Lesson 1

1
June 2008 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 1

1. Advanced Transmission
Line Theory
http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/ads.htm
The information in this work has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable.
The author does not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information
presented herein, and shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions or damages
as a result of the use of this information.
Preface
Transmission lines and waveguides are the most important elements in
microwave or RF circuits and systems.
Transmission lines and waveguides are used to connect various
components together to form a complex circuit. This is similar to low
frequency circuit, where we use wires or copper track to connect the
various components in an electronic circuit.
In addition, you will see later that many types of microwave
components are fabricated from short sections of transmission lines or
waveguides.
For these reasons, a lot of emphasis is placed on understanding the
behavior of electromagnetic fields in transmission lines and
waveguides.
Transmission line
2
References
[1] R. E. Collin, Foundation for microwave engineering, 2nd edition,
1992, McGraw-Hill.
[2] D. M. Pozar, Microwave engineering, 2nd edition, 1998 John-Wiley
& Sons. (3
rd
edition, 2005 is also available from John-Wiley & Sons).
[3] S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery, T.D. Van Duzer, Field and waves in
communication electronics 3rd edition, 1993 John-Wiley & Sons.
[4] C. R. Paul, Introduction to electromagnetic compatibility, John-
Wiley & Sons, 1992.
A very advanced and in-depth book on microwave
engineering. Difficult to read but the information is
very comprehensive. A classic work. Recommended.
Easier to read and understand. Also a good book.
Recommended.
Good coverage of EM theory with emphasis on
applications.
References Cont...
[5] F. Kung, Modeling of high-speed printed circuit board. Master
degree dissertation, 1997, University Malaya.
http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/Master/mthesis.htm
[6] F. Kung unpublished notes and works.
3
1.0 Review of
Electromagnetic (EM) Fields
Electric and Magnetic Fields (1)
In an electronic system, such as on PCB assembly, there are electric
charges (q). To make our electronic system works, we essentially control
electric charges (the charge density and rate of flow on various point in
the circuit).
Flow of electric charges due to potential difference (V) produces electric
current (I).
Associated with charge is electric field (E) and with current is magnetic
field (H) *, collectively called Electromagnetic (EM) fields.
+q
1
Test charge
+ q
2
Test
current I
2
Force F
B I F
r r r
=
2
Force F
r
E q F
r
q q
2
2 1
4
1
2
=
=
r r
Coulombs Law
r
E
*The magnetic field is B = H,
H is the magnetization.
To detect an E field we use
an electric charge. To detect
H field we use a current loop
H
I
4
Electric and Magnetic Fields (2)
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
E fields, by convention is directed from conductor with
higher potential to conductor with less potential.
Direction indicates force experienced by a small test charge
according to Coulombs Force Law.
Density of the field lines corresponds to strength of the field.
Force on a test charge q
q
H fields, by convention is directed according
to the right-hand rule.
Direction indicates force experienced by a small
test current according to Lorentzs Force Law.
Density of field lines corresponds to strength
of the field.
E fields
H fields
( ) B v q F =
r F
r
Qq
o
)
2 4
1
=
+I
-I
Conductor
Conductor
Conductor
Conductor
Maxwell Equations (Linear Medium) - Time-
Domain Form (1)
0 =
=
+ =
=
B
D
D J H
B E
v
t
t
r
r
r r r
r r
Where:
E Electric field intensity
H Auxiliary magnetic field
D Electric flux
B Magnetic field intensity
J Current density
v
Volume charge density
o
permittivity of free space
(8.8541210
-12
)
o
permeability of free space
(410
-7
)
r
relative permittivity
r
relative permeability
Gausss law
Modified Amperes law
Faradays law
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) t z y x
z t z y x J y t z y x J x t z y x J J
z t z y x H y t z y x H x t z y x H H
z t z y x E y t z y x E x t z y x E E
v v
z y x
z y x
z y x
, , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
r
r
r
x
y
z
Unit vector in x-direction
x component
No name, but can
be called Gausss law
for magnetic field
For linear medium
Constitutive
relations
Each parameter depends on 4 independent variables
5
Maxwell Equations (Linear Medium) -
Time-Domain Form (2)
Maxwell Equations as shown are actually a collection of 4 partial
differential equations (PDE) that describe the physical relationship
between electromagnetic (EM) fields, current and electric charge.
The Del operator is a shorthand for three-dimensional (3D)
differentiation:
For instance consider the 1
st
and 3
rd
Maxwell Equations:
( ) z y x
z y x

+ + =
( )
= + + =
+ + =
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
+
|
\
|
= =
z
E
y
E
x
E
z y x
t
y
E
x
E
x
E
z
E
z
E
y
E
z y x
z y x
z
y
x
x
y
z x
y
z
E
z B y B x B
z y x
E E E
z y x
E
~

~
To truly understands this subject, and also
RF/Microwave circuit design, one needs
to have a strong grasp of Electromagnetism (EM).
Read references [1], [3] or any good book on EM.
Curl
Divergence
z y x F
z
F
y
F
x
F
) )
+ + =
Gradient
Extra: Wave Function and Phasor (1)
z
z
t
o
t
o
+t
Time t
z
o
( ) k f z t f
o o
= ) (
( ) ( )
( ) z t k f
z z t t f
o o
+ =
+ +

) (
z
o
+z
z
We see that the shape moves by within
a period of t, thus phase velocity v
p
:
( ) ( )

= =
=
+ + =
t
z
p
o o o o
v
z t
z z t t z t
) ( z t f
A general function describing propagating
wave in +z direction
For a wave function
in z direction:
( ) z t f +
Direction of
travel
These 2 terms
must cancel off
i.e. z positive
When time increases by t,
we see that we must
increase all position by z to
maintain the shape. In
essence the waveform
travels in +z direction.
6
An example:
( ) z ft V t z v
o
= 2 cos ) , (
1 , MHz 0 1 = = . f
z
v(z,t)
f
p
v
2
= =
Phase Velocity:
A sinusoidal wave
2
= wavelength
In many ways the frequency f does not carry much information. If a linear
system is excited by a sinusoidal source with frequency f, we know the
response at every point in the system will be sinusoidal with frequency f.
It is the phase constant which carries more information, it determines the
velocity and wavelength, of the wave.
Thus it is more convenient if we convert the expressions for EM fields into
phasor or Time-Harmonic form, as shown below:
( ) z t m cos
z j
e
m
( ) z ft V t z v
o
= 2 cos ) , (
z j
o
e V z

= ) ( V
Phasor for v(z,t)
( ) { }
z j t j
e e z t

m
m Re cos =
More compact form
Convention: small letter for time-domain
form, capital letter for phasor.
Using Eulers formula

sin cos j e
j
+ =
Eulers formula
1 = j
7
Wave function and phasor notation is not only applicable to quantities
like voltage, current or charge. It is also applied to vector quantities like
E and H fields.
For instance for sinusoidal E field traveling in +z direction:
The phasor is given by:
Finally if we substitute the phasor form for E, H, J and into
time-domain Maxwells Equations, we would obtain the Maxwells
Equations in time-harmonic form.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) { }
t j z j
o z y x
z y x
e e E z t z e y e x e
z z t y x e y z t y x e x z t y x e t z y x E

+
+
= + + =
+ + =
r
r
Re cos
cos , cos , cos , , , ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z e y x e y e y x e x e y x e z y x
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
, , , , ,
+
+ + =
r
t j z j
o
e e E
+
r
Pattern function
(x, y dependent)
Propogating function
E
o
Maxwell Equations (Linear Medium) - Time-
Harmonic Form (1)
For sinusoidal variations with time t, we substitute the phasors for E, H, J
and into Maxwells Equations, the result are Maxwells Equations in
time-harmonic form.
0 B
D
D J H
B E
v
=
=
+ =
=
r
r
r r r
r r
j
j
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) z y x
z z y x y z y x x z y x
, ,
, , J , , J , , J J
, , H , , H , , H H
, , E , , E , , E E
v v
z y x
z y x
z y x
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
r
r
r
Where:
For linear medium
Constitutive
relations
E Electric field intensity
H Auxiliary magnetic field
D Electric flux
B Magnetic field intensity
J Current density
v
- Volume charge density
o
permittivity of free space
(8.8541210
-12
)
o
permeability of free space
(410
-7
)
r
relative permittivity
r
relative permeability
(1.2a)
(1.2b)
(1.2c)
(1.2d)
j
t

Each parameter depends on 3 independent variables

8
Electromagnetic Spectrum
ELF VLF LF
MF
(MW)
HF
(SW)
VHF UHF SHF EHF IR
100
Hz
10
kHz
100
kHz
1
MHz
3
MHz
30
MHz
300
MHz
1
GHz
30
GHz
300
GHz
A
M
M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e
s
F
M
L S C X Ku K Ka mm
1
GHz
2
GHz
4
GHz
8
GHz
12
GHz
18
GHz
27
GHz
40
GHz
300
GHz
A Little Perspective
Voltage/Potential
Current
Inductance
Capacitance
Resistance
Conductance
Kirchoffs Voltage Law
(KVL)
Kirchoffs Current Law
(KCL)
0
~
~
~ ~ ~
~ ~
=
=
+ =
=
B
E
E J B
H E
t
t
t
J
=
~
+
Conservation of charge
Quantum Mechanics
/Physics
Chemistry
Electronics &
Microelectronics
Information
Computer
& Telecommunication
9
2.0 Introduction
Transmission Line
Concepts
Definition of Electrical Interconnect
Interconnect - metallic conductors that is used to transport electrical
energy from one point of a circuit to another.
Example:
Thus cables, wires, conductive tracks on printed circuit board
(PCB), sockets, packaging, metallic tubes etc. are all examples of
interconnect.
Conductor
Interconnect
Transverse
Plane
Axial
Direction
z
y
x
1. Usually contains 2 or more
conductors, to form a closed
circuit.
2. Conductors assumed to be
perfect electric conductors (PEC)
Coaxial cable
Ribbon cable
Waveguide
Socket
PCB Traces
10
Short Interconnect Lumped Circuit
For short interconnect, the moment the switch is closed, a voltage will
appear across R
L
as current flows through it. The effect is instantaneous.
Voltage and current are due to electric charge movement along the
interconnect.
Associated with the electric charges are static electromagnetic (EM) field in
the space surrounding the short interconnect.
The short interconnect system can be modeled by lumped RLC circuit.
z
y
x
EM field is static or quasi-
static.
Electric charge
V
s
+
-
R
L
Static EM field changes
uniformly, i.e. when field at one
point increases, field at the
other locations also increases.
L
R
G
C
Again we need to
stress that typically
the values of RLCG
are very small, at
low frequency their
effect can be simply
ignored.
Long Interconnect (1)
If the interconnection is long, it takes some time for voltage and current
to appear on the resistor R
L
after the switch is closed.
Electric charges move from V
s
to the resistor R
L
. As the charges move,
there is an associated EM field which travels along with the charges.
In effect there is a propagating EM field along the interconnect. The
propagating EM field is called a wave and the interconnect is guiding
the EM wave, this EM field is dynamic.
Since any arbitrary waveform can be decomposed into its sinusoidal
components, let us consider V
s
to be a sinusoidal source.
L
+
-
V
s
R
L
Long interconnect:
When there is an
appreciable delay
between input and
output
Without the metal conductors, the EM
waves will disperse, i.e. radiated out
into space.
11
A simple animation
t=t
o
H field
E field
Positive charge
t=t
o
+ t
t=t
o
+ 2t
t=t
o
+ 3t
I
L
V
L
R
L
+
-
V
s
t=t
o
+ nt
Transverse
Plane
Axial
Direction
z
y
x
The corresponding EM field generated when electric charge flows along
the interconnect is also sinusoidal with respect to time and space. The
EM fields characteristics are dictated by Maxwells Equations.
Electric field (E)
Magnetic field (H)
L
T
t
1/T = frequency
Remember that
current is due to the
flow of free
electrons.
E and H are also
sinusoidal.
Behavior of E and
H are dictated by
Maxwells
Equations:
12
Electric field (E)
Magnetic field (H)
L
Propagating EM fields
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x e y x e
z e y x e y e y x e x e y x e E
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x h y x h
z e y x h y e y x h x e y x h H
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
By analyzing Maxwells
Equations or Wave
Equations (Appendix 1)
Snapshot of EM fields
at a certain instant in time
on the transverse plane
z
y
x
Voltage and Current on Interconnect (1)
Voltage or potential difference is the energy needed to bring 1 Coulomb
of electric charge from a reference point (GND) to another (signal).
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge across a surface.
From Coulombs Law and Amperes Law in Electromagnetism, these two
quantities are related to E and H fields.
We are interested in transverse voltage V
t
and current I
t
as shown.
Loop 1
( )

