ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL

-I--~~ -p---I-I _1 --

U
I

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

FRENCH INDO- CHINA

SECTION 1: GEOGRAPHICAL

SSOCIAL BACKGROUND

'U!

of restricted matter. - The information conIDissemination tained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press (See also par. 18b, except by authorized military public relations agencies. AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

HEADQUARTERS,

ARMY SERVICE FORCES,

21

APRIL

1944

ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL

---~-Y-C. -s --~ ~C~ --9-

356-1 M
Civil Affairs

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

FRENCH INDO-CHINA
SECTION 1: GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND

----- ---

I-

HEADQUARTERS,

ARMY SERVICE FORCES,

21

APRIL

1944

. . * Oissemination of restricted matter. - The information contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press (See also par. 18b, except by authorized military public relations agencies. AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

ji

NUMBERING SYSTEM OF ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUALS

The main subject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is indi-

cated by consecutive numbering within the following categories;

Ml M100 M200 M300 M400 MSOO M600 M7OO M800 X4900

M99 M199 M299 M399 M499 M599 M699 M799 M899 up

Basic and Advanced Training Army Specialized Training Program and PreInduction Training Personnel and Morale Civilian Affairs Supply and Transportation Fiscal Procurement and Production Administration Miscellaneous Equipment, Materiel, Housing and Construction

HEADQUARTERS,

ARMY SERVICE FORCES wiashington, D. C. April 21, 1944.

Army Service Forces Manual M 359 - 1. Civil Affairs Handbook, Geographical and Social Background in French Indo-China., has been prepared under the supervision of the Provost Marshal General, and is published for the information and guidance of all concerned. aSPX 461 (21 Sep 43),] General SOMERVELL:

By command of Lieutenant

1r. STYER, D.
Major General, General Staff
Chief of Staff.

-Ei

: "ilt

OFFICIAL: J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General.

This study on Geographical and Social Background in 1'renich Indo-China was prepared for the MILITARY GOVIIRNMENT DIVISION, OTFIC~r 0O' THE by the

PROVOST'

MARSHAL GENERAL

1'AR EASTERN UNIT 0O' THE BUREAU OF FOREI GN AND) DOMESTIC COMMERCE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT 0O' COM ERCE

OFIICERS USING THI S MATERIAL ARE REQUESTED TO MAKE SUIGGESTI ONS AINfl
CRITICISMS INDICATING THE REVISIONS OR ADDITIONS

WHICH W4OUD

MAKE

11I S

MATERIAL MORE USEFUL FOR THEIR PURPOSES.

THE SE

CRITICISMS SH OULD BE

SENT TO THE CHIEF 01' THE LIAI SON AIM STUDIES BRANCH, MILITARY GOVERNMENT DIVISION, PMGO, 2807 MUNITIONS BUILDING,

WASHINGTON

25, D. 0.

iv

INTRODUCTION
Purposes of the Civil Affairs Handbook. The basic purposes of civil affairs officers are (1) to assist the Commanding General by quickly establishing those orderly conditions which will contribute most effectively to the conduct of military operations, (2) to reduce to a minimum the human suffering and the material damage to create the conditions which will make

resulting from disorder, and (3) it possible

for civilian agencies to function effectively. of Civil Affairs Handbooks is a part of the effort to

The preparation carry

out these responsibilities

as efficiently

and humanely as possible. -(which will should be clearly depend upon understood

The Handbooks

do not deal with plans or policies developments). It proram

changing and unpredictable

that they do not imply any

iven official

of action.

They are

rather ready reference source books containing the basic factual information

needed for planning and policy making.

C I V ILAFFAIRS

HANDBOOK S
O UT LI N E

T O P ICAL

1.

Geogranhicalad Social Backgrounid

2. Government and Administration

3.

Legal Affairs

4. Government Finance 5. Money and Banking

6. Natural Resource 7. Agriculture 8. Industry and Commerce 9.. Labor 10. Public Works and Utilities Transportation Systems Communications Public Health and Sanitation Public Safety

11.
12. 13. 14.

16. 1?.

Public Welfare Cultural Institutions

This study on Geographical and Social Background in French Indo-China was prepared for the MILITARY GOVERNMENT DIVISIONI, OFFICE OF THE PROVOST
MARSHAL

(XITRAL

by the

FAR

EASTERN tNI'~ OF THE BURJAU OP FORE.+IGN AND) DOMESTIC

COMMFJRCE, U. S. DEPARTMEN~T OF COMMERCE.

vii

TABLi{ 01' CONTENTTS

Page I. TE A. LANID Boundaries and Frontier Disputes 1. Boundary Disputes 2. Railways, Roads and Airlines across Boundaries Territorial Divisions 1.. Natural Divisions 2. Economic Divisions 3. Ethnic and Religious Divisions a. Annanese b. Cambodians c. Laotians and other ThMt d. Minor Tribes e. Chinese f. Wrench 4. Political and Administrative Divisions a. Cochinchina b. Cambodia 1 1 3 4 7

B.

7
12 17 17 20 21 22 22 23 26 27 27

c.
d.

Annam
Tonkin

32
32

e.
II.
THEI PEOPLE6

Laos

32

A. B.

Population Statistics Cultural Characteristics 1. The 1lmiy 2. Church and Religion 3. Social Stratification 4. Qsxasi-public and Private Organisations

36 46 46 49 50 57

5.
6. 7. 8. 9, III.

Outstanding Qalities

and Habits

59
62 63 65 66

General Living Conditions Attitudes towards the Wiar and various Belligerents Languages Racial Conflicts and Discriminations

TABLES 1. Distances by Sea from Haiphong and Saigon 2. Population according to Ethnic Groups 3. Birthplace of Europeans and "Assimilees."

6 19 24

-viii

page 4.. Number of Thiropeans and "Assimilees" by Professions 5. European and Assimilated Population by State and Nationality 6. Controlled Migration of Poreign Asiatics 25 44 47

IV.

0HRT S 1. Structure of Government in Prench Indo-China 2. Local, Administration ILLUSTRA'IONS 1. Annam Coast 2. Village of Hongay 3. Cambodian Dancers 4. Ceremony at Annam Capital 5. Primitive Transportation 6. Small Canal 7. Coronation Ceremony 8. Tribespeople from the Hills 9. Street Scene, Savannaklhek 10, Ruins of Anigkor-Vat 11. Coastal Approaches below Haiphong 12. Coffee Plantation and Modern larms 13. Panoramic View near Lao Kay MAPS 1. Southeast Asia, 1940 2. Rainfall and Winds 3. Relief and Drainage 4. Mineral Resources 5. Vegetation 6. Population Density: Annam Cambodia Cochinchina Tonkin Laos APPENDIX 1. Table of Area, Population and Density of Population by Province, 1936 GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY!

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

H U NA

I K/ANGSI?

s .G tWEY;?

oo/ MANNINFOR

/(JAPAN) 11/A (~i A )

OS
A

GoANDAL

ALAO-KA( 'L

~L ~ NG
,

o AMCHOP

'HCN _

N >~ T , "l Q-'ONG

(BRITISH)

KONG
e

TA TS
PftAANC

HlNOI

JHAIPH~ONC

(FRENCH)

GULF OF.

f u

tR

N C H :

[N

t APA ci

SSAP

BANGNEKERLAND o A
1
PENHAAY

IND(AI',?
BAY A\NENED BCM-THAH
70
-

941 / YS ( S.

SOURCE: VIRGINIA THOMPSe"'; Ph.D., PSTMORTEM ON MALAYA, 1943(36)

(23166)

slq! -X ~t

A view along the Annam coast, Nha Trang.

showing section of Mandarin road,

near

The native village of Hongay, Tonking coast just north of Haiphong.

1I3NCH INDOCHINA

GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGRO'N

I. The Land,

French Indochina

is

literally

the southeast corner of Asia,

Lying

between 80301 and 230241 north latitude, it miles from north to south. deltas.--that

stretches approximately 1000 standpoint the two river

From the economic

of the Red River

in Tonkin, at the north, and that of the For this reason,

Mekong in Cochinchina at, the south.--are outstanding.

and because of the ilAnnamite Chain" of mountains between the two deltas, the country has been referred to as "Two baskets of rice balanced on a pole". That popular description, however, fails to include a large area

of northwestern Indochina, consisting of backward, mountainous and almost trackless Laos. American Consul Roberts described the chief geographical

features as follows: "French Indochina at first glance appears a contrast of mountains and valleys, plateaus and alluvial plains, rivers and mountain chains, elevations and depressions. Low alluvial plains form the center of all of Cochinchina, the littoral plains of North Annam Cambodia, nearly This area is but a small part of French Indochina but and Lower Tonkin. because of its rich, easily wooded soil supports by far the larger part of the population. The rest of Indochina presents a confused and baffling aspect. The lofty Cardamon Mountains range along the Gulf of Siam The still higher and much longer Annamite Chain skirts coast of Cambodia. Moving more to the north the relief becomes even more the Annam coast, of Upper the mountainous country covering all complicated and develops into
Laos, North Ahnam, and the largest part of Tonkin. system cut In the mountain by valleys there are several high plateaus."

A.

Boundaries and frontier Districts3 Indochina is well provided with natural boundaries. To theeast

and

south the Gilf the long

of Tonkin,

the

China

3ea and the Gulf of Thailand the boundary

bound

seacoast.

To

the west

the Mekong now forms

1-

2-

between Indochina Burma- Indochina latitude. treaty

and its

neighbors Burma and Thailand just

from the Ohin&at 130

border to a point

below Stung Treng,

501

north

From that point the border, as demarcated by the March 11, 1941 dictated by the Japanese to the Thai and french contestants, runs

&ue west to a point just northwest of the ruins of Angkor Wet, then turns
south, skirting the western end of the Grand Lac (sometimes, accurately, called the Tonle

not very

Sap) and then proceeds southwest to the

Gulf of

Thailand., Whereas the former boundary, including considerable

areas of the Cambodian plain now part of Thailand, was mostly along a watershed, the new boundary is definitely political, not geographic. The northern boundary is basis, China, similarly devoid of a clear geographic

The various peoples of Indo-China were themselves immigrants from and the boundary between Tonkin and the Chinese provindes of Kwang.-

tung and Annam was fixed in

240 A.D.

11

This boundary line starts

near

Moncay, on the Gulf of Tonkin, and crosses rice plains and rolling hills as far as Lao Ky, on the Red River and the Haiphongs.bKunming railway,
for a few miles,

It

separates Tonkin from Kwangtung Province p China,

and then after

for over half the distance to Lao Kay it touches Kwangsi Province, which Yunnan is Indochina 3 . neighbor.

Before reaching Lao Kay the border

skirts high mountains, and in this sense the boundary is a natural one, After Lao Kay higher elevations are encountered, as the border continues to cross rivers and mountain ranges. The point which marks the common

boundaries of Indochina, Burma and China is on the Mekong, at about 210 35,

N, 1010 101 B.

A. H.

Brodrick,

"Little China,. 1941, p.

193.

r'" ,I I

-3-

I.

Boundary Dfisutes

The only boundry

dispute of importance in Cambodia, occuping the

the past century has been that with Thailand,, southwestern part of Indochina,

is inhabited by a race which is distinct leading race of Indochina,

from the Thai and also from the Ann'amese--.-.the

There being no clear geographical barrier between the Mekong and the Menam, in their lower reaches, the boundary has shifted back and forth, both because of wars and because of Far Eastern "power politics". The Khmer

or Cambodian empire which built Angkor Wat in its heyday had fallen upon evil times, and was tributary now to the Annamese and now to the Thai, When the French occupied Cochinchina left temporarily without rivals in in the past centurey the Thai were

dealing with the weak emperor of Cam-. visited

bodia,

but in 1863 Admiral de la Grandiere

ling Norodom with the

Vicar Apostolic as interpreter and adviser. was about to crown the king, Le

The following year, as Siam

ree,_ the Admiral's representative, occupied Siam protested and renounced

the capital with marines and hoisted the tricolor.

reserved rights to Battambang and Angkor, and in 1867 the Thai

tribute and recognized the French protectorate in exchan ,

Angkor and the Laos territory, fart the north, which Mekong.

or Battembang,

ie; west of the retrocede

In 1907 further French pressure forced the Thai to

Battambang, Siemreap (Angkor)

and the neighboring district of Sisiphon.

The preoccupation of the French in Indochina with Japanese invasion was

the signal for a Thai invasion,

Japanese mediation and the fixing

and a minor war in

of the present

1940-.41, ending with

So far as

boundary,

Laos was concerned this resulted in the restoration of the 1907 boundary, but in Cambodia it left the French, who had distinguished themselves as

archaeologists

ri re

th

cooni.t
rice

wit

th e

rns

of

Angkor Wat,

while giving the

.hai

addtional

lands which they

had not possessed

prior to 1907 possession

Moreove.r,

th.e previous treaties had given the french complete islands, whereas the 1941

of the Mekong River, including its

treaty followed the "deep water channel" principle. The Thai claimed all of Cambodia and all of Laos, in 1941, and were not completely satisfied with the settlement. They maintained that intermarriage had given the Cambodians 90% Thai blood, and that it was only french agression which had deprived them of their territories to the east,
Since the Laotians are relatives of the Thai, it is not likely that

the post-,rear masters of Indochina will regard the trans-Mekong section of Laos as terra irredenta, The economic backwardness of this region, with the dropping of the argument*

no apparent wealth save teak, may assist in

The Cambodian cession to Thailand however gave up good rice land with a population in 1936 of 520,000. Moreover, the King of Cambodia remains he has any political power at

under the Jurisd 4 .ction of Indochina, and if all wit the federation,

he may be expected to press for

iHai

recovery

of this

area from the

altn
a

Railwa

roads and airlines

across bounldaries. railway connection of Indochina is that

The best

known international

provided by the

Haiphong-Kunming

Railway, vi,

the frontier town and

phosphate mining center of Lao Kay, border were

Pacific,

The tracks on the Chinese. side of the the

torn

up some time prior to the outbreak of general war in

from the southeast.

to prevent Japanese invasion of Yuznam.

