How to relieve stress in welding

Back to basics on stress relief and reducing distortion

By Tim Heston November 2, 2009

Relieving residual stress through welding technique as well as temperature control can greatly reduce weld distortion.

It's a shame arc welding works so well. It's proven, cost-effective. For many applications, nothing comes close, at least not yet. Why is it a shame? Because at the microlevel arc welding induces some serious stress, thanks to dramatic temperature changes measured in thousands of degrees. The welding gun deposits filler metal that becomes molten and expands from its previously cool state as wire or rod. Immediately after being deposited and subsequent fusion between the base and weld metal, the metal cools quickly. The high-yield-strength weld filler metal contracts, or shrinks, pulling the lower-yield base metal with it. Clamped tight, the metal may stay in place until after welding, but this doesn't make the contracting force go away. The cooled weld metal still wants to shrink. When the metal is unclamped, the weld metal pulls at the base metal, and the weld distorts. The degree to which this occurs depends on the weld joint geometry, part design, and material grade and thickness. Generally, the higher the metal's carbon content, and the more restrained a joint is, the greater the stress. Of course, the metallurgical picture is much more complicated, but that's the basic idea. Industry has numerous ways to reduce such weld stress. Any method must accomplish at least one of two things: control temperature and refine the welding procedure, both of which counteract those unavoidable forces that come from fusing two metals together with an electric arc. For this month's "How To" feature, The FABRICATOR spoke with three experts. For heating and welding technique, we spoke with Carl Smith, longtime quality manager and welding technician at Kanawha Manufacturing Co. We also spoke with two experts about some nontraditional stress relief technologies: Tom Hebel, vice president of Bonal Technologies, and Bill Kashin, territory manager for Bolttech Mannings.

1. Refine the Welding Procedure

Setup; electrode selection; along with weld type (fillet, groove, butt, etc.), size, and orientation all affect how a weld joint reacts to stress. Prebending or presetting. The base metal can be set up in such a way to compensate for weld shrinkage. For example, when two workpieces are preset with one end of the joint together and the far end of the joint slightly apart, the cooling weld metal pulls the two workpieces until, by the end of the weld, the joint is in the proper orientation. Balance the weld. Double-sided welds, such as double V-groove joints, balance induced stresses and often result in an assembly that's more stable. "This is especially true on thicker material," said Smith. "Two half-inch welds on either side of a 1-inch plate balances the weld and minimizes distortion."

Backstepping. Backstepping is a bit like moonwalking with a welding gun. You start several inches from the beginning of the joint and weld back to the edge; then go farther up the joint and weld back to where you initially struck your previous arc; then go farther up the joint and again weld back to the previous welded segment; and so on until the joint is complete. This counteracts shrinkage by focusing the initial stresses away from the workpiece edges. Intermittent welding. When intermittent or stitch welding meets the design requirements, it not only helps reduce distortion, but also uses less weld metal. Consumables. In wire welding, "you can make a 0.035-inch wire lay down just as much as a 0.045inch wire," Smith said. "You can just crank the wire feed speed." He added that lower heat input required to melt the smaller wire outweighs any heat reduction benefit that might occur with a faster travel speed using a larger wire. Weld metal: More isn't better. Codes spell out specific weld size requirements, including the maximum allowable height of the bead above the plate. The trick is to lay just enough weld metal to create the strongest jointand no more. A highly convex bead doesn't make a weld stronger, but it does increase shrinkage forces, because more high-tensile weld metal is pulling on the base metal as the weld cools. Here, technique factors in. "A multipass weld with stringer beads will create less distortion than a weave bead," Smith said. The stringer bead technique generally allows faster travel speeds, which lowers heat input. Each pass of the gun lays down less weld metal, which in turn helps control the weld size better. Welders usually weave only as a last resort, Smith said. "The cover pass on a weave bead can look better than a stringer bead, but if a welder knows what he's doing and places his stringer bead properly, he can make it look just as good as a weave bead." Exceptions abound, of course. Pipeline welders often weave downhill, but the beveled opening in a pipeline is usually much smaller than on conventional plate. And "round pieces do not distort nearly as badly as flat pieces anyway," Smith said. Still, when it comes to controlling distortion, stringer beads usually are best. "Each bead has its own level of stress," Smith explained. "The wider the bead, the more stress you're going to put into the weld, so you're going to have more 'pull,' more distortion than a smaller bead." Fit-up: Small root is best. Solidifying weld metal pulls the base metal, and that effect is exacerbated with an excessively wide root opening, especially in large weldments and in areas of poor fit-up. "Some situations don't work with a tight root," Smith said, "but usually, with today's welding machines, you can get by with a 1/16-inch root opening" in many applications. Weld from most restrained to least restrained area. This follows similar principles to that of prebending and presetting, Smith said. Consider a frame with a crosspiece going down the center. The crosspiece, surrounded by the frame, is the most restrained of all pieces in the assembly. So this crosspiece should be welded first. The centerpiece, if welded first, is less restricted by the surrounding metal and has freedom to move and expel residual stress before you go on to weld the frame.

