Heat" phase changes, and calorimetry: Different materials require different quantities of heat to raise the temperature of a given

mass of the material by a specified number of degrees. Different materials absorb energy in different ways. The energy may increase the jiggling motion of molecules, which raises the temperature; or it may increase the amount of internal vibration or rotation within the molecules and go into potential energy, which does not raise the temperature. Generally, a combination of both occurs. Whereas 1 gram of water requires 1 calorie of energy to raise its temperature 1 Celsius degree, it takes only about one-eighth as much energy to raise the temperature of a gram of iron by the same amount. Water absorbs more heat per gram than iron for the same change in temperature. We say water has a higher specific heat capacity (sometimes simply called specific heat) Heat is energy in transit from one body to another as a result of a temperature difference. The quantity of heat Q required to raise the temperature of a quantity of material by a small amount T is proportional to T . This proportionality can be expressed either in terms of the mass m and specific heat capacity c or in terms of the number of moles n and the molar heat capacity C= Mc. Here M is the molar rmass and m = nM. To change a mass m of a material to a different phase at the same temperature (such as liquid to solid or liquid to vapor) requires the addition or subtraction of a quantity of heat The amount of heat is equal to the product of m and L, the heat of fusion, vaporization, or sublimation. When heat is added to a body, the corresponding Q is positive; when it is removed, Q is negative. The basic principle of calorimetry comes from conservation of energy. In an isolated system whose parts interact by heat exchange, the algebraic sum of the Q's for all parts of the system must be zero.

The High Specific Heat of Water

Water has high specific heat. The specific heat of water is approximately 4190J/kg K , 1 cal/g C or 1 Btu/lb F. A relatively small amount of water absorbs a large quantity of heat for a correspondingly small temp. rise. Because of this, water is a very useful cooling agent and is used in the cooling systems of automobiles and other engines. If a liquid of lower specific heat capacity were used in cooling systems, its temperature would rise higher for a comparable absorption of heat. Water also takes a long time to cool, a fact that explains why, in previous times, hot-water bottles were employed on cold winter nights. (Electric blankets have, for the most part, replaced them.) This tendency

on the part of water to resist changes in temperature improves the climate in many locations. The next time you are looking at a world globe, notice the high latitude of Europe. If water did not have a high specific heat capacity, the countries of Europe would be as cold as the northeastern regions of Canada, for both Europe and Canada receive about the same amount of sunlight per square kilometer. The Atlantic current known as the Gulf Stream carries warm water northeast from the Caribbean. It retains much of its internal energy long enough to reach the North Atlantic off the coast of Europe, where it then cools. The energy released, about 1 calorie per degree for each gram of water that cools, transfers to the air, where it is carried by the westerly winds over the European continent. A similar effect occurs in the United States. The winds in the latitudes of North America are westerly. On the West Coast, air moves from the Pacific Ocean to the land. Because of water's high specific heat capacity, an ocean does not vary much in temperature from summer to winter. The water is warmer than the air in the winter and cooler than the air in the summer. In winter, the water warms the air that moves over it, and the air warms the coastal regions of North America. In summer, the water cools the air, and the coastal regions are cooled. On the East Coast, air moves from the land to the Atlantic Ocean. Land, with a lower specific heat capacity, gets hot in the summer but cools rapidly in the winter. As a result of water's high specific heat capacity and the wind directions, the West Coast city of San Francisco is warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer than the East Coast city of Washington, D.C., which is at about the same latitude. Islands and peninsulas that are more or less surrounded by water do not have the same extremes of temperatures that are observed in the interior of a continent. When air is hot in summer months, water cools it. When air is cold in winter months, water warms it. Water moderates temperature extremes. The high summer and low winter temperatures common in Manitoba and the Dakotas, for example, are largely due to the absence of large bodies of water. Europeans, islanders, and people living near ocean air currents should be glad that water has such a high specific heat capacity. San Franciscans are! Think and Answer: 1. Why does a piece of watermelon stay cool for a longer time than sandwiches do when both are removed from a picnic cooler on a hot day? 2. Does a substance that heats up quickly have a high or a low specific heat capacity? 3. Does a substance that cools off quickly have a high or a low specific heat capacity? 4. How does the specific heat of water compare with the specific heats of other common materials? 5. Northeastern Canada and much of Europe receive about the same amount of sunlight per unit area. Why then is Europe generally warmer in the winter? 6. According to the law of conservation of energy, if ocean water cools, something else should warm. What is it that warms? 7. Why does the presence of large bodies of water tend to moderate the climate of nearby land-to make it warmer in cold weather and cooler in hot weather? 8. A geologist working in the field drinks her morning coffee out of an aluminum cup. The cup has a mass of 0.120 kg and is initially at 20.OC when she pours in 0.300 kg of coffee initially at 70.0C. What is the final temperature after the coffee and the cup attain thermal equilibrium? (Assume that coffee has the same specific heat as water and that there is no heat exchange with the surroundings.)

