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HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION

-By G.Vijay and Shaik.Zillani Abstract:
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of HVDC power transmission and its applications. On economical constraints this technology is highly useful. Simulations like PSCAD, ETMP help in the analysis of power system projects. The HVDC is practically applied in very long bulk power transmission lines further more an emphasis over current trends and interests in HVDC is also viewed briefly.
INTRODUCTION:

WHY USE DC TRANSMISSION?

The question is often asked, Why use d.c. transmis sion? One response is that losses are lower, but this is not correct. The level of losses is designed into a transmission system and is regulated by the size of conductor selected. D.c. and a.c. conductors, either as overhead transmission lines or submarine cables can have lower losses but at higher expense since the larger cross-sectional area will generally result in lower losses but cost more.
CHOICE OF ECONOMY:

Electric power transmission was originally develop ed with direct current. The availability of transform ers and the development and improvement of induc tion motors at the beginning of the 20th Century, led to greater appeal and use of a.c. transmission. Throu gh research and development in Sweden at Allmana Svenska Electriska Aktiebolaget (ASEA), an impro ved multi-electrode grid controlled mercury arc val ve for high powers and voltages was developed fro m 1929. Experimental plants were set up in the 193 0s in Sweden and the USA to investigate the use of mercury arc valves in conversion processes for trans mission and frequency changing. D.c. transmission now became practical when long distances were to be covered or where cables were required. The increase in need for electricity after the Second World War stimulated research, particu larly in Sweden and in Russia. In 1950, a 116 km experimental transmission line was commissioned from Moscow to Kasira at 200 kV. The first comer cial HVDC line built in 1954 was a 98 km submari ne cable with ground return between the island of Gotland and the Swedish mainland.

When converters are used for d.c. transmission in preference to a.c. transmission, it is generally by economic choice driven by one of the follow ing reasons: 1. An overhead d.c. transmission line with its tow ers can be designed to be less costly per unit of length than an equivalent a.c. line designed to transmit the same level of electric power. How ever the d.c. converter stations at each end are more costly than the terminating stations of an a.c. line and so there is a breakeven distance ab ove which the total cost of d.c. transmission is less than its a.c. transmission alternative. The d.c. transmission line can have a lower visual profile than an equivalent a.c. line and so contri butes to a lower environmental impact. There are other environmental advantages to a d.c. tra nsmission line through the electric and magnetic fields being d.c. instead of ac. 2. If transmission is by submarine or underground cable, the breakeven distance is much less than overhead transmission. It is not practical to cons ider a.c. cable systems exceeding 50 km but d.c. cable transmission systems are in service whose length is in the hundreds of kilometers and even distances of 600 km or greater have been considered feasible. 3. Some a.c. electric power systems are not synch ronized to neighboring networks even though

their physical distances between them is quite small. This occurs in Japan where half the coun try is a 60 hz network and the other is a 50 hz system. It is physically impossible to connect the two together by direct a.c. methods in order to exchange electric power between them. How ever, if a d.c. converter station is located in each system with a interconnecting d.c. link between them, its possible to transfer the required power flow even though the a.c. systems so connected remain asynchronous.
BASIC LAYOUT:

CONFIGURATIONS:

The integral part of an HVDC power converter is the valve or valve arm. It may be non-controllable if constructed from one or more power diodes in series or controllable if constructed from one or more thyristors in series. Figure 1 depicts the Inte rnational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) gra phical symbols for valves and bridges . The sta ndard bridge or converter connection is defined as a double-way connection comprising six valves or valve arms which are connected as illustrated in th e figure. Electric power flowing between the HVD C valve group and the a.c. system is three phase. When electric power flows into the d.c. valve gro up from the a.c. system then it is considered a recti fier. If power flows from the d.c. valve group into the a.c. system, it is an inverter. Each valve consist s of many series connected thyristors in thyristor modules. Figure 2 represents the electric circuit ne twork depiction for the six pulse valve group conf iguration. The six pulse valve group was usual wh e n the valves were mercury arc. The possible configurations are listed below 1.MONOPOLAR 2.BIPOLAR

Dc reactors are usually included in each pole of a converter station. They assist the dc filters in filter ing harmonic currents and smooth the dc side curr ent so that a discontinuous current mode is not rea ched at low load current operation. Because rate of change of dc side current is limited by the dc react or, the commutation process of the dc converter is made more robust. Surge arresters across each valve in the converter bridge, across each converter bridge and in the dc and ac switchyard are coordinated to protect the equipment from all overvoltages regard less of their source. They may be used in non-stand ard applications such as filter protection. Modern HVDC substations use metal-oxide arresters and their rating and selection is made with careful insula tion coordination design.

