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Abstract
Four wall solar chimneys have been constructed and put at each wall and orientation of a small-scale test room so as to be used for the
evaluation and measurement of their thermal behavior and the certification of their efficiency. At this stage, research focuses on the study
of the buoyancy-driven flow field and heat transfer inside them. A numerical investigation of the thermo-fluid phenomena that take place
inside the wall solar chimneys is performed and the governing elliptic equations are solved in a two-dimensional domain using a control
volume method. The flow is turbulent and six different turbulence models have been tested to this study. As the realizable k–e model is
likely to provide superior performance for flows boundary layers under strong adverse pressure gradients, it has been selected to be used
in the simulations. This is also confirmed by comparing with the experimental results. Predicted velocity and temperature profiles are
presented for different locations, near the inlet, at different heights and near the outlet of the channel and they are as expected by theory.
Important parameters such as average Nusselt number are also compared and calculated at several grid resolutions. The developed
model is general and it can be easily customised to describe various solar chimney’s conditions, aspect ratios, etc. The results from
the application of the model will support the effective set-up of the next configurations of the system.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1359-4311/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.01.021
E. Bacharoudis et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2266–2275 2267
Nomenclature
b inter-plate spacing in the channel (m) Tw2 temperature of right wall in Eqs. (1) and (2) (K)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2) T0 ambient temperature (K)
Gr Grashof number u, v velocity components in the x and y direction
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K), in Eqs. (4) (m/s)
and (5)
k thermal conductivity (W/m K) Greek symbols
L streamwise length of channel (m) b coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/T0 (1/K)
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s) C/ exchange coefficient for general transport fluid
Nu average Nusselt number, in Eqs. (4) and (5) scalar (kg/m s)
p static pressure at inlet region (Pa) l dynamic viscosity (kg/ms)
p0 ambient pressure (Pa) m kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
p0 reduced pressure (Pa), p 0 = p p0 q density (kg/m3)
Pr Prandtl number / general transport fluid scalar
q heat flux from channel’s walls (W/m2), in Eqs.
(4) and (5) Subscripts
Ra Rayleigh number, in Eqs. (1) and (2) b based on inter-plate spacing
Ra* modified Rayleigh number, in Eq. (3) L based on streamwise length of channel
Su, Sv source terms in momentum Eqs. (7) and (8) l left wall
Su source term in scalar Eq. (9) 0 ambient conditions
Tw1 temperature of left wall in Eqs. (1) and (2) (K) r right wall
and ventilation rate, the replacement of the south-facing the architectural view of the building in contrast with the
wall of the solar chimney with glazing, the blackening of classic ‘‘solar chimneys’’ that have a quite much larger
the interior of other walls and the insulation of the exterior width and contain quite larger air mass. Their operation
can be considered. induces the natural draw which causes the required under
Solar chimneys have been investigated by a number of pressure in the area so as to be filled with fresh air e.g. from
researchers and for different applications including passive an underground and cooler place. This under pressure
solar heating and cooling of buildings, ventilation, power causes air uptake conditions from other places having
generation, etc. [1–8]. Experimental and theoretical studies higher pressure (atmospheric) and such kind of places are
have been conducted for the determination of the size of a the underground places which are in lower temperature
solar chimney, confirming that the velocity of air flow and conditions in comparison with the outside environment
temperature of different parts are functions of the gap and with the places that will be air conditioned (the average
between absorber and walls, ambient air temperature, temperature of underground places is equal to the average
and the elevation of air exit above the inlet duct. annual air temperature in an area and in Athens is equal to
Although the behaviour of solar chimneys in their gen- 19 C which causes the cooling of a place that has condi-
eral form has been studied and certified both theoretically tioning requirements of 26 C). This results in both the cov-
and experimentally [1–8], however, the wall solar chimney erage of the air replenishment loads and (from the other
concept has been studied theoretically but it has not been hand to) the qualitative replenishment of the air in the
fully certified at a laboratory level [9,10]. AboulNaga and place. The wall solar chimneys are channels with quite high
Abdrabboh [9] made a theoretical investigation of a com- air velocity and intensity of natural draw inducing such
bined wall roof solar chimney to improve night time venti- conditions that it is required to perform a detailed
lation in buildings. They have developed a spreadsheet thermo-fluid analysis. To meet this objective experimental
computer program for the parametric study to find out and theoretical work has been scheduled so as to obtain
the optimum configuration of the wall roof chimney. a clear understanding of the system’s operation.