2. Control Temperature
Preheating, maintaining temperature between weld passes (interpass temperature), and postweld heat treating (PWHT) work toward one goal: to control changes in heat levels. The more control you have over heat, the more you can counteract stress, and the less chance there is for weld distortion, especially in highly restrained joints. When you slow the cooling rate, you reduce shrinkage stresses and provide more time for hydrogen to dissipate, reducing the chance for under-bead cracking. Material factors. Predicting necessary minimum preheats, interpass temperature, and PWHT depends on the application and how restrained the joint in question is. Specific material properties affect how drastically metal will distort. These include the coefficient of thermal expansion (how much the metal expands when heated), thermal conductivity (how fast it dissipates heat), yield strength, and modulus of elasticity (material stiffness).

As a starting point, refer to the AWS D 1.1 structural welding code, Welding Handbook, guidelines published by the steelmaker, and other sources for recommended minimum preheat and interpass temperatures for specific alloys. Generally, higher carbon content equates to higher minimum preheat and interpass temperatures. Most preheating, interpass heating, and PWHT do not require maintaining a precise temperature, as long as you maintain a minimum temperature. There are exceptions, though, including quenched and tempered steels. These come to the welding station already heat-treated by the steelmaker, so preheating at a too-high temperature can destroy the material properties; in other words, quenched and tempered steel will no longer be tempered. "For instance," Smith said, "the ASTM A514 and A517 alloys should never be preheated to more than 150 degrees F above the recommended [minimum] preheat." Stainless steels can be particularly touchy. "We keep interpass temperatures below 350 degrees F," Smith explained. "We use distilled water in a spray can. Water on carbon steel causes it to crack. But it has no effect on stainless steel, as long as you use distilled water, which doesn't have any chlorine in it." Stainless's nickel and chromium content make the metal particularly sensitive to distortion, because the elements don't dissipate heat quickly. As a rule, metals that dissipate heat quickly require higher preheats. Heat-treatable aluminum alloys can be preheated to 300 to 400 degrees F as an extra precaution against cracking and, most important, to dissipate hydrogen. Aluminum oxide on the base and weld metals attracts moisture, which introduces hydrogen (the H in H2O). Because aluminum dissipates heat rapidly, hydrogen becomes trapped as the weld metal quickly cools. The slow cooling created thanks to the preheat gives time for that hydrogen to bake out of the weld. "This is why a welder may often say he's 'boiling the water' out of the material," Smith said. High-alloy materials such as chrome-moly also dissipate heat quickly and generally require high preheat temperatures. Preheating even the tack welds often is best practice, Smith said. Cracks can start in the tack and "come right through the weld and all the way to the top." He added that certain chrome-moly applications require preheats of about 400 degrees F and a postweld holding temperature of about 600 degrees F prior to stress relieving. Copper, which dissipates heat extremely quickly, requires a very high preheat "just to allow the welding filler metal to flow into the joint and form a good bond," Smith said. Copper more than 1 in. thick may require preheats up to 1,200 degrees F. (See Streamline Stress Relief section for ways to apply such high preheats directly to the workpiece, without an oven.) Coffee break effects: Keep it hot. Imagine you preheat a joint with a torch, weld a few feet, stop, take a short break, and then resume without picking up the preheat torch and heating the joint area again. To minimize distortion, you should pick up the preheat torch again to bring that material back up to the required interpass temperature. "You need to maintain the interpass temperature throughout the weld," Smith explained, adding that heat cycling is especially dangerous with chrome-moly and quenched and tempered materials. Torch preheating. When preheating with a torch, "we recommend 6 inches on either side of the weld" for large workpieces, Smith said, adding that the width of the applied preheat and specific method used depends on the workpiece material and geometry. Torch styles vary, but Smith's welders use a multiflame torch with a swirl tip and propylene gas. "The propylene gas is not as highly concentrated as acetylene," he said, "and we don't want to concentrate the heat while we're preheating." PWHT doesn't replace preheat. Postweld heat treatment and preheat complement each other, explained Smith, but they don't replace one another. It's true that in some cases localized preheat can serve as a PWHT substitute when moving the workpiece to an oven for PWHT isn't practical (think offshore oil rigs). PWHT doesn't function as a preheat substitute because it does nothing to reduce the stresses that occur just after you strike an arc on cold, unpreheated base metal. By the time PWHT is applied, it's too late to correct the problem.

3. Streamline Stress Relief

"Over the years welders have perfected techniques to relieve stress and minimize distortion: preheating in an oven or with a torch, using heat blankets, and when necessary sending parts to an

