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Functions

Part 2 - Special Properties

Amber Habib Department of Mathematics Shiv Nadar University

Abstract Notes for the Precalculus course taught to 1st year students of the B.S. Mathematics program.

One-One Functions

Denition 1.1 A function f : X Y is called one-one or injective if distinct points in X have distinct images in Y : If a, b X and a = b then f (a) = f (b). Exercise 1.2 Show that f : X Y is one-one i f (a) = f (b) implies a = b.

a b (A) (B) f (a) = f (b)

The function in (A) is one-one because distinct points in the domain are mapped to distinct points in the codomain. The function in (B) is not one-one because the points a and b are mapped to the same value. Example 1.3 Consider the function f : R R, f (x) = x2 . Since f (1) = 12 = 2 1 = (1)2 = f (1), f is not one-one. Example 1.4 Consider the function g : R R, g(x) = x3 . Let x, y X and x = y. Then at least one of them is non-zero. Consider the following sequence

of implications: x3 = y 3 = = = = = = (x y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) = 0 x + xy + y = 0
2 2

x3 y 3 = 0

( x y = 0) ( x2 + y 2 > 0)

xy < 0 x3 y 3 < 0 x3 = y 3

Thus the assumption x3 = y 3 leads to a contradiction, and we must have x3 = y 3 . Therefore this function is one-one. 2 You may have noted the dierent nature of these two examples. When we want to show a function is not one-one we must produce a specic example of a pair of distinct points in the domain which have the same image. On the other hand, to demonstrate a function is one-one, we must work with a completely arbitrary (unspecied) pair. Exercise 1.5 Identify the one-one functions from the following: 1. h : R R, h(x) = xn , n N. 2. p : R R, p(x) = x3 x Example 1.6 Consider the function sin : [/2, /2] R. Let x, y [/2, /2] and suppose sin(x) = sin(y). Then sin(x) sin(y) = 0 = = = xy x+y cos =0 2 2 xy x+y sin = 0 or cos =0 2 2 x y = 2n or x + y = (2n + 1) (n Z) sin

Now x, y [/2, /2] implies that x + y . In particular, x + y can only be an odd multiple of in the cases x = y = /2 and x = y = /2. If x = y it follows that x + y is not an odd multiple of . So we must have x y equal to an even multiple of . Again, x, y [/2, /2] implies that x y . So the only possible even multiple of is 0, and then x = y. Therefore this function is one-one. 2 Exercise 1.7 Identify the one-one functions from the following: 1. sin : R R. 2. sin : [0, ] R. 3. sin : [0, /2] R. 2

Exercise 1.8 Identify the one-one functions from the following: 1. cos : R R. 2. cos : [0, ] R. 3. cos : [/2, /2] R. 4. tan : (/2, /2) R. Example 1.9 Consider the exponential function exp : R R+ . Let ex = ey . Then exy = 1 implies x y = 0 implies x = y. So exp is one-one. 2 Example 1.10 Consider sinh : R R. Let x = y. Denote ex = t and ey = s. Note that s, t > 0 and s = t. Then sinh(x) = sinh(y) = = = = = = ex ex = ey ey 1 1 t =s t s 21 21 s t = t s 2 2 st s = s t t st = 1 st(t s) = s t

The last statement contradicts s, t > 0, and hence we must have sinh(x) = sinh(y). Therefore sinh is one-one 2 Exercise 1.11 Identify the one-one functions from the following: 1. ln : R+ R. 2. cosh : R R. 3. tanh : R R. 4. |x| : R R. 5. [x] : R Z. 6. sgn : R R. Exercise 1.12 Let f : X Y be one-one. Let A X. Then f |A is also one-one.

Onto Functions

Denition 2.1 A function f : X Y is called onto or surjective if every point in Y has a pre-image in X: For each b Y there exists a X such that f (a) = b.