Chantawong et al. [10] made an experimental and numeri- Research work will be carried out through various
cal study of the thermal performance of a glazed solar stages assuming different configurations with various
chimney wall (GSCW). Experimental results conducted degree of complexity. At this current first stage, the air
using a labscale GSCW 0.74 m high and 10 cm air gap were from the outside space enters the solar chimney from the
in good agreement with those obtained by solving the heat bottom and escapes from the top and there is no connec-
transfer equations using an explicit finite-difference scheme tion with the room’s interior. With this configuration
and Gauss Seidel iterative method. research focuses on the flow field and temperature varia-
The wall solar chimneys are embodied in the building tion inside the wall solar chimney so as to understand the
cell, they consist of integral parts and they do not modify system behavior under various environmental conditions.
2268 E. Bacharoudis et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2266–2275
Fig. 1b. Air flow through the wall solar chimney and construction details.
• Left wall:
Z
Fluid in hb q oT
motion Nubl ¼ where h ¼ and q ¼ dy
y k T w1 T 0 ox x¼0
1 hL
0 NuLl ¼
Static fluid x k
ð4Þ
• Right wall:
Z
Fig. 2. The geometry studied. hb q oT
Nubr ¼ where h¼ andq ¼ dy
k T 0 T w2 ox x¼0
hL
NuLr ¼
b k
Ra ¼ Rab ð3Þ ð5Þ
L
which is a very useful number for the integrated presenta- 3. Mathematical modelling of the wall solar chimney
tion of the results.
The RaL and more specifically the Grashof number, GrL 3.1. The governing equations
where GrL = RaL/Pr is usually used in heat transfer for the
definition of the flow regime to be laminar or turbulent. It The computational model of the wall solar chimney is a
has the same role with Reynolds number in forced convec- mathematical representation of the thermo-fluid phenom-
tion flows and it indicates the ratio of the buoyancy force ena governing its operation. A numerical investigation of
to the viscous force acting on the fluid. The buoyant forces the natural buoyancy-driven fluid flow and heat transfer
are fighting with viscous forces and at some point they in the vertical channel has been attempted. The simula-
overcome the viscous forces and the flow is no longer lam- tions were conducted using the commercial, well-known,
2270 E. Bacharoudis et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2266–2275
general–purpose CFD code, Fluent. The steady, turbu- control the change of the variables as calculated at each
lent, incompressible and two-dimensional form of the con- iteration. The convergence is checked by several criteria
servation equations [13,14] was solved for the fluid flow in (e.g. the conservation equations should be balanced; the
the vertical channel using the Boussinesq approximation residuals of the discretised conservation equations must
[15]. The latter imposes constant values in all thermophys- steadily decrease). Grid-independence studies and com-
ical properties except for the density in the buoyancy force puter requirements are presented below, for the application
term of the momentum equation. It is also assumed that considered.
viscous dissipation is neglected.
For steady flow, the equations for continuity, velocity
4. Application of the model
components and temperature take the following form
[13,14]:
4.1. The case considered
continuity:
The wall solar chimney studied in this work is one of the
oðquÞ oðqvÞ wall solar chimneys of the test room. The values of the
þ ¼0 ð6Þ
ox oy height and the inter-plate spacing of the latter solar chim-
ney are 4 m, 0.05 m, respectively, and the aspect ratio is
x-momentum:
equal to Lb ¼ 0:0125. It is assumed that the chimney’s walls
oðquuÞ oðqvuÞ o ou o ou are isothermal but they have different temperatures Tw1
þ ¼ l þ l þ Su ð7Þ
ox oy ox ox oy oy and Tw2, respectively. Actually, the left wall temperature
varies with time and during the whole day however, it is
y-momentum:
realistic to assume that it is almost constant for a certain
oðquvÞ oðqvvÞ o ov o ov time period of the day. The thermo-fluid analysis per-
þ ¼ l þ l þ Sv ð8Þ
ox oy ox ox oy oy formed describes the phenomenon during the above certain
period of the day which is not random and it has been
general transported fluid scalar, / (e.g. T):
selected during noon when the requirements for indoors
oðqu/Þ oðqv/Þ o o/ o o/ cooling reach their maximum. Furthermore, the existence
þ ¼ C/ þ C/ þ S/ ð9Þ
ox oy ox ox oy oy of the reflective insulation may justify that way of
approach because its thermal behavior causes unknown
where x, y are the coordinates in the Cartesian-coordinate
conditions and thus various approximate methods can be
system indicated in Fig. 2, q is air’s density (kg m3), Su
applied.
and Sv, are momentum source terms in the x-, y-directions,
The working fluid is air (Pr = 0.713) coming into from
respectively, l is air’s viscosity, C/ is the exchange coeffi-
the bottom of the channel (1) at a constant ambient tem-
cient for the general transport fluid scalar /.