oven for postweld heat treatment. Note one common thread among all these methods: time. But certain technologies take alternative approaches that streamline the operation and even improve weld quality. Various alternatives are available, including induction-heating methods. Here, we discuss two options: resistance heating and vibration. Resistance heat control. A resistance heating pad incorporates resistance heating elements that can raise the workpiece temperature to the appropriate level before, during, and after welding, to comply with standard preheat, interpass, and PWHT practices (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). The pad incorporates interlocking beads woven together using a high-resistance wire. The unit can heat up to 1,850 degrees F. (Smith's company has used this technology to preheat thick copper plate to more than 1,000 degrees F.) A temperature controller uses a system of thermocouples spot welded to the part to read the actual metal temperature, which is monitored throughout the operation. Welders don't have to use temperature crayons to measure the preheat temperature. The pad also doesn't have to be removed during welding. As Bill Kashin of Bolttech Mannings explained, "Say you're welding two pieces of pipe together, and the code says you need to preheat it to 400 degrees F. You would attach the thermocouple, attach the heating pad, put insulation on to protect yourself, and raise the temperature up to 400 degrees F. When the heater gets to that temperature, it will cycle on and off to hold that temperature until you're finished welding." Readings from the machine also can be saved as a record of the part's temperature before, during, and after welding, helpful for code-level or insurance-related work, such as repair jobs at power plants. The pads are designed to wrap around the workpiece, with a piece of removable insulation over the joint. For preheat, the entire workpiece is covered. You then remove the insulation from the weld joint area and start welding. When you take a break, you put the insulation back over the joint to help maintain the preheat temperature. The heater pads can then be added to the weld area for stress relief, eliminating the need to transfer the part to a furnace for PWHT. Vibratory stress relief. Another technique uses something that doesn't seem to be related, but it is: vibration (see Figure 3). "Heat is vibration, according to physics," said Tom Hebel of Bonal Technologies. The more something is heated, the faster its molecules vibrate. "We induce a vibration into the part, and the part responds as if it has the same internal action when the part is heated up for heat treatment. It's a cool process, but internally, there's movement." If you vibrate metal at a certain frequency during welding, it complements the weld heat that vibrates the molten metal at the molecular level. It's roughly analogous to shaking a can of dissimilar-shaped beads or a vibratory bowl feeder in a stamping operation, which gets everything to settle and "pack down." The vibration level, Hebel said, is very specific: in the lower, or sub-harmonic, portion of the harmonic curve, just before the amplitude quickly rises and reaches the part's natural resonance. The device induces vibration into the workpiece and monitors the workpiece's reaction. The more vibration that's put into the part, the more it will absorbup to a point. "At a certain point any additional energy will cause the workpiece to throw off the energy," he said. The trick, Hebel explained, is to induce a vibration frequency that's at a specific point below its resonance point. It's here that the vibration has the greatest dampening effect, at which point it neutralizes the stress induced by the weld's heat. Most commonly, the vibratory device is applied after welding to relieve stress, essentially replacing PWHT. But it also can be applied during welding to improve weld quality through grain refinement and stress reduction. In fact, applying the right vibration during welding can eliminate the need for PWHT completely, unless tempering of the heat-affected zone is required. "When you weld you induce thermal stress," Hebel said. "So when you weld-condition [using subharmonic vibration during welding], you're eliminating the effect of thermal stress as it's induced. So

after welding, if the effects of thermal stress aren't there, why send the part to a furnace for stress relieving"" In certain applications, Hebel said, it can replace low-temperature preheating requirements, between 250 and 300 degrees F. "Because of the accelerated motion in the base material, the weldment 'thinks' it's preheated." Usually, though, the vibratory weld conditioning complements existing preheat procedures to increase weld quality. Hebel compares a large steel part with welding-induced stress to an out-of-tune instrument. After welding, temperature drops sharply. At this point within and around the heat-affected zone, the part's natural harmonic curve shifts slightly, "out of tune" with the rest of the assembly. Counteracting that effect with induced vibration during and after welding relieves stress as evidenced by the harmonic curve moving back "in tune" with the rest of the assembly.

A review of common nondestructive tests

Assessing each process, its tools, advantages, and disadvantages
By Mark Willcox, George Downes June 13, 2006

Five types of nondestructive testing are common for tube and pipe weld inspection, and each has advantages and disadvantages that may make one more suitable than another for your inspections.
Nondestructive testing is one quality control function and complements other, long-established methods. By definition, nondestructive testing is the testing of materials for surface or internal flaws or metallurgical condition without interfering in any way with the integrity of the material or its suitability for service. The technique can be applied on a sampling basis for individual investigation or may be used for 100 percent checking of material in a production quality control system. Five nondestructive testing methods are most common, and each has advantages and disadvantages that will determine whether it is suitable for your particular testing application. These techniques are: 1. Radiography 2. Magnetic particle crack detection 3. Dye penetrant testing 4. Ultrasonic flaw detection 5. Eddy current and electromagnetic testing

Radiography
Basics. Radiographic testing can detect internal defects in ferrous and nonferrous metals. X-rays, generated electrically, and gamma rays emitted from radioactive isotopes penetrate radiation that is absorbed by the material they pass through. The greater the material thickness, the greater the ray

absorption. These rays help form a latent image that can be developed and fixed in a similar way to normal photographic film. Tools. Various radiographic and photographic accessories are necessary, including radiation monitors, film markers, image quality indicators, and darkroom equipment. Radiographic film and processing chemicals also are required. Advantages. In radiographic testing, information is presented pictorially. A permanent record is provided, which can be viewed at a time and place distant from the test. This type of testing is useful for thin sections and is suitable for any material. Sensitivity is declared on each film. Disadvantages. Radiography is not suitable for several types of testing situations. For example, radiography is inappropriate for surface defects and for automation, unless the system incorporates fluoroscopy with an image intensifier or other electronic aids. Radiography generally can't cope with thick sections, and the testing itself can pose a possible health hazard. Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary, as is an exposure compound. With this method, the beam needs to be directed accurately for 2-D defects. Also, radiographic testing does not indicate the depth of a defect below the surface.

