Konkan Gyanpeeth College Of Engineering

Presentation on Stealth Technology

Submitted by Akshat Hans Vikas Jaisinghani

Guided by Mr. P.V. Mhadse

H.O.D prof. K.S. Chattalwar

Stealth Technology

Stealth technology also termed LO technology (low observable technology) is a sub-discipline of military tactics and passive electronic countermeasures, which cover a range of techniques used with personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, and missiles, to make them less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infrared, sonar and other detection methods.

Development in the United States occurred in 1958,[3][4] where earlier attempts in preventing radar tracking of its U-2 spy planes during the Cold War by the Soviet Union had been unsuccessful.[5] Designers turned to develop a particular shape for planes that tended to reduce detection, by redirecting electromagnetic waves from radars.[6] Radar-absorbent material was also tested and made to reduce or block radar signals that reflect off from the surface of planes. Such changes to shape and surface composition form stealth technology as currently used on the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit "Stealth Bomber".[4] The concept of stealth is to operate or hide without giving enemy forces any indications as to the presence of friendly forces. This concept was first explored through camouflage by blending into the background visual clutter. As the potency of detection and interception

technologies (radar, IRST, surface-to-air missiles etc.) have increased over time, so too has the extent to which the design and operation of military personnel and vehicles have been affected in response. Some military uniforms are treated with chemicals to reduce their infrared signature. A modern "stealth" vehicle will generally have been designed from the outset to have reduced or controlled signature. Varying degrees of stealth can be achieved. The exact level and nature of stealth embodied in a particular design is determined by the prediction of likely threat capabilities.

Stealth technology (or LO for "low observability") is not a single technology. It is a combination of technologies that attempt to greatly reduce the distances at which a person or vehicle can be detected; in particular radar cross section reductions, but also acoustic, thermal, and other aspects.

History
In England, irregular units of gamekeepers in the 17th century were the first to adopt drab colours (common in the 16th century Irish units) as a form of camouflage, following examples from the continent. Yehudi lights were successfully employed in World War II by RAF Shorts Sunderland aircraft in attacks on U-boats. In 1945 a Grumman Avenger with Yehudi lights got within 3,000 yards (2,700 m) of a ship before being sighted. This ability was rendered obsolete by the radar of the time. One of the earliest stealth aircraft seems to have been the Horten Ho 229 flying wing. It included carbon powder in the glue to absorb radio waves.[7] Some prototypes were built, but it was never used in action. In 1958, the CIA requested funding for a reconnaissance aircraft, to replace U-2 spy planes[8] in which Lockheed secured contractual rights to produce the aircraft.[3] "Kelly" Johnson and his team at Lockheed's Skunk Works were assigned to produce the A-12 or OXCART the first of the former top secret classified Blackbird series which operated at high altitude of 70,000 to 80,000 ft and speed of Mach 3.2 to avoid radar detection. Radar absorbent material had already been

introduced on U-2 spy planes, and various plane shapes had been developed in earlier prototypes named A1 to A11 to reduce its detection from radar.[4] Later in 1964, using prior models, an optimal plane shape taking into account compactness was developed where another "Blackbird", the SR-71, was produced, surpassing prior models in both altitude of 90,000 ft and speed of Mach 3.3.[4] During 1970s, the U.S. Department of Defence then launched a project called Have Blue the project to develop a stealth fighter. Bidding between both Lockheed and Northrop for the tender was fierce to secure the multi-billion dollar contract. Lockheed incorporated in its program paper written by a Soviet/Russian physicist Pyotr Ufimtsev in 1962 titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction, Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1962. In 1971 this book was translated into English with the same title by U.S. Air Force, Foreign Technology Division (National Air Intelligence Center ), Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, 1971. Technical Report AD 733203, Defense Technical Information Center of USA, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA, 22304-6145, USA. This theory played a critical role in the design of American stealth-aircraft F-117 and B-2.[9][10][11] The paper was able to find whether a plane's shape design would minimise its detection by radar or its radar cross-section (RCS) using a series of equations[12] could be used to evaluate the radar cross section of any shape. Lockheed used it to design a shape they called the Hopeless Diamond, securing contractual rights to mass produce the F-117 Nighthawk. The F-117 project began with a model called "The Hopeless Diamond" (a wordplay on the Hope Diamond) in 1975 due to its bizarre appearance. In 1977 Lockheed produced two 60% scale models under the Have Blue contract. The Have Blue program was a stealth technology demonstrator that lasted from 1976 to 1979. The success of Have Blue lead the Air Force to create the Senior Trend[13][14] program which developed the F-117.

Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions

Almost since the invention of radar, various methods have been tried to minimize detection. Rapid development of radar during WWII led to equally rapid development of numerous counter radar measures during the period; a notable example of this was the use of chaff.

The term "stealth" in reference to reduced radar signature aircraft became popular during the late eighties when the Lockheed Martin F-117 stealth fighter became widely known. The first large scale (and public) use of the F-117 was during the

Gulf War in 1991. However, F-117A stealth fighters were used for the first time in combat during Operation Just Cause, the United States invasion of Panama in 1989. Increased awareness of stealth vehicles and the technologies behind them is prompting the development of means to detect stealth vehicles, such as passive radar arrays and low-frequency radars. Many countries nevertheless continue to develop low-RCS vehicles because they offer advantages in detection range reduction and amplify the effectiveness of on-board systems against active radar guidance threats

Non-metallic airframe
Dielectric composites are more transparent to radar, whereas electrically conductive materials such as metals and carbon fibers reflect electromagnetic energy incident on the material's surface. Composites may also contain ferrites to optimize the dielectric and magnetic properties of a material for its application.

Radar-absorbing material

Radar-absorbent material (RAM), often as paints, are used especially on the edges of metal surfaces. While the material and thickness of RAM coatings is classified, the material seeks to absorb radiated energy from a ground or air based radar station into the coating and convert it to heat rather than reflect it back.

Radar stealth countermeasures and limits

Low-frequency radar
Shaping offers far fewer stealth advantages against low-frequency radar. If the radar wavelength is roughly twice the size of the target, a half-wave resonance effect can still generate a significant return. However, low-frequency radar is limited by lack of available frequencies-many are heavily used by other systems, by lack of accuracy of the diffraction-limited systems given their long wavelengths, and by the radar's size, making it difficult to transport. A long-wave radar may detect a target and roughly locate it, but not provide enough information to identify it, target it with weapons, or even to guide a fighter to it. Noise poses another problem, but that can be efficiently addressed using modern computer technology; Chinese "Nantsin" radar and many older Soviet-made long-range radars were modified this way. It has been said that "there's nothing invisible in the radar frequency range below 2 GHz".

Multiple emitters Much of the stealth comes from reflecting radar emissions in directions different than a direct return. Thus, detection can be better achieved if emitters are separate from receivers. One emitter separate from one receiver is termed bistatic radar; one or more emitters separate from more than one receiver is multitatic. Proposals exist to use reflections from emitters such as civilian radio transmitters, including cellular telephone radio towers

Moore's law By Moore's law the processing power behind radar systems is rising over time. This will erode the ability of physical stealth to hide vehicles. However, that same level of improvement will boost the electronic warfare equipment of stealth vehicles, which will always have a quieter return signal to mask than a non-stealth craft would return.

Northrop Advanced Technology Bomber.

The ATB, or Stealth Bomber, is to become the airborne element of the US nuclear strike triad, it will replace the B-1B in the penetration role and carry out long range nuclear strike missions. Northrop is leading the project, presumably for their great experience with both ECM and large flying wing aircraft, Boeing and Vought are co-operating. Total contracts for development are worth $7300 million. The ATB is a heavily classified project, in fact so classified, that nobody really knows anything specific, at this stage. It is assumed the aircraft will be a delta platform flying wing, as this configuration offers both a low radar cross-section and a good lift to drag ratio, allowing for efficient high speed cruise. Initial estimates of the powerplants to be used suggested four high bypass ratio turbofans, chosen for fuel economy and low IR signature. Current estimates favour two variable cycle engines (a variable cycle engine allows for continuous changes of bypass ratio to meet either thrust or fuel consumption require ments, behaving much like a high bypass turbofan at one extreme or a turbojet at the other), the suggested size has also decreased. No specific estimates of crew size seem to be available, though one could assume two to four men. Engine inlets and exhausts would presumably lie on the upper surface of the aircraft, employing inlet S-bends, exhaust baffles and most likely, fairly long inlet and exhaust ducts. Airframe and skin structures would be carbonfibre composite. Weapons would be carried in an internal weapons bay, most likely free fall nuclear bombs, as the small size would preclude the carriage of stand-off missiles or cruise missiles.