Another line runs northeast from Hanoi to Langeon Kwangsi border, Some maps show it

and

Dong Dang on the

continuing to Nanning, but whereas the some

roadbed was reportedly constructed between the border and Nanning, years ago, it is not believed that the trcC' was

ever

laid on the Chinese

sidde

Finally, the segment of Indochina railroad between Pnom Penh and

Mongkolborey was connected with the Thai railway system at Aranya Pradet at hbout the time of the Jaanese occupation of Thailand , thus providing through rail connections to Singapore, and, beginning presumably about January, 1944, with Rangoon as well. The Japanese have announced plans

for a railway from Hanoi to Bangkok via Thakhek, Although numerous padk trails cross the mountainous northern

boundary and the Mekong River, few important motor roads touch Indo. chinats frontiers, The chief of these is the route which lies beside the

new Mongkolborey.Arsnya Pradet railway, in Cambodia,

It was completed

all the way to Bangkok, according to reports, in time to be used by the Japanese invaders. Farther north along the Mekong, roads to Bangkok near Thaikhek

from Indochina cross the river near Pakse, near Savannakhet, and near Vientiane~

In the north there is a highway to Lao Kay on the

border, but nothing but the now dismantled railway on the Chinese side.

The only two highways of importance which

roose

the border are those to

Monosy, at the northeastern corner of Indochina, and at Dong Dang, near Lang son and Necham.

Peacetime air routes consisted primarily of the Air

with Europe,

France connection

via Bangkokc, presumably crossing the border near a line

drawn between Saigon and Bangkok, and the British Overseas Airways ion, which followed much the same route.

connect-

Each

service continued from

Hanoi to

Hongkong, crossing the Indochinese

border near Haiphong,

as the

route to Hongkong was all over water, except for the crossing of the Luichow peninsula, on which Kwanchowwan Concession is located, The .urasia

Company had a service from Kunming to Hnoi. The Chinese service between

cia .

:mp-6-

Hanoi and Canton was routed via Kwangchowwan. A British on its submarine able skirted part of the Indochinese coast

way from Hongkong to Singapore, and to Haiphong. of importance percent,

and branches led to

Cap St. Jacques,

near Saigon,

The only ports approximately of the country's ezclusively

are Saigon,

Haiphong,

and Honga;,

with

50

25 percent and 20 percent

respectively

(.by weight)

foreign pre-war trade. of anthracite ports study coal exports,

Hougay's traffic

consisted almost as

leaving Saigon and Haiphong

the ohly significant the beginning of this

dealing with general merchandise. shows the relationship

The map at

of Saigon and Haiphong

to other ports in Southeast Asia. following table:

Distances by sea are indicated in the

Table No. 1

Distances by Sea from Hai hon and Saigon (in nautical miles)
To From

Saigon

Haiphong

Hongkong Shanghai

91? 1,679 2,419 936

Kobe
Yokahama Manila Tourane Saigon Brnei (Borneo) Bangkok Hoihow (Hainan)

4?? 1,285 1,833 90? 30? 802

635 640 824

'~~~

ta

Both

the

map and the foregoing

table indicate that lndochinae s

position is

strategic,

and suggest that a. ]Far East in which.

relatively

free trade is permitted may see Saigon develop greatly as an entrepot port, B. Territorial Divisions

1. Natur%.' divisions,
map on page

The highlands of Indochina., as shown by the

The lowlands conei et
the ir'

8,cover

more than half the total area.

chiefly of the

rice-growing deltas

of the N~ekong and Red Rivers,

including the Cambodian plain,, around the Great Lake or Tonle Sap. This lake is a remarkable natural phenomenon,
of flood waters from the receiving large quantities in flood, ad

Mekong

when

that

great river is

discharging into the Mekong when the latter subsides.

It thus regulates

the floods which might otherwise do considerable dam~age in the lower deli~a
The lake greatly eicpands in area, reaching noarly 80) occasion,

sqar

mles on

with

a depth of nearly 50 fret.

Many

.. , 1

sreams

anld. canals the

facilitate navigation, irrigation and fishi4ng

Mekong Delta proper and the Re, River iielta.

throughut

Cambodia,

The Highlands consist partly of a continuation of. th

Himalayan foot-

hills
the

of China and Burma, with no regular alignment, and then chiefly of

the Annamite Chain or Annamite Cordillera which provide the watershed between

Mvekong

and the South China Sea almost as

far

south as Camranh Bay.

The Cordillera have a steep epstern slope, and their foothills touch the sea in many places, the Saigon-Hanoi railway line thus being forced to skirt Athe o g t picturesque m h e and G a d L c mountainous n coast, n eTheir weste T Sp r changeably, it is thought best to confine the latter term connects the "Petit Lac" with the Mekong, c l se dis much i t r which

r"

to the river

RAINFALL AND WINDS OF INDO -CHINA

1oo 102 104 1060 1060 1100

Average Annual Rainfall 50 -100 cm. ELIf 20 -40 in. 100. 150' 150.200 " 200.250 " 40 -60 60-80 80-100"

N250.300

"

IMll llhio.120 "

30*5
350.400

f
.7
Prviin/id

10
1.

4
10

OFe SIA Mp.15-Oc.1

40

ve 6

more gradual, the Mekong.

a series of plateaus prividing the drop to the level of Like all the other mountains, these areas are heavily forested,

tropical predominating, and reported. Japanese plans to build logging roads across additional plateaus to facilitate to have a solid foundation in geographic fact, pass was the Ailao pass, between
nakhet on the Mekong.:

timber extraction appear The previously most .iised

Quang

Tr,

on the east coast, and Savan.

There has been considerable increase recently in

traffic from

Vinh to Thakhek, however, and rnmors of a Japanese railroad Haiphong via

Takhek

project for linking Bangkok with

with

Cambodian. highlands,

an elevation of 1500 to 2000 feet,

occupy a small area south of the

Great Lake. The map on page 8 shows the distribution of the country's rainfall,

The southwest monsoon,

the whole country, rainfall, to the

from April on May to October, affects practically

and brings about 50 inches, or most of the year' s The northeast and

southern and western parts of the country.

monsoon or "crachin"

blows during most of the. remainder of the year,

brings the coast of Annam most of its annual rain, Hue, for instance,

receiving 1844 millimeters of its 2850 annual averee (1907-1936) during

the months October to January inclueive. Certain mountain areas in

central and southern Annam, and the Cambodian coast receive over. 3500 millimeters of rain annually. inches of rain, a great many Most of the country receives as much as 60 sections receiving over 100 inches. In

general,

the precipitation is

greatest in

the mountain areas, but western-

most Laos contains mountain pockets with relatively low rainfall.

-101060 1060 1100

RELIEF

N
'S --

AND DRAINAGE OF INDO -CHINA

8000
CONTOURS IN '-

FEET

150
1500Q 500

00

so

INdDO-CHIN 'S
1>''' U2N4A

MINERA
'YjnPan Fou \ ling'iFou

SOCE
-

Mog KaiHoo
Yenion

Fou Tchen Ngang

Tcheou

U Bahi

Pakse

/$anSon

Lie n

gN

U~obn

M
e~~~h
Lun k

$'

C ?

Pon

Thong+Ho 25*

LEGE ND
Mercj

,AO

Tie

Tungsten 3)Sulphur

GU, $ I Ad
i

-/

tAGN~Jhf~i

I~Tin
SZinc SGold

mAnthracite
SMolybdenit

n
a di1u1

13 Iron J Chrn om JLgnite Ttornurn IH Graphi te QJet Lead Antir moray (Z)Phosphate Arger ntiferous EJBlacksminth
a coal

Scale - Miles
50 100

15

5
0

Q
120

IlL

Source: Engineering

and

Mining Journl,

Page 55, Januarys, 1941,(290

Albany, New York.

-12

Temperatures of 100 degrees Yahrenheit are fairly

peratures for most weather stations in

common,

maximum tem-

a given year being around 100-104, It is the consistently hot and

against minima of 60-70 for lowland cities.

very humid weather which constitutes a drain on the health of most Huhropeans. Average relative humidity for the period 1930-1936 was 90 percent at Lao my and Hue, 85 percent or over at Hanoi, Kbuang, and 80-84 percent at Langson, Moncay, Saigon, Yinh, Dong Hoi and Chieng Qainhon, Nhatrang,

Tourane,

Dalat, Phan Thiet, Pleiku.,

Cap St. Jacques, Battambang and Vientiane.

Only at Pnom Penh and at Pakae on the Mekong was relative humidity recor P. as below 80 percent. 2. Economic Divisions. Since agriculture occupies the attention the economic divisions

of the great majority of the people of Indochina,

of the country are conditioned chiefly by the geographic or natural divisions. area, and is Rice occupies approximately 86 percent of the cultivated almost the only crop in It so it the best alluvial land of the deltas is grown, however, in the mountainous

and much of the Cambodian plain.

areas for domestic consumption, districts chiefly in in in which it is

is doubtful if

there are many

not the chief crop.

Tubber plantations are

Cochinchina, with a few in In

Cambodia and a very small acreage Cambodia also There

Annam and Laos.

addition to rice and some rubber,

produces more maize and cotton than any other section of Indochina. are restricted areas along the which specialize in tobacco,

Mekong

and

Tonle

Sap, near Pnom Penh, in Tonkin.

as do some sections south of Haiphong,

The forests of Onbodbia transport than many of the dense

O chni na

are more accessible

to water

Lastim

ad.

Ar

ese forests, and have a inftstry,

There are vast-

correspondingly high share of the country' s forest possibilities for expanding this

industry

if

transport

facilities become

available, since the distribution of

hardwood

forests is very extensive. have a fairly large forest

All five major sections of the country, output at present.

however,

The greater part of the country's mineral production is in Tonkin, as shown by the sgmbols on the
*

concentrated

map

of the country's mineral

resources shown on page 11

China border is

The area between the Red River and the tungsten, zinc, iron,

particularly productive of coal, tin, Since this

phosphates and a number of other metals. dense population, the labor problem is

same area has a very the

much less troublesome than in

areas in Burma where the two chief mines, Bawdwin and Mawch, are uituated, for in those areas the native population is

very sparse,

and labor has

bad to be imported from a distance, with the warning that very few of the

The accompanying map should be read

deposits outside Tonkin

Por available statistical

have been exploited on a commercial scale,

data as to actual production of minerals see the aoompanying Handbook

on

"Natural

Resources". chiefly in the bands of

The rice culture of Indochina is and other indigenous races. fragmentation of land

Annamese
considerable

In overpoplated Tonkcin there is

holdings, but 98% of the owners of agricultural

In Aanam 89% of

land are cultivators,

the landowners are cultivators,

102_

_____

1040

log_103

1100

ll

LEGEND

~Conifers
C
\\
IN

"Tropical

hardwoods, chiefly of Dipterocarp and Leguminous families; along the coasts, mostly mangrove forests.

OFn

IA

-15-

but in the more recently-settled Cochinchina there are many

large

estates, and in 1931 it was estimated that 6,330 of 6,690 big Annamite landowners

lived

in that province~

European (almost synonymous with French) estates before the out.

break of the present war had an area of a million hectares (about 2,500,000 acres) over half of which was in Cochinchina, but only 40 percent of which was reportedly under cultivation in 1937, planters with rubber, coffee and Rice was the chief crop of French In 1931 the European

tea as minor crops.

rice plantations were estimated to cover 300,000 hectares (750,000 acres), but a considerable portion of this area was not under cultivation at that time. Annamese with French citizenship owned part of this area.

Some

French landlords introduced improved agricultural practice, but most appear

to have lived in Saigon, hiring bailiffs to their estates, and occesionirg compl .ints secure the meximum yield from observers,

from humanitarian

The red soils of Cochinchina

and. Annam, formed from volcanic ash,

proved very rich, and were sparsely peopled with primitive Mol tribesmen,
Social and political problems resulted as M4oi lands were taken for large European land grants, and Annamese imported to operate the plantations In 1928 a decree attempted to safeguard the tribesmen against exploitation by holders of land grants. The south Annam red lands proved particularly

attractive, all seven of the tea plantations being situated there. The following extracts from a forthcoming book
/

set forth

the relationships between French rubber planters and their employees:

~j Ch. Robequain, "The Economic Evolution of French Indochina", Institute of Pacific Relations, 1944,
II11

16

"These advantages were' bound to attract small colonists and local companies with comparatively little capital--most of it invested by 3uropeans residing in Oo cehnhi.na. As a result a large number of plantations of less than 100 hectares are found within a radius of about 50 kilometers northwest, north and east of Saigon. Many of these were set up by Saigon government officials and merchants. Listed among plantation proprietors in the first Planters' Directory were pharmacists, clerks, architects, magistrates, registry officers

and professors.

