12.

Thermal Cutting

12. Thermal Cutting Thermal cutting processes are applied in different fields of mechanical engineering, shipbuilding and process technology for the production of components and for the preparation of welding edges. The thermal cutting processes are classified into different
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166

Classification of thermal cutting processes - physics of the cutting process - degree of mechanisation - type of energy source - arrangement of water bath

categories according to DIN 2310, Figure 12.1.

Classification of Thermal Cutting Processes acc. to DIN 2310-6

Figure 12.1 Figure 12.2 shows the classification according to the physics of the cutting process: - flame cutting the material is mainly oxidised (burnt) - fusion cutting the material is mainly fused - sublimation cutting the material is mainly evaporat The gas jet and/or evaporation expansion is in all processes responsible for the ejection of molten material or emerging reaction products such as slag. The different energy carriers for the thermal cutting are depicted in Figure 12.3: - gas,
Flame cutting The material is mainly oxidised;the products are blown out by an oxygen jet. Fusion cutting The material is mainly fused and blown out by a high-speed gas jet. Sublimation cutting The material is mainly evaporated. It is transported out of the cutting groove by the created expansion or by additional gas.

- electrical gas discharge and - beams. Electron beams for thermal cutting are listed in the DIN-Standard, they produce, however, only very small boreholes. Cutting is impossible.

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Classification of Processes by the Physics of Cutting

Figure 12.2
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12. Thermal Cutting

167

Figure 12.4 depicts the different methods of thermal cutting with gas according to DIN 8580. These are: - flame cutting - metal powder flame cutting - metal powder fusion cutting - flame planing -oxygen-lance cutting - flame gouging or scarfing -flame cleaning In flame cutting (principle is depicted in Figure 12.5) the material is brought to
thermal cutting processes using gas:
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thermal cutting by:

- gas - electrical gas discharge - sparks - arc - plasma - beams - laser beam (light) - electron beam - ion beam

Classification of Thermal Cutting Processes acc. to DIN 2310-6

Figure 1.3

the ignition temperature by a heating flame and is then burnt in the oxygen stream. During the process the ignition temperature is maintained on the plate top side by the heating flame and below the plate top side by thermal conduction and Figure 1.4 However, this process is suited for automation and is, also easy to apply on site. Figure 12.6. shows a commercial torch which combines a welding with a cutting torch. By means of different nozzle shapes the process may be adapted to varying materials and plate thicknesses. Hand-held torches or machine-type torches are equipped with different cutting nozzles: Standard or blocktype nozzles (cutting-oxygen pressure 5 bar) are used for hand-held torches and for torches which are fixed to guide carriages. convection.
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oxygen cutting

metal powder flame cutting

metal powder fusion cutting

flame planing

oxygen-lance cutting flame gouging scarfing

flame cleaning

Thermal Cutting Processes Using Gas

2005

12. Thermal Cutting The high-speed cutting nozzle (cutting-oxygen pressure 8 bar)

168 allows higher cutting

speeds with increased cutting-oxygen pressure. The heavy-duty cutting nozzle (cuttingoxygen pressure 11 bar) is
cutting oxygen heating oxygen gas fuel

mainly applied for economic cutting with flamecutting machines. A further development of the heavyduty nozzle is the oxygenshrouded allows nozzle faster which and even

heating flame

cutting jet
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workpiece

more economic cutting of plates within certain thickness ranges. Gas mixing is

Principle of Oxygen Cutting

either carried out in the torch handle, the cutting attachment, the torch head or in the nozzle (gas mixing nozzle); also in special the

Figure 12.5

cutting oxygen heating oxygen gas fuel mixing chamber

cases

outside

torch in front of the nozzle. As the design of cutting torches is not yet subject to

manual cutting equipment as a cutting and welding torch combination

gas mixing nozzle
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standardisation,
block-type nozze

many

types and systems exist on the market.