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Basics. Magnetic particle inspection can detect surface and near-surface discontinuities in magnetic material, mainly ferritic steel and iron. The principle is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the flux lines running along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect. Where the flux lines approach a discontinuity, they will stray out into the air at the mouth of the crack. The crack edge becomes magnetic attractive poles, north and south. These have the power to attract finely divided particles of magnetic material, such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are an iron oxide 20 to 30 microns in size. They are suspended in a liquid that provides mobility for them on the surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to the crack edges. However, in some instances they can be applied in a dry powder form. Tools. Basically, magnetic crack detection equipment takes two forms. First, for test pieces that are part of a large structure, or for pipes and heavy castings, for example, that can't be moved easily, the equipment takes the form of just a power pack to generate a high current. For factory applications on smaller, more manageable test pieces, bench-type equipment with a power pack, an indicating ink system that recirculates the fluid, and facilities to grip the workpiece and apply the current flow or magnetic flux flow in a methodical, controlled manner generally is preferred. Advantages. Magnetic particle inspection generally is simple to operate and apply. This testing is quantitative, and it can be automated, apart from viewing. However, modern developments in automatic defect recognition can be used in parts with simple geometries, such as billets and bars. In this case, a special camera captures the defect indication image and processes it for further display and action. Disadvantages. This type of nondestructive testing is restricted to ferromagnetic materials, as well as to surface or near-surface flaws. Magnetic particle inspection is not fail-safe; lack of indication can mean that no defects exist, or that the process wasn't carried out properly.

Dye Penetrant Testing

Basics. Dye penetrant testing is used frequently to detect surface-breaking flaws in nonferromagnetic materials. The part to be tested must be cleaned chemically, usually by vapor phase, to remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, and other contaminants from the surface, generally, but also from within the cracks. Next, the penetrant, which is a fine, thin oil usually dyed bright red or ultraviolet fluorescent, is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for about 15 minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack during this period. The surplus penetrant on the surface then is removed completely, and a thin coating of powdered chalk is applied. After the appropriate development time, the chalk draws the dye out of the crack to form a visual indication, magnified in width, in contrast to the background. Tools. Various substances can be used and may be applied in many ways, from simple application with aerosol spray cans to more sophisticated means, such as dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis. More sophisticated methods require tanks, spraying, and drying equipment.

Advantages. A quantitative analysis, dye penetrant testing is simple to do and is a good way to detect surface-breaking cracks in nonferrous metals. It's suitable for automatic testing, but with the same limitations that apply to automatic defect recognition in magnetic particle inspection. Disadvantages. Dye penetrant testing is restricted to surface-breaking defects only. It is less sensitive than some other methods and uses a considerable amount of consumables.

Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

Basics. This technique detects internal and surface (particularly distant-surface)defects in soundconducting materials. A short pulse of ultrasound is generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezoelectric crystal, which vibrates for a very short period at a frequency related to the thickness of the crystal. This pulse takes a finite time to travel through the material to the interface and to be reflected back to the probe. Probing all faces of a test piece reveals the 3-D defect, measures its depth, and determines its size. Tools. Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors are fully solid-state, can be battery-powered, and generally are built to withstand work site conditions. The process can be automated and now is used in many foundries. Advantages. Ultrasonic flaw detection can be used to test thickness and length up to 30 feet. This type of testing can determine defect position, size, and type. It's a portable type of testing that offers extreme sensitivity when required and can be fully automated. Access to only one side is necessary for testing, and no consumables are used. Disadvantages. No permanent record is available unless one of the more sophisticated test results and data collection systems is used. The operator can decide whether or not the test piece is defective while the test is in progress. Test indications require interpretation, except for digital wall thickness gauges. A considerable degree of skill is necessary to get the most information from the test. Finally, very thin sections can be difficult to test with this method.

Eddy Current Testing

Basics. The eddy current technique can detect surface or subsurface flaws and measure conductivity and coating thickness. This testing is sensitive to a test piece's material conductivity, permeability, and dimensions. For surface testing for cracks in single or complex-shaped components, coils with a single ferrite-cored winding normally are used. The probe is placed on the component and "balanced" by use of the electronic unit controls. As the probe is scanned across the surface of the component, cracks are detected. Tools. Most eddy current electronics have a phase display that allows the operator to identify defect conditions. Some units can inspect a product simultaneously at two or more different test frequencies. These units allow specific, unwanted effects to be electronically canceled to give improved defect detection. Most automated systems are for components with simple geometries. Advantages. Suitable for automation, eddy current testing can determine a range of conditions of the conducting material, such as defects, composition, hardness, conductivity, and permeability. Information can be provided in simple terms, often go or no-go. Phase display electronic units can be used to obtain greater product information. Compact, portable testing units are available, and this type of testing doesn't require consumables, except for probes, which sometimes can be repaired. This technique is flexible because of the many probes and test frequencies that can be used for different applications. Disadvantages. Many parameters can affect the eddy current responses. This means that the signal from a desired material characteristic (for example, a crack) may be masked by an unwanted parameter, such as hardness change. Careful probe and electronics selection is necessary in some applications. Also, tests generally are restricted to surface-breaking conditions and slightly subsurface flaws.

Weld inspection before you weld

Using procedure qualification testing to standardize welding processes
By Paul Cameron April 11, 2006

Although it takes effort and time, procedure qualification testing can help you standardize your welding procedures and know what to expect when it comes to the quality of your manufactured parts.
While patrolling a shop floor playing "parameter police," a welding inspector may commonly hear questions like "Why can't I run my machine above XXX wire feed speed?" or "XX volts?" Welding parameters aren't guidelines merely plucked out of thin air; they are developed and determined after much trial and error. By standardizing the welding procedures you use to manufacture your products, you'll have a model that everyone can turn to for quality assurance.