A native overseer, called

charge of cultivation. neighboring villages.

or caporl was put in The necessary labor supply was obtained in he landowner himself supervised the condition At

qjj

of his rubber trees and gave his orders once or twice a week,

the outset automobiles were uncommon; the tram or railway was used as far as the nearest station, and the plantation was then reached by

bicycle or the small cart called 'miatch box.' ......... "By 1921, in the gray lands east and north of Saigon there were some rubber plantatins more than 500 hectares in size (one, at
Tay Ninh, covered 1380 hectares) stock companies...., whieh were often owned by joint

"The first large plantation in the red lands was established in 1905 at Suzannah along the railroad being constructed from Saigon to Nhatran ;, by one of the company engineers, In 1910 a Belgian capi.taliet named Hallet, who had had plantation eperience in British Malaya and Sumatra, prospected by ox cart in the basaltic hills of Hon Quan whose lofty, gently sloping peaks afforded choice though remote plantation sites; a ten kilometer square was marked off in

the forest........
"There were 1005 plantations at the end of 1936, Amng them 304 each and. represented 94 percent of comprised. more than 40 hectares the total area under rubber; they included 154 with 100 hectares or more, 123 between 100 and 1000 hectares, 2? between 1000 and 5000

hectares, and four exceeding 5000 hectares.

Sixty-eight percent

of the planted area was owned by 2? companies. Only six percent of the total area remained for small plantations---those of less than 40 hectares, the average size of these small farms was about 11 hectares.

"The large plantations of 200 hectares and more produce almost all The distribution of land described above does of Indochina's latex. the extent of the concentration not, however, adequately indicate Often the big of capital which characterizes rubber cultivation. joint stock companies own many plantations; moreover the companies themselves are either financially interrelated or dominated by hod1 ,. such operate other types of plantations, ing companies, Some also as tea or coffee, at well as non-agricultural enterprises in Indochina or in neighboring coup ies,

1l7-

"This monopolistic tendency is certainly not peculiar to Indochina, but it seems to have;developed. further there than say in the two largest rubber producing countries, British Malaya and the Neter.. lands India, where the natives participate more fully in ribber production, c/' The Indochinese system seems conducive to improved methods and increased yields.,

"The most powerful of these groups is the Societe Financiere des Caotou., the capital of which is principally French and Belgian, This com-,any also controls plantations near Medan in Sumatra, in
British Malaya and in tropical Africa,.

"Up

to about 1918, the labor supply for opean colonial agricul ture was a fairly simple problem. The Tonkin and North Annam plant. ations usually located on the delta's-edge, found a ready supply at
.'

hand.

Moreover, it was easy for the small estates in the gray lands

of Ooohiaoina

to find in nearby

villages the coolies needed for

The ethnic comiposition of Indo..

the maintenance and cultivation of a few thousand rubber trees.....,"

3._Ethnic and religous divisions,

china is set forth in Table 2
,

compiled from the 1936 census estimate.

Annama

a.

Annamese,

Annamese or Annamites comrpised 4,835,000 of

5,656,000 population, 3,979,000 of the 4,616,000 of Cochinchina and 7,647,000 of Tonkin's 8,700,000, They made up 72,4 percent of the total population the fertile

of the country, and were overwhelmingly in

the majority in

plains and deltas, races,

with the exception of Cambodia, the other indigenous being confined chiefly to the central and

except the Cambodians,

northern mountains.

The more vigourous and prolific Annamese have over-

flowed into the lowland agricultural areas of Tonkin,

Cochinchina

and

Cambodia for several decades, and there is every prospect of continued migration to the latter two states, of the Atnnamites is
;incy P.

The following

description

taken from an un

published report of American Consul

Roberts.

In

3ritish Malaya plantations of

Les-, than

40 hectares represent. 39

percent of the total and plantations belonging to Asiatics,..reprcsent 54 percent.

l 1

"The Annamites constitute about three fourthsocf the Indochinese population. They are considered to be a separate race because of their language and their customs which arc supposed to have been developed in Tonkin by the mingling of the ethuaic elements that went into the creation of n. new ethnic group. They occupy the plains of Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina.. They now constitute an important minority group in cmbodia and are spreading into the valleys of Laos and even going into the mountain regions as laborers necessary in the development of mines and plantations. "They are small with an average height of 5 feet 2 inches and have light yellow skin, black straight hair, prominent cheek bones and sl.nt eyes of the Mongoloid type. "The Annamite vocabulary originally composed of Mon-Khmer words, later on enriched by a good h21f of Chinese, is a branch of the Thai language family possessing the following characteristics; use of six tones, invariable monosyllabic words, and the placing of the complement after the word it modifies, verb or noun, Without any written language, so far as is known, the Annamites had forced on them the Chinese system of characters which could not be easily read in Annamite, About the thirteenth century a transcription called Chu-nom was made in which the characters were formed from two Chinese characters, one giving the meaning, the other having a phonetic value. However, this system has yielded to quoc-ngu and special made up from the Latin alpha te a phonetic transcription accents by missionaries in the seventeenth century. of the Anuamite is based upon a universal belief "The religious in spirits to which altars are erected and which are worshipped to appease divine anger and to secure benefactions. This worship consists of offerings and invocations, either by individuals, or by the chiefs of the interested groups, Their religion is a mixture of the spirits of the earth and the sky to which the King of Annam takes an offering every three years, village spirits to which th& communal houses are dedicated, shades of ancestors, the worship of which is the base of the family organizations and is carried out by the head of the family and innumerable spirits living in the air, water, stones, and trees are worshipped by all, While the normal worship is carried on with-

life

out the aid of priests, this does not hold true for magic rites and
in particular for the Taoist- who believe in a. control over the spirits and respeetto sorcerers, diviners and geomarncers.

Table 2 French Indochina Population according to ethnic groups and by countries, 1936
Ethnic

groups

Annam
(000)

Cambodia (90) 2 191

.,..-

Cochinchina (00)(00 16 3,979

Laos

Tonkin

All Indochina per

Europeans ~
Annazites luong Thai. .(Laotians (Others

1.

19 7,647 112

43
16,679 211

2
724 9

4,$35
99

27

0.4
17

20
-100

0.1

565
669

5 (

599
786 ( 214

26
.34

Nab

or Yao

/ leo
Indonesians Cambodians Sino-Annamites

S1.4 664 54 2,597 .52

47) 247 2

89 77

9)
44 127

) )

1,017
.2,925

326

11

73
104

Malaya and Chas

Other ethnic groups
Foreign

73

4-

5
3
14 0 1,000

37 11
0.2 106 3,046 171 2 4,616

57
326

Asiatics;

Chinese

3
1,012

35
8,700

Indians and othEera

Total

5,656

23,030

European 1. Persons with status, comprising French, Eurasians, naturalized Indochinese, Japanese, Filipinos and

11,000 inthe
Soiurce:

armed forces.

Annuaire Statistiqule de Indochine, 1936-37.

"Foreign contributions have been added to this mixture of beliefs and customs as old as the race but they have been juxtaposed. and not substituted for the older religion, Confucianism discarding the moral teachings of, the true doctrine is b-ot the worship of the philosopher's spirit. As' for BudGhhism with its sacred ngung e
i:L

or bonzes, but

Pa.Kt, it has

many temples

where

,f ficcs

are

-er'crrnca1 by m.oxks

hrec'fou: the of the people know- nothL"-g abouit this religion and the other quarter only frc cent the templet to obtain aaditional insurance ag~inst a dismna2. fate.
"Thc social life of the Annamites is basoa upon a truly original commune in which arc administor"d by the chiefs for the benefit of the commonalty. Above the communes is a heirarchy formed as in China of mandarins recruited by competition and who administer the country, exception being made of the powers that today have been entrusted to the French officials,"

b. Cambodians,
province,

Cambodians were in the majority in their own

comiprising 2,597,000 of the privincial total.

of

3,046,000, They are

Only

328,000 (.ambodians lived in other parts of the union,

related at least

linguistically

to the Nons or Talaings of southern

Burma, and built up a great kingdom in medieval times, whose great gift to archaeologists was the ruins of Angkor, near the northwest end of the Great Lake, The Ihmers are culturally:related to Indiate Hindu.s. They are described as a

They are'short headed and of medium height.

gentle race, and are rather devout followers of southern or Hinayana. Buddhism, along with the dilte Burmese and the Singhalese. The

Thai claimed in 1940-.41 that they had long since intermarried with the Cambodians to such an extent that the two races were almost identical, but it is difficult to substantiate this claim. Thailand secured the northwestern part of Cambodia in 1941, population c Cambodians. with a 19C36

5',O000 most of whom were alinost certainly classified ~e

This rmist mean a consi~ierable reduction in the Cambodian

-21

neutral

sources.

Thailand

secured the northwestern part

of

Cambodia

in

1941, with a

1936

population of 520,000, as Cambodians,

most of whom were almost

certainly classified
duction in increase in likely

This must mean a considerable reend a corresponding It is

the Cambodian population of Indochina, the Annamite proportion of the

total population.

that the latter now constitute at least 80 percent of Indochina's Hence, the Thai have, contribution while increasing to the solution their of own minthat problem

population.

ority problem, made a real

by their eastern neighbor.

c. nTai

Laotians and other Thai,

Some writers

prefer to use the term

in addition
of China A

instead of "Thai" for the broad racial group which,

inhabitants of Thailand includes

to the principal and Burma,

the Shans related

the Laotians of Indo-China and several

groups,

'British

writer

believes that the change of name from Siam to Thaib

of laying, claim to all territory inhabited by

land was for this group.

the purpose Certainly in

1941 the Thai did lay claim to practically

all of Laos, on racial

The Laotians live

as well as historical grounds.

in the valleys of the M-ekong and its principal

tributaries, practice the same type of Buddhism as the Thai and the
Cambodians, and have a much higher level the higher plateaus kingdoms in times past, of civilization and mountain and still than the slopes. They

tribesmen who inhabit have built up great

have a king at

LFaang Prabang,

under French protection,

but his

nominal

jurisdiction

2]H.

uatrich Wales in

"Years of Blindness", 1943.

22
does not cover the whole of Laos, The other Thai groups inILaos their dress) along the

include the "White Thai" (so-called because of Tonkin border, of fifty

They have a feudal organization, and live in villages in still the upper valleys. smaller villages, The Black Thai of also at a considerable

houses or less in

western Tonkin live

altitude, while the Thai Mvula live south of the Black Thai in villages up to tions 300 houses each, under 3000 fee. d. tribes others, Minor Tribes, such as Muong, Most of Space does not permit description Mans, Meos, Lobos, Mois, Sedangs, of Jarais the many and and cultivate permanent rice fields at eleva-

these tribesmen inhabit

the highlands of cultivation of rice,

Laos, Annam and secure

and Tonkin, a fair

carry on shifting their diet of

hillside

proportion of

from hunting. reports

Since the 1936 census estimate

was made only on the basis officers,

from various administrative in the highlands of Laos was

while political organization is likely that

necessarily sketchy, it

the number of tribesmen was con-

siderably greater than indicated by Table 2. e, Chinese. The Chinese numbered 326,000 according to the 1936

estimate, but this figure does not by

their importance.. In the first place,

any
there

means give a true picture of

have been alternate invasions

by Chinese and peaceful so that

immigration in

from China for

many centuries past, considerable.

the Chinese element

the Aninamese population is

Moreover,
Chinese, families tives,

the census estimates may have been in

since census coverage was clearly

error in

omitting many
and heads of

not complete,

may have had reasons for Chinese literature,

concealing

the presence of some relacustoms have clearly Annamese. Chinese

philosophy and social on t1Y

been predominant among outside influences

23immigrants have
gardening,
particularly all sorts

almost always

gone into commerce,

industry or market

only the

eaka immigrants

having taken up rice farming border of Tonkin, besideso

along the northeastern of handicraft industries,

They carry on

of

the rice

mills

of the country.

The city of Cholon (twin city of Saigon)

is

at least

half Chinese.

In this city there were 70 Chinese unions in 1926--.-

an evidence of the Chinese proclivity for organization and mutual aid. Practically all observers say that the Chinese are more industrious, and

ordinarily more prosperous than the Annamese, but Bobequain States that: "While he is better informed, more industrious and more methodical than the native, there is no essential difference between the Chinese and the

Indochinese; they are very similar in temperament and. attitude of mind." The Chinese are often found as middlemen between the Government or large European firms and the

Annamese.

For instance,

they contracted The

for many fisheries in the Great Lake,

then sub-let their licenses.

worldwide depression from 1930 on caused many Chinese to return, at' least temporarily, to their homes, with a consequent decrease in Chinese

population, ana when more prosperous times returned

nnamese and Cambod-

ians had a foothold in the rice trade and rice milling, as well as other former Chinese monopolies. f. Frenc. Among Europeans the only group of any numerical imporOver 80 percent of the 43,000 "Europeans" according

tance $e the French.

to Table 2 were French by birth, while about 7 percent were French by naturalization, the latter group consisting of naturalized Annamese and others. against 138 British citizens and 94 Americans.