The Greenhouse Effect

Earth and its atmosphere gain energy when they absorb radiant energy from the Sun. This warms the surface of the Earth, which, in turn, emits terrestrial radiation, much of which escapes to outer space. Absorption and emission continue at equal rates to produce an average equilibrium temperature. Over the last 500,000 years, the average temperature of the Earth has fluctuated between 19C and 27C, and is presently at the high point, 27C. Earth's temperature increases when either the radiant energy coming in increases or there is a decrease in the escape of terrestrial radiation.

The greenhouse effect is the warming of the lower atmosphere, the effect of atmospheric gases on the balance of terrestrial and solar radiation. Because of the Sun's high temperature, high-frequency waves make up solar radiation-ultraviolet, visible light, and short-wavelength infrared waves. The atmosphere is transparent to much of this radiation, especially the visible light, so solar energy reaches the Earth's surface and is absorbed. The Earth's surface, in turn, reradiates part of this energy. But since Earth's surface is relatively cool, it reradiates the energy at low frequencies-mainly long-wavelength infrared. Certain atmospheric gases (mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide) absorb and reemit much of this long-wave radiation back to Earth. So the long-wave radiation that doesn't escape Earth's atmosphere helps to keep Earth warm. This process is very nice, because Earth would be a frigid -18 otherwise. Our present environmental concern is that excess carbon dioxide and other "greenhouse gases" (from fossil-fuel combustion and other industrial processes) will trap too much energy and make the Earth too warm. The atmospheric greenhouse effect gets its name from the glass structures used by farmers and florists to "trap" solar energy. Glass is transparent to waves of visible light but opaque to ultraviolet and infrared waves. Glass acts as a sort of one-way valve. It allows visible light to enter, but it prevents longer waves from leaving. So short waves of sunlight enter through the glass roof and are absorbed by the soil and plants inside. The soil and plants, in turn, emit long infrared waves. This energy cannot penetrate the glass, and the greenhouse warms up. Interestingly enough, in the farmers' or florists' greenhouse, heating is mainly due to the ability of glass to prevent convection currents from combining the cooler outside air with the warmer inside air. The greenhouse effect plays a bigger role in the warming of the Earth than in the warming of greenhouses.

SOLAR POWER
If you step from the shade into the sunshine, you're noticeably warmed. The warmth you feel isn't so much because the Sun is hot, for its surface temperature of 6000C is no hotter than the flames of some welding torches. We are warmed principally because the Sun is so big.' As a result, it emits enormous amounts of energy, less than one part in a billion of which reaches Earth. Nonetheless, the amount of radiant energy received each second over each square meter at right angles to the Sun's rays at the top of the atmosphere is 1400 joules (1.4 kJ). This input of energy is called the solar constant. This is equivalent, in power units, to 1.4 kilowatts per square meter (1.4 kw/m2). The amount of solar power that reaches the ground is attenuated by the atmosphere and reduced by non-perpendicular elevation angles of the Sun. Also, of course, it ceases at night.
Solar heating needs a distribution system to move solar energy from the collector to the storage or living space. When the distribution system requires external energy to operate fans or pumps, we have an active system. When the distribution is by natural means (conduction, convection, or radiation), we have a passive system. At the present time, passive systems are essentially problem free and serve as an economical supplement to conventional heating-even in the northern parts of the United States and in Canada. On a larger scale, the problems of utilizing solar power to generate electricity are greater. First, there is the fact that no energy arrives at night. This calls for supplemental sources of energy or efficient energy-storage devices. Variations in weather, particularly in cloud cover, produce a variable energy supply from day to day and from season to season. Even in clear daylight hours, the Sun is high in the sky for only part of the day. At the time of this writing, solar-energy collecting and concentration systems, whether arrays of mirrors or photovoltaic cells, are not yet competitive in cost with electrical power generated by conventional power sources.