One could assume a mission profile of the following sort - takeoff with full internal fuel from the continental US or other safe airbases, followed by a very steep climb, on full thrust, to a cruising altitude, likely above 40,000 feet. Once at cruise altitude, the engines would switch to a high bypass mode and the aircraft would begin a high subsonic, or low supersonic cruise to the target area. Longer missions may require in-flight refuelling. Navigation would employ inertial and satellite systems, though some form of TERCOM update could be used, over safe zones. Hostile airspace would be penetrated at medium to high altitudes, exploiting cloud cover wherever possible to confuse IR surveillance systems. An ATB would carry a comprehensive passive ECM system, which could classify and locate all hostile sources of radiation. This data would be passed on to a graphic image generating computer, which would synthesise a picture of the landscape, with lethal zones (volumes of space around SAM/radar/AEW systems) clearly displayed. The pilot would then steer the aircraft between these zones, avoiding detection and/or tracking, simply by following his TV screen or HUD. Targets would be attacked with free fall weapons, though these may be equipped with inertial or TV (smart image recognising systems) terminal guidance, which would also allow stand-off ranges of several miles, useful for nuclear strike.

Active, most likely deceptive ECM would be employed for penetrating heavily defended zones, this would be employed if hostile radar were to lock on, at close range, during the terminal strike manoeuvre.

The ATB is to enter service in 1992, which leaves us a whole decade for speculation and the US DoD a whole decade to revise their designs. It is very likely the aircraft and mission profile will substantially alter, as the USSR refines its air defence structure, only time will tell.

Electromagnetic Emissions

Modern combat aircraft emit electromagnetic waves over a very wide spectrum. The greatest source is the radar, whether operating in air-air or air-ground modes, emitting pulses of power up to the order of hundreds of kilowatts. Given that an

opponent has a warning receiver equally as sensitive as the radar's own receiver, he will detect the radar at least a4 twice the distance necessary for the radar to pick up a return. This means that a radar equipped aircraft does an excellent job advertising both its position and identity, as a spectral analyser of one or another sort, coupled with a computer memory file, will identify the radar quite readily. The obvious solution to this problem is flying with one's radar set shut down, which, of course, creates another set of problems, related to the detection of the enemy. Another source of emissions is the use of radar/radio altimeters and Doppler navigation systems, all of which rely on the transmission of beams from the aircraft to the Earth's surface, in order to make measurements. The solution would appear to be the use of inertial navigation and perhaps lasers or millimetric wave systems for height measurement, as these allow much narrower beams. Radio transmissions, whether voice or digital datalink, will also alert an opponent; depending on the type of transmission, they may also allow the identification of the aircraft. Electronic countermeasures, particularly jammers, will likewise indicate an aircraft's location. Though they may succeed in confusing the radar system to be jammed, other systems, passively listening, may exploit them to locate the incoming aircraft. The issue of whether to use or not to use ECM is very complex. Given that the ECM serves to conceal the aircraft and will not reveal its position to listening posts, then its use is appropriate. As it turns out, the vast majority of current ECM serve rather to confuse or deceive hostile radar, assuming detection is inevitable. Aside from all of these, functional, sources of energy, an aircraft is also likely to radiate lesser quantities of interference, caused by switching transients of various sorts in the aircraft's electrical system. This is less of a problem in all-metal aircraft, as the structure will provide some screening, but may become a problem with composite structures, which behave much like lossy dielectrics, rather than conductors.

As one can observe, success in suppressing the whole spectrum of emissions hinges on the use of passive sensors, line-of-sight (laser) communications,

inertial or satellite navigation and the ability to identify and eliminate any forms of interference generated by onboard systems.