Japanese numbered but 231,

Of the 36,134 who were French by birth, 14,865 lived in Tonkin and 13,931 in Cochinchina. However, not all of the 36,134 were actually born in

24

igii~P~

France,

the following table,

which is

Table 3 in,

Robequain's forthcoming

book showing the appropriate breakdown:

Table 3
Birthplace of Europeans and
to sex,
1

assimilees" according

1937

Birtplace France

Male 13,229

Female 5,816

Total 19,045

French Indochina

7,552

7,886
324 593 99 699 376 15,793

15,438 J/
998 2,345 207, .3,495 817 42,345

674 French India Other French colonies 1,752 108 Japan Other foreign countries2,796 441 ~Tot known Totals 26,552

Some Annamese women legally married to Frenchmen took steps to secure French citizenship. This accounts for the slight excess of females Many

over males among French citizens born in French Indochina.

others in this group were Eurasians, although the larger part of this group appears to have been without French citizenship, was absorbed by the native population. and frequently,

Adding the 19,045 who were

born in France to the 1995 children of parents both of whom were born in France, it appears that 21,040 were definitely French in race, in addition to a few who were born in French India, Japan, etc., of en-

tirely French parentage.

Bobeauain estimates total white population

as 30,000, of whom 10,000 were in the armed forces and 20,000 civilians. In other words, there was one civilian of French race and nationality for every thousand of the population, compared with one civilian born in the British Isles for an estimated 8,000.of the population of

In 1995 cases both parents were born in France; in 9,131 cases, the
Indochina; and in 4,638 cases, both parentswere born

mother was born in in Indochina.

India part

in

1943.

The 10,000 :French soldiers population

and sailors were a much larger soldiers and.

of the total

than were the 40,000 British

sailors estimated to live in

India in

normal times.

The

occupational

breakdown of the entire group was as follows: Table 4

Niuber

of 'Taropeans and Assimilees" by professions, 1937

Number Percent

Professions

Forestry and agriculture

Mining and industry Transportation Trade Banking and Insurance Liberal professions

705
1,172 419

3.4
5.7 2.0

1,517
249

7.4
1.2

Army and navy Government officials

Total Without profession Grand total

1,795 10,779

3?873
20,509 21,836 42,345

8.8 52.9 18.6

100.0

Many observers have commented on the

employment

of Frenchmen in

minor posts,

some of
India.

almost a menial character, for which natives would

However, consideration of the statistics in Table

be employed in 4 suggests that

the total

number of Europeans outside the was not sufficient and clerks in

armed forces, very large firms. in Robe1929,

and exclusive of Eurasians, share of the lower civil auain reports that

to provide a commercial officials

servents

there were 4,836 French government

the worldwide depression being responsible for by 1937. in The trend was definitely to substitute

the reduction to 3,873 Annamese for Frenchmen

the subordinate posts.

The

foregoing description

of the Annamese by Consul Roberts indicates

that their religion is a mixture of Confucianism, and Animism. bodians nearly all

The Cam-

professed Buddhism, but also had many animistic be-

26-

liefa and practices, in

east Asia.

common with almost all

other Buddhists of South.according to rough

Catholics numbered about one million,

estimates,

and were formerly the poorest of the Annamese.

times special favors in estates status far and plantations, considerably.

However,
and in

mission education,' and at the their extensive social church-owned and economic kept out for

the government has tended

to raise

Protestant

.ssionaries mission

were reportedly was established and had a 4. into

a time,

but an American Protestant

a number of years prior converts. divisions.

to the Japanese conquest,

few thousand Political

and administrative (Anniam,

Indochina

is

divided

four protectorates

Tonkin,

Cambodia ard Laos)

and one colony

(Cochinchina).

The leased territory of Kwangchow ',an was under the Jurisbut as it

this

diction of the Governor General of Indochina,

and otherwise distinct, The Constitution of entrance of Laos, it is not included in

is

geographically

survey.

French Indochina dates from 1887,

just prior

to

the

and places

the country under the Ministry of Colonies,

whose authority is
authorized representative

wielded by the Governor General,

of France. Customs,

who is

this the only

stamp duties

excise duties,

and registry duties are chief among the revenues which support the federrtion government, while the departments of public works, agriculture, posts

and telegraphs and mines and industry are leading examples of agencies with country-wide scope. The defense budget also was handled from Hanoi.

The five "countrie& 1 t j

and police organizations,

or states maintained separate administrative

with local contributions budgets financed largely from land or districts

revenue and head taxes, plus

from the "provinces"

into which each

was divided.
each of the five subdivisions of.Indo-

~J

The French use the term s"pays" of

China.Ry

6~rlb

The chart on page

28

outlines

the political framework of

Indo-China,

while the chart on page 29 subdivisions of the five

shows the typical organizations of the individual or states. Several changes have been

"countries"

made since 1939,

a. districts Condore, further

and

are

not now shown in

either chart,
21 "provinces" or de Pau1owere In 1931 conchange some

Cochinchina. in 1936, plus

Cochinchina was the cities

subdivided into

of' Cholon and Saigon and the Ile colony. The 21 districts
"icomues".

the last-named being used as prison

subdivided into 212 cantons and 1,286 village and 1630 communes, so it is

there had been 232 cantons

evident that

siderable consolidation went on in in of total area, Saigon is the capital

the meantime, of

there having been no and in addition

Cochinchina,

the functions of the central while recent information

government were carried suggests that

on their

under the

French,

the Japanese

are making about

Indochina as a

as much use of it

as of Hanoi, for purposes

of'controlling.

whole,
b.

The map on page 22c shows the 21 districts

Cambodia. The second oldest 14 provinces in of the five

of

Cochinchina.
states, CamIn

Indochinese of

bodiae was divided into 1941. all of

1936 plus the city"

Pnom Penh.

Battambang and parts to Thailand,

of Siem-reap,

Stung-treng and Kompong Thoma The map on were then was

were returned

which had lost to _1941.

them 34 years earlier. The provinces or districts Pnom Penh,

page 22d shows Cambodia prior sub-divided into 73 rsroks'

and 1,232 "khums".

the capital,

separately administered.

c,.

Annam.

Annam,

the one state in

which the native ruler and civil

in

service retain French resident.

some temporal power, The city

had 17 districts

1936,

each with its It was

of Tourane was separately organized,

divided into 638 cantons and 11,187 communes in 1936,

respectively, in 1931, The map on page 23 a

against 559 and 10,751

of the die-

shows the location

f2r
S

2G

STRuCriE

F GOVERMENP~T IN FRENC

INDCHINA6

Grand Council of Economic and Financial Interests

GENERAL OR CENTRALIUNION Central and Technical Services 1, 2. 3. 4.

GOVERNMENT

5.

Inspection General of Public Works and Inspection General of Sanitation Medical Services Inspection General of Mines and Industry Inspection General of Agriculture and Forests Direction of Judicial Administration, etc.

Deense

Council

Technical Councils

FRENCH
I -

1L AND PROVINCIAL ADMINIST RATIONS

-

Governor of
Cochinchina Annam French Council, Econ. & Finan. Interests

Resident Sueriors of:

Tonkin Cambodia Laos

Privy Council

Protectorate Council

French Council, etc.

Consultative Assembly

French Administrative

Control Agencies,

Bureaus,

etc.

Native Administrations of Annam, Cambodia and Luang Prabang; rulers, councils, ministers, etc.

Native Provincial Administrations under Residents and Villages

Native Local Administrations---Cantons

j.

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION IN IN1DOCHINA Advisory Councl Jd ocal officials Cochinchina Tinli, admninistered by an adxinis.trator.
Delegation,

Resident de France

va vina from place to place Cambodia het, administered by a Cbaufaikhe t Srok, by a Cbaufaai sok Khand, by a Chaufa ilchand Knum, by a Mekhum Lma

ORGANIZATION OF A "?ROVINCW"
Province Tonkinand Annam Tinh, administered by a Tuan--phu or Tong-.doc

Province, by a Resident de France

Prefecture

adby a

Huyen or Phu, by a

ministered
Phu Canton Commune or Village Tong, by a Caitong Xa, by a Huong-Xa

Tri-Huyen or Ti..
Phu Tong, tong by a Chauh-

Muong, by a Chaumuong

Canton, by a P hoban

Xa, by a Council of

Notables, president

Ban,

by a Taseng

being a Lytru'o'ng or Chauh hu'o'ng hons

id

Cochinchina and Annam only.

RESTRICTED

- 30 -

ANNAM

DENSITY OF POPULATION LEGEND 02625 50

51 -100 101-200 201-400 401-800 OVER 800

D.D.43-757-A

RESTRICTED

'

:.: "?'

;{

DENSITY OF POPULATION

51 -100

201-400

401-800 OVER 800

CAMBODIA

:;

-32-

part of what is now Indochina, re-

tricts.

Hue,

once capital of Annem.

of

a large

mains the capital

d.

Tonkin.

Previous to 1886 Tonkin was part of the realm of Annam.

Since 1886 it has come more and more under direct French rule, but not as completely so as Cochinchina. of Tonkin, plus the two both capital

The map on page 34

administered cities

shows the 27 districts of Hanoi and Haiphong. frontier

separately

The former is districts

of Tonkin and of Indochina.

The three

of Lai-chau, officers,

Laokay and Son-la were administered directly by and the

French military known. 1936, a

xpumber

of communes and cantons

is

not

The remainder of Tonkin had 1,233 cantons and 8,835 communes in

slight increase over 1931.

e.

Laos.

The largest, some of its

most

sparsely

populated and most backward

inhabited by prt itv0 tribes,
Luang own that

state in Laos,

mountain areas,

never having been brought under constant Prabang, district far up the Mekong, to be similar has its to that

and effective

French rule. within his

own king,

whose status

appears Laos

of the King of

Cambodia within

stated

entered

the French empire by negotiation the French officials The capital is

and conquest (mostly

the forer) practically

in 1893 and 1904, all

gradually acquiring Vientiane, with. a of there

governmental power.

1936 population of about 9,000. the ten districts, being 8,547 village but nossibly large

The map on page

35

shows the location

lkongs",

which were divided into communities

63 timuongsn and

enumerated by the census,

and an unknown

number not enumerated.

COCHINCHINA
"ka"

...

. d.

DENSITY OF POPULATION LEGEND

026-

25

50

51 -100 101- 200

Lii
D.0. 43 -755-A

201-400& 40 1-800 OVER 800

J,

,
)

I.......................... '
' r~f~ = '~ r

iYii

~ """"""""""" ... ~...

r ~ rr r ~ ~ r r .r f t . .. r 1 r ............ ,,. y~ i c 1~ . ...... r + .............. .2~~ """''''"""'''' '~~~~~~ ""'""''''''""'"'~ "' "' ' ' ' ' ' ' ""' ' ' ""' ~~~~~ "' """"""""""~ ~~~~~ ~~ ~~.. ......

~We

Eli7A
p.

F/4

51 -100

40 1-800

5~-1~~

OVER 800

D. D. 43-756-A

35-

LAOS

DENSITY OF POPULATION LEGEND

~0- 4
59

LII
~Y

10-14

OVER 20

D.0.

43-758-A

-36Ii. THE, PEOPLE~

A.

Po';)ula.tion Statistics, aproach to a census ever made for the whole of French
of 1931, and officials admitted that they made errors some of in

The nearest Indo.china was that

as great

as 50 percent in Concerning

estimating this

the Chinese population of who presumably

the cities.

subject Gourou,

assisted

census work, writes as follows:

/
the same manner as that of 1926,
Before that time we were

' t The 1931 census was made in

first tent

the

census ever made in Tonkin. with a mere estimate.

con-

"\e wished to learn in 1931 the real demography of the area, and we asked each village to fill out printed forms where, opposite each family name, the village authorities were reauired to write, in successive columns, the number of old .persons over fifty years of age, the number of married adults between 15 and 50, the number of bachelors between 15 and 50, the number of children under 15 years of age.....,Such forms display a worthy improvement over those in use in the past.

"However, they are not free of criticism for blunders made in setting authorities to write in the first them up. We asked the village column the name of the head of the family; but we did not define what was meant by the phrase, and in fact in Annam this expression may have several meanings. The result is that, from one village to another, we may find the average number of persons to a family vary from four to ten, according to a narrow or broad interpretation given

to the term "head of a family".......In

the second column the villager

3 was asked to state 'the place of origin or race of the heads of families---a confusing question on two distinct and separate subjects. classification'; In the third.column we were asked to give the lethnic is this not the same thing as race, and how can we ask the simple peasant to answer truthfully such poorly-formulaited questions? The 1habitual profession of the family' was to be shown, following columns Another confusreserved to the general composition of the family. ing question, one that should not have been asked, or which should have been asked differently......was whether the family cultivated lands they owned, or leased or rented, and furthermore

SiRul

translationfom

"Les Paysans du Delta Tonkinois",

op.

cit.

37

-a

whether they exercised. a non-agricultural

profession, and whether some member of the familyr were away from the The form ends with village for a large hart of the year. a. pleasantry---the vi11age authorities were requestedI to specify whether the famlly could provide for its own needs or if it required assistance---a very delicate Guestion, much too subtle to be asked in a census, The village authorities

replied to this question with the freest f praise the moderation of the villagers who
no assistance The census figures the Annuaire Statistique for was required 1936, de
t

intasy,

One must merely replied that

were taken from

for the majority of families." Appendix A,

as shown in 'l ndochine,

and represent of a

an estimate. in Indoof all

It must be noted that

the completeness

census procedure

china depends on the intelligence, the local village heads,

thoroughness

and cooperation

many of whom must have been barely

literate,

and ouite unaware

of the importance of complete

and accurate returns.

