METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITES A composite material is a material consisting of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct phases.

The composite generally has superior characteristics than those of each of the individual components. Usually, the reinforcing component is distributed in the continuous or matrix component. When the matrix is a metal, the composite is termed a metal-matrix composite (MMC). In MMCs, the reinforcement usually takes the form of particles, whiskers, short bers, or continuous bers. Types of MMCs Particulate reinforced MMC (PRM): metal matrix composite with a particulate reinforcement occupying a volume fraction greater than 5% in the material (otherwise, the particulates are generally considered to be inclusions). Dispersoid reinforced MMC: metal matrix composite with a dispersoid reinforcement occupying a volume fraction greater than 5% in the material (otherwise, the material is considered to be a dispersion strengthened metal - which incidentally may form the matrix of any type of MMC, i.e., a MMC with dispersion-strengthened matrix). Cermets: a metal matrix with a three-dimensionally percolating ceramic reinforcement, typically with far more ceramic than metal (strictly speaking they contain less than 20% metal per volume and are thus not considered as MMC). According to the percolating structure of both constituents cermets could thus be considered as both a ceramic and a metal matrix composite. Short fibre reinforced MMC (SFRM): metal matrix composite with a short fibre reinforcement. Whisker reinforced MMC (WRM): metal matrix composite with a whisker reinforcement. Continuous fibre reinforced MMC (CFRM): metal matrix composite with reinforcement of continuous fibres. Monofilament reinforced MMC (MFRM): metal matrix composite with reinforcement of monofilaments. Reinforcements a constituent (phase or combination of phases) of the MMC originating from the ingredient material which is combined with a metal or an alloy to produce a metal matrix composite (e.g., alumina fibres, silicon carbide whiskers, steel fibres, or graphite particles, even if, in the case of graphite particles, the reinforcement does not reinforce the matrix). A reinforcement is characterised by its chemical composition, its shape and dimensions, its properties as ingredient material and its volume fraction and spatial distribution in the matrix. Continuous reinforcement: a constituent of a composite which is continuous in at least one direction through the composite (e.g., continuous fibers or percolating open-celled foam). Continuous fibres (f): cylindrical ingredient material produced continuously to form an essentially endless reinforcement in the composite; usually delivered on bobbins of 1

multifilament tows, each tow consisting of many individual fibres of diameters typically in the range of 3 to 30 m. According to the production process such fibres are usually coated by a polymeric sizing and the tows may be slightly twisted. They are typically designated by a brand name, the number of fibres per tow and a symbol of the applied sizing (e.g. T300-6KE). Monofilaments (m): essentially endless reinforcement as continuous fibres, except for a larger diameter, typically greater than 100 m. Monofilaments are generally produced by deposition onto a core fibre (most often of carbon or tungsten), and are delivered as individual fibres instead of tows. Discontinuous reinforcement: a non-percolating constituent of a composite, taking the form of individual elements embedded in the matrix constituent (e.g., particulates, short fibres, whiskers). Preforms produced from discontinuous reinforcements that are mechanically stabilised by a binder or by cold compaction are still considered discontinuous reinforcements. Particulates (p): roughly equiaxed reinforcement or composite ingredient, usually of aspect ratio (ratio of largest to smallest diameter) less than about 5. Particulates can be both mono- or polycrystalline, can take various shapes (spherical, angular, plate-like) and are typically greater than 1 m in diameter. Dispersoids (d): same as particulates, except that the diameter is less than 1m, hence, being capable of providing Orowan strengthening. Platelets: flat reinforcements of an aspect ratio (diameter to thickness) greater than 2. Platelets of an aspect ratio less than 5 can be considered as a type of particulates. Short fibres (s): cylindrical reinforcement or composite ingredient with a ratio of length to diameter greater than 5 (but typically greater than 100), and with a diameter typically greater than 1 m. Whiskers (w): elongated single crystals, typically produced with a length to diameter ratio greater than 10 and with a diameter typically less than 1micron. Advantages & Limitations of MMC

