It was recommended that the High School course should cover 6 years, the normal age oI
admission being 11 years and that the High Schools should be oI two main types (a) academic, and (b) technical. The objective oI both should be to provide a good all-
round education combined with some preparation in the later stages Ior the careers which pupils will pursue on leaving schools.16
The &niversity Education ommission of 1948
The era oI educational reconstruction inevitably Iollowed in the wake oI social and economic reconstruction initiated by the National Government aIter 1947, education
being the chieI instrument Ior reconstruction and transIormation oI society. The Iirst steps taken in the direction oI educational reconstruction were the appointment oI a
series oI commissions to survey, study, review and recommend improvements in the diIIerent sectors oI education.
To look into the problems oI University education, the University Education Commission was appointed by the Government oI India in 1948 under the Chairmanship oI
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in pursuance oI the recommendations oI the Central Advisory Board oI Education and also oI the Inter-University Board. The Commission made
important suggestions Ior improving the standard oI university education in the country. Introduction oI a three-year degree course Ior the Iirst university degree, greater
use oI tutorial system oI instruction, Iormulation oI new aims, emphasis on developing know-

15 See also Mukerji, op. cit., pp. 218-19. 16 Report oI the Secondary Education Commission, op. cit., p. 15.

ledge and critical thinking rather than mechanical passing oI exami- nations, establishment oI Rural Universities and introduction oI moral education were some oI its
salient recommendations. The Commission, however, thought it unIortunate that neither the public nor the Government had realised the importance oI Intermediate
Colleges in the Indian educational systems. To coordinate University Education in the country, the establishment oI the University Grants Commission was also
recommeided. *17 The Commission came into being immediately there aIter.
The Secondary Education ommission, 1952
The Radhakrishnan Commission had surveyed the Iield oI secondary education in a passing manner and had admitted that 'our secondary education remains the weakest
link in our educational machinery and needs urgent reIorm' *18. This Iact was the raison d'etre oI an All India Commission Ior Secondary Education appointed in 1952
under the Chairmanship oI Dr. A. Lakshmanswamy Mudaliar. This Commission oIIered a numbers oI suggestions to adjust secondary education with the new goals and
needs oI Iree India. The aim was now to train our youth Ior intermediate leadership and Ior democratic citizenship. Secondary education was to be a terminal stage Ior a
large majority oI the nation's youth, who would take up their places in society aIter their school education and provide leadership to the general masses. The Commission
was equally concerned with qualitative improvement oI the schools. To develop individual talent, curricular oIIerings were extended and diversiIied. To achieve the new
aims oI education, changes in methods oI teaching were suggested. New trends in examination, guidance and extra curricular work were brought into the school
programmes. Multipurpose secondary school was a new concept recommended by the Commission. Inclusion oI craIt, social studies and general science in the
curriculum was aimed at orienting students towards an industrial and science-centred democratic liIe.
The Iollowing were the main recommendations oI the Commission:
1. New Organization pattern.-(i) Secondary education should commence aIter Iour or Iive years period oI primary or junior basic education and should include (a) the
middle or senior basic secondary stage oI 3 years, and (b) the

17 Ibid., P. 16; see also Mukerji, op. cit., P. 249. 18 See The Report oI Secondary Education Commission, op. cit., p. 16

higher secondary stage oI 4 years; (ii) The present intermediate stage should be replaced by the higher secondary stage which should be oI Iour years' duration, one year
oI the present intermediate being included in it; (iii) As a consequence oI the preceding recommendations, the Iirst degree course in the university should be oI three
years' duration; (iv) For those. who pass out oI the High School, there should be provision oI a pre-University course oI one year; (v) Admission to proIessional colleges
should be open to those who have completed the higher secondary course, or have taken the pre-University course; (vi) Multi-purpose schools should be established
wherever possible to provide varied courses oI interest to students with diverse aims, aptitudes and abilities.
2. Technical Education.-Technical schools should be started in large number either separately or as part oI multi-purpose schools. Such schools should be located in
close proximity to appropriate industries and they should Iunction in close cooperation with the industry concerned.
3. Study oI Languages-(i) The mother-tongue or the regional language should generally be the medium oI instruction throughout the secondary school stage, (ii) During
the middle school stage, every child should be taught at least two languages. English and Hindi should be introduced at the end oI the junior basic stage, subject to the
principle that no two languages be introduced in the same year. (iii) At the high and higher secondary stage, at least two languages should be studied, one oI them being
the mothertongue or the regional language.
4. Curriculum.-(i) At the middle School state, the curriculum should include, (a) languages, (b) social studies, (c) general science, (d) mathematics, (e) art and music, (I)
craIt and (g) physical education. (ii) In the second year oI high school or higher secondary stage, diversiIied courses' oI instruction should be provided. They- should
include Iollowing seven groups: (a) humanities, (b) sciences, (c) technical subjects, (d) commercial subjects, (e) agricultural subjects, (I) Iine arts and (g) home science.
(iii) A certain number oI core subjects should be common to all