There is no available evidence that officials who thoroughly understood

the census supervised closely it the entries made by the village officials.

On general. considerations complete for Europeans,

may be supposed that complete and quite a definite e. for

the census was very (who were better for the ill that tribes. hill the cover-

fairly

Annamese

educated than the other races) Regarding tracts in the latter

parts

incomrlete official

there

is

statement were

of Cambodia (i.

Stung-treng)

not included in

estimate. ing the least

The much more efficient accessible 11 percent

Burma census made no pretence of of the country's area,

and probably in 1936.

more than 11 percent of Indochina was equally inaccessible The Chinese were tended the subject of

special laws and regulations and being organized into secret of Indochina that the head

to group together by families, It is thought

often

societies,

by former residents

of a

housebld, in

answering the census enumerator,

particularly if

world

fail

to mention
on secret

some of his

temporary guests,

the latter were

missions of one kind or another, taxation.

or

were afraid of

legal

regulation

or

Gourou points out the esseatially

even though its

. uatl2

of the

Tonkin.delta,
rising in

population averages 430 per square kilometer, square kilometer.

some places to over 1000 per

The landscape remains

rural, and the inhabitants remain peasants,

even though as many as 10,000

of them may be found in one large village or continuous group of villages, On the other hand, he states that there are some cities (villes) with a

population of only 2,000, but without the distinctly rural orientation of life.

He measured one area

of

37,000

square meters,

being a small

Tonkin

village, ard found that 13 percent of the total area was covered by houses.

he

also calculated that villages covered about 10 percent of the total* Aerial photographs show villages at very short

area of the Delta.

inter-

vals, and confirm the-reasonableness of his estimate.

Maps on the five pages immediately following this show the population

density of each of the five states in 1936. different scale is used for Laos, since that

It should be noted that a state is so much more sparsely

populated than the others.

It will also be noted what a large proportion

of total population is concentrated in the two chief deltas.

The age distribution of liuropeans shows 8,037 of 26,552 males in

age group. of women, The same age groups contained a somewhat

the

smaller proportion

since a larger

proportion of

women. consisted of Annamese who and would normally

had secured rrench

citizenship

by naturalization,

spend their entire lives in Indochina.

too=8

39

Present-day Cambodian dancers assume posltions of ancient carvings.

The royal elephant in ceremony outside the palace wall, at Hue, capital of A di

40

Primitive transportation.

Typical of many small canals.

-41-

at the enthronement of His Majesty Bao Dai. Thew great mandarins in court costume prostrate themselves before the Thai Hoa Palace at Rue, capital ,of Annam.

1Ceremony

Tribespeople brought in from the hills. Meo-Blanca at left front, Man-Coos at right front, and Man-Tiens behind. Nguyen Binh, Tongking, 1932. Illustration No. 12.

Street scene at Savannakhek, on the Mekong, Laos, 1932.

-43

An aerial view of' the fA.mous Ancient ruins at Angjkor-Vat, northwestern tip of Camnbodia.

44Table 2 on page 19 above indicates the racial nationalities Table 5 European and Assimilated Poylation by State and by Nationality Camationality

distribution by states.

Further breakdowns are not available, except for Europeans.

distribution between different of the

Table

,5shows

the
1936.

"European" population in

Cochinchi rqa

Indo-

Annam .

bodia

Laosq

Tonkin

china

MALES
Frenh

By birth By naturalization Total Foreigners: Japanese British Americans Others Total Nationality not known FEMALES
_Frenc ::

3,084 111

1,336
55 1,391

8,582 60? 9,189

313 11 324

9,427 377 9,804

22,742
1.161

3,195

23,903

3 2 (U.S.A.) 6 27 38 22 3?

60 43 23

48 45 12

127 94 56

173
299 65

1,852
1,957

2,087
2,364

160

285

By birth By naturalization Total Foreigners:

1,464 135

937 97 1,034

5,349
86? 6,216

204 232

-5,438 458 5,896

13,392
1585
14,977'

1,599

Japanese
British Americans Others Total Nationality not known MALES PLUS FEMALES French: (U.S.A.)

42 23 11 111 187 128 1 6 7

46 14 3

104 44 38

9
13

65
128 226

324
410 406

25
9

By birth
By naturalization Total Foreigners: Japanese British Americans Others Total Najpnaity not known

4,548 246 4,794

2,273 152 2,425

13,931

18,474
15,405

51? 39 556

14,865 835 15,700

36,134
2,,746

38,880

29 10 29 55 123 65

6 2 15 63 46

102 66 34 284 486 193

94 1 1 17 1 59 15 1,917
2,085

231 138 94

2,311

2,774
691

386

SOIRCE:

Annuaire

Statistique

de l'Indochine 1936-1937, page

23.

k ~

-45

Do Son, on the coastal approaches below Haiphong. Shows formation of offshore bars and coastal line, Taken at low tide. Villas border the beach and important native fishing village of Do Hal in
left background.

(1938)

The only imnmigrant group which is

nese,

numerically important
in Indochina than in

is

the Chi-

and they are much less

numerous

Thailand or

Malaya,

and are both less numerous and, less economically important than
Burma prior or to the present war. Table 6 on page 26a shows foreigners in

the Indians in

the "controlled"

iown immigration

and emigration of

1938,

It is doubted if the figures for Chinese are complete, in view of longer coastline open

the long common border with China, and the still to visits from Chinese Junks.

No detailed statistics for occupations are available, for one authority estimates the number engaged in handicrafts such as basket-making, carpentry, pottery, etc. as 1,400,000. Those engaged in modern indusMost of the remain-

try, mining and transport are estimated at 200,000.

der of the gainfully-employed population was engaged in agriculture, except for the mercantile community, and most of the latter consisted of small shopkeepers. industry and mining. Of the estimated 200,000 engaged in industry, mining, etc., 49,200 were employed in mining in 1937, according to official figures, and 13,000 in railway and other transportation. Thus the pattern of employThe Chinese are outstanding in commerce, small

ment was very similar to that of neighboring countries. B. Cultural characteristics. 1. amil, The culture of the Annamese is distinctly Chinese, and

hence the authority of the. father is very great, while the family is the center of Annamese life and society, The village has been called "an nothing more than an exin theory absolute, Polygary

enlargement of the family, just as the state is panded village."

Although the father's authority is

in practice it is now consiaerably less than absolute,

Table

6
Asiatics byStates

Controlled IMi.ration of~ Foreig

Immigt
Cownr CHINESE Annam Men Women Children 203 1,822 26,027 14,694 Total Men 619 Women Children 22$ 7,129 9,952 Total 1,060

1,061
35,727 53,425

Cochinchina
Tonkin Indochina total
3II

9, 66$
12,704

8,233
19,885

5,206

20, 56$ 37,571

7,734

IN DINS
299 43$ 2 21

I.

Annam Cochinchina Tonkin Indochina total

4 4

25 3$

46
328 106 480 303 404 2 16

8 5 35

35
24 32

444

OTHER ASIATICS Annam Cochinchina Tonkin Indochina Total

Statistics fuirnished by local administration SOURCE: Annuxaire Statistique de l'Indochine, 1936-37, p. 33.

-48-

(concubinage)
.Pnnamese, ble

is permitted,

but is

practiced by few except for the richest

Annamese law gives the mother considers,although she is not an impor-

such as high officials. actual

influence in

family management,

tant part of the scheme of religious workship,

believe Parents

as is

the father.

ObseZre'se

the Annamese woman to have a higher status ordinarily arrange marriages, mutual consent, as in

than her

Chinese sister, of Asia. countries

most other

countries

Divorce is of Asia,

a matter of (except that

also as in

most neighboring for

China has introduced legal formalities

divorce

since the accession to power of the

of moral responsibility, however,

Kuomintang).

There is

a strong sense
from being par-

which prevents divorce

ticularly common.
Gourou writes that: "The peasants are desirous of an aoundant posterity, as a guar-

When a husband the ancestor cult will be maintained. antee that wife he takes a second spouse; from his cannot obtain. a male heir prevent him from so doing. and only an extraordinary reason will Moreover, the taking of a. second wife does not always compel the head of the family to pay compensation. Certain peasants es-

tablish a second household a distance from their customary domwhere the second wife end of the village,, at the other icile, or in housemaid in a minor enterprise earned her living formerly hand, who have sufficient Well-to-do-.men, on the other work. Polygamy, nevertheless take one or two concubines. offspring, inplaces beforeus or sensual origin, whether of religious we cannot solve with the teresting problems which unfortunately of polyT'hat is the ratio placed at our disposal. material percentage, a definite gamy? We have been unable to ascertain we found four concuvillage of 500 inhabitants but in a poor bines, Moreover there are no bachelors...."

It

is

assumed that in

richer yjllSegs

there would be more than

four concubines for 500 inhabitants.

Tonkinese men in Cochinchina,

Presumably the absence of many

contract work for a period of

on special

years makes it
while a

possible for each remaining man to have at least one wife,

few have two or three. Prostitution is uncommon in the rural villages which house the

49

great majority of the population, and the other

both licnsed large towns as in houses and

but is

ful~y

as prevalent in

Saigon

Oriental cities generally,

there being Venereal disease

clandestine establisbments.

is

a common cause of sterility,

Concerning

even in

rural

areas.
of a Tonkin village,

the general social

relations

Gourou writes:
"An important
village is

characteristic in

the social life a

of the

Tonkinese

the absolute control of public opinion in

the private

life

of everyone.
that

The village is

coxrmninity of which moral

bygiene requires

civil and repiety carries an intervention The lack of filial duties, a fine on the guailty person. from the authorities who inflict of household scenes, the discontented the publicity There is 'also everyone perform exactly his

ligious

to help carry her comneighbors and friends to all wife calling when passing One frequently notices, before the notables. plaints scene being conducted, wherea magistrate-like through a village, her in a wife with a grievance against her husband or against the sharphusbands s second wife or a neighboring female, casts

est

insults

possible.

The actress,

for that is

undoubtedly the

the heroine of the scene, exhausts all word for most suitable the resources of her vocal cords and of her imagination to bethe victim of is often However, she herself her victim, little the grand drama is thus that display, and it her own theatrical unrnly and ludicrous gesticuva 1 , the wife, after of the "na conscious in half lies on the ground and finally rolls lations, fit." cataleptic a

2.

Church and Religion, the

Religion

and politics have never been comThe rperor of Annam has been

pletely separated in

Annamese lands.

shorn of most of his temporal power, wulew,

Marndarins have had Impott

and exists

now more as pope than as

spiritual as well as temporal respon-

sibilities,
prominence

On the other hand, the majority of French scholars give great

to the work of French Catholic missions in paving the way for

French rule in in

Indochina,

and in

securing the cooperation of the natives responsible pohowever. similar to

French administration,

Vhen Freemasons have been in

curtailed,

sitions,

Catholic influence has been greatly The Buddhist areas of

Cambodia and Laos have a religion Ceylon,

that of Thailand, Burma and

the numerous bonzes or monks exerting

50

great

influence,

The Conf cian-like

ancestor worship of

the Annamese religious

has few oriests,

the family elders ordinarily

performing all

rites.

Throughout Indochina,

however, animism is

very important in

aca

tual worship, being mingled with Confuacianism,

manner which does not strike worshippers

Taoism and. Buddhism in

inconsistent,

as at all

Religious freedom is
although religion is

the nile, and fanaticism seldom encountered,

into the fabric of life of

woven ,more intimately

all
of spirit acts

races of present-day Indochina than is

t]rope or North America. worship In particular,

the case with most countries

the underlying a great all animism or variety of

endows with religious significance

significance at

which have no religious 3. Social Stratification. to the introduction system is of

to western peoples. the Even yet in Annam. In

A hierarc1 of

of mandarins .iled

Annamese prior
the mandarin prestige, other China, fortunate is in itself classes it is

French administration.
particularly exo

some importance,

education and wealth they ordinarily except possible the royal for families of

most if

not all As in and which

Annam and Cambodia. ambitious, intelligent

the particularly classes to aspire

members of lower divided into

to the mandarinate,

nine classes, with different

each of two degrees. qualifications for

The inadmission

troduction of French rule, to the higher official posts,

has changed the mandarinate drastically,

and western-educated officials have come to be the rule. The introduction of of French control, further changed bringing with it the social a western type

commerce and industry itting some individuals

condition by perand were in the

to acquire

prominence as industrialists The large landowners to exploit

merchants on a best position

scale hitherto to furnish

'unknown.

the necessary capital

the new po-ssi-

51-

bilities

of Basically,

economic gain. Indochinese society has been, until recently at least,

built around the village or commune.

owned land, between the the village and part did not.