=
1 Loop
, l d H t z I
t
r r
I
t
(z,t)
V
t
(z,t)
( )

=
b
a
t
l d E t z V
r r
,
a
b
13
Voltage and Current on Interconnect (2)
V
t
= Potential difference between two points on transverse plane and I
t
=
Rate of flow of electric charge across a conductor surface.
V
t
and I
t
depends on instantaneous E and H fields on the interconnect,
and correspond to how we would measure them physically with probes
V
t
and I
t
will be unique (e.g. do not depend on measurement setup, but
only on the location) if and only if the EM field propagation mode in the
interconnect is TEM or quasi-TEM.
Measuring voltage
Measuring current
Line integration
path of E field
Line integration
path of H field
See discussion in Appendix 1:
Advanced Concepts Field Theory
Solutions for more information.
Transverse
plane
Demonstration - Electromagnetic Field
Propagation in Interconnect (1)
The following example simulate the behavior of EM field in a simple
interconnection system.
The system is a 3D model of a copper trace with a plane on the bottom.
A numerical method, known as Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD)
is applied to Maxwells Equations, to provide the approximate value of
E and H fields at selected points on the model at every 1.0 picosecond
interval. (Search WWW or see http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/Phd/phdthesis.htm)
Field values are displayed at an interval of 25.0 picoseconds.
Copper trace
GND plane
100 SMD resistor
z
y
x
50 resistive
voltage source
connected here
FR4 dielectric
14
Intensity
Scale
Magnitude
of E
z
in
dielectric
0.5mm
PCB dielectric:
FR4,
r
= 4.4,
= 5.
Thickness
=1.0mm.
+
-
V
s
V
o
= 3.0V
t
r
= 50ps
t
HIGH
= 100ps
0.75mm
0.8mm
Show simulation using CST Microwave
Studio too
19.2mm
y
x
z
Filename: tline1_XZplane.avi
V
o
= 3.0V
t
r
= 50ps
t
HIGH
= 100ps
Magnitude
of E
z
in
YZ plane
Volts
Filename: tline1_YZplane.avi
y
x
z
Probe of signal generator
15
Definition of Transmission Line
A transmission line is a long interconnect with 2 conductors the signal
conductor and ground conductor for returning current.
Multiconductor transmission line has more than 2 conductors, usually a
few signal conductors and one ground conductor.
Transmission lines are a subset of a broader class of devices, known
as waveguide. Transmission line has at least 2 or more conductors,
while waveguides refer collectively to any structures that can allow EM
waves to propagate along the structure. This includes structures with
only 1 conductor or no conductor at all.
Widely known waveguides include the rectangular and circular
waveguides for high power microwave system, and the optical fiber.
Waveguide is used for system requiring (1) high power, (2) very low
loss interconnect (3) high isolation between interconnects.
Transmission line is more popular and is widely used in
PCB. From now on we will be concentrating on
transmission line, or Tline for short.
Typical Transmission Line
Configurations
Coaxial line
Microstrip line
Stripline
Parallel plate line Co-planar line
Two-wire line
Conductor
Dielectric
Slot line
Shielded microstrip line
These conductors
are physically
connected somewhere
in the circuit
16
Some Multi-conductor Transmission
Line Configurations
Conductor
Dielectric
Typical Waveguide Configurations
Rectangular waveguide Circular waveguide
Optical Fiber
Dielectric waveguide
17
Examples of Microstrip and Co-planar
Lines
Microstrip
Co-planar
Long or Short Interconnect? The
Wavelength Rule-of-Thumb
f v
p
=
Phase velocity or
propagation velocity
wavelength
frequency
f
f
Interconnect
(1.1)
We call this the 5% rule. Less conservative
estimate will use 1/10=0.10 (the 10% Rule)
How do we determine if the interconnect is long or short, i.e. delay
between input and output is appreciable?
Relative to wavelength for sinusoidal signals.
Rule-of-Thumb: If L < 0.05, it is a short interconnect, otherwise it is
considered a long interconnect. An example at the end of this section
will illustrate this procedure clearly.
L
18
Demonstration Long Interconnect
Current
profile
+50mA
-50mA
Filename: tline1_YZplane_5_8GHz.avi
5.8GHz, 3.0V
Magnitude
of E
z
in
YZ plane
19.2mm
Each frame is
displayed at
25psec interval
y
x
z
Let us assume the EM
wave travels at speed of
light, C=2.99810
8
, then
wavelength 52.0 mm
f
C
=
19.2 mm is greater than
5% of 52 mm
Demonstration Short Interconnect
0.4GHz, 3.0V
Filename: tline1_YZplane_0_4GHz.avi
Magnitude
of E
z
in
YZ plane
At any instant
in time the
current profile
is almost uniform
along the axial
direction.
Interconnect
can be considered
lumped.
Current
profile
+50mA
-50mA
19.2mm
y
x
z
Let us assume the EM
wave travels at speed of
light, C=2.99810
8
, then
wavelength 750.0 mm
19
3.0 Propagation Modes
Transverse E and H Field Patterns
x
y
z
Transverse
plane
E fields
H fields
Field patterns lie in the Transverse
Plane.
20
Non-transverse E and H Field Patterns
Field patterns does not lie in
the Transverse Plane.
E fields
H fields
Field contains
z-component
Field contains
z-component
Propagation Modes (1)
Assuming the transmission line is parallel to z direction. The
propagation of E and H fields along the line can be classified into 4
modes:
TE mode - where E
z
= 0.
TM mode - where H
z
= 0.
TEM mode - where E
z
and H
z
are 0.
Mix mode, any mixture of the above.
A Tline can support a number of modes at any instance, however TE,
TM or mix mode usually occur at very high frequency.
There is another mode, known as quasi-TEM mode, which is
supported by stripline structures with non-uniform dielectric. See
discussion in Appendix 1.
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
e z y x e y x e E
m
r
r
, , + =
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
e z y x h y x h H
m
r r
, , + =
z
y
21
Propagation Modes (2)
H
E
Mix modes
H
E
TEM mode
H
E
TE mode
H
E
TM mode
z
x
y
Examples of Field Patterns or Modes
TEM or quasi-TEM mode
E field
H field
22
Appendix 1
Advanced Concepts Field
Theory Solutions for
Transmission Lines
Field Theory Solution
The nature of E and H fields in the space between conductors can be
studied by solving the Maxwells Equations or Wave Equations (which
can be derived from Maxwells Equations) (See [1], [2], [3]). Assuming
the condition of long interconnection, the solutions of E and H fields are
propagating fields or waves.
We assume time-harmonic EM fields with e
jt
dependence and wave
propagation along the positive and negative z-axis.
z
y
0
2 2
= + E k E
o
r r
=
= +
o
o
k
H k H 0
2 2
r r
Boundary
conditions
0 =
=
+ =
=
H
E
E j J H
H j E
r
r
r r r
r r
+
+
Maxwell Equations
Wave Equations
(A.1)
For instance tangential E field
component on PEC must be zero,
continuity of E and H field components
across different dielectric material, etc.
In free space
23
Extra: Deriving the Hemholtz Wave
Equations From Maxwell Equations
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
+ = +
= =
J j E E
H j E E E
r r r
r r r r
2 2
2
H j E
r r
= Performing curl operation on Faradays Law :
Note: use the well-known
vector calculus identity
( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z y x
A A A
+ + =
=
r r r
In free space there is no electric charge and current:
0
2 2
= + E E
r r

These are the sources for the E field
Similar procedure can be used to obtain
J H H
r r r
= +
2 2
Or in free space
0
2 2
= + H H
r r

Note: This derivation is
valid for time-harmonic case
under linear medium only.
See more advanced text for
general wave equation. For
Example:
C. A. Balanis, Advanced engineering
Electromagnetics, John-Wiley, 1989.
Obtaining the Expressions for E and H
(1)
Assuming an ordinary differential equation (ODE) system as shown:
To obtain a solution to the above system (a solution means a function that when
substituted into the ODE, will cause left and right hand side to be equal), many
approaches can be used (for instance see E. Kreyszig, Advance engineering
mathematics, 1998, John Wiley).
One popular approach is the Trial-and-Error/substitution method, where we
guess a functional form for y(x) as follows:
Substituting this into the ODE:
Since this is a 2
nd
order ODE, we need to introduce 2 unknown constants, A and
B, and a general solution is:
( )
x
e x y

=
x
dx
y d x
dx
dy
e e

2
2
2
, = =
( )
1 where
0
0
2 2
2 2
= =
= +
= +
j jk
k
e k
x

( )
jkx jkx
Be Ae x y

+ = (1)
That the trial-and-error method
works is attributed to the
Uniqueness Theorem for
linear ODE.
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
2 1
2
and 0
, 0 , , 0
2
2
C b y C y
b x x f y y k
dx
y d
= =
= = +
Boundary conditions
ODE The Domain
24
(2)
To find A and B, we need to use the boundary conditions.
Solving (2a) and (2b) for A and B:
So the unique solution is:
( )
( )
2 2
1 1

0
C Be Ae C b y
C B A C y
jkb jkb
= + =
= + =
(2a)
(2b)
( )
( )
( ) kb j
C e C
kb j
C e C
jkb jkb
jkb
jkb
B C A
B
C Be e B C
sin 2
1
sin 2
2 1
2 1
2 1
= =
=
= +
( )
( ) ( )
jkx
kb j
C e C
jkx
kb j
C e C
e e x y
jkb jkb
\
|
+ |
\
|
=
sin 2 sin 2
2 1 2 1
(q.e.d.)
(3a)
(3b)
(3)
The same approach can be applied to Wave Equations or Maxwell Equations
for Tline. Consider the Wave Equations (A.1) in time-harmonic form.
The unknown functions are vector phasors E(x,y,z) and H(x,y,z). The
differential equation for E in Cartesian coordinate is:
This is called a Partial Differential Equation (PDE) as each E
x
, E
y
and E
z
depends on 3 variables, with the differentiation substituted by partial
differential. There are 3 PDEs if you observed carefully. For x-component this
is:
Based on the previous ODE example, and also the fact that we expect the E
field to travel along the z-axis, the following form is suggested:
( )
0
0
2 2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= |
\
|
+ + + + |
\
|
+ + + + |
\
|
+ + +
= +
z E k y E k x E k
E k
z o
z y x
y o
z y x
x o
z y x
o
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
x
z j
x x
e y x e e y x e z y x E