students whatever diversiIied course oI study they may take. These should consist oI (a) languages, (b) general science, (c) social studies and (d) a craIt.
5. Miscellaneous.-(i) Educational guidance should receive much greater attention on the part oI educational authorities; the services oI trained guidance oIIicers and
career masters should be made available gradually and in increasing measure to all educational institutions. (ii) The number oI external examinations and subjectivity in
the essay-type tests should be minimised by introducing objective tests and also by changing the type oI questions.
The Commission's recommendations were integrated in the succes- sive Iive-year plans and began to be implemented, both at the Centre and in the States, in 1954. *19
The National ommittee on Women's Education, 1958
The problems oI education oI girls and women in the country, acquired a new signiIicance since the attainment oI Independence. The Educational Panel oI the Planning
Commission, in July 1957, re- commended that "a suitable Committee should be appointed to go into the various aspects oI the question relating to the nature oI
education Ior girls at the elementary, secondary and adult stages and to examine whether the present system was helping them to lead a happier and more useIul liIe".
The ConIerence oI the State Education Ministers in 1957 also agreed that a special committee should be appointed to examine the whole question oI women's education
*20.
The National Committee on Women's Education was accordingly set up by the Government in May 1958, with Shrimati Durgabai Deshmukh as Chairman. The
Committee, in its report published in 1959, recommended that the highest priority should be given to establishing a parity between the education oI boys and girls and a
bold and determined eIIort should be made by the Centre and the States to Iace the diIIiculties and magnitude oI the problem. It recommended co- education upto the
middle school stage but separate institutions Ior girls at the high school stage where more diversiIied curriculum suited to girls should be introduced. The Committee
desired ample provision Ior school mothers, creches, training oI women teachers and employment Iacilities Ior adult women. It also

19 See also Mukerji, OP. c.t., PP. 246-47.
20 Report oI the National Committee on Womens Education May 1958- January, 1959, P. I.

desired that suitable atmosphere should be created Ior greater enrolment girls, Ior greater eIIorts by voluntary organisations, more provision Ior scholarships Ior girls at
all stages and particularly at university stage *21.
Some oI the important recommendations oI the Committee are below:
1. The education oI women should be regarded as a major and special problem in education Ior a good many years to come, and that a bold and determinate eIIort should
be made to Iace its diIIiculties;
2. Steps should be taken to constitute as early as possible a National Council Ior the Education oI Girls and Women;
3. A separate unit Ior Women's Education, under a Educational Adviser, should be set up at the Centre;
4. In each State, a women should be appointed as Joint Director and placed in charge oI education. oI girls;
5. Lady teachers should be appointed in all schools where there are no women;
6. There should be identical curricula Ior boys and girls at the primary stage. At the secondary stage, there is need Ior diIIerentiation oI the courses;
7. Vocational training courses with 'Primary' as basic qualiIication may be conducted in school during the day, along side general education. Courses with 'Middle' and
'Secondary as basic qualiIications may be organised in vocational sections oI middle and secondary schools, in multipurpose schools, in separate vocational schools, in
apprenticeship classes, in training centres, in workshops and/or in continuation schools.
8. Educational Iacilities Ior adult women in the Iorm oI condensed courses (i) that prepare women Ior the middle
21 Ibid., pp. 196-225.

school examination, and (ii) those that prepare them Ior the high school or higher secondary examination should be provided more extensively in all States; and
9. Part-time employment oI women teachers should be encouraged as largely as possible in order to enable women to manage their responsibilities at home as well as to
do some teaching work.
On the recommendations oI the Committee, the Government oI India has set up a National Council Ior Women's Education at the Centre *22.

22 See also Mukherji. op. cit., pp. 251-52