Part of the members of the

clear social

commune

There was fairly and it

demarcation

two groups within the commune, "notables" who strongest

was from the former that council were elected. and had The

comprised the village in Annam,

The commune was become little

somewhat weaker in village in

Tonkin,

more than. an ordinary oriental

Cochinchina.

commuune was responsible for all

the suppression of

aspects of local government,

of taxes. rrench for

including

crime and collection control,

administration the village

has tended to centralize notables.

leaving few functions

The impact of fluropeans, and of Chinese immigrants, has been such that "Ancient hierarchies social. life

upon Annamnese have seen

their power lessen; new social classes have been created; the deenterprise has gradually increased the numvelopment of capitalist has been formed, particularly ber of wage earners; a new elite introduced by the among the Annamese, based on new activities Encouraged by the increased wealth and education which Elaropeans.

it has been given, and exposed to Western ideas, science and techniues, this class also hopes for a more important place in the government of their country.0 i/

Oh. Robeauain "The Economic Evalution edition due in April, 1944.

of

rench Indochina,"

American

52 -

Pierre Gourou

~J who lived in Tonkin for a number of years, has

given a remarkably intimate picture of the political and social structure of a Tonkin village.
The excellence of his report seem to justify an

extensive Quotation which, in rough translation, is as follows: "It-is impossible to write of the Tonkinese peasant without mentioning the life of a village. We do not possess nor have the ability to do a sociological study of a village, but we cannot entirely ignore the moral and social world of the peasant. Life in a'village, although dull and miserable in apearance, is facinating and rich in emotions--it provides interest and excitement to the peasant. The numerous events of the political, religious and social life of the peasant provide him with the opportunity to have the satisfaction of leadership, an abundance of festivities, the rancor of defeat, the bitterness of a subjugated. humiliation, the pleasures of intrigue, the pomp of a beautiful feast in which all villagers participate with unanimous entli-siasm. Al things help to make him forget his humble condition, and compensate his nitiful resources, forgetting the indebtedness that oppresses him and the repayment of which will absorb the greater part of his meager revenues.

1 Op. cit.
I,

~e~Jrrm

~i,~~i~;:..

.. * I..LIP ~ i~' ~i~,~-B

~i14

It settles self-administered community. is an autonomous, "'Phe village the differences which arise between its inhabitants, and collects the The state has no dealings with the ipdividual taxes required Y$ ie state.
'citizens, but to deals the

with

the

communes, which, govern no sham. themselves. It is

after

fulfilling

their

obligations "This village -o)roverb: a hurry but swim and

government, is

independence

mnifested. in

the

following

the king' s
the people go on his theoreical'T this and the time, granting when presenting not Iownto k

la
ay.

gives way if are not;

It is also held village,

to village
the mandarin manifested that position

customs,
is in a b7% the for to v l trut .. owers p authorities. carried are given the

the mandarin
hurry, let following

is
him

in

exar-ole: years, was

One day it
vince, who,

was noticed, that tie ly tru.'o'ng of a village in Thai Binh Prohad thirty avoid o'r of the In village fictitious

sligitly
certained difficulties at election retically,

over thirty
that

years of age!

After verifyin:'
in the order same the the had villages

these facts
required in retired

it
by power

was asofficials theoly trutol cases in-

pjarticuiar
ayrient to his of to had agreed

administrative

miscellaneous keep nephew before often

expenses

son or

ng.
decessor. dividua.ls fuhctions

The newly-constituted
the

iy

tru

' o'ng would keep the name of his

several

-remanagerial names

himself quite

administration

effectively.

instead actually
receives

of the legal ones. In rare exist are, listed in a village

in in excess are with the the object seriousness of

instances more registered persons than and the forms which the ly truo'ng
a profitable trade. The ly of the tru.'o'ng As

sells
sold

them to
accordance

strangers who wish to shows no inclination

change
of

their
the

identity,
crime

each form being

murchaser.

a wi-ole the village to the authorities.

to m ke 1kom

its

real

position

by understandings with nearby independence is temmered sometimes with distant ones. These have as origin the setting up; of a new village as a colony of a.n old one, the new village remaining closely attached to the old one. Another reason for such undersecurity. There e::iste today in the Sikia.ng Delta of China, standings is police associations formed by villages, a. village which is villages village and

"This

whereby

threatened

by bandits to without provide the the the

receives

aid collective of send the

from neighboring

villages.

In internal unions are

Tonkin concalled

also
flicts

such villages

were
assistance

spontaneously
for

organized
security authorities.

to -provide for
and to settle These

mutual

assistance,

'dao
united ners

hao'

or

'gia.o hieu'.
others village

wrhenever there
envoys spirits.

is
The

a festival
of invited

villages, representing

made u-a

in

tha; ritual
assist

festivities,
one another In case of

after

villages proceedings.

aresented having do not and above all disease, fire or

one of the carrying bannota:blrl<s participate Allied their gifts.

notables recourse to affecting legal one typhoon

in

take

epidemic

of

must render assisthe other members of the association the villages, =Plus - re the t-nce and bring money, grain, animals and. other items. and morever they are imown under the common of...........united, villages name of 2Niian Muc or

Ka

I~oc.

54

"This alliance is of religious nature; the titular heads of villages being brothers. Tbus villages celebrate on the same day the, feast of their patrons.... Periodically, however, the villages organize a feast in common, each having its turn. These occasions provide for the meetings of the village heads. These villages have built a school and support it, jointly......

"The

chief problem which really dominates the political life of the village and which preoccupies the attention of the peasant .above all is that of his classification in precedence regulations. This order of precedence varies from village to village. Prior to his becoming a notable the peasant jealously requires those whose names are listed after his on the roster to respect his rank. The principle of rank according to age is followed. Ordinarily the notables are made up of the following= the elders (cac cu, bo); civilianaz d military mandarins; the retired performers 6f the village spiritual cu"lt (ca dam); the educated; the retired administrators of the village or canton (which properly speaking' comprise the 1kr muc); and those who have purchased in the village a title of nhieu. Wie note from the fore-going that rigid convention prevails .and that its practice is extremely diversified as between villages. But of greatest importance is the ardent desire of the peasant to be a notable. He m-ray achieve his ambition in certain cases with the aid of the leaders, or he may be elected through intrigue, or become a notable because of seniority. , Once a notable, he will expect to receive the honors due him, above all, one must not forget to hand him, at large communal festivals, the portion of the gifts to which he is en

titled.

The head of the hog, which is

the prise portion, is

reserved,

according to the customs of each village, to either the tien chi or to certain notables. To deprive a notable of the pigs head is to offend

him deeply, and the notable will leave no stone unturned and may even squander all his belongings to ascertain from the mandarin the cause of the inslta ("a mouthyu of meat which is rights lly due at the village feast is worth more than a basket of purchased meat") , Social status among the Annemites has lost none of its meaning and the foregoing quotation gives a clear idea of the keen rivalry which may be occasioned in matters concerning procedure.

"3esides this hierarchic classification the villgers are placed in sumb divisions which bear names difficult to defines The 'thonis is a hemlet which may have its dinh, its cshu, and its cr1 al customs, The , m: is a geographical division of a village or of the the; for le, houses bordering on the same street form a mom The t giap is mostly a religious grouiping to which one belongs by birth and whih has as its center a @pesial temple. Contrary to the practice in China, the elan, or group of persons having the Same name, has no political significance, and, witg cut doubt, that is one of the most distinctive AnnAmite institutions,

"low is the cc governed? According to the regime established, in 11T, e fictions regularly in conformity with the administration of the cc the following plan; A cc mal council is comjos ed of persons (toe b is) the 'ng hol, elected by the familis; at the head of the council ois oh@ president of the cc mal council, the most important person of the village, This council has under its 3urisdiction deputies who Eatry out instructions,

556

a secretary and treasurer, both of whom are members of the council, and above all a ly tn t o'ng, charged with the application of the measures decreed by the council, and with representing the village before the su-

perior authorities, All decisions of the communal council are subject to the veto of the' council of notables. This body does not pass orders on complicated matters, and we would not consider it adapted to the performance of duties undertaken by the communal. authorities,-, and to the
Quibbling "Hppily, prestige spiritof in the Annemite,

authority is

actual practice, matters simpir themselves and very often placed in the hands of a. man who owes his influence to his
or his scholarship, or to his ability, or his powers

as mandarin,

of intrigxe, Generally, the master of the village is the notable-.in-chief, the tien chi, chief of the association of literacy (tu' van).

"It is the logical and normal situation which gives to public affairs a peaceful solution when the tien chi condescends to be chanh huloing hoi. The chief not ;tble cannot be impeached and no one can ever take away his title nor do without his approval. However there are villages where the influential 'person is not the chief notable, but the ly tni'oing, or la certain old man who advanced himself, while yelling continuously, injuring t everyone, making the mayor (maire) the m, yor' s aide, and the chief elders tremble,,,..his authority is due to the politeness which eve yone shows him.,
"It
is with the 1master of the village' whom one must deal

in

settling

any

matter whatever in the village, For example, in order to purchase a piece of land., the approval of the master of the village must be obtained, or otherwise the recording will not be made, by this influential person is certain if the proper procedures are not followed, $seasoned 1 with appropriate 'spices',

Opposition

"The ly tru'

o -nng

has much to. do with the administration

of

the village.

He

collects taxes, places requests before the authorities, and supervises public works, A mere representative agent with no authority whatever, he, in times past, held himself responsible before the mandarin for ,every act or deed of the village although he had no power to prevent those deeds, It

was said jokingly that to be the ly trm to'ng one must possess buttocks armor-plated with two stalks of dried arecanuts, or else they must be as Ward as blocks of wood, because the ly tru oing was often on the receiving end of cane stokes for the errors committed by the village,

"The
that

communal administration has a program which is much wider in

of the municipal council for a commune in France, It

scope than
satisfy

does riot

itself merely with regulating minor affairs, but it also collects state taxes and above all considers religious matters, and particularly those concerned with the organization of festivities. The feasts which the village
must organize are very numerous.,, ,These feasts provide an interest not merely religious, but also definitely gastronomic,.......,he notables dheliberate on various matters, ordinarily while eating, and when the meal is paid for by public the commune large entertainrluents the notables are cities they meet on every available occasion, Besides or semiinvited to numerous private they are almost assured of free meals

private feasts..,.In

56 -

practically every day. 14e have been able to state that 'The communal administration consists primarily in eating and to explain how the gentry
supply meals

of the notables consists....

and how they must provide mealst and that the chief activity, in eating on ever- occasion and to see that all those whose turn has come to supply him with a meal feed him well.'

"In coformity with the bustoms of the country the notables do not govern without bribery, and devote most of their attention to squeezing money from the citizens. This condition is equally in vogue among the influential notables. The notables are ever ready to increase tax'es by a certain percent; the greater portion of the increase flowing into their pockets. They mae unnecessary trips to the headquarters of the huyen or the phu to ob-

tain sundry fees,

tions..... A

ancd to claim of their co-citizens exceptional contribu.mandarin told us that one day a group of not, _es

distinguished

him a gift of two hundred piasof a village came to his residence to offer tres so that an embankment scheduled to be constructed within the confines demand, because of the village would not be undertaken. It was a ridiculous However, the notables had convinced their the embaniknent was really useful.

co-citizens of the harmfulness of the undertaking, was being offered as a bribe.

and

had

obtained from them

half of which

an exceptionally large contribution of four bmndred piastres,

interest a case, however, public angered, punishing the notables and denouncing them to the inhabitants, for

In such This case dbviously showed e;:tortion. if the mandarin became would be the loser

none would comprehend this severity. It is necessary to arrange these matters The peasants are not disturbed by with delicacy, so that no one loses face, One them should they prove helpful. these intrigues, but propose to imitate is really astonished at the cunning, craftiness and intrigue of which a shabby appearance would make one believe capable, when his simple peasant is that he sees no farther than the nose of his ox.
of bridisinterested or the result of the notables is "Whether the activity bery it removes the discontent of a larger or'smaller number of the villagers, thus helping to create a political party for support of the notables. Riintent causes, wherein each is valries are unfolded because of various petty

of making his opponent lose face.

Matters go so far at times that a portion

festivities and to pay taxes. to take part in ritual refuses of the village feast to the and gives a special group organizes a 'giap' The protesting information concerning the doings gives the authorities Party rivalry group. in power one and from accusations made against the party of the villagers, manufacture of alcohol." such as the illicit uncovers hidden activities,

57

The social

structure

of

Cambodia

was somewhat

similar

to tha't

of Annam,

except that Sanscrit and.Pall were the languages in

there was a fairly distinct

which
class----

the officials had to excell, while loosely called

"Brahmans"

from which officials were formerly recruited, structure has apparently

The French impact upon the Cambodian social been the same as that 4, in Annam and Tonkin.

Qiiasi- public and

private organizations,

Secret societies have

flourieh d among the Annamese for centuries, being both rural and urban
in composition. In recent decades some of character, The but these societies information on the starting have had a subject in is

political

and nationalist

almost completely unavailable,. Cochinchina, was ostensibly soon made it

Cao Dai movement, rapidly after

Tay linh, It

spread northward rather an

the first interest

World War. in politics

Iectic . religious 'movement, of

but its

the object

suspicion and opposition on the part

of the

French.
they are point.

Numerous revolutionary movements were founded in essentially political parties,

Tonkin, but as
this

they will not be discussed at

Since the coming to power of

Admiral Decoux in

1940 the Vic1r French

have attempted to counter Japanese propaganda among Annamese nationalists by a youth movement, consisting of strong athletic emphasis, with trans-

country bicycle races, parades, letic contests.

camps, uniforms and various types of athappealing

They. have reportedly been fairly successful in

instinct as well as the vanity

to the sporting

of Annamese youth.

