3.

Most microbiologists distinguish two groups of antimicrobial agents used in the treatment of infectious disease: antibiotics, which are natural substances produced by certain groups of microorganisms, andchemotherapeutic agents, which are chemically synthesized. A hybrid substance is a semisynthetic antibiotic, wherein a molecular version produced by the microbe is subsequently modified by the chemist to achieve desired properties. Furthermore, some antimicrobial compounds, originally discovered as products of microorganisms, can be synthesized entirely by chemical means. In the medical and parmaceutical worlds, all these antimicrobial agents used in the treatment of disease are

Characteristics of Antibiotics Antibiotics are low-molecular weight substances that are produced as secondary metabolites by certain groups of microorganisms, especially Streptomyces, Bacillus, and a few molds (Penicillium and Cephalosporium). Antibiotics may have a cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on a range of microbes. Antibiotics effective against procaryotes which kill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said to be broad spectrum. If effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria, they are narrow spectrum. If effective against a single organism or disease, they are referred to as limited spectrum [1]. A clinically-useful antibiotic should have as many of these characteristics as possible: 1- It should have a wide spectrum of activity with the ability to destroy or inhibit many different species of pathogenic organisms. 2- It should be nontoxic to the host and without undesirable side effects. 3- It should be nonallergenic to the host. 4- It should not eliminate the normal flora of the host. 5- It should be able to reach the part of the human body where the infection is occurring. 6- It should be inexpensive and easy to produce. 7- It should be chemically-stable (have a long shelf-life). 8- Microbial resistance is uncommon and unlikely to develop [1]. referred to as antibiotics, interpreting the word literally. . 4. INHIBITION OF CELL WALL SYNTHESIS Cell wall synthesis inhibitors generally inhibit some step in the synthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan. They exert their selective toxicity against bacteria because humans cells lack cell walls. INHIBITION OF PROTIEN SYNTHESIS Interfere with protein synthesis. Attack is almost always ate the level of translation using 70S ribosomes in the translation machinery. 70S cytoplasmic ribosomes are absent in eucaryotes. INJURY TO PLASMA MEMBRANES * Membrane inhibition or disruption doesn't work too well because of the similarities between eucaryotic and bacterial membranes. However, the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria is a reasonable point of attack INHIBITION OF NUCLEIC ACID SYNTHESIS Interference with nucleic acid synthesis (RNA and DNA), which exploits differences between RNA polymerases and DNA replication strategies in bacteria and eucaryotes. INHIBITION OF SYNTHESIS OF ESSENTIAL METABOLITES Inhibition of an essential metabolic pathway that exists in the bacterium but does not exist in the host. This is usually brought about through the use of competitive chemical analogs for bacterial enzymatic reactions. Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang

Left Side of the Heart The blood coming from the lungs to the heart collects in the Left Atrium, filling it up. This initiates a contraction of the walls of the Left Atrium forcing the Mitral Valve to open as the blood gushes into the Left Ventricle. The Left Ventricle fills with blood which forces the Mitral Valve to close and initiates the muscle of the Left Ventricle to contract, open the Aortic Valve, and squeeze the blood through the Aortic Valve and on to the body. The blood coming out of the Left Ventricle to the Aorta is under high pressure. This pressure is enough to rush it to the different parts of the body at high velocity and give its oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues. The blood comes back from the body to the right side of the heart. Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang

Right Side of the Heart The blood coming from the body to the heart collects in the Right Atrium, filling it up. This initiates a contraction of the walls of the Right Atrium forcing the Tricuspid Valve to open as the blood gushes to the Right Ventricle. The Right Ventricle fills with blood which forces the Tricuspid Valve to close and initiates the muscle of the Right Ventricle to contract, open the Pulmonic Valve and squeeze the blood through the Pulmonic Valve and on to the lungs. This blood will replenish itself with more oxygen and get rid of the carbon dioxide and return to the left side of the heart to begin another cycle.

Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang
Ma. Isabelle Quilantang Ma. Isabelle Quilantang