High specific strength and stiffness Lightweight Design Enhanced fatigue resistance Increased elevated temperature strength Improved wear resistance Lower density Improved damping capabilities Good corrosion resistance 2

Control over thermo-physical properties (thermal expansion and conductivity) through variations in reinforcement type and volume fraction Most Metals are heavy Metals are susceptible to interfacial dgradationat reinforcement and matric interface which leads to corrosion. Expensive Production System Technology still comparatively immature Complexity abt production process (Long Fibre MMC) Limited experience of services dedicated to production

Volume Fraction Volume fraction i is defined as the volume of a constituent Vi divided by the volume of all consituents of the mixture V prior to mixing. . Volume fraction is also called volume concentration in ideal solutions where the volumes of the constituents are additive (their sum equals the volume of the mixtures). The sum of all volume fractions of a mixture is equal to 1. . Volume fractions i are useful alternatives to mole fractions xi when dealing with mixtures in which there is a large disparity between the sizes of the various kinds of molecules; e.g.,polymer solutions. They provide a more appropriate way to express the relative amounts of the various components. Thermodynamic functions using volume fractions reduce to mole-fraction expressions for mixtures of rigid molecules of roughly equal size. Rule of Mixtures

Powder Metallurgy Process Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, pressing them into a desired shape (compacted), and then heating the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to bond the material (sintering). The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps: (1) powder manufacture, (2) powder mixing and blending,(3) compacting, (4) sintering. Compacting is generally performed at room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is usually conducting at atmospheric pressure. Optional secondary processing often follows to obtain special properties or enhanced precision.[1] Two main techniques used to form and consolidate the powder are sintering and metal injection molding. Recent developments have made it possible to use rapid manufacturing techniques which use the metal powder for the products. Because with this technique the powder is melted and not sintered, better mechanical strength can be accomplished. Fine metal particles are placed into a flexible mould and then high gas or fluid pressure is applied to the mould. The resulting article is then sintered in a furnace. This increases the strength of the part by bonding the metal particles. This manufacturing process produces very little scrap metal and can be used to make many different shapes. The tolerances that this process can achieve are very precise, ranging from +/- 0.008 inches (0.2 mm) for axial dimensions and +/- 0.020 inches (5 mm) for radial dimensions. This is the most efficient type of powder compacting.(The following subcategories are also from this reference.)[7] This 3

operation is generally applicable on small production quantities, as it is more costly to run due to its slow operating speed and the need for expendable tooling. Diffusion Bonding Diffusion bonding is a solid-state joining process capable of joining a wide range of metal and ceramic combinations to produce both small and large components. The process is dependent on a number of parameters, in particular, time, applied pressure, bonding temperature and method of heat application. Other examples of solid-state joining include cold pressure welding, friction welding, magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB) welding and explosive welding. Diffusion bonding itself can be categorised into a number of variants, dependent on the form of pressurisation, the use of interlayers and the formation of a transient liquid phase. Each finds specific application for the range of materials and geometries that need to be joined. In its simplest form, diffusion bonding involves holding pre-machined components under load at an elevated temperature usually in a protective atmosphere or vacuum. The loads used are usually below those which would cause macrodeformation of the parent material(s) and temperatures of 0.5-0.8Tm (where Tm = melting point in K) are employed. Times at temperature can range from 1 to 60+ minutes, but this depends upon the materials being bonded, the joint properties required and the remaining bonding parameters. Although the majority of bonding operations are performed in vacuum or an inert gas atmosphere, certain bonds can be produced in air. To form a bond, it is necessary for two, clean and flat surfaces to come into atomic contact, with microasperities and surface layer contaminants being removed from the bonding faces during bonding. Various models have been developed to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved in forming a bond. First they consider that the applied load causes plastic deformation of surface asperities reducing interfacial voids. Bond development then continues by diffusion controlled mechanisms including grain boundary diffusion and power law creep. Solid phase diffusion bonding Bonding in the solid phase is mainly carried out in vacuum or a protective atmosphere, with heat being applied by radiant, induction, direct or indirect resistance heating. Pressure can be applied uniaxially or isostatically. In the former case, a low pressure (3-10MPa) is used to prevent macrodeformation of the parts (i.e. no more than a few percent). This form of the process therefore requires a good surface finish on the mating surfaces as the contribution to bonding provided by plastic yielding is restricted. Typically surface finishes of better than 0.4m RA are recommended and in addition the surfaces should be as clean as practical to minimise surface contamination. In hot isostatic pressing, much higher pressures are possible (100200MPa) and therefore surface finishes are not so critical, finishes of 0.8m RA and greater can be used. A further advantage of this process is that the use of uniform gas pressurisation allows complex geometries to be bonded, as against the generally simple butt or lap joints possible with uniaxial pressurisation. Where dissimilar materials need to be joined in the solid phase (and in particular metal to ceramic joints), it is possible to introduce single or multiple interlayers of other materials to aid the bonding process and to modify post-bond stress distribution.