Lockheed Covert Survivable In-weather Reconnaissance/Strike

The Lockheed CSIRS is another advanced project employing stealthy technology. Scheduled for service entry in the late eighties, this aircraft is likely to perform a primary role of short to medium range tactical reconnaissance, reflecting the hopeless case conventional fighters, fitted for recce, must contend with in penetrating hostile air-defence zones at low level. A secondary strike role would tend to back up this approach, to minimise losses over heavily defended high value targets. Lockheed are responsible for the project, probably a natural choice for their specific experience with high performance penetration aircraft, as the SR-71 Blackbird. No official releases on details of the project are available, though some journals have reported details, Lockheed are tight lipped(". . . we can neither confirm nor deny these reports. . . "). Reports indicate the aircraft is the F-25, powered by a 29,000 pound F-101 DFE afterburning turbofan. At this point, we can allow ourselves more speculation, as other reports indicate a platform much like the shuttle or some of Lockheed's stealthy drones. With this amount of information we could picture the following - a rather compact, single seat aircraft the size of the F-16E (see illustration), with composite skins and some structural elements, the remainder titanium or aluminium. The aircraft would have to be very agile, with high acceleration, to minimise exposure time over a target. The signature constraints would force fixed inlet geometry, limiting top speed to Mach 1.8. The engine would be buried inside the fuselage, afterburner nozzle inclusive, bleed or bypass air would create a boundary layer between the exhaust plume and duct wall. These would be possibly clad with doped carbon-carbon tiles (space shuttle),

to absorb incoming energy, leaving only a narrow cone, aft of the aircraft, where one could directly illuminate the turbine. Due to its shape (it would have a small, if any, tail) the aircraft would be statically unstable in yaw and most likely in pitch also. Pitch/roll control would be provided by trailing edge elevons, yaw control by split wingtip speedbrakes (Kevlar/carbon composite). The aircraft would employ a full authority, redundant digital fly-by-wire system, possibly derived from an off-theshelf system as the AN/ASW-44. Weapons would be carried in an internal bay, as conformal carriage would be inadequate. A possible configuration could be very much like the rotating bomb bay of the Buccaneer, but employing interchangeable weapon/sensor/fuel pallets on the stores half of the bay. A conformal bomb/ missile pallet has lower drag and signature than an open bay, when exposed. Rotated into a concealed position, it would not differ from a closed bay. The choice of weapons or sensors would depend on missions, one could assume a payload in excess of 1000 lb, for a 500 nm combat radius. Hi-Lo-Hi, all fuel being internal. It is unlikely a gun would be carried, but the AMRAAM could possibly be targeted by passive systems, or used in a captive search mode, carried in a pallet or bay.

Acoustics

Acoustic stealth plays a primary role in submarine stealth as well as for ground vehicles. Submarines use extensive rubber mountings to isolate and avoid mechanical noises that could reveal locations to underwater passive sonar arrays. Early stealth observation aircraft used slow-turning propellers to avoid being heard by enemy troops below. Stealth aircraft that stay subsonic can avoid being tracked by sonic boom. The presence of supersonic and jet-powered stealth aircraft such as the SR-71 Blackbird indicates that acoustic signature is not always a major driver in aircraft design, although the Blackbird relied more on its extremely high speed and altitude.

Visibility

The simplest stealth technology is simply camouflage; the use of paint or other materials to color and break up the lines of the vehicle or person. Most stealth aircraft use matte paint and dark colors, and operate only at night. Lately, interest in daylight Stealth (especially by the USAF) has emphasized the use of gray paint in disruptive schemes, and it is assumed that Yehudi lights could be used in the future to mask shadows in the airframe (in daylight, against the clear background of the sky, dark tones are easier to detect than light ones) or as a sort of active camouflage. The original B-2 design had wing tanks for a contrailinhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be chlorofluorosulfonic acid,[23] but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor from Ophir that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude[24] and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of their formation is minimized.

Infrared
An exhaust plume contributes a significant infrared signature. One means to reduce IR signature is to have a non-circular tail pipe (a slit shape) to minimize the exhaust cross-sectional volume and maximize the mixing of hot exhaust with cool ambient air. Often, cool air is deliberately injected into the exhaust flow to boost this process. Sometimes, the jet exhaust is vented above the wing surface to shield it from observers below, as in the B-2 Spirit, and the unstealthy A-10 Thunderbolt II. To achieve infrared stealth, the exhaust gas is cooled to the temperatures where the brightest wavelengths it radiates are absorbed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and water vapor, dramatically reducing the infrared visibility of the exhaust plume. Another way to reduce the exhaust temperature is to circulate coolant fluids such as fuel inside the exhaust pipe, where the fuel tanks serve as heat sinks cooled by the flow of air along the wings.[citation needed] Ground combat includes the use of both active and passive infrared sensors and so the USMC ground combat uniform requirements document specifies infrared reflective quality standards.