THINK AND ANSWER 1. What eventually happens to the solar energy that falls on Earth? 2. What does it mean to say that the greenhouse effect is like a one-way valve? 3. What would be the consequence of completely eliminating the greenhouse effect? 4. In what way does glass act like a one-way valve for a conventional greenhouse? Does the atmosphere play the same role? 5. What is the solar constant, and would it be greater in the Philippines or in Canada?

CALORIMETRY AND PHASE CHANGE Calorimetry means "measuring heat." Heat is also involved in phase changes, such as the melting of ice or boiling of water. We use the term phase to describe a specific state of matter, such as a solid, liquid, or gas. The compound H20 exists in the solid phase as ice, in the liquid phase as water, and in the gaseous phase as steam. (These are also referred to as states of matter: the solid state, the liquid state, and the gaseous

state.) A transition from one phase to another is called a phase change or phase transition. For any given pressure a phase change takes place at a definite temperature, usually accompanied by absorption or emission of heat and a change of volume and density. A familiar example of a phase change is the melting of ice. When we add heat to ice at ODC and normal atmospheric pressure, the temperature of the ice does not increase. Instead, some of it melts to form liquid water. If we add the heat slowly, to maintain the system very close to thermal equilibrium, the temperature remains at OC until all the ice is melted. The effect of adding heat to this system is not to raise its temperature but to change its phase from solid to liquid. To change 1 kg of ice at OC to 1 kg of liquid water at ODC and normal atmospheric pressure requires 3.34 X lOS J of heat. The heat required per unit mass is called the heat of fusion (or sometimes latent heat offusion), denoted by Lf . For water at normal atmospheric pressure the heat of fusion is L f = 3.34 X 105 J/kg = 79.6 cal/g = 143 Btu/lb More generally, to melt a mass m of material that has a heat of fusion Lf requires a quantity of heat Q given by: Q= mLf This process is reversible. To freeze liquid water to ice at ODC, we have to remove heat; the magnitude is the same, but in this case, Q is negative because heat is removed rather than added. Q= mL (heat transfer in a phase change) The plus sign (heat entering) is used when the material melts; the minus sign (heat leaving) is used when it freezes. The heat of fusion is different for different materials, and it also varies somewhat with pressure. We can go through this whole story again for boiling or evaporation, a phase transition between liquid and gaseous phases. The corresponding heat (per unit mass) is called the heat of vaporization Lv. At normal atmospheric pressure the heat of vaporization Lv for water is Lv = 2.256 X 106 J/kg = 539 cal/g = 970 Btu/lb Like melting, boiling is a reversible transition. When heat is removed from a gas at the boiling temperature, the gas returns to the liquid phase, or condenses, giving up to its surroundings the same quantity of heat (heat of vaporization) that was needed to vaporize it. Evaporation The change of phase from liquid to gaseous. Sublimation The change of phase from solid to gaseous, skipping the liquid phase. Condensation The change of phase from gaseous to liquid. Boiling Rapid evaporation that takes place within a liquid as well as at its surface. Regelation The process of melting under pressure and the subsequent refreezing when the pressure is removed. Latent heat of fusion The amount of energy required to change a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid (and vice versa). Latent heat of vaporization The amount of energy required to change a unit mass of a substance from liquid to gas (and vice versa). ANSWER THIS 1. A physics student wants to cool 0.25 kg of Diet Omni-Cola (mostly water), initially at 25C, by adding ice initially at - 20C. How much ice should she add so that the final temperature will be OC with all the ice melted if the heat capacity of the container may be neglected? 2. How much energy is transferred when 1 gram of steam at 100C condenses to water at 100C 3. How much energy is transferred when 1 gram of boiling water at 100C cools to ice water at OC 4. How much energy is transferred when 1 gram of ice water at OC freezes to ice at OC 5. How much energy is transferred when 1 gram o f steam at 100C turns to ice at OC