Liquid phase diffusion bonding/diffusion brazing This technique is applicable only to dissimilar material combinations or to 'like' materials where a dissimilar metal insert is used. Solid state diffusional processes lead to a change of composition at the bond interface and the bonding temperature is selected as the temperature at which this phase melts. Alternatively, with the dissimilar metal insert, it melts at a lower temperature than the parent material. Thus a thin layer of liquid spreads along the interface to form a joint at a lower temperature than the melting point of either of the parent materials. A reduction in bonding temperature leads to solidification of the melt, and this phase can subsequently be diffused away into the parent materials by holding at temperature Superplastic forming/diffusion bonding This technique has been developed specifically within the aerospace industry, and its industrial importance is such that it should be considered separately here. The process is used commercially for titanium and its alloys, this material being one that exhibits superplastic properties at elevated temperatures within defined strain rate conditions. These conditions of temperature and pressure coincide with the conditions required for bonding, and therefore the two processes have been combined into one manufacturing operation either in sequence or together. The process (known as SPF/DB or more correctly DB/SPF) is used to produce stiff sandwich structures for airframe parts, or the wide chord, hollow fan blades for aeroengines. Both these involve skins with internally bonded structures as reinforcing elements. Stir Casting Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a dispersed phase (ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of mechanical stirring. Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state fabrication. The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods and may also be processed by conventional Metal forming technologies. Stir Casting is characterized by the following features:

Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%). Distribution of dispersed phase throughout the matrix is not perfectly

homogeneous: 1. There are local clouds (clusters) of the dispersed particles (fibers) 2. There may be gravity segregation of the dispersed phase due to a difference in the densities of the dispersed and matrix phase. The technology is relatively simple and low cost. Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-solid condition. The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid state is called Rheocasting. High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of the dispersed phase.

Squeeze Casting 5

Squeeze Casting Infiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, using a movable mold part (ram) for applying pressure on the molten metal and forcing it to penetrate into a performed dispersed phase, placed into the lower fixed mold part. Squeeze Casting Infiltration method is similar to the Squeeze casting technique used for metal alloys casting. Squeeze Casting Infiltration process has the following steps: A preform of dispersed phase (particles, fibers) is placed into the lower fixed mold half. A molten metal in a predetermined amount is poured into the lower mold half. The upper movable mold half (ram) moves downwards and forces the liquid metal to infiltrate the preform. The infiltrated material solidifies under the pressure. The part is removed from the mold by means of the ejector pin. The method is used for manufacturing simple small parts (automotive engine pistons from aluminum alloy reinforced by alumina short fibers)