MONOPOLE CONFIGURATION:

The monopole configuration uses an earth return, as shown in Figure The earth return is facilitated by an electrode at either end, similar to what is shown in Figure Earth returns cannot be used where earth re sistivity is high, in heavily congested areas, or in fre sh water crossings. A third neutral wire must be use d in such cases for monopole operation, resulting in the monopole with metallic return
BIPOLAR

Figure 14 illustrates the de-rated configuration using an earth return. Bipole configurations may als o be run in the monopole mode with a metallic retu rn if appropriate switching is provided, as shown in Fig. 15 6, where we observe that the second pole is used as the metallic return.

The bipole configuration is the most common conf iguration for new HVDC installations today.

A bipole configuration is illustrated in Figure above Here, one terminal will operate at positive voltage and the other at negative voltage. This is the reason why HVDC voltages are typically referred to as . The advantage of a bipole configuration is that it can continue operating despite the loss of one pole, as indicated in Figure

CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS: The HVDC power converter may be noncontrollable if constructed from one or more power diodes in series or controllable if constructed from one or more thyristors in series. The standard bridge or converter connection is defined as a double-way connection comprising six valves or valve arms (six pulse) that are connected as illustrated below. When electric power flows into the dc valve group from the ac system then it is considered a rectifier. If power flows from the dc valvegroup into the ac system, it is an inverter. Each valve consists of many series connected thyristors in thyristor modules.

SIX-PULSE CONFIGURATION

significant saving in harmonic filters. Since the voltage rating of thyristors is several kV, a 500 kV system may have hundreds of individual thyristors connected in series. COMMUTATION Rectification or inversion for HVDC converters is accomplished through a process known as line or natural commutation. The valves act as switches so that the ac voltage is sequentially switched to always provide a dc voltage. With line commutation, the ac voltage at both the rectifier and inverter must be provided by the ac networks at each end and should be three phase and relatively free of harmonics. As each valve switches on, it will begin to conduct current while the current begins to fall to zero in the next valve to turn off. Commutation is the process of transfer of current between any two converter valves with both valves carrying current simultaneously during this process. Consider the rectification process. Each valve will switch on when it receives a firing pulse to its gate and its forward bias voltage becomes more positive than the forward bias voltage of the conducting valve. The current flow through a conducting valve does not change instantaneously as it commutates to another valve because the transfer is through transformer windings.

Electric circuit configuration of the basic six pulse valve group with its converter transformer in star-star connection.

TWELVE PULSE CONFIGURATION

Nearly all HVDC power converters with thyristor valves are assembled in a converter bridge of twelve pulse configuration. The most common twelve pulse configuration is the use of two three phase converter transformers with one dc side winding as an ungrounded star connection and the other a delta configuration. Consequently the ac voltages applied to each six pulse valve group which make up the twelve pulse valve group have a phase difference of 30 degrees which is utilized to cancel the ac side 5th and 7th harmonic currents and dc side 6th harmonic voltage, thus resulting in a

The leakage reactance of the transformer windings is also the commutation reactance so long as the ac filters are located on the primary or ac side of the converter transformer. The commutation reactance at the rectifier and inverter is shown as an equivalent reactance XC in the figure below. The sum of all the valve currents transferred the dc side and through the dc reactor is the direct current and it is relatively flat because of the inductance of the dc reactor.

tapping into facilities to integrate additional loads and sources as they develop over time. On ramps and off ramps for the electrical expressway are essential. Generation and delivery points may emerge at various locations over time as have the extraordinary wind resources in the middle of the country. That area cannot consume all the available capacity whereas great demand exists elsewhere. Transmission must not pose barriers to integrate this generation, to transport it, or to tap it along the route. Accessibility implies flexibility for needs that develop over the long term. Accessibility and flexibility for tapping (at various voltages and capacities) are generally advantages of AC transmission over HVDC. AC transmission lines can be tapped more easily than HVDC to serve loads or pick up resources over moderate distances using intermediate substations. An AC tap into the HVDC system would be difficult and potentially very costly.