Cutting Torch and Nozzle Shapes

Figure 12.6

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12. Thermal Cutting

169 The selection of a torch or

heating and cutting nozzle nozzle-to-work distance torch cutting jet kerf width

nozzles important and depends mainly on the cutting thickness, the desired cutstart kerf

ting quality, and/or the geometry of the cutting edge. Figure 12.7 gives a survey of the definitions of flamecutting.

cutting le
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cut lengt h ngth

end of the cut

cut thickness

Flame Cutting Terms

In flame cutting, the thermal conductivity of the material must be low enough to constantly maintain

Figure 12.7

the ignition temperature,

The heating flame has to perform the following tasks:

Figure 12.8. Moreover, the

- rapid heating of the material (about 1200 C) - substitution of losses due to heat conduction in order to maintain a positive heat balance - preheating of cutting oxygen - stabilisation of the cutting oxygen jet; formation of a cylindrical geometry over a extensive length and protection against nitrogen of the surrounding air

material nor form

must

neither

melt during the oxidation high-melting cutting oxides, as these would produce difficult surfaces. In accordance, only steel or titanium mate-

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Function of the Flame During Flame Cutting

rials fulfill the conditions for oxygen cutting., Figure 12.9

Figure 12.8

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12. Thermal Cutting

170

Steel materials with a C-content of up to approx. 0.45% may be flame-cut without preheating, with a C-content of approx. 1.6% flame-cutting is carried out with preheating, because an increased C-content demands more heat. Carbon accumulates at the cutting surface, so a very high degree of hardness is to be expected. Should the carbon content exceed 0.45% and should the material not have been subject to prior heat treatment, hardening cracks on the cutting surface are regarded as likely. Some alloying elements form high-melting oxides which impair the slag expulsion and influence the thermal conductivity. The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram illustrates the carbon content-temperature Figure 12.9
steel 1500 temperature [ C]
pasty

The material has to fulfill the following requirements: - the ignition temperature has to be lower than the melting temperature - the melting temperature of the oxides has to be lower than the melting temperature of the material itself - the ignition temperature has to be permanently maintained; i. e. the sum of the supplied energy and heat losses due to heat conduction has to result in a positive heat balance

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Conditions of Flame Cutting

interrelation, Figure 12.10. As the carbon content increases, the melting

cast iron
liquid solid

temperature is lowered. That means: from a certain carbon content upwards, the ignition temperature is higher than the melting temperature, i.e., this would be the first violation to the basic requirement in flame cutting.

ve cur ition ign

Liquidus

Solidus
solid

1000

2,0
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carbon content [%]

Ignition Temperature in the Iron-Carbon-Equilibrium Diagram

Figure 12.10

2005

12. Thermal Cutting Steel compositions may

171

influence flame cuttability substantially - the individual alloying show elements may effects reciprocate
Maximum allowable contents of alloy-elements: carbon: silicon: manganese: chromium: tungsten: nickel: copper: up to 1,6 % up to 2,5 % with max. 0,2 %C up to 13 % and 1,3 % C up to 1,5 % up to 10 % and 5 % Cr, 0,2 % Ni, 0,8 % C up to 7,0 % and/or up to 35 % with min. 0,3 % C up to 0,7 % not suitable for cutting

(reinforcing/weakening), Figure 12.11. The content limits of the alloying constituents are therefore only reference values for the evaluation of the flame cuttability of steels, as the cutting quality is substantially deteriorating, as a rule already with lower alloy contents.

molybdenum: up to 0,8 %, with higher proportions of W, Cr and C

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Flame Cutting Suitability in Dependance of Alloy-Elements

Figure 12.11

square butt weld

single-V butt weld

By an arrangement of one or several nozzles already during the cutting phase a weld preparation may be carried out and certain
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single-V butt weld with rootface

double-V butt weld

welding grooves be produced. Figure 12.12 shows torch arrangements for - the square butt weld, - the single V butt weld,

double-V butt weld with root face

Weld-Groove Preparation by Oxygen Cutting

Figure 12.12

- the single V butt weld with root face, - the double V butt weld and - the double V butt weld with root face.

2005

12. Thermal Cutting

172

It has to be considered that, particularly in cases where flame cutting is applied for weld preparations, flame cutting-related defects may lead to increased weld dressing work. Slag adhesion or chains of molten globules have to be removed in order to guarantee process safety and part accuracy for the subsequent processes. Figure 12.13 gives a survey of possible defects in flame cutting. In order to improve the
edge defect: edge rounding chain of fused globules edge overhang cratering: sporadic craterings connected craterings cratering areas adherent slag: slag adhearing to bottom cut edge cut face defects: kerf constriction or extension angular deviation step at lower edge of the cut excessive depth of cutting grooves cracks: face cracks cracks below the cut face

flame-cutting

capacity

and/or cutting of materials which are normally not to be flame-cut the powder flame cutting process may be applied. Here, in addition to the cutting oxygen, iron powder is