-,58

Chambers of Commerce and of Abricaltuire,

numerous,

etc.

are not very

but they are of consideraible economic and political

importance. author:

The former are

described as

foliowa by.a

French

j
whose number may
are made up of

"The Chambers of Commerce are composed of officials not be less than 11 nor more than 21, Wrench and. Native merchants in "Similarly

Alternate officials

equal proportion.

as

in Metropolitan

Prance,

the Wrench members are elected

by Wrench merchantmen and merchantwomen, while those of the Natives are designated by an electoral body made up of merchants of both sexes. "Each official serves. a term of four years. Half of the officials are

subject to the re-election every two years; there is no limit to the number of re-elections, "Chambers. of Commerce to the economic life

supply

the public with information of interest give

of the Colony,

counsel and

propose improvements.

They publish market reports, official reports of their meetings and of miscellaneous economic information. They are charged with the building and,

supervision or management of ports, and of certain useful commercial and

industrial establishments. "They have personnel budgets and receive financial grants, "There are, truly stated, only three Chambers of. Commerce in One at Saigon; one at Haiphong; and the third at Hanoi." Indochina:

SEste Grandel, Le Development economique de. 1' Indo chine Pranciase, 1936, p. 169, roughly translated.

5.

Out etaadi

alities

and.

labi<a

appearance
Cahinese

a great many culture, there

Annamese could pass for Chinese,

is great similarity intelligence, in other

With. a basicaly

respects.

Most observers that centuries

credit

them with

considerable

but some state

of oppression, and deception

domestic and foreign,

have caused them to regard and

courage. for

cleverness

lness more highly than trixthfuJ

annual and less

The enervating climate, with

typhoons may be responsible energetic than the Chinese.

making the Annamese more fatalist The following

summary 21

of characteri-

tics of the leading races is quoted from a French study: "The Annamite is generally of small stature,

the female

even more

so,

and

is

rather thin because of

uerouriabwet. The cranium is

and is worn long, the the eyes repressed,

and. black, is thick braclycephalic, the hair g, forehead rounded, the cheek.-bones projectin

The nose is very broad and crushed-like, the mouth large and the teeth regular but not agreeable to look at because and the are thick being blackened. with la.c varnish; the lips of their beard light and scanty 0

narrow anr. impassive,

r On the whole, doubtless because of the sustained oppression of the remains impassive, the Roby siognomy of the Annamite centuries, people for

does not generally show any exterior sign of pleasure or of suffering. the body, the limbs are fairly well developed and strong enough As for
and scrawny on the city dtweller. on the peasant, while they are thin passes from yellowish-white or waxey the color of the skin, it As for

on the former to dark brown and even leathery on the latter,

./

The

characteristic trait of the race is designated by the Chinese under toe, (bifurcated feet) that is to say, the large the name Gio-chi of the feet. toes markedly from the other very pronounced, spreads "Exceedingly prolific by nature and religion, attached to the land on

the one hand, because they are rice growers above all,

and

to the fam-

of ancestor worpractice ily and community on the other hand, by their of Coship, the Annamites live in very compact groups in the deltas cultiof Tonkin, where the chinchina, of Annam and especially in that

21

Auguste Mandel,

'La

developement economique

de

lXndochine

~/

Francaise, Saigon, 1936, pp. 8-11 a rough translation. but it is surmised that the author inadThe translation is literal,
vertently transposed "former
t

and "latter".

vated area of each family property is reduced by the density of the population which at times exceeds 600 per square kilometer. Moreover, they must scheme and work, almost without let-up, to obtain their food from the bid of land which they exhaust by repeated plantings. Te provide more easily for their needs they frequently carry on a small traditional, primitive, family industry. But this industry always remains, in principle, subordinate to agriculture.

.- Shrewd, endowed with a good memory, they appear td adapt themselves

easily to occidental customs. However, their assimilation is almost always factitious, for, as soon as they find themselves in their own midst they return, most frequently, to their ancestral customs without any modification. Skillful, they create works of art, but of a grimacing type not agreeable to the European taste. "Intelligent, they have the taste for learning and cherish philosophic studies. Inversely, they are seldom attracted to the material and prac tical studies of commerce and industry. "But if the Annamites are shrewd, skillful, intelligent, industrious, if their activities correspond rightfully to their physical constitution, which resists the debilitating influence of the tropical climate, if they are servile, they lack, nevertheless, an enterprising spirit. Moreover, especially in the cities, they are often tricksters, and at times deceitful and insolent. Finally their great exterior display of politeness is not always a sincere expression of good will and respect. "The Cambodian or Khmer is fairly tall and well proportioned. His slender appearance is without the slouchiness which one notices in the Annamite. By the shape of his head he resembles the European. His eyes are well opened and expressive, so is his entire physiognomy. His hair is fine and usually cut 'brush fashion.' Very gay, he prefers to distract himself while playing or while working. For his amusements every occasion is favorable to him and recreation is obtained from numerous village festivals, family reunions and particularly from religious ceremonies. In Cambodia, theatrical performances always attract large audiences. "The Cambodian school is the pagoda, where the bonze (Buddhist priest) while teaching the child to read and write, expounds the ascetic and contemplative life of Buddhism. Later, and for the remainder of his life, the child---now grown to manhood---remembers this teaching, and in gratitude to his teachers he practices without let-up a Buddhism which is not always without superstition and animism. "As intelligent as the Annamite, the Cambodian is anxious to listen to the bonze as the latter tells him of the history of Buddhism and of the great Khmer race----impressive as well as naive history, full of lyric poetry which fills the hearer with enthusiasm. "As artist, he reproduces in agreeable style, truly charming, every tabloid which the natural luxuriance of the -country unfolds profusely before his eyes.

61

"Endowed with a natural

honesty and loyalty,

and also with a hospitable

disposition,
custom. he may,

his life

flows through a gentle tranquillity of soirit

and

However, if he has the misfortune to become adicted to liquor, after excessive drinking, become brutal and dangerous.

"In general, he is devoid of ambition and. is contented with little so long as nature supplies him with food without too much effort, while festivities along with religious duties toward the bonzes account for

life. Aside from the work that he is obliged housing and to dress himself modestly, he passes the remainder of his time dreaming of pleasant idleness. the greater part of
to do for food, for
his

"From every point of view the Laotian resembles the Cambodian. However he is more gay and. much more docile than the latter, Perhaps a little less religious, he is more apathetic because he is more favored
by nature, The color of his skin is that the numerous Laotian festivities incidents. relatively white. It is remarkable of are never marred with any sort

the Laotian is happy to see the 1hjarceremonies, themselves in his partaking of his mosl sand tastizig with bs, with the aid of 1oDng even the disposal bamboo reeds, rice alcohol from beautiful jars placed at
opeans share his pleasures and interest. of invited guests on every occasion.

"A loyal

and agreeable

companion,

of pleasure is Their'love " The Laotians are both musical and poetic. t t under the protective boun which are feasts satisfied by the numerous encouragement of parents chaperoning of the bonzes, and of the tacit and grandparents. The youths are highly stimulated by melodious and (wind insturments, each made of ten bammusic from the 'ichen' erotic boos, arranged in double rows close to one another, emitting sounds to those of an organ, but more harmonious and more soothing) and similar the clamor of the tom-toms, which -provide stimulating tunes and are

accompanied by chanits and all

sorts of gestures.

The whole seance

who are so profoundly attached to nature, to these folk is quite natural with licentious to the occidental not familiar whereas it appears quite While the young gentry boast to the these peaceful and joyful. habits. ,terms, the joys derived therefrom, plus in no uncertain young ladies, from the young happiness and of love, they obtain those of natural with much irony. but also filled effective, responses no less ladies These 'boun' greatly delight the entire assembly.

"Living in a country traversed by numerous rivers and the great Mekong, Nothing is more imressive in or on the water. the Laotians thrive apathetic, paddle over the most rapid than to see them, so habitually

and dangerous currents in their frail

canoes."

62 L ving conditions in
Asia,

6.
all

General LI2 ing Conuditions,

Indochina,

as in

other countries of continental the American

ar

unbelievably bad, from the the first time. Particularly in

standpoint of

seeing them for

Ponkin there are millions of people who have barely enough food to keep them alive in normal times,
famine when flood,

and. who experience 'acute undernourishment or actual

or war intervene. Reports in 1942 and 1943

crop failure

of large-scie attempts to tion of unusual poverty in decades.

settle Tonkinese in Cochinchina are but an indica-

Tonkin, whence emigrants have been going to Co-.

much more common than actual star-

chinchina for

Undernourishment is

vation,

since the family and commune, carry out a. fairly equal distribution of

food available.

Rice
is

is

the universal standard food,

unobtainable. Pork is

other cereals being

eaten only when rice

a more popular dish than in

Thailand or Burma, and fish (including a malodorous fish dard item of diet. Concerning type of dress,
and a

paste)

are a

stan-

an American consul
fitting

reported: about

WBoth sexes wear wide trousers

long robe closely

the shoulders and

brestloose at the waist, with narrow cuffs, and drop-

women. way to the ankles for ping to the knee wnien worn by men and half The men wear a turban of creron upon which they sometimes place a conical hat when going out in the sun. In Annam "The women of Tonkin roll their hair on a piece of crepon. hair in a. knot at the back of the and Cochinchina the women roll their of AnnarI subof Port The women north a kerchief. head and tie over it and the tunic is open showing a a petticoat for the trousers, stitute white or pink underjacket.... "iThe headdress of men and women is a conical hat made aocording to the feaof bird social status of the wearer, of palm leaves, bamboo fibers The Tonkinese women wear a large cylindrical hat of fine basket thers. cord ending in a silken tied.with weaving in the shape of a millstone tassels.

the Annamites go barefooted except in the city where they They are beginning to wear sandals of leather or clogs of native woods.
use their

"Ordinarily
feet."

EuXropean

shoes and as a

result

are losing

some of the dexterity of

Consul (incy

Roberts of Saigon,

1937.

63

In addition to cotton garments, the Annamnese wear silk to an extent

which would surprise a Westerner, considering the poverty of the people

as a whole.

In fact, sericulture

is

a side-line in many households through-

out-Indochina.

However, there were considerable silk imports in pre-war was reported that silk garments were actually
Both were so

years.

At the end of 1943 it

cheaper than cotton garments, high in

due to unusual war conditions.

price, however,

that they were almost beyond the reach of the great

majority of the population.

Housing

is

not a major problem in is used in

tropical

countries like floors,

Indochina.

T.he ubiouitous bamboo

foundations,

walls and rafters,

with grasses and leaves for the roof.

More prosperous villagers use hard-

wood for supports and floors, with teak for the walls and rafter supports,
while others, the formalized. particularly in the lowland regions of Indochina, use for centuries. in prefer

mud houses which have been in thin layer of

Bamboo

walls covered with a 7. Attitudes

mud are the rule

the Tonkin delta. It is doubt-

toward

the war and. various belligerents,

ful if there exists,

"iho could accurately china toward the war. others,

even in Indochina itself, a public opinion pollster

state the attitudes of all important groups in

Indo-

From the many opinions vouchsafed by refugees and one of bitter disillusionment with Japanese for

the impression is

rule,

coupled with a propaganda war between French and Japanese (or at narily least picture the cooperation) of the.Indochinese.. the return picture.

the affections

French refugees ordiof French rule,

'The

the Annamese as longing for

while em-

non-French phasize

Europeans

paint

a very different

French also

the fear

of both French and Annamese of Chinese aggression, that British and American, rather

and

express a desire be used in

than Chinese troops will

the re-conquest of Indochina.

Ilk'8

In

view of

the prevailing illiteracy, and the lack forms of thought,

of

experience with that the great

modern political majority of

it is perh ps most like3 about the war,

the people theorize very little

and are almost and families alive

wholly occupied with ways and means of keeping themselves in

spite of adverse conditions,

The Yenbay Rebellion of

1930-31 and numer--

ous other revolts and plots suggest that the small educated minority contains a high proportion of nationalists,
self-rule, and suspicious of

eager to secure the maximum of Chinese, British,

aspirations. group---the Americans It most

French, Japanese,

or any other group which might interfere with nationalist is significant, however, that the so-celled "communist"

persistent close

and well-organized group of nationalists, contacts with Canton. It is not impossible, to secure

was proved to have therefore, Chinese aid, that in the prefIt

more radical of nationalists erence to any other,

would prefer

should some continuing outside aid be necessary. that large. landowners, industrialists,

seems obvious,

however,

and other

'conservative elements of the population would agree with the French in desiring to keep Chinese influence at Alluring pictures American popularity in a minimum. Annamese faith in America, of

have been dr awn of Indochina,

and of Annamese desire

to have their

country taken over by this country. opinions with great reserve.

with Americans imperialism,

It

seems wisest to accept such

7ev Annamese have had sufficient contacts

opinion as to our qualifications for impact that a

to form.a. first-hand

and literature

on America has probably made little classes. There is no great likelihood

even on the intellectual people who dislike

French rule,

and are reportedly

seething with incipient

revolt against Japanese rule would rejoice over the pleasure of being
ruled by any other nation, including America.

The French community, partic.laxly in Vichy, and is reportedly divided

Cochinchina,

is

largely anti-

into

two groups-- those who are pro-de cNtioas1 Oomittee, WrQ,,Na

little doubt that Decoux

Gaulle. and those who are supporters of the

out particular and others as effectively attachment to de Gulrle. There is

of the ruling French group are opposing Japanese as they can,

encroachment find

so the actual invasion of Indochina will with the United Nations.

many of them eager to

collaborate

Most French-

men with opinions on the sovereignty in ue Indochina.

subject appear

to be eager to preserve French

8.
many traders

EEa

Annamne se is

spoken by all
people in

members of that race, and by

groups. It seems

and professional

the other racial

safe to estimate that language.