, or , , ,

=
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= |
\
|
+ + +
x o
z y x
E k
A function of x and y The exponent e !!!
25
(4)
Carrying on in this manner for y and z-components, we arrived at the
following form for E field.
Notice that up to now we have not solve the Wave Equations, but
merely determine the functional form of its solution.
We still need to find out what is e
x
(x,y), e
y
(x,y), e
z
(x,y) and .
Using similar approach on will yield similar expression for
H field.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x e y x e
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
(A.1a)
( ) 0
2 2
= + H k
o
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x h y x h
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
v
v
(A.1b)
E and H fields Expressions (1)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x e y x e
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
Thus the propagating EM fields guided by Tline can be written as:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x h y x h
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
Transverse component
Axial component
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x e y x e

+
+ + +
=
+ =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x h y x h

+
+ + +
+ =
+ =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
EM fields
Propagating
In +z direction
EM fields
Propagating
In -z direction
(A.2a)
(A.2b)
(A.3a)
(A.3b)
superscript indicates
propagation direction
26
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )z z t y x e y z t y x e x z t y x e
e z y x E t z y x E
z y x
t j
cos , cos , cos ,
, , Re , , ,

+ + =
)
`
=
+
+
r
We can convert the phasor form into time-domain form, for instance for
E field propagating in +z direction:
Where
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )z t z y x E y t z y x E x t z y x E t z y x E
z y x
, , , , , , , , , , , ,
+ + + +
+ + =
r
Unit vector
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) z t y x e t z y x E
z t y x e t z y x E
z t y x e t z y x E
z z
y y
x x

=
=
=
+
+
+
cos , , , ,
cos , , , ,
cos , , , ,
(A.5b)
(A.4)
(A.5a)
Usually one only solves for E field, the corresponding H field phasor
can be obtained from:
The power carried by the EM fields is given by Poynting Theorem:
E
j
H
H j E
r r
r r
=
=
1

( ) ds h e s d H E P
t
S
t
S
z
= =

+ + *
*
Re
2
1
Re
2
1
r
r r
r r
S
( ) ( )
ds h e
ds h e s d H E P
t
S
t
t
S
t
S
z
z
=
= =

*
*
*
Re
2
1
Re
2
1
Re
2
1
r
r
r
r r
r r
Positive value means
that power is carried
along the propagation
direction.
(A.6)
Positive Z direction
Negative Z direction
27
There are 2 reasons for choosing the sign conventions for +ve and -ve
propagating waves as in (A.2) and (A.3).
So that for both +ve and -ve propagating E field
(consistency with Maxwells Equations).
The transverse magnetic field must change sign upon reversal of
the direction of propagation to obtain a change in the direction of
energy flow.
0 = E
r
0
0
=
=
+
z t t
e j e
E
r
r
( ) 0
0
= +
=

z t t
e j e
E
r
r
For +ve direction
For -ve direction
Phase Velocity
It is easy to show that equation (A.2a) and (A.2b) describes traveling E
field waves (also for H).
The speed where the E and H fields travel is called the Phase Velocity,
v
p
.
Phase Velocity depends on the propagation mode (to be discussed
later), the frequency and the physical properties of the interconnect.
=
p
v
(A.7)
28
Wavelength
For interconnect excited by sinusoidal source, if we freeze the time at a
certain instant, say t = t
o
, the E and H fields profile will vary in a
sinusoidal manner along z-axis.
y
z
E
x
(x,y,z,t
o
)
Wavelength
f
v
p
=
2
2
= = (A.8)
Superposition Theorem
At any instant of time, there are E and H fields propagating in the
positive and negative direction along the transmission line. The total
fields are a superposition of positive and negative directed fields:
A typical field distribution at a certain instant of time for the cross
section of two interconnects (two-wire and co-axial cable) is shown
below:
+
+ = E E E
+
+ = H H H
H
E
Conductors
29
Field Solution (1)
To find the value of and the functions e
x
, e
y
, e
z
, h
x
, h
y
, h
z
, we substitute
equations (A.2a) and (A.2b) into Maxwell or Wave equations.
z
y
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x e y x e
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
z j
z t
z j
z
z j
y
z j
x
e z y x h y x h
+
+ =
+ + =
, ,
, , ,
r
r
0
2 2
= + E k E
o
r r
=
= +
o
o
k
H k H 0
2 2
r r
Boundary
conditions
0 =
=
+ =
=
H
E
E j J H
H j E
r
r
r r r
r r
+
+
Maxwell Equations
Wave Equations
Field Solution (2)
H j E
r r
= E j H
r r
=
x y
y
e
h j e j
z
= +
y
x
e
x
h j e j
z
=
z
y
e
x
e
h j
x
y
=
(A.10a) x y
y
h
e j h j
z
= +
y x
h
x
e j h j
z
=
z
y
h
x
h
e j
x
y
=
(A.10b)
(A.10c)
(A.10d)
(A.10e)
(A.10f)
The procedure outlined here follows those from Pozar [2]. Assume the
Tline or waveguide dielectric region is source free. From Maxwells
Equations:
Substituting the suggested solution for E
+
(x,y,z,) of (A.2a) into (A.9),
and expanding the differential equations into x, y and z components:
(A.9)
E j J B
~ ~ ~
+ =
0 = J
r
30
Field Solution (3)
From (A.10a)-(A.10f), we can express e
x
, e
y
, h
x
, h
y
in terms of e
z
and
h
z
:
|
\
|
=
x
h
y
e
k
j
x
z z
c
h
2
|
\
|
+ =

y
h
x
e
k
j
y
z z
c
h
2
|
\
|
+ =

y
h
x
e
k
j
x
z z
c
e
2
|
\
|
+ =
x
h
y
e
k
j
y
z z
c
e
2

2 2 2 2
, = = =
o o c
k k k
(A.11a)
(A.11b)
(A.11c)
(A.11d)
(A.11e)
These equations
describe the x,y components
of general EM wave
propagation in a
waveguiding system.
The unknowns are
e
z
(x,y) and h
z
(x,y), called the
Potential in the literature.
See the book by Collin [1],
Chapter 3 for alternative
derivation
TE Mode Summary (1)
For TE mode, e
z
= 0 (Sometimes this is called the H mode).
We could characterize the Tline in TE mode, by EM fields:
From wave equation for H field:
( )
z j
z t
e z h h H
m
r r
+ =
z j
t
e e E
m
r
r
=
=
= +
o
o
k
H k H 0
2 2
r r
( ) ( ) 0
2
2
2
2
= +
|
|
\
|
+ +

z j
z t o
z
t
e z h h k

r
2 2 2
=
t
Note
Only these are needed. The other
transverse field components can
be derived from h
z
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
0
0
=
= +
= +
o c
t c t t
z c z t
k k
h k h
h k h
r r
From (A.11e)
( )
z j z j
z
e e

m m 2
2
2
=
Using the fact that

Transverse Laplacian
operator
31
TE Mode Summary (2)
Setting e
z
= 0 in (A.11a)-(A.11d):
These equations plus the previous wave equation for h
z
enable us to
find the complete field pattern for TE mode.
2 2 2
2 2
0
=
= +
o c
z c z t
k k
h k h
+ boundary conditions
for E and H fields
(A.12b)
x
h
k
j
x
z
c
h

=
2
y
h
k
j
y
z
c
h

=
2
y
h
k
j
x
z
c
e

=
2
x
h
k
j
y
z
c
e
=
2
From previous slide

(A.12a)
TE Mode Summary (3)
From (A.12a) and (A.12b), we can show that:
Therefore we cannot define a unique voltage by (but we can define a
unique current):
Also from (A.12a) we can define a wave impedance for the TE mode.
0 = z h j e
z t t

r
=
2
1
C
C
t t
l d e V
r
r
x
y
o o
y
x
TE
h
e
Z k
h
e
Z
= = =
(A.13)
0 =
t t
h
r
( ) z h j z h k
z z e
z z c
c
k
j
y
h
x
h
c
k
j
y
x
e
x
y
e
t t

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= =
(
(
+ =
(
r
32
TM Mode Summary (1)
For TM mode, h
z
= 0 (Sometimes this is called the E mode).
We could characterize the Tline in TM mode, by EM fields:
From wave equation for E field:
z j
t
e h H
m
r r
=
( )
z j
z t
e z e e E
m
r
r
=
=
= +
o
o
k
E k E 0
2 2
r r
( ) ( ) 0
2
2
2
2
= +
|
|
\
|
+ +

z j
z t o
Z
t
e z e e k

r
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
0
0
=
= +
= +
o c
t c t t
z c z t
k k
e k e
e k e
r r
Only these are needed. The other
transverse field components
can be derived from e
z
TM Mode Summary (2)
Setting h
z
= 0 in (A.11a)-(A.11d):
These equations plus the previous wave equation for e
z
enable us to
find the complete field pattern for TM mode.
y
e
k
j
x
z
c
h
=
2
x
e
k
j
y
z
c
h

=
2
x
e
k
j
x
z
c
e

=
2
y
e
k
j
y
z
c
e

=
2
(A.14a)
+ boundary conditions
for E and H fields
(A.14b)
2 2 2
2 2
0
=
= +
o c
z c z t
k k
e k e
From previous slide
33
TM Mode Summary (3)
Similarly from (A.14a) and (A.14b), we can show that
We cannot define a unique current by (but we can define a unique
voltage):
Also from (A.14a) we can define a wave impedance for the TM mode.
0 = z e j h
z t t

r
=
C
t t
l d h I
r r
x
y
y
x
h
e
h
e
TM
Z
= = =
(A.15)
0 =
t t
e
r
TEM Mode (1)
TEM mode is particularly important, characterized by e
z
= h
z
= 0. For
+ve propagating waves:
Setting e
z
= h
z
= 0 in (A.11a)-(A.11d), we observe that k
c
= 0 in order for
a non-zero solution to exist. This implies:
Applying Hemholtz Wave Equation to E field:
z j
t
e e E
m
r
r
=
z j
t
e h H
m
r r
=
(A.16a)
(A.16b) = =
o
k
( )
( ) 0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
=
|
|
\
|
+ +
=
|
|
\
|
+ + = +

t
z j
o
z j
z
z j
t t
z j
t o
z
t
z j
t o
e e k e e e
e e k z e e k
r r
r r

(A.17a) 0
2
=
t t
e
r
0
34
TEM Mode (2)
The same can be shown for h
t
:
Equation (A.17a) is similar to Laplace equations in 2D. This implies
the transverse fields e
t
is similar to the static electric fields that can
exist between conductors, so we could define a transverse scalar
potential :
Also note that:
J h
t t
r r
=
2
(A.17b)
0 ) , (
) , (
2
=
=
y x
y x e
t
t t
r
(A.18)
Transverse potential
( ) 0 = =
t t t t
e
r
(A.19)
See [1], Chapter 3
for alternative
derivation
Using an important identity in vector calculus
( ) 0 = F Where F is arbitrary function
of position, i.e. F = F(x,y,z).
Alternative View (TEM Mode)
Alternatively from (A.10c), and knowing that h
z
= 0 in TEM mode:
From the well known Vector Calculus identity , we then
postulate the existence of a scalar function (x,y) where
From (A.10f) we can also show that (in free space):
0 = =
z
y
x
e
x
y
e
h j
0 = = =
t t z
y
x
h
x
y
h
h e j
r
0
0
0 0 = = = =

t t
y x
y x y
x
e
x
y
e
e
e e
z y x
r
( ) 0 = F
Divergence in 2D (in XY plane)
) , ( y x e
t t
=
r
35
TEM Mode (3)
Normally we would find e
t
from (A.17a), then we derive h
t
from e
t
:
An important observation is that under TEM mode the transverse field
components e
t
and h
t
fulfill similar equations as in electrostatic.
(A.20a)
( ) y e x e h
E
j
H
x y t