Solid State Diffusion Technique Solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is the process, in which Metal Matrix Composites are formed as a result of bonding matrix metal and dispersed phase due to mutual diffusion occurring between them in solid states at elevated temperature and under pressure. Low temperature of solid state fabrication process (as compared to Liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites) depresses undesirable reactions on the boundary between the matrix and dispersed (reinforcing) phases. Metal Matrix Composites may be deformed also after sintering operation by rolling, Forging, pressing, Drawing or Extrusion. The deformation operation may be either cold (below the recrystallization temperature) or hot (above the recrystallyzation temperature). Deformation of sintered composite materials with dispersed phase in form of short fibers results in a preferred orientation of the fibers and anisotropy of the material properties (enhanced strength along the fibers orientation). There are two principal groups of solid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites: Diffusion bonding Sintering Diffusion Bonding is a solid state fabrication method, in which a matrix in form of foils and a dispersed phase in form of long fibers are stacked in a particular order and then pressed at elevated temperature. The finished laminate composite material has a multilayer structure. Diffusion Bonding is used for fabrication of simple shape parts (plates, tubes). 6

Variants of diffusion bonding are roll bonding and wire/fiber winding: Roll Bonding is a process of combined Rolling (hot or cold) strips of two different metals (e.g. steel and aluminum alloy) resulted in formation of a laminated composite material with a metallurgical bonding between the two layers. Wire/fiber Winding is a process of combined winding continuous ceramic fibers and metallic wires followed by pressing at elevated temperature. Sintering : Sintering fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites is a process, in which a powder of a matrix metal is mixed with a powder of dispersed phase in form of particles or short fibers for subsequent compacting and sintering in solid state (sometimes with some presence of liquid). Sintering is the method involving consolidation of powder grains by heating the green compact part to a high temperature below the melting point, when the material of the separate particles diffuse to the neighboring powder particles. In contrast to the liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites, sintering method allows obtaining materials containing up to 50% of dispersed phase.

Cladding Cladding is the bonding together of dissimilar metals. It is distinct from welding or gluing as a method to fasten the metals together. Cladding is often achieved by extruding two metals through a die as well as pressing or rolling sheets together under high pressure. Laser cladding is a method of depositing material by which a powdered or wire feedstock material is melted and consolidated by use of a laser in order to coat part of a substrate or fabricate a near-net shape part. It is often used to improve mechanical properties or increase corrosion resistance, repair worn out parts, and fabricate metal matrix composites. The powder used in laser cladding is normally of a metallic nature, and is injected into the system by either coaxial or lateral nozzles. The interaction of the metallic powder 7

stream and the laser causes melting to occur, and is known as the melt pool. This is deposited onto a substrate; moving the substrate allows the melt pool to solidify and thus produces a track of solid metal. This is the most common technique, however some processes involve moving the laser/nozzle assembly over a stationary substrate to produce solidified tracks. The motion of the substrate is guided by a CAD system which interpolates solid objects into a set of tracks, thus producing the desired part at the end of the trajectory. A great deal of research is now being concentrated on developing automatic laser cladding machines. Many of the process parameters must be manually set, such as laser power, laser focal point, substrate velocity, powder injection rate, etc., and thus require the attention of a specialized technician to ensure proper results. However, many groups are focusing their attention on developing sensors to measure the process online. Such sensors monitor the clad's geometry (height and width of deposited track), metallurgical properties (such as the rate of solidification, and hence the final microstructure), and temperature information of both the immediate melt pool and its surrounding areas. With such sensors, control strategies are being designed such that constant observation from a technician is no longer required to produce a final product. Further research has been directed to forward processing where system parameters are developed around specific metallurgical properties for user defined applications (such as microstructure, internal stresses, delusion zone gradients, and clad contact angle).
Rule of Mixtures 'Rules of Mixtures' are mathematical expressions which give some property of the composite in terms of the properties, quantity and arrangement of its constituents. They may be based on a number of simplifying assumptions, and their use in design should tempered with extreme caution. For a general composite, total volume V, containing masses of constituents Ma, Mb, Mc,... the composite density is a + M b + M c + ... M M a M b In In terms of the densities and volumes of the constituents

= = + + ... V V V v v v = a a + b b + c c . But va / V = Va is the volume fraction of the constituent a, hence: + ... V V V

For =Va a +Vb b +Vc c .+... the special case of a fibre-reinforced matrix

=V f f +Vm m =V f f +(1 V f ) m =V f ( f m ) +since Vf + Vm = 1. m

We make the following assumptions in developing a rule of mixtures:

1)

Fibres are uniform, parallel and continuous. 2) Perfect bonding between fibre and matrix. 3) Longitudinal load produces equal strain in fibre and matrix.