(A)

(B)

The function in (A) is not onto because there is a point in the codomain with no pre-image. The function in (B) is onto. Example 2.2 Consider the polynomial p(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 as a function from R to [0, ). We will show it is onto. Let y [0, ). Consider the equation p(x) = y, or x2 + 2x + 1 y = 0. The discriminant of this quadratic is D = 4 4(1 y) = 4y 0. Therefore this quadratic equation always has a real solution x, and then x is a pre-image of y. 2 Proving the onto property is in general a harder problem than proving the one-one property. For example, the proof in the last example depends on the fact that every non-negative real number has a real square root. This familiar fact cannot be established formally without a detailed look at real numbers and their properties with regards to limit processes! We are going to take certain facts about real numbers for granted and will allow ourselves to use these facts wherever needed, with the understanding that their proper proofs will become available in our rst course on Real Analysis. These facts are:

1. Let n be an even number. Then every non-negative real number has an n-th root. 2. Let n be an odd number. Then every real number has an n-th root. 3. Let a, b > 0. Then there is a real number x such that ax = b. Exercise 2.3 Prove the following functions are onto: 1. f : R [0, ), f (x) = xn , where n is an even number. 2. g : R R, g(x) = xn , where n is an odd number. 3. exp : R R+ . 4. ln : R+ R. 4

Example 2.4 Let us review the denitions of cos(t) and sin(t) with t R. Consider the ray in the xy-coordinate plane created by rotating the positive xaxis counterclockwise through an angle of t radians. This ray cuts the unit circle with centre at origin at exactly one point (x, y). We then dene cos(t) = x and sin(t) = y.
(x, y) (x, y)

sin(t)

sin(t)

t
cos(t) cos(t)

It follows from this denition that sin, cos : R [1, 1] are onto. For, let 1 y 1. Then 1 y 2 0 and x = 1 y 2 is dened. Note that x2 + y 2 = 1 and hence (x, y) is on the unit circle with centre at origin. Let t be the angle between the positive x-axis and the ray emanating from origin and passing through (x, y). Then, by the denition of the sine function, sin(t) = y. Therefore sin is onto. Similarly cos is also onto. 2 Exercise 2.5 Prove that tan : (/2, /2) R is onto. Exercise 2.6 Identify the onto functions: 1. f : N N where f (n) = n if n is odd and f (n) = 2n if n is even. 2. g : [0, 1] [0, 1], where g(x) = 1x . 1+x

Bijections

Denition 3.1 A function f : X Y is called a one-one correspondence or bijection if it is both one-one and onto.

(A)

(B)

(C)

The function in (A) is one-one but not onto. The function in (B) is onto but not one-one. Finally, the one in (C) is both one-one and onto, hence it is a bijection. 5

Exercise 3.2 Check that the following functions are bijections: 1. f : R R, f (x) = x3 . 2. exp : R R+ . 3. ln : R+ R. Denition 3.3 Two sets are called equivalent if there is a bijection between them. Exercise 3.4 Prove the following pairs of sets are equivalent: 1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. 2. R and R+ . 3. (/2, /2) and R. 4. (0, 1) and R.

Inverse Functions

Denition 4.1 Let f : X Y . Then g : X Y is called an inverse function for f if g(f (x)) = x for every x X and f (g(y)) = y for every y Y . We denote g by f 1 . Theorem 4.2 A function f : X Y has an inverse function g : Y X i f is a bijection. Proof: First, let g : Y X be an inverse function of f . Let y Y . Then g(y) is a pre-image of y under f , and so f is onto. Next, let f (a) = f (b). Then a = g(f (a)) = g(f (b)) = b and so f is one-one. Now, let f be a bijection. Let y Y . Then it has a unique pre-image x under f , and we dene g(y) = x. By denition, f (g(y)) = f (x) = y. For the other identity, we start with x X. Let y = f (x). Then, by denition of g, g(y) = x, and so g(f (x)) = g(y) = x. Therefore g is an inverse function of f . 2 Theorem 4.3 Let f : X Y be a bijection. Then its inverse is unique. Proof: Suppose g, h : Y X are both inverses of f . The calculations below show that we must have g = h: g(y) = g(f (h(y))) = h(y) 2 After the last theorem, we can talk of the inverse f 1 of a bijection f . 6

Exercise 4.4 Let f : X Y be a bijection. Then f 1 : Y X is also a bijection and (f 1 )1 = f . Exercise 4.5 Prove that ln : R+ R is the inverse of exp : R R+ .

A combined graph of exp(x) and ln(x).