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Possible Flame Cutting Defects

blown into the cutting gap. In the flame, the iron powder oxidises very fast and adds further energy to the process. Through the additional energy input oxides the of

Figure 12.13

oxygen water seperator compressed air acetylene

high-melting

the high-alloy materials are molten. Figure 12.14 shows a diagrammatic representation ment. of a metal powder cutting arrange-

powder dispenser

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Metal Powder Flame Cutting

Figure 12.14

2005

12. Thermal Cutting Figure 12.15 shows the principle of flame gouging and scarfing. Both methods are suited for the weld preparation; material is removed but not cut. This way, root passes may be grooved out or fillets for welding may be produced later. Figure 12.16 shows the methods of thermal cutting processes by electrical gas discharge: plasma cutting with non-transferred arc plasma cutting with transferred arc plasma cutting with transferred arc and secondary gas flow plasma cutting with transferred arc and water injection arc air gouging (represented diagrammatically) arc oxygen cutting (represented diagrammatically)
Thermal cutting processes by electrical gas discharge:
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173

flame gouging
gas-heat oxygen mixture gouging oxygen

scarfing

gas-heat oxygen mixture scarfing oxygen

Flame Gouging and Scarfing

Figure 12.15

plasma cutting

arc air gouging

arc oxygen cutting

- with non-transferred arc - with transferred arc -with secondary gas flow -with water injection

carbon electrode

compressed air

cutting oxygen

electrode coating tube arc

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Thermal Cutting Processes by Electrical Gas Discharge

Figure 12.16

2005

12. Thermal Cutting

174 In plasma cutting the en-

plasma gas cooling water

electrode

tire
HF R +
power source

workpiece

must

be

heated to the melting temperature by the plasma jet. The nozzle forms the plasma jet only in a re-

nozzle

stricted way and limits thus the cutting ability of plate to a

workpiece

thickness

of

approx. 12.17. the for

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150 mm,
Plasma Cutting

Figure

Characteristic

plasma cut are the coneFigure 12.17 shaped formation of the kerf and the rounded

edges in the plasma jet entry zone which were caused by the hot gas shield that envelops the plasma jet. These process-specific disadvantages may be significantly reduced or limited to just one side of the plate (high quality or scrap side), respectively, by the inclination of the torch and/or water addition. With the plasma cutting process, all electrically conductive materials may be separated. Nonconductive materials, or similar materials, may be separated by the emerging plasma flame, but only with limited ability. In order to cool and to replasma gas electrode

duce

the

emissions,

plasma torches may be surrounded by additional

water curtain cutting water swirl chamber nozzle cone of water

gas

or

water

curtains

which also serve as arc constriction, Figure 12.18. In dry plasma cutting where Ar/H2, N2, or air are used, harmful substances always develop which not only have to be sucked off very carefully but which

water bath workpiece

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Water Injection Plasma Cutting

Figure 12.18

2005

12. Thermal Cutting also must be disposed of. In water-induced plasma cutting (plasma arc cutting in water or under water) gases, dust, also the noise, and the UV radiation are, for the most part, held back by the water. A further, positive effect is the cooling of the cutting surface, Figure 12.18. Careful disposal of the residues is here inevitable. Figure 12.19 gives a survey of the different cutting methods using a water bath.
plasma gas electrode plasma cutting with workpiece on water surface
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175

cutting with water bath

water injection plasma cutting with water curtain

underwater plasma cutting

Types of Water Bath Plasma Cutting

Figure 12.19

Figure 12.20 shows a torch which is equipped with an additional gas supply, the so-called secondary gas. The secondary gas shields the plasma jet and inFigure 12.20 creases the transition resistance at the nozzle front.
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secondary gas nozzle

workpiece

Plasma Cutting With Secondary Gas Flow

The so-called double and/or parasite arcs are avoided and nozzle life is increased.