A load applied in the fibre direction is shared between fibre and matrix: F1 = Ff + Fm. The stresses depend on the cross-sectional areas of fibre and matrix: s1A = sfAf + smAm. where A (= Af + Am) is the total crosssectional area of the ply. Applying Hookes law: E1e1 A = Efef Af + Emem Am, where Poisson contraction has been ignored. But the strain in fibre, matrix and composite are the same, so e1 = ef = em, and E1 A = Ef Af + Em Am. Dividing through by area A, E1 = Ef (Af / A) + Em (Am / A). But for the unidirectional ply, (Af / A) and (Am / A) are the same as volume fractions Vf and Vm = 1-Vf. Hence E1 = Ef Vf + Em (1-Vf). For the transverse stiffness, a load is applied at right angles to the fibres. The model is very much simplified, and the fibres are lumped together. It is assumed that the stress is the same in each component (s2 = sf = sm). Poisson contraction effects are ignored. The total extension is d2 = df + dm, so the strain is given by: e2L2 = efLf + emLm, so that e2 = ef (Lf / L2) + em (Lm / L2) . But Lf / L2 = Vf and Lm / L2 = Vm = 1-Vf . So e2 = ef Vf + em (1-Vf) and s2 / E2 = sf Vf / Ef + sm (1-Vf) / Em. But s2 = sf = sm, so that or V (1 V ) E E

1 f = + E2 Ef

Em

E2 =

EmV f + E f (1 V f ) 8

Autoclave Moulding Autoclave molding is similar to vacuum bag process except that the lay-up is subjected to greater pressures and compact parts are produced. Primary disadvantage is high initial and recurring operating cost. The advantage is to produce parts with complex configuration and very large sizes. Curing is achieved through a combination of pressure, temperature and heat under inert conditions in an enclosed vessel. Processing materials must be added to a composite ply lay-up before autocl curing. These materials control the resin content of the cured part and ensure proper application of autoclave pressure to the lay-up. The materials usually used in preparing a lay-up for autoclave curing are peel ply, separator, bleeder, barrier, breather, dam and vacuum bag. The peel ply is placed immediately on top of or under the composite laminate. A separator (release material) is placed on top of or under the laminate and peel ply. It allows volatile and air to escape from the laminate and excess resin to be bled from the laminate into the bleeder plies during cure. The purpose of the bleeder is to absorb excess resin from the lay-up during cure, thereby producing the desired fibre volume. The barrier is commonly placed between the bleeder plies, and breather plies. breather is a material placed on top of the barrier film to allow uniform application of vacuum pressure over the lay-up and removal of entrapped air or volatile during cure. The vacuum bag is used to contain any vacuum pressure applied to the lay-up before and during cure and to transmit external autoclave pressure to the part. Major components of autoclave are - a vessel to contain pressure; sources to heat the gas stream and circulate it uniformly within the vessel; a sub-system to pressurize the gas stream; a subsystem to apply vacuum to parts covered by a vacuum bag; a sub-system to control operating parameters; and a sub-system to load the models into the autoclaves. The materials, which can be processed in the autoclave, are metal bonding adhesives, reinforced epoxy laminates, thermoplastic laminates, ceramics, carbon matrix materials; and many other applications. An autoclave system allows a complex chemical reaction to occur inside a pressure vessel according to a specified schedule in order to process a variety of materials. The pressure and temperature requirements are governed by the type of material to be cured.