The diagram above illustrates that the graphs of these inverse functions are mirror images of each other about the y = x line. This is always the case with inverse functions, and makes the graphs easy to obtain. Exercise 4.6 Is x the inverse of x2 ?

Example 4.7 Consider the sine function. We have seen earlier that on restriction it gives a bijection from [/2, /2] to [1, 1]. Therefore this restriction has an inverse sin1 : [1, 1] [/2, /2]. This inverse is also denoted by arcsin(x).

The graphs of sin(x) and arcsin(x). 2 Example 4.8 Consider the cosine function. On restriction it gives a bijection from [0, ] to [1, 1]. Therefore this restriction has an inverse cos1 : [1, 1] [0, ]. This inverse is also denoted by arccos(x).

A combined graph of cos(x) and arccos(x). 2 Example 4.9 Consider the tangent function. On restriction it gives a bijection from [/2, /2] to R. Therefore this restriction has an inverse tan1 : R [/2, /2]. This inverse is also denoted by arctan(x). 2 Exercise 4.10 Draw the graph of the arctan function.

Composition

Functions can be combined in various ways. The basic building block is to apply two functions in sequence, rst one and then the other. Denition 5.1 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z. Then their composition g f : X Z is dened by g f (x) = g(f (x)) gf f x f (x) g g(f (x)) x X

Note that to dene g f , we have to ensure that the codomain of f equals the domain of g. Only then does f (x) become a valid input for g. (It would actually be enough for the codomain of f to be a subset of the domain of g, but that greater generality does not bring any signicant improvement in the theory.) Theorem 5.2 Composition is associative: If f : W X, g : X Y and h : Y Z then h (g f ) = (h g) f . 8

Proof: It is easily checked that both functions, when applied to any x X, give the value h(g(f (x))). 2 Theorem 5.3 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z. 1. If f and g are one-one, so is g f . 2. If f and g are onto, so is g f . Proof: 1. Let a, b X with g f (a) = g f (b). Then g(f (a)) = g(f (b)). Since g is one-one, we have f (a) = f (b). Since f is one-one, we nally get a = b. 2. Let z Z. Since g is onto, there is a y Y such that g(y) = z. Then, since is f is onto, there is an x X such that f (x) = y. Finally, we have g f (x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = z. 2 Theorem 5.4 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z. 1. If g f is one-one, so is f . 2. If g f is onto, so is g. Proof: 1. Let a, b X with f (a) = f (b). Then g(f (a)) = g(f (b)). Since g f is one-one, we have a = b, as desired. 2. Let z Z. Since g f is onto, there is an x X such that g f (x) = z. Let y = f (x). Then g(y) = g(f (x)) = g f (x) = z. 2 Example 5.5 This simple example shows that (1) g f can be one-one even when g is not one-one, and (2) g f can be onto even when f is not onto. Let X = {a} and Y = {1, 2}. Dene f : X Y by f (a) = 1, and g : Y X by g(1) = g(2) = a. Then g f : X X is dened by g f (a) = a. Note that g f is a bijection, but g is not one-one and f is not onto. f a 1 2 X Y X g a

Denition 5.6 The identity function from a set A to itself is denoted idA and maps every element to itself: idA (a) = a for every a A. Exercise 5.7 Let f : X Y . Then f idX = f and idY f = f . Exercise 5.8 Let f : X Y and g : Y X. Show that g is the inverse function of f i g f = idX and f g = idY . Exercise 5.9 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be bijections. Show that g f : X Z is a bijection. Exercise 5.10 Let A, B, C be sets such that B is equivalent to A and C is equivalent to B. Show that C is equivalent to A. Theorem 5.11 Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be bijections. Show that (g f )1 = f 1 g1 Proof: We start with the following observations: 1. Since f is a bijection it has an inverse f 1 : Y X 2. Since g is a bijection it has an inverse g1 : Z Y To verify that f 1 g1 is the inverse of g f , we carry out the following calculations (f 1 g1 ) (g f ) = ((f 1 g1 ) g) f = (f 1 idY ) f

= (f 1 (g1 g)) f = f 1 f = idX

(g f ) (f 1 g1 ) = ((g f ) f 1 ) g1 = (g (f f 1 )) g1 = (g idX ) g1 = g g1 = idY 2

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