Procedure Qualification Options

Procedure qualification can be performed in one of three main ways: 1. Prequalified Joint Procedures. As the name suggests, prequalified procedures have been tested in advance. Although they're convenient to follow, requirements still must be met. For example, one requirement that often is overlooked or misunderstood is that the procedure must be written. Just pointing to the "good book" isn't nearly enough. Written requirements are laid out clearly in the applicable code or specification.

A welder conducts a GMAW fillet weld test.

For this type of procedure qualification, the American Welding Society (AWS) has determined that, within a given set of circumstances, additional testing is not required. 2. Prototype Testing. Although initially economical, prototype testing can be limiting because only those conditions that are tested can be qualified. Any changes require additional testing, which can change the economics of prototype testing significantly. For example, off-road, agriculture, and construction equipment manufacturers often qualify a process through "push" testingbuilding a structure, documenting the entire fabrication process (joint by joint), and submitting the structure to several destructive tests. When the structure survives the test requirements, the procedure is qualified. As the component goes into production, all conditions used in the initial test must be maintained during fabrication. Significant changes in production can require additional testing. 3. Procedure Qualification Testing. Procedure qualification testing initially can be costly and time-consuming, but it can be used to develop standard weld procedures that cover all joints, consumables, and positions (conditions) used in production. Procedure qualification testing is a test or series of tests that are performed, documented on a procedure qualification report (PQR), and then turned into a weld procedure specification (WPS) or a series of them.

Procedure Qualification Testing: The Basics

In procedure qualification testing, you may find it helpful to try to complete all testing using readily available resources. Completing testing on one groove weld typically qualifies all groove types and fillets.

Changes in essential variables, however, often require additional testing. For example, in the off-road, agriculture, and construction equipment manufacturing industry, customers often require fillet welds to obtain penetration beyond the root, typically 1.5 millimeters. Many codes and standards require penetration to the root, "... but not necessarily beyond ... ." These same books also may say something like "... joint penetration ... beyond the root ... determined from a significant number of cross-sectioned samples ... ." With an additional customer requirement such as this, you may need to complete both groove and fillet weld testing when creating a standard WPS. Standard weld procedure testing requires the following samples: One test plate for each position One test plate for each process One test plate per wire type and diameter But if your customer requires additional fillet weld testing, you must complete the following: One test plate per position (as per standard weld procedure) Two test plates per fillet size (one single pass, one multipass)

More Customer Requirements: An Example

Crenlo LLC, a cab and canopy manufacturer based in Rochester, Minn., supplies to off-road, agriculture, and construction equipment manufacturers. The company welds grooves in the flat (1G) and horizontal (2G) positions, and fillets in the flat (1F), horizontal (2F), and overhead (4F) positions. The shop runs on a bulk 90 percent argon/10 percent CO2 mixture and typically uses a 0.035-inchdiameter ER70S-6 filler metal. After consulting a wire manufacturer and other industry professionals, Crenlo engineers determined that a 550-in.-per-minute (IPM) wire feed speed (WFS) and 27 volts should yield the best results. Let's say you want to develop a weld procedure for gas metal arc welding (GMAW) high-strength, lowalloy (HSLA) carbon steel. You need to develop this procedure for both groove and fillet welds. First you should know what a test sample will look like and how many samples you're going to need.

Figure 1
For the groove welds, use one test sample for the flat (1G) position and one for the horizontal (2G) position (see Figure 1).

Figure 2
For fillet welds, you'll need samples in the flat (1F), horizontal (2F), and overhead (4F) positions. You'll also need a sample for each weld size, and on that sample you'll weld a single-pass fillet on one side

and a multipass fillet (if applicable) on the other. In this case, you'll want to qualify 5- through 13-mm fillets (see Figure 2). So that's a total of two grooves and 24 fillets26 tests. What if you want to qualify a higher WFS? According to most codes and standards, 550 IPM qualifies in the range between 495 and 605 IPM. If you want to run a WFS at 650 IPM or more, you'll need to do another 26 test samples. The same applies if you want to use a 0.045-in.-dia. wire, a cored wire, or change another variable Standard weld procedures are fairly labor-intensive, but the finished WPS will be out of the way and ready to be applied across the board whenever you encounter similar essential variables.

Performing Qualifications
In procedure qualification testing, you'll encounter two main types of qualifications: fillet weld and groove weld. Fillet Weld Qualification. Fillet weld qualification is pretty straightforward (see Figure 3). For each weld size, make a singlepass fillet weld on one side of the test plate and a multi-pass fillet on the opposite side (see lead photo). Then simply cut and etch the sample as required in your code or A standard and document the results with a digital camera. Use caution when dealing with etching solutions. Strictly follow the instructions and safety requirements laid out by your code or standard.

Figure 3 T joint is used for fillet welding.

Groove Weld Qualification. As previously mentioned, it may be beneficial to use materials readily available in your shop for your testing. For example, if your shop uses a lot of tubing, you can use sections of 4-in. by 4-in. by 3/8-in. tubing for your groove testing (see Figure 4). The tubes, laid side by side, can create a good flare V groove, and you won't need to bevel the plates or fabricate separate backing (see Figure 5). If you use tubing, watch where you place the tubing's welded seam. You don't want it to be located in such a way that it will influence your bend and pull tests. If you place the seams face-to-face, you'll be sure of their location and know that you'll cut them out later. After you've tacked your samples together, always, always, always mark each coupon with a steel stamp. For example, you can use a two-digit number for the sample and 1 through 6 for the individual coupon, increasing in number in the direction of the weld (23-1, 23-2, 23-3, and so on) (see Figure 6). These will be cut from the finished weld later. Next collect and log all required data per pass, by sample: preheat and interpass temperatures, WFS, voltage, travel speed, electrode stick-out, everything. This system will help you if you're left with a pile of bent and broken coupons and have to figure out what went wrong. That's no time to wonder if you have the right coupon.