perature T0 and gets out from the top (Fig. 2). The fluid
is motionless at the point 0 in ambient temperature
For RaL above 109, a two-equation turbulence model
T0 = 29.7 C. The estimated RaL = 1.0392 · 1011 confirms
should be used. In this context, the above equations
the existence of turbulent flow conditions.
become time-averaged equations and l, C/ are replaced
by their effective values leff, Ceff as given by the turbulence
model. 4.2. Boundary conditions
1 1 Table 1
p þ qu2 ¼ p0 ) p p0 þ qu2 ¼ 0 Average Nusselt number Nub for different grids and different turbulent
2 2
models
0 1 2 0 1
) p þ qu ¼ 0 ) p ¼ qu2 ð10Þ V/H = 6 V/H = 10 V/H = 2
2 2
where p 0 is the ‘reduced’ static pressure and p0, is the ambi- Standard k–e
70 · 420 5.12 70 · 700 5.12 70 · 140 5.16
ent pressure with p0 = q0gy. Moreover, it is assumed that
105 · 630 5.11 105 · 1050 5.10 105 · 210 5.14
the streamwise variations of temperature are neglected. 140 · 840 5.11 140 · 1400 5.10 140 · 280
Furthermore, regarding inlet conditions for turbulence,
the turbulence intensity has been assumed equal to 0.01% RNG k–e
which is considered realistic as the fluid flow at the channel 70 · 420 5.35 70 · 700 5.34 70 · 140 5.38
105 · 630 5.34 105 · 1050 – 105 · 210 –
entrance is laminar and it is developed to the turbulent
140 · 840 5.33 140 · 1400 – 140 · 280 –
regime upwards while the length scale is equal to 0.07D
where D, in the general case, is the channel diameter. Realizable k–e
70 · 420 5.13 70 · 700 5.12 70 · 140 5.16
4.2.2. Outlet 105 · 630 5.12 105 · 1050 – 105 · 210 –
140 · 840 5.11 140 · 1400 – 140 · 280 –
At the outlet section the streamwise variations of veloc-
ity components and temperature are neglected. In addition, RSM
it is assumed that the fluid’s pressure becomes equal to the 70 · 420 5.56 70 · 700 5.56 70 · 140 5.59
ambient pressure [16–21]. It is well known that static pres- 105 · 630 5.57 105 · 1050 – 105 · 210 –
sure in an arbitrary point can be written as 140 · 840 – 140 · 1400 – 140 · 280 –
p ¼ p0 þ p0 ) p ¼ p0 q0 gy Abid
70 · 420 – 70 · 700 – 70 · 140 –
In order to be satisfied the preceding condition p = p0 at 105 · 630 5.30 105 · 1050 5.29 105 · 210 –
the outlet region, it is necessary to impose p 0 = 0. In this 140 · 840 5.34 140 · 1400 – 140 · 280 –
way according to Gadafalch et al. [18] all the kinetic energy
of the air is assumed to be converted to heat. Lam-Bremhost
70 · 420 5.51 70 · 700 – 70 · 140 –
Finally, it is considered a Backflow Total Tempera-
105 · 630 5.63 105 · 1050 – 105 · 210 –
ture = 29.7 C in case the fluid entered to the chimney from 140 · 840 5.69 140 · 1400 – 140 · 280 –
the outlet. In this case, the incoming air is considered to be
fresh air in a temperature T0 = 29.7 C.
accuracy of the numerical results, a grid independence
4.2.3. Walls study was performed by changing the number of the nodes
It is assumed that the walls of the chimney have different in the horizontal (H) and in the vertical (V) direction
temperatures. In the simulations for the left wall, the follow- (Table 1). As the flow was in the turbulent regime a thor-
ing temperature values have been applied: Tw1 = 45 C, ough investigation has been attempted for each turbulence
50 C, 55 C, 60 C, 65 C, 70 C. In all cases studied the model applied. Successful computation of turbulent flow
right wall temperature was equal to Tw2 = 27 C. requires some consideration during the mesh generation.
Furthermore, there are two approaches for modelling the Due to the strong interaction of the mean flow and turbu-
near-wall region. In the first approach, the viscosity-affected lence, the numerical results for turbulent flows tend to be
inner region is not resolved. Instead a wall function is used more susceptible to grid dependency than those for laminar
to bridge the viscosity-affected region with the fully turbu- flows. In all the simulations y+ < 1 and it has been con-
lent region. In the second approach, the turbulence model cluded that a grid consisting of 70 · 420 cells can provide
is modified to enable the viscosity-affected region to be sufficient spatial resolution giving a grid-independent solu-
resolved with a mesh all the way to the wall (enhanced wall tion for each of the turbulence models tested.