Reducing radio frequency (RF) emissions

In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a stealth vehicle must avoid radiating any other detectable energy, such as from onboard radars, communications systems, or RF leakage from electronics enclosures. The F-117 uses passive infrared and low light level television sensor systems to aim its weapons and the F-22 Raptor has an advanced LPI radar which can illuminate enemy aircraft without triggering a radar warning receiver response.

Stealthy strike aircraft such as the F-117, designed by Lockheed Martin's famous Skunk Works, are usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as Command and Control centers or surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries. Enemy radar will cover the airspace around these sites with overlapping coverage, making undetected entry by conventional aircraft nearly impossible. Stealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at short ranges around the radars, so that for a stealthy aircraft there are substantial gaps in the radar coverage. Thus a stealthy aircraft flying an appropriate route can remain undetected by radar. Many ground-based radars exploit Doppler filter to improve sensitivity to objects having a radial velocity component with respect to the radar. Mission planners use their knowledge of enemy radar locations and the RCS pattern of the aircraft to design a flight path that minimizes radial speed while presenting the lowest-RCS aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. To be able to fly these "safe" routes, it is necessary to understand an enemy's radar coverage . Airborne or mobile radar systems such as AWACS can complicate tactical strategy for stealth operation

Measuring

The size of a target's image on radar is measured by the radar cross section or RCS, often represented by the symbol and expressed in square meters. This does not

equal geometric area. A perfectly conducting sphere of projected cross sectional area 1 m2 (i.e. a diameter of 1.13 m) will have an RCS of 1 m2. Note that for radar wavelengths much less than the diameter of the sphere, RCS is independent of frequency. Conversely, a square flat plate of area 1 m2 will have an RCS of = 4 A2 / 2 (where A=area, =wavelength), or 13,982 m2 at 10 GHz if the radar is perpendicular to the flat surface. At off-normal incident angles, energy is reflected away from the receiver, reducing the RCS. Modern stealth aircraft are said to have an RCS comparable with small birds or large insects, though this varies widely depending on aircraft and radar. If the RCS was directly related to the target's cross-sectional area, the only way to reduce it would be to make the physical profile smaller. Rather, by reflecting much of the radiation away or by absorbing it, the target achieves a smaller radar cross section.

Tactics

Stealthy strike aircraft such as the F-117, designed by Lockheed Martin's famous Skunk Works, are usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as Command and Control centers or surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries. Enemy radar will cover the airspace around these sites with overlapping coverage, making undetected entry by conventional aircraft nearly impossible. Stealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at short ranges around the radars, so that for a stealthy aircraft there are substantial gaps in the radar coverage. Thus a stealthy aircraft flying an appropriate route can remain undetected by radar. Many ground-based radars exploit Doppler filter to improve sensitivity to objects having a radial velocity component with respect to the radar. Mission planners use their knowledge of enemy radar locations and the RCS pattern of the aircraft to design a flight path that minimizes radial speed while presenting the lowest-RCS aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. To be able to fly these "safe" routes, it is necessary to understand an enemy's radar coverage (see Electronic Intelligence). Airborne or mobile radar systems such as AWACS can complicate tactical strategy for stealth operation.

Research

Negative index metamaterials are artificial structures which refractive index has a negative value for some frequency range, such as in microwave, infrared, or possibly optical. These offer another way to reduce detectability, and may provide electromagnetic near-invisibility in designed wavelengths. Plasma stealth is a phenomenon proposed to use ionized gas (plasma) to reduce RCS of vehicles. Interactions between electromagnetic radiation and ionized gas have been studied extensively for many purposes, including concealing vehicles from radar. Various methods might form a layer or cloud of plasma around a vehicle to deflect or absorb radar, from simpler electrostatic to RF more complex laser discharges, but these may be difficult in practice. Several technology research and development efforts exist to integrate the functions of aircraft flight control systems such as ailerons, elevators, elevons and flaps, into wings to perform the aerodynamic purpose with the advantages of lower RCS for stealth via simpler geometries and lower complexity (mechanically simpler, fewer or no moving parts or surfaces, less maintenance), and lower mass, cost (up to 50% less), drag (up to 15% less during use) and, inertia (for faster, stronger control response to change vehicle orientation to reduce detection). The two main approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics. In flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort. The Adaptive Compliant Wing is a commercial effort. In fluidics, fluid injection is being researched for use in aircraft to control direction, in two ways: circulation control and thrust vectoring. In both, larger more complex mechanical parts are replaced by smaller, simpler fluidic systems, in which larger forces in fluids are diverted by smaller jets or flows of fluid intermittently, to change the direction of vehicles. In circulation control, near the trailing edges of wings, aircraft flight control systems are replaced by slots which emit fluid flows.