Figure 4 This 4-in. by 4-in. by 3/8-in. tubing is used to weld a flare V-groove test plate in the overhead (4G) position.

Once you finish welding, perform the first required test: visual examination. All test samples must meet visual acceptance criteria first. If any test sample (fillet or groove) is not visually acceptable, you must discard it. Figure out why it wasn't visually acceptable, correct your process, and make another test sample. Never continue testing on a sample that isn't considered visually acceptable. Your code or standard may require radiographic evaluation. If so, perform this next. Remove all portions of the tube that don't make up the test sample, clean them up, and ship them off (see Figure 7). If you use tubing, this can require a lot of whittling hopefully you're good with an oxyfuel torch. As with visual evaluation, if your test samples don't pass radiographic evaluation, don't take additional action on the test sample. Figure out what went wrong and make a new test plate.

Figure 5 This 4-in. by 4-in. by 3/8-in. tubing is used to weld a flare V-groove test plate in the overhead (4G) position.

Figure 6 Figure 7 Mark each test sample's coupons This test sample has been with a steel stamp so you can trace removed from the tubing and is each coupon back to its ready to be cut with a saw. corresponding test.
After you successfully complete these tests, you'll need to start cutting your individual coupons. Your code or specification will dictate exact coupon size and location. Typically, you'll need four coupons for bending and two for tensile testing. Next, move on to etch testing. Bend and tensile testing comes next. Bend testing equipment is fairly inexpensive and often can be fabricated in-house; documentation is on the market for the equipment's dimensional requirements. Tensile testing equipment isn't as economical, but many companies can perform this type of testing. Finally, collect and document all test data on a procedure qualification report (PQR) and develop your WPS per your code or standard. Educate your inspectors, supervisors, and welders about the allowed parameters and the need to stay within them. Although many steps are necessary to complete procedure qualification testing, this process will help ensure that your WPS meets the requirements of the codes and standards you create product to and will serve your company and customers for years to come.

What welding inspectors should know about welding codes and standards
What they are, when they're used, and how they're developed
By Tony Anderson January 24, 2002

Many aspects of welded component design and fabrication are governed by documents known as codes and standards.
Many aspects of welded component design and fabrication are governed by documents known as codes and standards. End users or purchasers often specify these documents in a contractual agreement to control the characteristics of the welded component that may affect its service requirements. Manufacturers also use them to assist in the development and implementation of their welding quality systems. Many end users of welded components have developed and issued specifications that address their own requirements. However, national interest in areas such as public safety and reliability has promoted the development of welding codes and standards that command industrywide or national recognition. For example, national engineering and technical societies have developed numerous committees that continue to evaluate the needs of industry and develop new welding codes and standards. The members of these committees are technical experts and represent all interested parties, such as manufacturers, end users, inspection authorities, and government agencies. After a committee completes a new or revised document, it usually is reviewed and approved by a review committee and published in the name of the applicable engineering society if it is accepted. Legislative bodies or federal regulating agencies sometimes adopt documents that have significant influence on public health and safety. In those jurisdictions, such documents become law and often are referred to as codes or regulations. Welding inspectors should know which codes and standards are applicable within their jurisdiction, understand the requirements of the relevant documents, and perform their inspections accordingly.

Sources of Welding Codes and Standards

Following are some of the more popular sources of welding codes and standards in the U.S. American Welding Society (AWS). AWS publishes many documents addressing welding use and quality control. These documents include such general subjects as welding definitions and symbols, classification of filler metals, qualification and testing, welding processes, welding applications, and safety. American Society of MechanicalEngineers (ASME). This society is responsible for the development of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which contains 11 sections and covers the design, construction, and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels. ASME also produces the Code for Pressure Piping, which consists of seven sections, each prescribing the minimum requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, testing, and inspection of a particular type of piping system. American Petroleum Institute (API). This institute publishes many documents relating to petroleum production, a number of which include welding requirements. The most well-known is possibly API Std 1104Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities.

Typical Welding Code and Standard Content

The specific content and requirements of a welding code or standard can vary in detail, but they have some basic elements in common. Scope and General Requirements. This usually is found at the beginning of the document and typically describes the type and extent of welding fabrication for which the document should be used. It also may explain limitations for the document's use.

Design. If the document provides a section for design, it may contain minimum requirements for the design of specific welded connections, or it may refer the user to a secondary source of information. Qualification. This section typically outlines the requirements for qualification testing of welding procedure specifications, as well as the requirements for qualifying welders. It may provide the essential variables, which typically have change limitations of each variable that govern the extent of qualification. Essential variables typically include: The welding process Base metal type and thickness Filler metal type Electrical parameters Joint design Welding position This section of the document also may provide the qualification testing requirements, which usually are divided into welding procedure and welder performance. Typically, it provides the types and sizes of test samples to be welded and prepared for testing, the testing methods to be used, and the minimum acceptance criteria to be used for evaluating the test samples. Fabrication. This section, when included in the document, typically discusses fabrication methods or workmanship standards. It may contain information and requirements for base materials, welding consumables, shielding gas quality, and heat treatment. Inspection. This section of the document usually addresses the welding inspector's qualification requirements and responsibilities, acceptance criteria for weld discontinuities, and the requirements for nondestructive testing procedures.