80 percent of. the total

population understands this

Chinese characters are used in the written Annamese, but have

been partially displaced by a

by the French. language,

Romanized

script called "Quoc Ngu" introduced

different from the classical and is more in

The spoken language

is rather

but duoc Ngu is

popularized

through the schools,

touch with the language

of everyday use. contains a great many Chinese words, but was with Mon-Kmer words. Six

The Annamese vocabulary originally a

branch of the Thai language

group,

tones make it

very difficult

for the westerner.

The words are monosyllsb.es,

modifies. The Chu-

while the complement nom reform,

follows the verb of characters

or noun which it for

having one set

the meaning and another for century.

phonetic value,

took place in

the thirteenth

Cambodian is the language of two or three million,, concentrated in the state of Cambodia. Many Cambodians of the professional their and merchant language is classes less

can speak Annamese and /or French,

so a knowledge of

essential than a knowledge of the two official languages of the country. Cambodian has added a great many Sanscri and Pji words to the basic

Mon-Kbmer
religious

structure,
and cultural

because of the long-continued Hindu and Buddhist

influenced

There is
many languages

no other

language of importance in Indochina, as a great

are spoken by the people of Laos.
because of Cantonese

and dialects

would doubtless prove useful,

the ubiquitous Chinese immigrant.

English is 9
evdence

spoken by very few. Racial conflict is less in

Racial Conflicts and Discriminations0

in

Indochina than in most other Oriental areas. solie block of territory, and there it is

The Arnamese a limited area in

majority inhabits a

Cochinchina and Cambodia where Cordillera rather

mingles with the Cambodians. territory In

The Annamite

sharply separates Annamese

from the mountains any case, the Anna. to the

*inhabited by Laotians and the numerous hill-tribes. mese normally occupy Hois, Mecs,
Hans,

the lowlands,

leaving

the hills,

even in

Annam,

Muongs, etc.

The Cambodians are a gentle race, unusually patient in the face of

Anncime e
tween t

->:m

smen oiupas ic

and there is

little evidence of racial

conflict

be-

tGe-

te past half-century.
. ou

Lak

of con

nd

relative stability

of populations prevents

the polyglot population of Laos from presenting examples of race conflict. ?robably the outstanding racial migrants. The Chinese, to five in

problems

are those pertaining Indochina

to imto the

particular, have migrated to

extent of three

hundred, thousand,

They have secured an enviable

position in commerce, industry and transport, arousing the resentment of

Annamese competitors. in meeting Chinese

A
rat a , c

However,

the

Annamese

have

sho Vm considerable ability

competition--much more so than the Malays, Thai or BurL1izy it

jhich

causes the Annamese

to respect the conflict.

r :4

au]

=Ca,2 ..

.e l

to migate the potential

racil

67

Intermarriage is common, and after a few generations the Chinese strain is

overlooked,
mese. racial there

the

UDi

buof

or

slnom

eBO oonsidei'ing himself just hzir

constitute of 1935, against at

On the whole, problem,

the Chinese do not appear to

an

important

and since the Sino-French treaty if any legal discrimination

any rate,

has been little The

them,

small Chettyar community of unpopular in Indochina,

money lenders as in

from South India has lands to whi'i

made itself

Bunrma and other

members of the community have migrated. it

Restrictive laws have preventedY to that which it has in Bur. .

from having an economic importance similar

ma.

Other Indians,

particularly from the French colonies in

including the government service,

India, have
but do not

entered various professions, appear to occasion much friction.

The French and Japanese communities have racial, friction which arises is
cal and imperial considerations.

always

been small,

and any

likely to be oversha-dowed by larger politi-

68
-

View of limestone massifs rising southwest of' the delta in Ha Nam province Tongking, south of Hanoi. A coff'ee plantation and modern farms are shown on either side ofthe river.

4 o
wb

" p

is

0 '1 0

APDIX

-70

Area, population and density of population by province in 1936, Inhabi tants per Sq. mile 241 44 13 171 18 72 44 122 65 153 39 72 163 272 96 218 166 98.4 90,6
Niumber of Cantons:.

adminisCommune s

Sq. miles

trative subdivisiofls

(ooo)
2,3 2.6 8,2

Population

(ooo)
557 111 106 400 60 121 302 746 86 251 137 223 767 439 172 844 302 5,656 5,122

Binh-d.inh Binh-thuan Dlarlac Ha-tinh Haut-Dlonnai Khanh-~.hoa Kontu2m

Nghe-ran

2.3
3.3 1.? 6,8 6.2 1.4 1.7 3.6 3.1 4.7 1.6 1.8 3.9 1.8 57,0 57,0

Ninh-thuan Phu-yen Pleiku Quang-binh quang-nam Quang-ngai

Q,uang-tri
Thanh-hoa Thua-.thien Tour!ane Total Census of 1931 Cembo ~a. Bat tambang Kampo t Kandal

26 18 30 45 25 16 37 70 8 19 2]. 29 53 40 35 134 31 638 559

(Sroks)

695 204 576 548 559 254 836 923 144 310 656 378 1,077 963 577 2,005 463 11,187 10,751
/

(Khums)
103 63 171 178 61 75 101 27 138 39 78 66 48 84

7.8
68

Kompong-.chain
Kompong-chhnang Kompong speu Kompong-.thom Kratie 2~/ Prey.-veng Pursat Siem-reap Soai- rieng Stung-treng 2/ Takeo Ville de Pnompenh Grand Lao Total in 1936 Census of 1931

1,5 3,0 2.2 2,7 9.3 11.0 1.8 4.7 6,7 1,1 8.9 1.4
0,0

264 219 419 460 163 173 168 66 285 83 161 148 43 291 103 3,046 2 ,806

34 31 285 155 75 62 18 6 158 18 23 135 5 215 44 83 83

1.0
69 .9 69,9 1,232 1,309

Subdivision named ebnd in 1931, Hill. tribes not counted in 1921 census. the case of the 1936-.37 census 0

'Itis believed that this was also

as 71.

Area, population and density of the population by province in 1936, Inhabitants

per

FL

Number of administrative

subdivisions
Commrunes
37

Sq. miles

Population

Sq. mile

Cantons

Cochinchiia.

(000)
2.8

(ooo)
244 88 7

Bac-'li en
Baria Ben-tre Bien-hoa Cantho

0.8 0.6 4.4 0.9

Jacques
.

63

302
162 36?
8

75 492 36 409 228 476

420

7 19 10 10 14 12
1?

Cap-St.
Chaudoc Cholon

1.1 0.5

254 232
298

53 94 78 72 i 78 66
132

Gia-dinh
Go-cong Hatien Long-xuyen
Mytho

0.7
0.3

109

427

40

0.4
1.0 0.9 2.6
0.6

26
253 389 350
231

62
243

4
8 13 10 iC) 12 10 10 7 14 13

15
48 114 73
61

435
135
396

Rach-gia

Sadec
Soctrang Tan-an Tay-.ninh. Thu-dau-mot Tra-vini Vinh--long le dePouloCondore Ville de Cholon Ville de Saigon Total in 1936 Census of 1931

0.9 1.4 1.6 2.2 0.8 0.5 0.0 0.0 25.0

09111
25.0

198 135 122 173 251 190 3 145 4,616 4,484

215 98 75 80 326 407 98* . 184 179

57 62 50 49 62 64

212 232 Muongs and kongs

1,286 1,630 Villages 765 839 504 856

LAO, Bassac Cammon Haut-Mekong Hona-phans Luang- prabang Phong-saly Saravane Savannakhet 10.2 10.2 5.0 6.3 21.4 6.1 6.2 8.4
7.5

158

105
31 57 197 35 94 164
61

16 10 5 8 10 5 16 21
8

10 4 6 6 11 4 6 8
4

2,363
476 475 710
864

Tran-ninh
Vientiane Total in 1936 Census of 1931

8.0 89.3 89.3

110
1,012 944 10 10

4 63 74

695 8,54? 8,537

L72

Area, population and density of population by province in 1936. Tonkin Bac-giang Bac-kan Bac-ninh Cao-bang Ha-dong Hagiang Haiduong Hai-ninh Ha-nam Hoa-binh Hung-yen Kienan Lai-chau Langson Lao-kay Nam-dinh Ninh-bninh
Phuc-yen

Sq. miles (000) 2.0 2.0 0.4

Peopulat ion (000) 273

Inhabitants per sq.mile

Number of administra-

subdivisions Cantons Communes

tive

2.6
0.6 3.2 0.9 1.3 0.5 1.8 0.3 0.3

54 486 171
904

135 28 1,176
67

63
20

455
101

78
33
105

595
236
815

78 752
92

1,37$ 23
855 72 1,023

16
117 12 44

63
1,008

458
54
479 418

397
85

31 1,443
1,171

14
63

63
54

505430

7.8
2.4 2.3 0.6 0.6

67 150 58 1, 056

8
62 26 1,823 642 627
210 111 23 233

387
167

0.3
1.4

Phu-tho Quang-yen Son-la Son -tay Thai-binh Thai-nguyen

Tuyen-quang

1.3
4.2 0.4

296 147
103

85 48 34 66
14

679 218 464

386
92

2,8
1,027 100 65 244

0.6
1.3

2,3
0.4 2.9

V inh-yen Yen-bay Ville de Haiphong Ville de Hanoi Total in 1936 Census of 1931

87
70 8,700 8,096

730 1,751 75 289 565

31

45

95
51

39
28

286 '817 234 195

302

46

188

447 447

1~

194

1,233
1,2'12

181

4,35 9/ 8,705

All of Indochina
in 1936 in 1931
285.9

239030 21,452

80 75

285.9

1. Includes 20,000 military personnel,--a breakdown by province not being given.

2. Does not include the provinces of Laichau, Laokay and Sonla, the administrative organizations of which are different from the rest of Tonkin.

73

4 d

GIOSSARY

be~paaa~
administered by a

Ban

Laotian equivalent of Xa,

Taseng.

Bonze Buon
cBc. cu

Cambodian Buddhist monk,

Erotic

Laotian'feasts 0

or bo

Village elders, native overseer, A special type of Cohfucien priest.

Cal or caporal cal dam Cao Dai

Religious end national movement in Cochinchina, Annam and Tonkin since World War I.
President of a Council in a commune or village.

Chann hu'o'.ng Hoi Crachin

Heavy mists or light drizzles, occuring during February and March in coastal regions of Tonkin and, northern Annam.

dao hao or giao hieu giap Glo-chi

Union of neighboring villages for security or other purposes. Religious grouping within the village, with its, own temple. Chinese term for Anname se. bifurcated feet, original name of the

Khnd

Cambodian equivalent

of Tong,

administered by a administered by a

chaufaikhand.
chaufaikhet.

Khet Knum Ly tru'o'ng

Cambodian equivalent of tinli, Cambodian equivalent Executive secretary Tonkin and Annam, Sino-Annamese. of Xa, of village

administered council

by a Mekhum.

of Notables in

Minh-huong huong

Laotian equivalent of phu, administered by a chaumuong Sometimes referred to as "kong". Village title. Administrator of a in Laos, canton, or subdivision of a prefecture,

nhieu Phoban

Phu Quoc nug

Prefecture or ruler thereof in Cochinchina, Tonkin and Annam. Romanized Annamese alphabet and writing, introduced by missionaries in the seventeenth century.

Pw..a%

74

11

Srok thon tien chi Tinhi

too
0

-Cambodian

equivalent of phu, administered by a Chaufaisrok. of or another name for Za. honored village official.

-Subdivision

-Highly

Province in Cochinchina, Tonkin and Armam, somewhat larger than most American counties.
=communal

bieu.

council.

Tong

" Subdivision of prefecture in Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina, administered by a Chaultong in Tonkin and Annam, and by a Cai tong in Cochinchina.
-Commune

Xa

or village in Cochinchina, Tonkin and Annam, administered by a Huong.-Xa in Cochinchina, and by a Council of Notables, presided over by a Ly Trulo'ng in Tonkin and Annam. of thon.

Xom

-Subdivision

75 BIBLIOGAPHY
wnuire Statistique de 1'Indochine,

1936-37.

Broderick, A. H. "Little China" 1941, p. 193. Bulletin Economiaue d~e 1' Indochine, (bimonthly.) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce: Piles of the Par Eastern Unit; Preliminary Survey of the Economy of Prench Indochina; Problems of Relief and Rehabilitation in Indochina.
nnis, T. E., "L' Indochine"

1931.

Par Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine: Indochine Prancaise; Recuieil de notices redigees a l'ocasion dui dixiene Oongres de la Par Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine, Hanoi, 1938. Gourdon, Henuri, "L'Indo chine" 1931, Gourou, Pierre, Lee

Paysaxis

d~u Delta Tonkinois, 1936.

Indo Grandel, Auguste, Le developpement economique de 1l' chine

Prancais,

1936.

Robequain, Oh., The Economic Evolution of Prench Indochine, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1944.

Poberts,
Thompson,

Consul gaincy,:
Virginia:

Unpublished manuscript on Prench Indochina, in the files of the Par Eastern Unit.

French Indochina,

1937.

Wles, H. (Qatrich, Years of Blindness, 1943,

NOTE:

Additional official sources were used in the preparation of this Handbook.