1
1
=

r
r r
Exercise: see if you can
derive this equation
0 , 0
2
= =
t t
h h
r r
( )
t
Z
t
e z h
o
r
r
=
1
Z
o
= Intrinsic impedance of free space
Z
TEM
= Wave impedance of TEM
mode
TEM
h
e
h
e
o
Z Z
x
y
y
x
= = = =

(A.20b)
(
|
|
\
|
+ =
(
|
|
\
|
+ + =
z e y E j x E j
z y x H
z j
y
x
e
x
y
e
x y
j
y
x
E
x
y
E
z
x
E
z
y
E
j
t

1
1

0 =
t t
e
r
In free space
Voltage and Current under TEM Mode
Due to and in the space surrounding the
conductors, we could define unique transverse voltage (V
t
) and
transverse current (I
t
) for the system following the standard definitions
for V and I. The V
t
and I
t
so defined does not depends on the shape of
the integration path.
0 =
t t
e
r
0 =
t t
h
r
See the more detailed
version of this note or
see references [1] & [2].
Loop 1
( )

=
1 Loop
, l d H t z I
t
r r
I
t
(z,t)
V
t
(z,t)
( )

=
b
a
t
l d E t z V
r r
,
a
b
36
Extra: Independence of V
t
and I
t
from
Integration Path under TEM Mode
=
2 1
or C C
t t
l d h I
r r
t
L
t
L
t
L
t
L
t
L
t
L
t
L
t
S
t t
t t
V l d e l d e
l d e l d e
l d e l d e
l d e s d e
e
= =
=
= +
= =
=

2 1
2 1
2 1
0
0
0
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r r r
r
Loop L
Area S
s d
r
l d
r
C
1
C
2
+
Since the shape of
loop L is arbitrary, as
long as it stays in the
transverse plane, paths
L
1
, L
2
and hence the
integration path for
V
t
is arbitrary.
Similar proof can be carried
out for I
t
, using the loop as
shown and 0 =
t t
h
r
Using Stokes
Theorem
C
1
C
2
Loop L
TEM Mode Summary (1)
For TEM mode, h
z
= e
z
= 0.
To find the EM fields for TEM mode:
Solve with boundary conditions for the transverse
potential.
Find E from
Find H from
We could characterize the Tline in TEM mode, by EM fields:
( ) 0 ,
2
= y x
t
( ) [ ]
z j
t
z j
t t
e e e y x E
m m
r
r
= =
,
( )
z j
t
o
t
e e z
Z
H

=
r
r
1
z j
t
z j
t
e h H e e E
m m
r r
r
r
= =

= =
o
k
37
TEM Mode Summary (2)
Or through auxiliary circuit theory quantities:
The power carried by the EM wave along the Tline is given by
Poynting Theorem:
Because is always real or complex (when dielectric is lossy) for all
frequencies, the TEM mode always exist from near d.c. to extremely
high frequencies.
z j
t
z j
t
e I I e V V
m m
= =

( )
( ) ( )
* 1
2
1 *
2
1
*
2
1 *
2
1
Re Re
Re Re
VV Z II Z P
VI ds H E P
c c
S
= =
= =
r r
See extra note
by F.Kung for
the proof
(A.21)
= =
o
k
Non-TEM Modes and V
t
, I
t
(1)
For non-TEM modes, we cannot define both the auxiliary quantities V
t
and I
t
uniquely using the standard definition for voltage and current
(because ).
For instance in TE mode:
Thus will not be unique and will depends on the line
integration path. This means if we attempt to measure the voltage
across the Tline using an instrument, the reading will depend on the
wires and connection of the probe!
Furthermore for non-TEM modes:
Thus we cannot characterize a Tline supporting non-TEM modes
using auxiliary quantities such as V
t
and I
t
.
z t t
h j e =
r
=
2
1
C
C
t t
dl e V
r
( )
*
2
1 *
2
1
Re Re
t t
S
I V ds H E P =
r r
0 or 0
t t t t
h e
r
r
38
Non-TEM Modes and V
t
, I
t
(2)
As another example consider the TM mode in microstrip line:
Using path C as shown in figure:
In general this is true for arbitrary Tline and waveguide cross
section. If we choose integration path other than C, we still obtain
V
t
= 0 due to in TM mode.
( ) y x e y x
k
j
e
k
j
e
z
y x
c
z t
c
t
,
2 2
|
\
|
+ = =
r
|
|
\
|
+ = =

C
y
e
C
x
e
c C
t t
dy dx
k
j
dl e V
z z
2
r
( ) ( ) [ ] 0 0 , ,
2
0
2
= =
|
|
\
|
=
x e H x e
k
j
dy
k
j
V
z z
c
H
y
e
c
t
z

0 =
t t
e
r
C
x
y
Y=0
Y=H
0 because of boundary condition
Under quasi-TEM condition, when
e
z
0, k
c
also 0, then V
t
will be
a non-zero value.
Cut-off Frequency for TE/TM Mode
Because for TE and TM modes:
There is a possibility that becomes imaginary when k
c
> k
o
. When
this occur the TE or TM mode EM fields will decay exponentially from
the source. These modes are known as Evanescent and are non-
propagating.
Thus for TE or TM mode, there is a possibility of a cut-off frequency f
c
,
where for signal frequency f < f
c
, no propagating EM field will exist.
2 2
c o
k k =
39
Phase Velocity for TEM, TE and TM
Modes
Phase velocity is the propagation velocity of the EM field supported by
the tline. It is given by:
For TEM mode:
For TE & TM mode:
Thus we observe that TEM mode is intrinsically non-dispersive, while
TE and TM mode are dispersive.
=
p
V
1
= =
p
V
2 2 2 2
1 1
c c o
k k k
p
V

= = =

(A.22)
(A.23)
Final Note on TEM, TE and TM
Propagation Modes
Finally, note that the formulae for TEM, TE and TM modes apply to all
waveguide structures, in which transmission line is a subset.
40
Example A1 - Parallel Plate
Waveguide/Tline
The parallel plate waveguide is the simplest type of waveguide that can
support TEM, TE and TM modes. Here we assume that W >> d so that
fringing field and variation along x can be ignored.
0 =
x
x
z
y
0
d
W
Conducting plates
Propagation along z axis
Example A1 Cont...
Derive the EM fields for TEM, TE and TM modes for parallel plate
waveguide.
Show that TEM mode can exist for all frequencies.
Show that TE and TM modes possess cut-off frequency f
c
, where for
operating frequency f less than f
c
, the resulting EM field cannot
propagate.
41
Example A1 Solution for TEM Mode
(1)
( )
( )
( )
o
t
V d x
x
d y W x y x
=
=
=
,
0 0 ,
0 , 0 for 0 ,
2
TEM mode Solution:
0 0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + =

y y x
t
Boundary conditions
Solution for the transverse Laplace PDE:
( )
( )
( )
d
o
V
o
B V Bd d x
A A x
By A y x
= = =
= = =
+ =
,
0 0 0 ,
,
( ) y y x
d
o
V
= ,
Thus
since
( ) ( ) y y x = ,
General Solution
Unique solution
(2)
y y y x e
d
o
V
d
o
V
y x
t
t
=
|
\
|
|
\
|
+ = =
y e E
z j
d
o
V
t

=
x e y e z E H
z j
d
V
z j
d
V
t
j
t
o o

1 1

=
|
\
|
|
\
|
= =
Computing the E and H fields:
z j
o
d
z j
d
o
V
C
t
t
e V y dy y e l d E V

=
|
\
|
= =

0
1
r
Computing the transverse voltage and current:
z j
d
o
V W
z j
d
o
V
C
t
t
We x dx x e l d H I

=
|
\
|
= =

0
2
r
C
1
C
2
y
x
42
(3)
Computing the power flow (power carried by the EM wave guided by the wave
-guide):
( ) ( )
( )( )
[ ] [ ]
|
\
|
= = =
(
\
|
|
\
|
=
(
=
(
=
(
+
+
+

d
W V
t t
z j
d
W V z j
o
z j
W
d
V z j
d
d
V
W d
z j
d
V z j
d
V
W d
z j
d
V z j
d
V
S
t t
o o
o o
o o
o o
I V e e V
e dx e dy
dxdy e e
z dxdy x e y e
s d H E P
2
2
1
*
2
1
2
1
0 0
2
1
0 0
2
1
0 0
2
1
*
2
1
Re Re
Re
Re
Re
Re
r
y
x
dy
dx
ds=dxdy
S
(4)
Phase velocity v
p
for TEM mode:

1
= = =
p
v
The phase velocity is equal to speed-of-light in the dielectric.
43
Example A1 Solution for TM Mode (1)
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 , 0 ,
0 , 0 for 0 ,
2 2 2
2 2
= =
=
= +
d x e x e
k k
d y W x y x e k
z z
o c
z c t
( ) ( ) y e y x e
z z
= ,
Solution for e
z
:
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) y k B y k A y x
e k e k
c c z
z c
y
e
z c t
z
cos sin , e
0
2 2 2
2
2
+ =
= + +
since
Boundary conditions
General solution
( )
( ) ( )
d
n
c
c
c z
z
k
n n d k A
d k A d x
B B A x
=
= =
= =
= = + =
L 3 , 2 , 1 , and 0
0 sin , e
0 0 0 0 , e
Thus:
( ) ( ) y A y x
d
n
n z
sin , e =
( ) ( )
z j
d
n
n z
e y A y x E

= sin , or
Applying boundary conditions:
( ) ( )
( )
( )y y e
y y A y x e
d
n
d
n
n
A j
t
d
n
n
y
c
k
j
y
z
e
c
k
j
x
z
e
c
k
j
t
cos
sin
2 2 2

=
= + =

r
r
or
( )
( ) y e y E
z j
d
n
d
n
n
A j
t
cos

=
Computing the transverse EM fields using (A.20a):
( )
( ) x e y
e y x H
z j
d
n
d
n
n
A
o
jk
z j
x
z
e
c
k
j
y
z
e
c
k
j
t
cos

2 2

=
|
|
\
|
=
Since n is an arbitrary integer,
the TM mode is usually called
the TM
n
mode.
44
We can now determine knowing k
c
:
( )
2
2 2 2
d
n
c o n
k k