2005

12. Thermal Cutting Thanks to new electrode materials, compressed air

cutting speed [m/min]

176

and even pure oxygen may be applied as plasma gas therefore, in flame cutting, the burning of unalloyed steel may be used for increased plasma capacity forming and gases quality. The selection of the

8 1 6 2 4 2 3 4 5
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machine type and plasma medium 1 WIPC, 400 A, O2 2 WIPC, 400 A, N2 3 200 A, s < 8 mm: N2 s > 8 mm: Ar/H2 4 40 A, compressed air

10
plate thickness [mm]

15

20

depends on the requirements of the cutting process. Plasma forming media are argon, helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, air, oxygen or water. Figure 12.21

Cutting Speeds of Different Plasma Cutting Equipment for Steel Plates

The advantage of the use of oxygen as plasma gas is in the achievable cutting speeds within the plate thickness range of approx. 3 12 mm (400 A, WIPC). In the steel plate thickness range of approx. 1 10 mm the application of 40 A-compressed air units is recommended. In comparison with 400 A WIPC systems, these allow vertical and significantly narrower cutting kerfs, but with lower cutting speeds. Figure 12.21 shows different cutting speeds for different units and plasma gases.
- laser beam combustion cutting
Thermal cutting processes by laser beam

In

the

thermal with

cutting beams

- laser beam fusion cutting - laser beam sublimation cutting

processes

only the laser is used as the jet generator for cutting, Figure 12.22. Figure 12.22
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Thermal Cutting With Beams

2005

12. Thermal Cutting Variations of the laser beam cutting process: laser beam combustion cutting, Figure 12.25 laser beam fusion cutting, Figure 12.26 laser beam sublimation cutting, Figure 12.27.

177

The process sequence in laser beam combustion cutting is comparable to oxygen cutting. The material is heated to the ignition temperature and subsequently burnt in the oxygen stream, Figure 12.23. Due to the concentrated energy input almost all metals in the plate thickness range of up to approx. 2 mm may be cut. In addition, it is possible to achieve very good bur-free cutting qualities for stainless steels
lens

(thickness of up to approx. 8 mm) and for structural steels (thickness of up to 12 mm). Very narrow and parallel cutting kerfs are characteristic for laser beam cutting of structural

cutting oxygen laser focus thin layer of cristallised molten metal workpiece

slag jet
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steels. In laser beam cutting, ei-

Laser Beam Cutting

Figure 12.23

ther oxygen (additional energy contribution for oxidising materials) or an inactive

80

cutting gas may be applied

absorption factor

melting

60

evaporating

heating-up

depending on the cutting job. Besides, the very high beam powers (pulsed/superpulsed mode of operation) allow a direct evaporation of the material (sublimation). In laser beam combustion cutting and laser beam sublima-

40

20

-laser) d:YAG 6 m (N er) = 1,0 O 2-las (C 6 m = 10,0

melting point Tm
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boiling point Tb

temperature

Qualitative Temperature Dependency on Absorption Ability

Figure 12.24
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12. Thermal Cutting

178

tion cutting the reflexion of the laser beam of more than 90 % on the workpiece surface decreases unevenly when the process starts. In laser beam fusion cutting remains the reflexion on the molten material, however, at more than 90%! Figure 12.24 shows the absorption factor of the laser light in dependence on the temperature. This factor mainly depends on the wave length of the used laser light. When the melting point of the material has been reached, the absorption factor increases unevenly and reaches values of more than 80%. During laser beam combustion cutting of structural steel high cutting speeds are achieved due to the exothermal energy input and the low laser beam powers, Figure 12.25. In the above-mentioned case (dependent on beam quality, focussing,
laser fusion cutting: - the laser beam melts the entire plate thickness (optimum focus point 1/3 below plate surface) - high reflection losses (>90%) materials: - metals, glasses, polymers cutting gas: - N2, Ar, He criterions: - cutting speed is only 10-15% in comparison to cutting with oxygen jet, characteristics melting drag lines
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laser cutting (with oxygen jet)

- the laser beam is focused on the workpiece surface and the material burns in the oxygen jet starting from the heated surface materials: - steel aluminium alloys, titanium alloys cutting gas: - O2, N2, Ar criteria: - high cutting speed, cut faces with oxide skin
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Characteristics of the Laser Beam Cutting Processes I

Figure 12.25

etc.), above

beam power of approx. 3,3 kW, spontaneous evaporation of the material takes place and allows sublimation cutting. Significantly higher laser powers are necessary to fuse the material and blow it out with an inert gas, as the reflexion loss remains constant.