treatment). If the near-wall mesh is fine enough to be able to
resolve the laminar sublayer, then the enhanced wall treat-
ment will be identical to the traditional two-layer zonal 4.4. Turbulence modelling
model. Because of the nature of the buoyancy-induced flow
inside the wall solar chimney where special treatment For the numerical simulation of the turbulent flow
should applied at the near wall region to account for the inside the wall solar chimney six turbulence models have
development of the boundary layers, it has been decided been tested provided by Fluent: the standard k–e model,
to follow the second approach in the simulations. the RNG k–e model, the realizable k–e model, the Rey-
nolds stress model (RSM), and two Low-Reynolds (Low-
4.3. Grid independence study Re) models, namely, the Abid and the Lam-Bremhost.
The standard two-equation k–e turbulence model involves
A structure, mapped mesh with quadrilateral 2D ele- the solution of two additional partial differential equations
ments has been built in the code. In order to ensure the for the turbulent kinetic energy (k) and its dissipation rate
2272 E. Bacharoudis et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2266–2275
(e) [22]. The values of the constants Cl, C1, C2, rj and re various turbulence models is shown. It can be noticed that
applied are 0.09, 1.44, 1.92, 1.0 and 1.3, respectively [22]. by applying the RSM model quite different profiles are pre-
The RNG k–e model is essentially a variation of the stan- dicted both at the outlet and middle of the solar chimney
dard k–e model, with the used constants estimated rather (Figs. 4a and 4b) while by applying the Lam-Bremhost
through a statistical mechanics approach than from exper- model a different temperature profile is predicted at the
imental data. The values of the constants Cl, C1 and C2 middle of the solar chimney.
applied are 0.0845, 1.42 and 1.68, respectively [23]. For Based on the above, it can be concluded that the use of
the realizable model the term ‘‘realizable’’ means that the the k–e models and the use of the Abid Low-Re model
model satisfies certain mathematical constraints on the assures the prediction of realistic velocity and temperature
Reynolds stresses, consistent with the physics of turbulent profiles as expected by theory. For the final selection it
flows. The realizable k–e model contains a new formulation should be taken into account that the turbulence model
for the turbulent viscosity. Also, a new transport equation should account for both the high and low (close to the
for the dissipation rate, e, has been derived from an exact
equation for the transport of the mean-square vorticity
fluctuation [24]. The RSM closes the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes equations by solving transport equations 0.8
standard k-
for the Reynolds stresses, together with an equation for 0.7 RNG k-
the dissipation rate. It also requires additional memory Realizable k-
0.6 RSM
In Table 2 the average Nusselt number for the various 0.9 Standard k-
turbulence models used is shown. In Figs. 3–6 typical RNG k-
0.8 Realizable k-
results from the application of the above turbulence models
Streamwise velocity (m/s)
0.7 RSM
are shown. In all the cases studied the temperature of the Abid
left wall was Tw1 = 45 C. In Figs. 3a and 3b the stream- 0.6
Lam Bremhorst
wise velocity profile vs. inter plate spacing at the outlet 0.5
and middle of the wall solar chimney for various turbu- 0.4
lence models is shown. By applying all the turbulence mod-
0.3
els except RSM, the predictions show that streamwise
velocity increases close to the left wall at the outlet of the 0.2
the left wall at the middle of the solar chimney is predicted Inter plate spacing (m)
(Fig. 3b). In Figs. 4a and 4b temperature profile vs. inter Fig. 3b. Streamwise velocity profile vs. inter plate spacing at the middle of
plate spacing at the outlet and middle of the chimney for the chimney for various turbulence models.
Table 2
Average Nusselt number for the various turbulence models used
Standard k–e RNG k–e Realizable k–e RSM Abid Lam-Bremohorst
Nul 5.12 5.35 5.13 5.56 5.30 5.51
Nur 9.71 10.56 9.73 12.85 10.28 9.41
E. Bacharoudis et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2266–2275 2273
1
28
0.9
24 0.8
Streamwise velocity (m/s)
Table 3
Experimental and predicted average velocity and temperature for the various turbulence models used at the outlet of the wall solar chimney
Standard k–e RNG k–e Realizable k–e RSM Abid Lam-Bremhorst Experimental
Average velocity 0.3395 0.3438 0.3395 0.2893 0.3322 0.3731 0.3381
Temperature at the middle of the profile (C) 33.55 33.68 33.55 34.50 33.30 33.88 32.05
Inlet air temperature = 29.7 C, Tw1 = 45 C, Tw2 = 27 C.
2274 E. Bacharoudis et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 2266–2275
80 0.6
T=45 ºC
70
T=50 ºC 0.5
Temperature (oC)
T=55 ºC