= =
Since the TM mode can only propagate if is real, and the smallest value for
Is 0, then when =0:
( )

d
n
d
n
d
n
f
f
2
2
2
2
0
=
= =
=
When n = 1, this represent the cut-off frequency for TM mode.
d
TM cutoff
f
2
1
_
=
For arbitrary n, phase velocity v
p
for TM
n
mode:
( )
2
2
d
n
p
v
= =
For f > f
cutoff
, we observe that phase velocity v
p
is actually greater than the
speed of light!!!
NOTE:
The EM fields can travel at speed greater than light, however we can show that
the rate of energy flow is less than the speed-of-light. This rate of energy
flow corresponds to the speed of the photons if the propagating EM wave is
treated as a cluster of photons. See the extra notes for the proof.
45
Dominant Propagation Mode
For the various transmission line topology, there is a dominant mode.
This dominant mode of propagation is the first mode to exist at the
lowest operating frequency. The secondary modes will come into
existent at higher frequencies.
The propagation modes of Tline depends on the dielectric and the cross
section of the transmission line.
For Tline that can support TEM mode, the TEM mode will be the
dominant mode as it can exist at all frequencies (there is no cut-off
frequency).
Transmission Lines Dominant
Propagation Mode
Coaxial line - TEM.
Microstrip line - quasi-TEM.
Stripline - TEM.
Parallel plate line - TEM or TM (depends on homogenuity of the
dielectric).
Co-planar line - quasi-TEM.
Note: Generally for Tline with non-homogeneous dielectric, the Tline
cannot support TEM propagation mode.
46
Quasi TEM Mode (1)
Luckily for planar Tline configuration whose dominant mode is not TEM,
the TM or TE dominant modes can be approximated by TEM mode at
low frequency.
For instance microstrip line does not support TEM mode. The actual
mode is TM. However at a few GHz, e
z
is much smaller than e
t
and h
t
that it can be ignored. We can assume the mode to be TEM without
incurring much error. Thus it is called quasi-TEM mode.
Low frequency approximation is usually valid when wavelength >>
distance between two conductors. For typical microstrip/stripline on
PCB, this can means frequency below 20 GHz or lower.
The E
z
and H
z
components approach zero at low frequency, and the
propagation mode approaches TEM, hence known as quasi-TEM.
When this happens we can again define unique voltage and current for
the system.
See Collin [1], Chapter 3 for more mathematical
illustration on this.
Quasi TEM Mode (2)
H
E
Non-TEM mode
H
E
Quasi-TEM mode
0 or
0

t t
t t
h
e
r
r
0 or
0

t t
t t
h
e
r
r
H
E
TEM mode
0 or
0
=
=
t t
t t
h
e
r
r
V
t
and I
t
Yes
V
t
and I
t
Yes
V
t
and I
t
No
47
Extra: Why Inhomogeneous Structures
Does Not Support Pure TEM Mode (1)
We will use Proof by Contradiction. Suppose TEM mode is supported.
The propagation factor in air and dielectric would be:
EM fields in air will travel faster than in the dielectric.
Now consider the boundary condition at the air/dielectric interface. The
E field must be continuous across the boundary from Maxwells
equation. Examining the x component of the E field:
o air
= r o die
=
( )
( )
die
die p
v
air
air p
die air
v

= > =
<
For TEM mode
y
x
Dielectric
Air
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )z
air die
j
z
air
j
e
z
die
j
e
die x
E
air x
E
z
die
j
e die x
z
air
j
e air x
e
E E

= =
Extra: Why Inhomogeneous Structures
Does Not Support Pure TEM Mode (2)
Since the left hand side is a constant while the right hand side is not. It
depends on distance z, the previous equation cannot be fulfilled.
What this conclude is that our initial assumption of TEM propagation
mode in inhomogeneous structure is wrong. So pure TEM mode
cannot be supported in inhomogeneous dielectric Tline.
48
Example A2 Minimum Frequency for
Quasi-TEM Mode in Microstrip Line
Estimate the low frequency limit for microstrip line.
H = 1.6mm
C 3.010
8
= C/f > 20H = 32.0mm
f < C/0.032 = 9.375GHz
Thus beyond f
critical
quasi-TEM approximation cannot be applied.
The propagation mode beyond f
critical
will be TM. A more conser-
vative limit would be to use 30H or 40H.
Here we replace >> sign
with the requirement that
wavelength > 20H. You can
use larger limit, as this is
basically a rule of thumb.
f
critical
= 9.375GHz
Summary for TEM, Quasi-TEM, TE and
TM Modes
TEM:
E
z
= H
z
= 0
Can defined unique
V
t
and I
t
.
Physical Tline can be
Modeled by equivalent
Electrical circuit.
Phase velocity.
No cut-off frequency.
Non-dispersive
Quasi-TEM:
E
z
0 , H
z
0
Can defined unique
V
t
and I
t
.
Physical Tline can be
Modeled by equivalent
Electrical circuit.
Phase velocity.
No cut-off frequency.
Non-dispersive
TE:
E
z
= 0, H
z
0
Cannot defined
unique I
t
.
Physical Tline cannot
be modeled by
equivalent electrical
circuit.
Phase velocity.
Cut-off frequency.
Dispersive
TM:
E
z
0, H
z
= 0
Cannot defined
unique V
t
.
Physical Tline cannot
be modeled by
equivalent
electrical circuit.
Phase velocity.
Cut-off frequency.
Dispersive
( )
z j
z t
e z h h H
m
r r
+ =
z j
t
e e E
m
r
r
=
z j
t
e h H
m
r r
=
( )
z j
z t
e z e e E
m
r
r
=
z j
t
e e E
m
r
r
=
z j
t
e h H
m
r r
=
z j
t
e e E
m
r
r
z j
t
e h H
m
r r

1
= =
p
V
eff
p
V
1
=
2 2
1
c
k
p
v
= =

2 2
1
c
k
p
v
= =

2
c
k
c
f =
2
c
k
c
f =
49
Why V
t
and I
t
is so Important ? (1)
When we can define voltage and current along Tline or high-frequency
circuit for that matter, then we can analyze the system using circuit
theory instead of field theory.
Circuit theories such as KVL, KCL, 2-port network theory are much
easier to solve than Maxwell equations or wave equations.
High-frequency circuits usually consist of components which are
connected by Tlines. Thus the microwave system can be modeled by
an equivalent electrical circuit when dominant mode in the system is
TEM or quasi-TEM. For this reason Tline which can support TEM or
quasi-TEM is very important.
Why V
t
and I
t
is so Important ? (2)
XXX.09
Amplifier
Filter
Microstrip
antenna
Antenna equivalent
circuit
Tline
A complex physical system
can be cast into equivalent
electrical circuit. Powerful
circuit simulator tools
can be used to perform
analysis on the equivalent
circuit.
50
Examples of Circuit Analysis* Based
Microwave/RF CAD Software
Agilents Advance Design System
Applied Wave Researchs
Microwave Office
*The software shown here also have
numerical EM solver capability, from 2D, 2.5D
to full 3D.
Ansofts Desinger
4.0 Transmission Line
Characteristics and
Electrical Circuit Model
51
Distributed Electrical Circuit Model for
Transmission Line (1)
Since transmission line is a long interconnect, the field and current
profile at any instant in time is not uniform along the line.
It cannot be modeled by lumped circuit.
However if we divide the Tline into many short segments (< 0.1), the
field and current profile in each segment is almost uniform.
Each of these short segments can be modeled as RLCG network.
This assumption is true when the EM field propagation mode is TEM
or quasi-TEM.
From now on we will assume the Tline under discussion support
the dominant mode of TEM or quasi-TEM.
For transmission line, these associated R, L, C and G parameters are
distributed, i.e. we use the per unit length values. The propagation of
voltage and current on the transmission line can be described in terms
of these distributed parameters.
Distributed Electrical Circuit Model for
Transmission Line (2)
5.8GHz, 3.0V
Magnitude
of E
z
in
YZ plane
V
t
I
t
y
x
z
Current profile
along conducting
trace
Within each segment
the current is more or
less constant, in and out
current is similar. Also
the EM can be considered
static.
52
Distributed Parameters (1)
The L and C elements in the electrical circuit model for Tline is due to
magnetic flux linkage and electric field linkage between the conductors.
See Appendix 2: Advanced Concepts Distributed RLCG Model for
Transmission Line and Telegraphic Equations for the proofs.
z Lz
Cz
V
1
V
2
I
E
H
Magnetic field
linkage
Electric
field linkage
When the conductor has small conductive loss a series resistance R z
can be added to the inductance. This loss is due to a phenomenon
known as skin effect, where high frequency current converges on the
surface of the conductor.
When the dielectric has finite conductivity and polarization loss, a shunt
conductance G z can be added in parallel to the capacitance.
The inclusion of R and G in the Tline distributed model is only accurate
for small losses. This is true most of the time as Tline is usually made of
very good conductive material and good insulator.
The equations for finding L, C, R, G under low loss condition are given in
the following slide.
Lz
Cz
Rz
Gz V
1
V
2
I
Under lossy condition, R, L and G
are usually function of frequency,
hence the Tline is dispersive.
Dielectric loss
Conductor loss
53
Thus a transmission line can be considered as a cascade of many of these
equivalent circuit sections. Working with circuit theory and circuit elements
are much easier than working with E and H fields using Maxwell
equations.
In order for this RLCG model for Tline to be valid from low to very high
frequency, each segment length must approach zero, and the number of
segment needed to accurately model the Tline becomes infinite.
This electrical circuit model for Tline is commonly known as Distributed
RLCG Circuit Model.
Distributed
RLCG circuit
V
t
I
t
V
t
I
t
z0
Finding the RLCG Parameters
=
V
t
t
dv H
I
L
2
2
r
=
V
t
t
dv E
V
C
2
2
'
r
dl H
I
R
C C
t
t s c
+
=
2 1
2
2
1
r

=
V
t
t
dv E
V
G
2
2
"
r
c
s
2
depth skin = =
See Section 3.9 of Collin [1].
V is the volume surrounding the
conductors with length of 1 meter
along z axis.
C
1
and C
2
are the paths
surrounding the surface of
conductor 1 and 2.
(4.1a)
(4.1b)
These formulas are
derived from energy
consideration.
Note that conductor loss
results in R, while
dielectric loss results
in G.
object metalic of ty conductivi
tan
" '
=
= =
c
o r o r