In thrust vectoring, in jet engine nozzles, swiveling parts are replaced by slots which inject fluid flows into jets to divert thrust. Tests show that air forced into a jet engine exhaust stream can deflect thrust up to 15 degrees. The U.S. FAA has conducted a study about civilizing 3D military thrust vectoring to recover jetliners from catastrophes. According to this study 65% of all air crashes can be prevented by deploying thrust vectoring means <Multiaxis Thrust Vectoring Flight Control Vs Catastrophic Failure Prevention, Reports to U.S. Dept. of Transportation/FAA, Technical Center, ACD-210, FAA X88/0/6FA/921000/4104/T1706D, FAA Res. Benjamin Gal-Or, Grant-Award No: 94-G-24, CFDA, No. 20.108, Dec. 26, 1994; "Vectored Propulsion, Supermanoeuvreability, and Robot Aircraft", by Benjamin Gal-Or, Springer Verlag, 1990.

References
1. ^ Rao, G.A., & Mahulikar, S.P., (2002) Integrated review of stealth technology and its role in airpower, Aeronautical Journal, v. 106(1066): 629-641. 2. ^ Mahulikar, S.P., Sonawane, H.R., & Rao, G.A., (2007) Infrared signature studies of aerospace vehicles, Progress in Aerospace Sciences, v. 43(7-8): 218-245. 3. ^ a b Richelson, J.T. (10 September 2001). "Science, Technology and the CIA". The National Security Archive. The George Washington University. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/. Retrieved 6 October 2009. 4. ^ a b c d Merlin, P.W. "Design and Development of the Blackbird: Challenges and Lessons Learned" American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition 58 January 2009, Orlando, Florida. Accessed 2009-10-06. 5. ^ Cadirci, S. "RF Stealth (or Low Observable) and Counter- RF Stealth Technologies: Implications of Counter- RF Stealth Solutions for Turkish Air Force." Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey California, Ph.D. Thesis. March 2009. Accessed 6 October 2009. 6. ^ Yue, T. (30 November 2001). "Detection of the B-2 Stealth Bomber and a Brief History on "Stealth"". The Tech - Online Edition. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. http://tech.mit.edu/V121/N63/Stealth.63f.html. Retrieved 5 October 2009. 7. ^ Myhra 2009, p. 11. 8. ^ Poteat, Gene (1998). "Stealth, Countermeasures, and ELINT, 1960-1975". Studies in Intelligence 48 (1): 5159. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/st08.pdf. 9. ^ Browne, M.W. "Two rival designers led the way to stealthy warplanes", New York Times, Sci. Times Sec., May 14, 1991. 10.^ Browne, M.W. "Lockheed credits Soviet theory in design of F-117", Aviation Week Space Technology p. 27, December 1991. 11.^ Rich, Ben and L. Janos, Skunk Works, Little Brown, Boston, 1994. 12.^ Knott, E.F; Shaeffer, J.F. & Tuley, M.T. (2004). Radar cross section - Second Edition. Raleigh, North Carolina: SciTech Publishing. pp. 209214. ISBN 1891121-25-1.

Bibliography

Doucet, Arnaud; Freitas, Nando de; Gordon, Neil (2001) [2001]. Sequential Monte Carlo Methods in Practice. Statistics for Engineering and Information Science (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-95146-1. http://www.springer.com/statistics/book/978-0-387-95146-1. Retrieved 2009-03-11. Ufimtsev, Pyotr Ya., "Method of edge waves in the physical theory of diffraction," Moscow, Russia: Izd-vo. Sov. Radio [Soviet Radio Publishing], 1962, pages 1243. Countering stealth How "stealth" is achieved on F-117A