At the inverter, the three phase ac voltage supplied by the ac system provides the forward and reverse bias conditions of each valve in the converter bridge to allow commutation of current between valves the same as in the rectifier. The inverter valve can only turn on and conduct when the positive direct voltage from the dc line is greater than the back negative voltage derived from the ac commutation voltage of the ac system at the inverter. Reversal of power flow in a line commutated dc link is not possible by reversing the direction of the direct current. The valves will allow conduction in one direction only. Power flow can only be reversed in line commutated dc converter bridges by changing the polarity of the direct voltage. The dual operation of the converter bridges as either a rectifier or inverter is achieved through firing control of the grid pulses. COMPARISION OF HVDC vs. EHVAC

Reliability: The interstate system must be highly reliable, stable and robust over its long term service life. Critical system components must have low outage rates, minimal maintenance requirements, and long expected life. Loadability: The system must be built with ample capacity to meet todays needs while building a firm foundation for the long term future. Capacity must be sufficient to overcome operating uncertainties and reasonable contingencies without congestion while taking into account transport path characteristics. Congestion bears economic and environmental consequences. When power from optimal sources is constrained, it likely leads to incremental cost and emissions from substitute generation. Efficiency: The system must deliver energy efficiently,

Accessibility: The system must be open and accessible to integrate new generation resources and loads. There are two aspects to accessibility the initial ability to integrate and deliver power, and the longer term flexibility for

with minimal internal electrical loss both along the transport path and in the system overall. It must minimize property and public impact while maximizing utilization of right of way. Its design and construction must use materials and labor wisely. Ongoing operation and maintenance must be practical and economical. Its implementation must achieve all of the above in the most reasonable time frame, to avoid undesirable operational or market constraints. MW CAPACITY VS DISTANCE

LOSSES AT FULL LOAD VS DISTANCE

For energy efficiency, Figure above compares losses, where we observe that losses are always less in the HVDC solution.
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COST(US $ billion) VS DISTANCE(km) Cost is compared in Figure below which shows that 765 kV is least cost for 200 mile long lines, but for greater distances, HVDC is always more costeffective. A transfer capacity of 6000 MW is required over the distances from 200 to 800 miles (322 to 1287 km). AC line lengths are assumed to be 200 miles (322 km) between substations. This is not a limit but is a reasonable distance to use in order to allow for placement of reactive compensation equipment and system interconnection points. Actual line distances in practice will vary according to specific transmission plans. It is assumed that each 500 kV and 765 kV line terminal is equipped with switched shunt reactors for voltage control. Shunt capacitors are assumed for all AC lines. Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) levels of 345 kV, 500 kV and 765 kV AC lines are assumed to be 400, 900, and 2400 MW, respectively. The SIL can vary based upon specific line design, but is generally in this range.

CHINA IN HVDC

It is of interest that the largest used of future HVDC is expected to be China, an expectation supported by Figure above which shows planned HVDC projects in China by 2020. FROM WIKIPEDIA

Figure above shows the growth of HVDC in terms of aggregated MW transfer capability.

CONCLUSION: We come with a conclusion that HVDC is pref ered over EHVAC not because it is efficient but it is commercially cheaper to transmit bulk pow er in a HVDC system.That is the reason why mos t of the countries are concentrating on developin g and adopting this highly beneficial system. So HVDC is economically best when compared.

Wikipedia provides an extensive table of all HVDC projects worldwide which can be visualized using google maps.

FROM 1950S TO PRESENT

REFERENCES 1.M. Bahrman and B. Johnson, The ABCs of HVDC

Transmission Technologies: Ann Overview of High Voltage Direct Current Systems and Applications, IEEE Power and Energy Magazine, March/April 2007 2.ABB slides HVDC_Tutorial_3_-HVDC_v_EHV.pdf.

3.Basic principles of HVDC by Dennis a Woodford

Manitoba HVDC,Canada.

4.Kunder.p power systems management and control Tata-Mc Graw Hill 5.Innovation Technology for HVDC by Uwe Armonies and Dietmar Retzmann 6.HVDC Generation Outlet Transmission System by Micheal Bahrman p.e ABB grid systems,Wyoming infrastructure authority,Nov 9 2010.