Conductor 1
Conductor 2
C
1
C
2
S
1m
This indicates the
volume enclosing
the conductors
Loss tangent of
the dielectric
Skin depth
and G depend
on frequency
54
Finding RLCG Parameters From
Energy Consideration
The instantaneous power absorbed by an inductor L is:
( ) ( ) ( ) t i t v t P
ind
=
Assuming i(t) increases from 0 at t = 0 to I
o
at t = t
o
, total energy stored
by inductor is:
i(t)
v(t) L
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1
0
0 0 0
o
o
I
ind
o
t
d
di o
t
o
t
ind ind
LI di Li E
d i L d i v d P E
= =
= = =
This energy stored by the inductor is contained within the magnetic field
created by the current (for instance, see D.J. Griffiths, Introductory
electrodynamics, Prentice Hall, 1999). From EM theory the stored energy in magnetic
field is given by:
I
o
H
dxdydz H E
V
H
=
r
2
Both energy are the same, hence:

dxdydz H L
dxdydz H LI
E E
V o
I
V
o
H ind
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
=
=
=
r
r
t
i(t)
i
o
0 t
o
Multi-Conductor Transmission Line
Symbol and Circuit
C
12
C
1G
C
2G
R
11
L
11
L
22
R
22
L
12
Long interconnect:
l > 0.1
Distributed
RLCG circuit
TEM or
quasi-TEM mode
Electrical Symbol
Parameters:
Per unit length
R, L, C, G matrices.
Usually as a function
Frequency.
(
22 12
12 11
L L
L L
(
22 12
12 11
C C
C C
(
22 21
12 11
R R
R R
(
22 21
12 11
G G
G G
12 11 1
C C C
G
=
12 22 2
C C C
G
=
55
Telegraphic Equations for V
t
and I
t
Much like the EM field in the physical model of the Tline is governed by
Maxwells Equations, we can show that the instantaneous transverse
voltage V
t
and current I
t
on the distributed RLCG model are governed
by a set of partial differential equations (PDE) called the Telegraphic
Equations (See derivation in Appendix 2).
For simplicity we will drop the subscript t from now.
In time-harmonic form
t
V
C GV
z
I
t
I
L RI
z
V
( )
( ) YV V C j G
z
I
ZI I L j R
z
V
= + =
= + =
In time-domain
Fourier
Transforms
Inverse Fourier
Transforms
Distributed
RLCG circuit
V
I
(4.2b)
(4.2a)
Solutions of Telegraphic Equations (1)
The expressions for V(z) and I(z) that satisfy the time-harmonic form of
Telegraphic Equations (4.2b) are given as:
( ) ( ) ( )( ) C j G L j R j + + = + =
( )
z
o
z
o
e V e V z V
+
+ =
( )
z
o
z
o
e I e I z I
+
+ =
Wave travelling in
+z direction
Wave travelling in
-z direction
Propagation coefficient
Attenuation factor
Phase factor
(4.3a) (4.3b)
(4.3c)
56
Solutions of Telegraphic Equations (2)
V
o
+
, V
o
-
, I
o
+
, I
o
-
are unknown constants. When we study transmission
line circuit, we will see how V
o
+
, V
o
-
, I
o
+
, I
o
-
can be determined from the
boundary of the Tline.
For the rest of this discussions, exact values of these constants are not
needed.
Z
L
Z
s
V
s
The boundary of the tline circuit
V
t
I
t
Signal Propagation on Transmission
Line
Considering sinusoidal sources, the expression for V(z) and I(z) can be
written in time domain as:
From the solution of the Telegraphic Equations, we can deduce a few
properties of the equivalent voltage v(z,t) and current i(z,t) on a Tline
structure.
v(z,t) and i(z,t) propagate, a signal will take finite time to travel from
one location to another.
One can define an impedance, called the characteristic impedance
of the line, it is the ratio of voltage wave over current wave.
That the traveling V
t
and I
t
experience dispersion and attenuation.
Other effects such as reflection to be discussed in later part.
( ) ( ) ( )
z
o
z
o
e z t V e z t V t z v

+
+
+ + + + = cos cos ,
( ) ( ) ( )
z
o
z
o
e z t I e z t I t z i

+
+
+ + + + = cos cos ,
+ +
+ + + +
= =
j
o o
j
o o
e I I e V V
(4.4a)
(4.4b)
57
Characteristic Impedance (Z
c
)
An important parameter in Tline is the ratio of voltage over current, called
the Characteristic Impedance, Z
c
.
Since the voltage and current are waves, this ratio can be only be
computed for voltage and current traveling in similar direction.
A function of frequency
C j G
L j R
Z
o
o
z
o
z
o
c
I
V
e I
e V
Z
+
+
+
+
+
+
= = = =
(4.5)
C j G
L j R
z
o
z
o
c
e I
e V
Z
+
+
= =
+ +
+ +
=
=
=
o
Z
o
z
o
z
o
I V
e ZI e V
ZI
z
V
Or
From Telegraphic Equations
Propagation Velocity (v
p
)
Compare the expression for v(z,t) of (4.4a) with a general expression
for a traveling wave in positive and negative z direction:
And recognizing that both v(z,t) and i(z,t) are propagating waves, the
phase velocity is given by:
=
p
v
( ) ( ) ( )
z
o
z
o
e z t V e z t V t z V

+
+
+ + + + = cos cos ,
) ( z t f
A general function describing propagating
wave in +z direction
Compare
(4.6)
58
Attenuation ( )
The attenuation factor decreases the amplitude of the voltage and
current wave along the Tline.
For +ve traveling wave:
For -ve traveling wave:
( )
z
o
e z t V

+
+
+ cos
( )
z
o
e z t V

+ + cos
z
y
Z=0
z
y
Z=0
Dispersion (1)
Video
v
in v
out
Low dispersion
Transmission Line
v
in
v
out
We observe that the propagation
velocity is a function of the
waves frequency.
Different component of the
signal propagates at different
velocity (and also attenuate at
different rate), resulting in the
envelope of the signal being
distorted at the output.
Since
( ) ( ) ( ) j + = =
( )
=
p
v
Cause of
dispersion
Components
59
Dispersion (2)
Dispersion causes
distortion of the signal
propagating through a
transmission line.
This is particularly evident
in a long line.
v
in
v
out
High dispersion
Transmission Line
v
in
v
out
Video
Dispersion (3)
At the output, the sinusoidal components overlap at the wrong timing,
causing distortion of the pulse.
v
in
v
out
0 10 20 30 40
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Vin i t 1 , ( )
Vin i t 3 , ( )
Vin i t 5 , ( )
i
0 10 20 30 40
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Vint i t ( )
i
0 10 20 30 40
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Vout i t 1 , ( )
Vout i t 3 , ( )
Vout i t 5 , ( )
i
0 10 20 30 40
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Voutt i t ( )
i
In this example, the
higher the harmonic
frequency the larger is
the phase velocity, i.e.
higher frequency signal
takes lesser time to travel
the length of the Tline.
60
The Implications
Tline supporting TEM or quasi-TEM mode
The Lossless Transmission Line
When the tline is lossless, R= 0 and G = 0.
We have:
So the lossless transmission line has no attenuation, no dispersion and
the characteristic impedance is real.
Since lossless Tline is an ideal, in practical situation we try to reduce
the loss to as small as possible, by using gold-plated conductor, and
using good quality dielectric (low loss tangent).
C
L
Z
c
=
LC j j = =
1 1
= =
LC
v
p
61
Appendix 2
Advanced Concepts
Distributed RLCG Model for
Transmission Line and
Telegraphic Equations
Distributed Parameters Model (1)
( )
2 1
4 2
4 3 2 1
V V ds H j
dl E dl E ds E
dl E dl E dl E dl E
ds E dl E
S
s s S
s s s s
S C
=
|
|
|
\
|
=
=
=
r
r r r
r r r r
r r
( ) zI L j V V
ds H j V V
S
=
|
|
\
|
= +

1 2
2 1
r
For TEM or quasi-TEM mode propagation along z direction:
Stokes
Theorem
V
1
V
2
Lz
Flux linkage
(Definition for
Inductance)
Can be represented
in circuit as:
L is the
inductance
per meter
s
1
s
2
s
3
s
4
Loop C
V
1
V
2
C
Conductor
z
z
y
This means the
relation between
V
1
and V
2
is as if
an inductor is
between them
When z
is small
as compared
to wavelength
( ) ( )z y x h y x h H
z t
, , +
+
r r
62
C is the per unit length capacitance between the 2 conductors of the Tline.
C
1
C
2
I
2
I
1
z
Volume W
Surface S
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
2 1
2 1
1
1
I I z C V z C
I I S d E
S d J S d J S d J S d E
dW J S d E
dW S d E
dW S d E
dW dW E
t
V
t
S
t
A A S S
t
W S
t
W
t
S
t
W S
W W
= =
+ =
= =
=
=
=
=

r
r r r r r r r
r
r
r
r
I
1 I
2
Cz
t
V
z C
V
Can be represented in circuit as
Using Divergence Theorem
See the following
slide for more
proof.
A
1
A
2
This means the
relation between
I
1
and I
2
is as if
a capacitor is
between them
When z
is small
as compared
to wavelength

=

B
A
dl E
Q
B
A
S
dl E
ds E
r r
r
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(
(
+ =
= + =

ds ds Q
ds ds E
r
r z y x
s
f
r
r z y x
s
f
r
r z y x
s
r
r z y x
s
2
C on surface
2
2
4
, ,
2
1
C on surface
1
1
4
, ,
1
2
C on surface
2
2
4
, ,
2
1
C on surface
1
1
4
, ,
1

r
Consider the ratio:
For static or quasi-static condition, the E field
is given by:
Q is the total charge on
conductors C
1
or C
2
,
s
is the surface charge density, while f
s
is the normalized surface charge density with respect to Q.
Hence the ratio becomes:
C does not depend on
the total charge on the
conductors, we called
this constant the
Capacitance.
CV ds E
S
=
Potential difference between A and B

C
1
C
2
I
2
I
1
z
Volume W
Surface S
(x,y,z)
r
2
r
1
A
B
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
C
dl E
ds E
B
A
dl ds
r
r z y x
s
f
ds
r
r z y x
s
f
B
A
dl ds
r
r z y x
s
f
ds
r
r z y x
s
f
Q
Q
B
A
S
= =
=

(
(
+

(
(
1
C on surface
2
C on surface
2
2
4
, ,
2
1
1
4
, ,
1
1
1
C on surface
2
C on surface
2
2
4
, ,
2
1
1
4
, ,
1

r
r
63
z
Combining the relationship between the L, C and transverse voltages
and currents, the equivalent circuit for a short section of transmission
line supporting TEM or quasi-TEM propagating EM field can be
represented by the equivalent circuit:
Thus a long Tline can be considered as a cascade of many of these
equivalent circuit sections. Working with circuit theory and circuit
elements are much easier than working with E and H fields using
Maxwell equations.
Lz
Cz
V
1
V
2
I
When the conductor has small conductive loss a series resistance R z
can be added to the inductance.
When the dielectric has finite conductivity, a shunt conductance G z
can be added in parallel to the capacitance.
The inclusion of constant R and G in the Tlines distributed circuit model
is only accurate for very small losses*. This is true most of the time as
Tline is usually made of very good conductive material.
The equations for finding L, C, R, G under low loss condition are given in
the following slide.
Lz
Cz
Rz
Gz V
1
V
2
I
*Under lossy condition, R, L and G
are usually function of frequency,
hence the Tline is dispersive.
64
Extra: Lossy Dielectric
Assuming the dielectric is non-magnetic, then the dielectric loss is due
to leakage (non-zero conductivity) and polarization loss*.
Polarization loss is due to the vibration of the polarized molecules in
the dielectric when an a.c. electric field is imposed.
Both mechanisms can be modeled by considering an effective
conductivity
d
for the dielectric at the operating frequency. This is
usually valid for small electric field.
+ = E j J H
o r
r r r
E j E H
o r d
r r r
+ =
1 E j H
o r
j
d
o r
r r
|
\
|
+ =