Opportunities to Improve Weld Quality and Reliability

Welding fabricators often use welding codes and standards to achieve process control to meet the requirements of ISO 9000 and other quality management systems. Often the major elements of process control specified by quality management systems are the same elements addressed in welding codes and standards: Production procedures must be documented. For welding, this is the welding procedure specification. Criteria for workmanship must be stipulated in the clearest practical manner. For welding, this may be the code or standard acceptance criteria. Personnel must be qualified. This may be addressed by the welder performance qualification. Regardless of a fabricator's overall quality system, selection of the appropriate welding codes and standards can help improve welding quality and reliability even more.

Welders turn to induction heating for preheating, stress relieving

By Mike Roth November 15, 2001

This article discusses using induction heating for preheating and (postheating) stress relief of welds. It focuses on what this technology is, how it works, and how it can be used in an industrial

setting. This article also gives several real-life examples of how the technology has been used in actual applications.
Although many industries have used induction heating for decades (see Sidebar), it is a newcomer to industrial and construction applications involving welding. Some companies with welding-intensive operations now use induction heating for preheating before welding and stress relieving (i.e., postheating) after welding.

Induction Heating: How It Works

Induction heating systems use noncontact heating. They induce heat electromagnetically rather than using a heating element in contact with a part to conduct heat, as does resistance heating. Induction heating acts more like a microwave oven the appliance remains cool while the food cooks from within. In an industrial example of induction heating, heat is induced in the part by placing it in a highfrequency magnetic field. The magnetic field creates eddy currents inside the part, exciting the part's molecules and generating heat. Because heating occurs slightly below the metal surface, no heat is wasted. Induction heating's similarity to resistance heating is that conduction is required to heat through the section or part. The only difference is the source of heat and the temperatures of the tool. The induction process heats within the part, and the resistance process heats on the surface of the part. The depth of heating depends on the frequency. High-frequency (e.g., 50 kHz) heats close to the surface, while low-frequency (e.g., 60 Hz) penetrates deeper into the part, placing the heating source up to 3 mm deep, which allows heating of thicker parts. The induction coil does not heat up because the conductor is large for the current being carried. In other words, the coil does not need to heat up to heat the workpiece.

Induction Heating System Components

Induction heating systems can be air- or liquid-cooled, depending on application requirements. A key component common to both systems is the induction coil used to generate heat within the part. Air-cooled System. A typical air-cooled system consists of a power source (5 kW or 25 kW), induction blanket, and associated cables. The induction blanket consists of an induction coil surrounded by insulation and sewn into a high-temperature, replaceable Kevlar sleeve. This type of induction system can include a controller to monitor and automatically control temperature. A system not equipped with a controller requires the use of a temperature indicator. The system also could include a remote on-off switch. Air-cooled systems can be used for applications up to 400 degrees F, designating it as a preheat-only system. Liquid-cooled System. Because liquid cools more efficiently than air, this type of induction heating system is suitable for applications requiring higher temperatures, such as high-temperature preheating and stress relieving. The principal differences from an air-cooled system are the addition of a water cooler and the use of a flexible, liquid-cooled hose that houses the induction coil. Liquidcooled systems also generally use a temperature controller and built-in temperature recorder, particularly important components in stress-relieving applications. The typical stress-relieving procedure requires a step to 600 to 800 degrees F, followed by a ramp or controlled temperature rise to a soak temperature of approximately 1,250 degrees. After a hold time, the part is control-cooled to between 600 and 800 degrees. The temperature recorder collects data on the part's actual temperature profile based on a thermocouple input, a quality assurance requirement for stress-relieving applications. The type of work and the applicable code determine the actual procedure.

Induction Heating's Benefits

Induction heating offers numerous benefits, including good heat uniformity and quality, reduced cycle time, and long-lasting consumables. Induction heating is also safe, reliable, easy to use, power-efficient, and versatile. Uniformity and Quality. Induction heating is not particularly sensitive to coil placement or spacing. Generally, the coils should be spaced evenly and centered on the weld joint. On systems so equipped, a temperature controller can establish the power requirement in an analog fashion, providing just enough power to maintain the temperature profile. The power source provides power during the entire process. Cycle Time. The induction method of preheating and stress relieving provides relatively quick time-to-temperature. On thicker applications, such as high-pressure steam lines, induction heating can slash two hours from cycle time. It is possible to reduce cycle time from the control temperature to soak temperature. Consumables. The insulation used in induction heating is easy to attach to workpieces and can be reused many times. In addition, induction coils are robust and do not require fragile wire or ceramic materials. Also, because the induction coils and connectors do not operate at high temperatures, they are not subject to degradation. Ease of Use. A major benefit of induction preheating and stress relieving is its simplicity. Insulation and cables are simple to install, usually taking less than 15 minutes. In some cases, how to use the induction equipment can be taught in one day. Power Efficiency. The inverter power source is 92 percent efficient, a critical advantage in an era of skyrocketing energy costs. Additionally, the induction heating process is more than 80 percent efficient. Regarding power input, the induction process requires only a 40-amp line for 25 kW of power. Safety. Preheating and stress relieving through the induction method is worker-friendly. Induction heating does not require hot heating elements and connectors. Very little airborne particulate is associated with the insulation blankets, and the insulation itself is not exposed to temperatures higher than 1,800 degrees, which can cause insulation to break down into dust that workers may inhale. Reliability. One of the most important factors impacting productivity in stress relieving is an uninterrupted cycle. In most instances cycle interruption means the heat treat will need to be rerun, which is significant when a thermal cycle can take a day to complete. The induction heating system components make cycle interruptions unlikely. The cabling for induction is simple, making it less likely to fail. Also, no contactors are used to control the heat input to the part. Versatility. In addition to using induction heating systems to preheat and stress relieve pipe, users have adapted the process for weldolets, elbows, valves, and other parts. One of the aspects of induction heating that makes it attractive for complex shapes is the ability to adjust the coils during the heating process to accommodate unique parts and heat sinks. The operator can start the process, determine the effects of the heating process in real time, and modify the coil position to change the result. The induction cables can be moved without waiting for air cooling at the end of the cycle.