Characteristics of the Laser Beam Cutting Processes II

Figure 12.26

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12. Thermal Cutting

179

Important influence quantities for the cutting speed and quality in laser beam cutting are the focus intensity, the position of the focus point in relation to the plate surface and the formation of the cutting gas flow. A prerequisite for a high intensity in the focus is the high beam quality (Gaussian intensity distribution in the beam) with a high beam power and suitable focussing optics. Laser beam cutting of contours, especially of pointed corners and narrow root faces, requires adaptation of the beam power in order to avoid heat accumulation and burning of the material. In such a case the beam power might be reduced in the continuous wave (CW) operating mode. With a decreasing beam efficiency decreases the cuttable plate thickness as well. Better suited is the switching of the laser to pulse mode of (standard HF-excited Figure 12.27 equipment
laser evaporation cutting:

- spontaneous evaporation of the material starting from 105 W/cm2 with high absorption rate and deep-penetration effect - metallic vapour is pressed from the cavity by own vapour pressure and by a supporting gas flow materials: - metals, wood, paper, ceramic, polymer cutting gas: - N2, Ar, He (lens protection) criteria: - low cutting speed, smooth cut edges, minimum heat input
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lasers) where pulse height can be selected right up to the height of the continuous wave. A super pulse equipment (increased excitation) allows significantly higher pulse efficiencies to be selected than those achieved with CW. Further fields of application for the pulse and super pulse operation mode are punching
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Characteristics of the Laser Beam Cutting Processes III

laser 600 W 1500 W 600 W 1500 W 1500 W plasma 50 A 5 kW 250 A 25 kW 500 A 150 kW oxy-flame Stahl Cr-NiStahl 1 10

steel Cr-Ni-steel aluminium steel Cr-Ni-steel aluminium

100 plate thickness [mm]

1000

and laser beam sublimation cutting. Figure 12.28

Fields of Application of Cutting Processes

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12. Thermal Cutting

180

Laser beam cutting of aluminium plates thicker than appx. 2 mm does not produce bur-free results due to a high reflexion property, high heat conductivity temperature and large
cuttig speeds [m/min] 10 plasma cutting (WIPC, 300-600 A) CO2-laser (1500 W)

differences

between Al and Al2O3. The addition of iron powder allows the flame cutting of stainless steels (energy input and improvement of the molten-metal viscosity).

1 oxygen cutting (Vadura 1210-A) 0,1 1 10 plate thickness [mm] 100

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The cutting quality, however, does not meet high standards. Figure 12.29

Cutting Speeds of Thermal Cutting Processes

Figure 12.28 shows a comparison of the different plate thicknesses which were cut using different processes. For the plate thickness range of up to 12 mm (steel plate), laser beam cutting is the approved precision cutting process. Plasma cutting of plates > 3 mm allows higher cutting speeds, in comparison to laser beam cutting, the cutting quality, however, is significantly lower. Flame cutting is used for cutting plates > 3 mm, the cutting speeds are, in comparison to plasma cutting, significantly lower. With an increasing plate thickness the difference
6
costs [DM/m cut length] total costs machine costs

in

the

cutting

speed is reduced. Plates with a thickness of more than 40 mm may be cut even faster using the flame

5 4
laser

3 2 1
plasma

flame cutting with 3 torches

cutting process. Figure 12.29 shows the

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

plate thickness [mm]

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cutting speeds of some thermal cutting processes.

Thermal Cutting Costs - Steal

Figure 12.30

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12. Thermal Cutting

181

Apart from technological aspects, financial considerations as well determine the application of a certain cutting method. Figures 12.30 and 12.31 show a comparison of the costs of flame cutting, plasma arc and laser beam cutting the costs per m/cutting length and the costs per operating hour. The high investment costs for a laser beam cutting equipment might be a deterrent to exploit the high cutting qualities obtainable with this process. Figure 12.31
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extract from a costing acc. to VDI 3258

flame cutting (6-8 torches) investment total (replacement value) calculation for a 6-yearaccounting depreciation maintenance costs energy costs production cost unit rate costs/1 operating hour plasma cutting (plasma 300A) laser beam cutting (laser 1500W)

170,000.00

220,000.00

500,000.00

/h /h /h

23.50 3.50 1.00

29.00 4.00 2.50

65.00 10.00 2.50

/h

65.00

75.00

130.00

1 shift, 1600h/year, 80% availability, utilisation time 1280h/year

Cost Comparison of Cutting Processes

2005