( )
o r
d
o r
E j j H

=
=
tan
tan 1
r r
This is called Loss Tangent
( )

tan
" '
" '
o r o r
E j j H
= =
=
r r
Note that
d
is a function of frequency
Loss current density
*We should also include
hysterisis loss in
ferromagnetic material.
Finding Distributed Parameters for
Low Loss Practical Transmission Line
When loss is present, the propagation mode will not be TEM anymore
(Can you explain why this is so?).
However if the loss is very small, we can assume the propagating EM
field to be similar to the EM fields under lossless condition. From the E
and H fields, we could derived the RLCG parameters from equations
(4.1a) and (4.1b). Although the RLCG parameters under this condition
is only an approximation, the error is usually small.
This approach is known as perturbation method.
65
Derivation of Telegraphic Equations (1)
Use Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL):
For Tline supporting TEM and quasi-TEM modes, the V and I on the line
is the solution of a hyperbolic partial differential equation (PDE) known
as telegraphic equations. Consider first lossless line:
I
1
Lz
Cz
V
1
V
2
I
2
I
1
=I
V
1
V
2
I
2
jLz
LI j
z
V V
=
1 2
zI L j V V =
1 2
LI j
z
V
=

z
V
z
V V
z

=
|
\
| 1 2
0
lim
Observing that:
Derivation of Telegraphic Equations (2)
( )
CV j
I V z C j I
z
I I
=
=
1 2
2 1
Now considering the current on both ends, and using Kirchoffs Current
Law (KCL):
I
1
Lz
Cz
V
1
V
2
I
2
Using KCL here:
I
1
jLz
(jCz)
-1
V
2
=V
I
2
I
1
Lossless
Telegraphic
Equations
CV j
z
I
=
t
V
C
z
I I
2 1 2
Again observing that:
66
Relationship Between Field Solutions
and Telegraphic Equations
Interconnect
Long interconnect
Short interconnect
Lumped RLCG circuit
Waveguide
Transmission line
Maxwells Equations
Wave Equations
E & H wave
TEM
TE
TM
Hybrid
Quasi-TEM
V
t
, I
t
and
Distributed
RLCG
circuit
Telegraphic
Equations
Only for stripline
structures
KVL &
KCL
Z
c
, v
p
, attenuation factor,
dispersion, power handling.
Example A3
Find the RLCG parameters of the low loss parallel plate waveguide in
Example A1. Assuming the conductivity of the conductor is and the
dielectric between the plates is complex (this means the dielectric is
lossy too):
Use the expressions for E
t
and H
t
as derived in Example A1.
" ' j =
H/m
W
d
L

=
F/m
'
d
W
C

=
/m
2
=
W
R
s c

/m C
'
"
1
= =
d
W
G
d
67
5.0 - Transmission Line
Synthesis On Printed Circuit
Board (PCB) And Related
Structures
Stripline Technology (1)
Stripline is a planar-type Tline that lends itself well to microwave
integrated circuit (MIC) and photolithograhpic fabrication.
Stripline can be easily fabricated on a printed circuit board (PCB) or
semiconductor using various dielectric material such as epoxy resin,
glass fiber such as FR4, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or commonly
known as Teflon, Polyimide, aluminium oxide, titanium oxide and other
ceramic materials or processes, for instance the low-temperature co-fired
ceramic (LTCC).
Three most common Tline configurations using stripline technology are
microstrip line, stripline and co-planar stripline.
68
Stripline Technology (2)
A variety of substrates, Thin and Thick-Film technologies can be
employed.
For more information on microstrip line circuit design, you can refer to
T.C. Edwards, Foundation for microstrip circuit design, 2nd Edition
1992, John Wiley & Sons. (3
rd
edition, 2000 is also available).
For more information on stripline circuit design, you can consult H.
Howe, Stripline circuit design, 1974, Artech House.
For more information on microwave materials and fabrication
techniques, you can refer to T.S. Laverghetta, Microwave materials and
fabrication techniques, 3rd edition 2000, Artech House.
The Substrate or Laminate for Stripline
Technology
Typical dielectric thickness are 32mils (0.80mm), 62mils (1.57mm) for
double sided board. For multi-layer board the thickness can be
customized from 2 62 mils, in 1 mils step.
Copper thickness is usually expressed in terms of the mass of copper spread
over 1 square foot. Standard copper thickness are 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 oz/foot
2
.
0.5 oz/foot
2
0.7mils thick.
1.0 oz/foot
2
1.4mils thick.
2.0 oz/foot
2
2.8mils thick.
Dielectric thickness
Copper thickness
Dielectric
Copper (Usually gold plated
to protect against oxidation)
Standard
material consist
of epoxy with glass
fiber reinforcement
69
Factors Affecting Choices of
Substrates
Operating frequency.
Electrical characteristics - e.g. nominal dielectric constant, anisotropy,
loss tangent, dispersion of dielectric constant.
Copper weight (affect low frequency resistance).
T
g
, glass transition temperature.
Cost.
Tolerance.
Manufacturing Technology - Thin or thick film technology.
Thermal requirements - e.g. thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal
expansion (CTE) along x,y and z axis.
Mechanical requirements - flatness, coefficient of thermal expansion,
metal-film adhesion (peel strength), flame retardation, chemical and
water resistance etc.
Comparison between Various
Transmission Lines
Microstrip line Stripline Co-planar line
Suffers from dispersion
and non-TEM modes
Pure TEM mode Suffers from dispersion
and non-TEM modes
Easy to fabricate Difficult to fabricate Fairly difficult to fabricate
High density trace Mid density trace Low density trace
Fair for coupled line
structures
Good for coupled line
structures
Not suitable for coupled
line structures
Need through holes to
connect to ground
Need through holes
to connect to ground
No through hole required
to connect to ground

70
Field Solution for EM Waves on
Stripline Structure (1)
In microstrip and co-planar Tline the dielectric material does not
completely surround the conductor, consequently the fundamental mode
of propagation is not a pure TEM mode. However at a frequency below
a few GHz (<10GHz at least), the EM field propagation mode is quasi-
TEM. The microstrip Tline can be characterized in terms of its
approximate distributed RLCG parameters.
For the stripline, the dominant mode is TEM hence it can be
characterized by its distributed RLCG parameters to very high
frequencies.
Unfortunately there is no simple closed-form analytic expressions that for
the EM fields or RLCG parameters for a planar Tline.
A method known as Conformal Mapping is usually used to find the
approximate closed-form solution of the Laplace partial differential
equation for the TEM/quasi-TEM mode fields. The expression can be
very complex.
See Ramo [3], Chapter 7 for more information on Conformal
Mapping method. Collin [1], Chapter 3 provides mathematical
derivation of the field solutions for parallel plate waveguide with
inhomogeneous dielectric and the microstrip line.
Field Solution for EM Waves on
Stripline Structure (2)
Another approach is to use numerical methods to solve for the static E
and H field along the cross section of the Tline. From the E and H fields,
the RLCG parameters can be obtained from equations (4.1a) and (4.1b).
There are numerous commercial and non-commercial software for
performing this analysis.
Once RLCG parameters are obtained, the propagation constant and
characteristic impedance Z
c
of the Tline can be obtained. Z
c
can then be
plotted as a function of the Tline dimensions, the dielectric constant and
the operating frequency.
Many authors have solved the static field problem for stripline structures
using conformal mapping and other approaches to solve the scalar
potential and vector potential A.
The following slides show some useful results as obtained by
researchers in the past for designing planar Tline.
Some of the equations are obtained by curve-fitting numerically
generated results.
71
Typical Iterative Flow for Transmission
Line Design
Design
equations
for Tline
Yes
No
Draw Tline physical
cross section
Start
Solve for TEM mode
E and H fields at the
frequency of interest
Determine R, L, C, G
from (4.1)
Compute Z
c
, and
at the frequency of
interest
Criteria met?
End
Design Equations
By varying the physical dimensions and using the flow of the previous
slide, one can obtain a collection of results (Z
c
, , ) .
These results can be plotted as points on a graph.
Curve-fitting techniques can then be used to derive equations that
match the results with the physical parameters of the Tline.
,
d
W
o
,
o
0 2 4 6 8
0
100
200
300
263.177
15.313
Zc x 1 , ( )
Zc x 2 , ( )
Zc x 3 , ( )
Zc x 4 , ( )
Zc x 5 , ( )
Zc x 6 , ( )
8 0.1 x
W/d
Z
c
r
=1
r
=2
r
=3
r
=6
72
Microstrip Line (see reference [3], Chapter 8)
1
172 . 0
98 . 1
377
10
1
1
1
2
1
1
(
(
\
|
+ =
(
(
(
(
+
+
+ =
d
w
d
w
Z
w
d
eff
c
r
eff
o eff
p
v

1
=
Only valid when quasi-TEM approximation and very low loss condition applies.
Design Equations for Microstrip Line
(5.1a)
(5.1b)
(5.1c)
Effective dielectric
constant (See Appendix 3)
,
d
W
o
,
o
t
Stripline (see reference [3], Chapter 8):
,
d
d
w
1
=
p
v
( )
1
0
2 2
2
4
cosh
sin 1
) (
1
4
2

(
\
|
=
=
|
\
|

d
w
k
x
d
x K
k K
k K Z
Z
o
c
Complete elliptic integral

of the 2nd kind

=
o
Z
Only valid when TEM, quasi-TEM approximation and very low loss condition applies.
Design Equations for Stripline
(5.2a)
(5.2b)
(5.2c)
73
Co-planar Line ([3], assume d is large compare to s):
1 173 . 0 for
1
1
2 ln
4
173 . 0 0 for 2 ln
2
1
1
< <
(
(
(
|
|
|
\
|
< <
|
|
\
|
+
=
a
w
a
w
a
w
Z
Z
a
w
w
a Z
Z
eff
o
c
eff
o
c
r
eff
o eff
p
v

1
=
a
w
d
s
Only valid when quasi-TEM approximation and very low loss condition applies.
o
o
o
Z
=
Design Equations for Co-planar Line
(5.3a)
(5.3b)
(5.3c)
Effective dielectric
constant (See Appendix 3)
Dispersive Property of Microstrip and
Co-planar Lines (1)
The actual propagation mode for microstrip and co-planar lines are a
combination TM and TE modes. Both modes are dispersive. The
phase velocity of the EM wave is dependent on the frequency (see
references [1] and [2], or discussion in Appendix 1).
This change in phase velocity is reflected by effective dielectric
constant that changes with frequency.
At low frequency (f < f
critical
), when the propagation modes for microstrip
and co-planar lines approaches quasi-TEM, the phase velocity is
almost constant.
Appendix 1 shows a simple method to estimate f
critical
for microstrip and
co-planar lines.
Thus f
critical
is usually taken as the upper frequency limit for microstrip
and co-planar lines. Typical value is 5 100 GHz depending on
dielectric thickness.
Stripline does not experience this effect as theoretically it can support
pure TEM mode.
74
Dispersive Property of Microstrip and
Co-planar Line (2)
f
1
eff
Microstrip line
Stripline
f
1
eff Region where (5.1a)

and (5.1b) applies.
f
critical
Limit for quasi-TEM approximation, see Example A1 and on
how to estimate f
critical
Note:
Beyond f
critical
the concept of characteristic impedance
becomes meaningless.
For microstrip line, the EM
field is partly in the air and
dielectric. Hence the effective
dielectric
eff
constant is between
those of air and dielectric.
o eff
p
v