Induction Heating in Welding Applications

This technology has proved itself on a number of projects, including oil and gas pipelines, heavy equipment construction, and maintenance and repair of mining equipment.

Oil Pipeline. A North American oil pipeline maintenance operation needed to heat pipe before welding encirclement repair sleeves or STOPPLE fittings to the pipeline's 48-in. girth. While workers could make many repairs without having to stop oil flow or drain it from the pipe, the presence of the crude itself hampered welding efficiency because the flowing oil absorbed the heat. Propane torches required constant interruption of welding to maintain heat, and resistance heating while providing continuous heat often could not meet required weld temperatures. The maintenance company turned to induction heating as a solution (see Figure 1). Workers used two 25-kW systems with parallel blankets to obtain a preheat temperature of 125 degrees on encirclement sleeve repairs. As a result, they reduced cycle time from eight to 12 hours to four hours per girth weld. Preheating for a STOPPLE fitting (a T junction with valve) repair was even more challenging because of the fitting's greater wall thickness. With induction heating, however, the company used four 25-kW systems with a paralleled blanket setup. They used two systems on each side of the T. One system was used on the main line to preheat the oil, and the second was used to preheat the T at the circumferential weld joint. The preheat temperature was 125 degrees. This reduced the weld time from 12 to 18 hours to seven hours per girth weld. Natural Gas Pipeline. A natural gas pipeline construction project entailed building a 36-in.diameter, 0.633-in.-thick pipeline from Alberta, Canada, to Chicago. On one stretch of this pipeline, the welding contractor used two 25-kW power sources mounted on a tractor with the induction blankets attached to booms for speed and convenience. The power sources preheated both sides of the pipe joint. Critical to this process were speed and reliable temperature control. As alloy content increases in materials to reduce weight and weld time, and to increase part life, controlling preheat temperatures becomes more critical. This induction heating application it required less than three minutes to obtain the 250-degree preheat temperature. Heavy Equipment. A heavy equipment manufacturer often welded adapter teeth onto its loader bucket edges. The tack-welded assembly had been moved back and forth to a large furnace, requiring the welding operator to wait while the part was reheated repeatedly. The manufacturer opted to try induction heating to preheat the assembly to prevent movement of the product (see Figure 2).

Figure 1: Induction heating maintains the desired preheat temperature throughout the welding process while several welders work to complete the girth welds.

Figure 2: The induction preheat blanket maintains the temperature of the bucket edge during the attachment of teeth.

The material was 4 in. thick with a high required preheat temperature because of alloy content. Customized induction blankets were developed to meet the application requirements. The insulation and coil design provided the added benefit of shielding the operator from the part's radiant heat. Overall, operations were considerably more efficient, reducing welding time and maintaining temperature throughout the welding process. Mining Equipment. A mine had been experiencing cold-cracking problems and preheating inefficiency using propane heaters in its repair operations of mining equipment. Welding operators had to remove a conventional insulating blanket from the thick part frequently to apply heat and keep the part at the correct temperature.

The mine opted to try induction heating using flat, aircooled blankets to preheat the parts before welding. The induction process applied heat to the part quickly. It also could be used continuously during the welding process. Weld repair time was reduced by 50 percent. In addition, the power source was equipped with a temperature controller to keep the part at the target temperature. This almost eliminated rework caused by cold cracking. The company reported an annual savings of $80,000.

Power Plant.
A power plant builder was constructing a natural gas power facility in California. Boilermakers and pipefitters had been experiencing construction delays due to the preheating and stress-relieving methods they were employing on the plant's steam lines. The company brought in induction heating technology in an attempt to increase efficiency, particularly for work on medium to large steam lines, as these pieces take the most heat-treating time required on a job site.

On a typical 16-in. weldolet with a 2-in. wall thickness, induction heating was able to shave two hours off the time-to-temperature (600 degrees) and another hour to reach soak temperature (600 degrees to 1,350 degrees) for stress relieving. The simplicity of wrapping the induction blankets around complex shapes further reduced the time to perform the heat treat (see Figure 3). It took the fitters 15 minutes to wrap a joint that previously had required two workers two hours to prepare.

Figure 3: The simplicity of wrapping the induction blankets around complex shapes, such as at this natural gas power plant, can reduce heat-treating time.