1
=
Tool for Stripline Design
You can easily refer to books, journals, magazines etc., use the
approximation equation developed by others and write your own
software tools, from a simple spreadsheet, to Visual Basic, JAVA or
C++ based programs.
A few free software are available online, the more notable is AppCAD
by Agilent Technologies.
You can also check out
www.rfcafe.com for more
public domain tools
75
Example 5.1 - Microstrip Line Design
(a) Design a 50 microstrip line, given that d = 1.57 mm and
dielectric constant = 4.6 (Here it means find w).
0 1 2 3 4 5
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
Zo S
i
S
i
Steps...
Plot out Z
c
versus (w/d).
From the curve, we see that
w/d = 1.8 for 50.
Thus w = 1.8 x 1.57 mm = 2.82 mm
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3
3.25
3.5
3.75
4
e S
i
S
i W/d
W/d
1.8
Microstrip Line Design Example Cont...
(b) If the length of the Tline is 6.5 cm, find the propagation delay.
(c) Using the l < 0.05 rule, find the frequency range where the
microstrip line can be represented by lumped RLCG circuit.
From
eff
versus w/d, we see that
eff
= 3.55 at w/d = 1.8. Therefore:
ps
v
t ms v
p
delay
o o
p
406
065 . 0
10 601 . 1
51 . 3
1
1 8
= =
=

To be represented as lumped, the wavelength must be > 20 x Length:
MHz 2 . 123
30 . 1
m 30 . 1 20
30 . 1
= <
>
= >
p
v
f
p
v
f
l
MHz 2 . 123 =
lumped
f
76
(d) When the low loss microstrip line is considered short, derived
its equivalent LC network.
pF/m 6 . 124
10 601 . 1 50
1 1
1 1
8
=

= =
= =
p c
p c
v Z
C
C LC C
L
v Z nH/m 27 . 313
2
= = C Z L
c
For shot interconnect we could model the Tline as:
nH z L 18 . 10
2
1
= nH 18 . 10
pF z C 096 . 8 =
or
nH z L 36 . 20 =
pF z C 048 . 4
2
1
= pF 048 . 4
nH L
pF C
36 . 20 065 . 0
096 . 8 065 . 0
=
=
(e) Finally estimate f
critical
, the limit where quasi-TEM
approximation begins to break down.
GHz f d
p
v
critical
critical
f
p
v
10 . 5 031 . 0 20
031 . 0
< = > =
Again using the criteria that wavelength > 20d for quasi-TEM mode
to propagate:
We see that to increase f
critical
, smaller thickness d
should be used.
77
=
o
, = 4.6
o
o
,
o
1.57 mm
2.82 mm
65.0 mm
Z
c
= 50
v
p
= 1.601x10
8
m/s
t
delay
= 406psec
Maximum usable frequency = f
critical
= 5.10 GHz.
Short interconnect limit = 123.2 MHz
Example 5.2 Estimating the Effect of Trace
Width and Dielectric Thickness on Z
C
Consider the following microstrip line cross sections, assuming lossless
Tline, make a comparison of the characteristic impedance of each line.
TL
1
TL
2 TL
3
TL
4
78
Example 5.3 - Stripline Design Example
Using 2D EM Field Solver Program
Here we demonstrate the use of a program called Maxwell 2D by Ansoft
Inc. www.ansoft.com to design a stripline.
The version used is called Maxwell SV Ver 9.0, a free version which can
be downloaded from the companys website.
The software uses finite element method (FEM) to compute the two-
dimensional (2D) static E and H field of an array of metallic objects.
It is assumed that the stripline is lossless.
Two projects are created, one is the Electrostatic problem for calculation
of static electric field and distributed capacitance, the other is
Magnetostatic problem, for calculation of static magnetic field and
distributed inductance.
Characteristic impedance of the stripline can then be computed from the
distributed capacitance and inductance.
Example 5.3 - Screen Shot
79
Example 5.3 - Stripline Cross Section
Draw the cross section of the model and assign material.
8.0mm
0.3mm
0.3mm
0.036mm
0.036mm
0.4mm
Set drawing units to micron.
Set drawing size to 10000um for x
and 4000um for y.
Set grid to dU = dV = 100um.
Draw model, use direct entry mode
for conducting structures like GND
planes and signal.
Name signal conductor Trace1 and
GND planes GND1 and GND2.
Name FR4 as substrate, then group
both GND1 and GND2 as one object GND.
0.6mm
FR4 Substrate
substrate Signal conductor
(PEC) Trace1
GND planes
(PEC)
GND2
GND1
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: Setup
Boundary Conditions
Set the boundary conditions.
All boundary are Dirichlet type, i.e. voltages are specified.
Let the edges of the model domain remain as Balloon Boundary.
0V 0V
0V
0V
1V
Balloon Boundaries
80
Executive Parameters
Under Setup Executive Parameters tab, select Matrix and proceed
to perform the capacitance matrix setup as shown.
Solver and Solve for Scalar Potential
Setup the solver and
solve for the approximate
potential solution. Use
the Suggested Values if
you are not sure.
81
Example 5.3 - Finite Element Method (1)
In finite-element method (FEM) an object is thought to consist of many
smaller elements, usually triangle for 2D object and tetrahedron for 3D
object.
FEM is used to solve for the approximate scalar potential V (or ) for
electrostatic problem and vector potential A for magnetostatic problem
at the vertex of each triangle. The partial differential equations (PDE)
to solve are the Poissons equations.
Potential value inside the triangle can be estimated via interpolation.
For 2D problem the PDE can be written as:
= V
2
J A
r r
=
2
( ) ( ) y x y x V V
y x V
t t
y x
t t t
, ,

2

= =
+ = =
) )
( ) ( ) y x J J y x A A
J A
z z z z
z z t
, ,
2
= =
=
r
x
y
Example 5.3 - Finite Element Method (2)
2D quasi-static E field can then be obtained by:
Similarly magnetic flux intensity H can be obtained from:
For more information, refer to
T. Itoh (editor), Numerical techniques for microwave and milimeter-
wave passive structures, John-Wiley & Sons, 1989.
P. P. Silvester, R. L. Ferrari, Finite elements for electrical
engineers, Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Other newer books.
( ) ( ) [ ] z y x A y x H
z t t
)
r
, ,
1
=
( ) ( ) y x V y x E
t t t
, , =
r
82
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: The Triangular
Mesh
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: Plot of E
field Magnitude
83
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: Plot of Voltage
Contour
Example 5.3 - Electrostatics: Capacitance
The estimated distributed capacitance is then computed using:
Approximation to the integration using summation is performed by the
software. The result is shown below:
C 1.995810
-10
F/m or 199.58 pF/m.
=
V
t
t
dv E
V
C
2
2
'
r
84
Example 5.3 - Magnetostatics: Setup
Boundary Conditions
Balloon Boundaries
Solid source +1A
Solid source 1A (total for 2 planes)
Example 5.3 - Magnetostatics: Setup
Executive Parameters
Under Setup Executive Parameters tab, select Matrix/Flux and
proceed to perform the inductance matrix setup as shown.
85
Example 5.3 - Magnetostatics: Plot of B
field Magnitude
Example 5.3 - Magnetostatics: Inductance
The estimated distributed capacitance is then computed using:
L 2.509310
-7
H/m or 250.93 nH/m.
=
V
t
t
dv H
I
L
2
2
r
86
Example 5.3 - Derivation of Parameters for
Stripline
= = =
819 . 35
10
10 9558 . 1
7
10 5093 . 2
C
L
c
Z
1 8
10 427 . 1
1

= = ms
LC
v
p
Example 5.4 Tline Design Using
Agilents AppCAD V3.02
87
Example 5.4 - Derivation of LC Parameters
from AppCAD V3.02 Results
( )
( )
8
10 998 . 2
466 . 0
0 . 36
=
=
=
vacumn p
vacumn p p
c
v
v v
Z
m H C Z L
m F C
c
p
v
c
Z
/ 10 577 . 2
/ 10 988 . 1
7 2
10 1
= =
= =
As we can see, both the results using EM field solver and
using closed-form solution (AppCAD) are very close.
Bear in mind that this is only approximate solution, as
skin-effect loss and dielectric loss are ignored.
Appendix 3
88
The Origin of Effective Dielectric Constant
(
eff
)
The approach can be traced to a paper by Bryant and Weiss
1
.
Assuming low loss and quasi-TEM mode:
LC
p
v
1
=
C
p
v C
L
c
Z
1
= =
o
,
o
o
,
o
C
1
With dielectric, C is the capacitance
per meter between the conductors
Without dielectric, C
1
is the capacitance
per meter between the conductors
Note 1: T. G. Bryant and J. A. Weiss,Parameters of microstrip
transmission lines and coupled pairs of microstrip lines, IEEE
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol.MTT-16, pp.1021-1027,1968.
1
C
C
eff
=
eff
c
eff
LC
p
v

= =
1
1
Define
Then
1
1
1
1 1
C
eff
c
c
eff
C
eff
c
C
eff
c
c
Z
Z

=
= =

Speed of
light in vacumn
C
1
is computed via numerical
methods for various W and d
,
d
W
o
,
o
C
When quasi-TEM approximation is no longer valid, the preceeding
formulation is not accurate and the telegraphic equations cannot be
used.
Also there is no longer a unique voltage and current, only E and H
fields are used. More dispersion will also be observed.
We can resort to defining equivalent voltage and current as employed
for waveguides.
However this is usually quite cumbersome, another option is to use full
wave analysis.
When Quasi-TEM Approximation is not
Valid - Full Wave Analysis
89
Full-Wave Analysis
Full-wave analysis is usually carried out using numerical methods such
as Method of Moments (MoM), Finite Element Methods (FEM), Finite-
Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) and Transmission Line Matrix (TLM).
In all these methods, the Maxwell Equations are solved directly or
indirectly instead of transforming the equations into circuit theory
expressions (e.g. the telegraphic equations).
THE END
90
Example A1 Solution for TE Mode
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
z j
d
n
n z
z j
d
n
B j
t
z j
d
n
B Z jk
t
e y B y x H
y e y y x H
x e y y x E
d
n
n
d
n
n o o
=
=
=
cos ,
sin ,
sin ,
The EM fields for TE mode are shown below:
Since n is an arbitrary integer,
the TE mode is usually called
the TE
n
mode.
o
o
o
o
Z
k

=
=
Exercise
Suppose we have a parallel-plate transmission line with the following
parameters:
W = 16.0 mm
d = 1.0 mm

r
= 2.5,
r
= 1.0, dielectric breakdown at |E| = 3000 V/m.
The length of the line is 10 meter. Find the cut-off frequency of the for
TM and TE modes.
If TEM mode is propagating along the line, find the characteristic
impedance Z
c
of the line, and the maximum power that can be carried
by this line without damaging the dielectric.
91
Exercise Cont
Assuming this transmission line is used in the following system.
Estimate the maximum working distance R.
Transmission
Tower
Omni-directional
Antenna
Parallel-
plate Tline
Receiver
Distance = R
If the Receiver can detect
the data when received power
is 2 Watt.
Antenna gain G = 10

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1

June 2008 2006 Fabian Kung Wai Lee 1

Each parameter depends on 3 independent variables

Using the fact that

From previous slide

Both energy are the same, hence:

Potential difference between A and B

Complete elliptic integral

eff Region where (5.1a)

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