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1 The Geometry and Algebra of Vectors Vectors in the Plane A vector is a directed line segment that corresponds to a displacement from one point A to another point B. Notation:

A vector from A to B is denoted AB.

A: initial point / tail

B: terminal point / head

AB= v alternatively.

 To every point A = (a, b) in the plane, we can construct a vector a =OA. called a position vector

This is

a =OA=

a (column vector) b

a =OA= a b (row vector)

The individual coordinates a, b are called the components of the vectors.

NB: Order is important:

a b = b a

Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and the same direction i.e. x y = 1 2 means x = 1, y = 2.
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 The vector OO=

0 is called the zero 0 vector and is denoted by 0.

A vector is said to be in standard position if its initial point is at the origin.

Examples (Example 1.1)

Draw a =

3 in standard position in R2. 2

Let A = (0, 2), B = (2, 1): Draw position vectors to A and B. Find AB and redraw it in the standard position.

New Vectors from Old Vector Addition - Head-to-Tail Rule / Parallelogram Rule u v Given vectors u = 1 and v = 1 u2 v2

u+v =

u1 + v1 u2 + v2

Scalar multiplication v Given v = 1 and a real number c. v2 cv = c v1 cv1 = v2 cv2

Vector subtraction A special case of a scalar multiple is (1)v, written v, called the negative of v. Given u and v

u v = u + (v)
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Examples (Example 1.2, 1.3) 3 4 and b = , compute and draw 2 1 a + b, b a. If a =

2 4

If c

1 = 2, compute and draw 2c, 2 c and 2c.

Vectors in Rn

Rn is dened to be the set of all ordered ntuples of real numbers written as row or column vectors, i.e. v Rn is of the form

[v1, v2, , vn]

or

v1 v 2 . . . vn

v1 u1 v u 2 If u = . and v = .2 then . . . . un vn u1 + v1 u + v u + v = 2 . 2 . . un + vn

and

cu1 cu cu = . 2 . . cun

Let u, v and w be vectors in Rn and let c and d be scalars. Then 1. u + v = v + u Commutativity Associativity

2. (u+v)+w = u+(v +w) 3. u + 0 = u 4. u + (u) = 0 5. c(u + v) = cu + cv 6. (c + d)u = cu + du 7. c(du) = (cd)u 8. 1u = u

Distributivity Distributivity

Examples (Example 1.5) Let a, b and x be vectors in Rn. Solve for x in terms of a and b if

x + 2a b = 3(x + a) 2(2a b)

Linear combinations of vectors A vector v is a linear combination of vectors v1, v2, . . . , vk if there are scalars c1, c2, . . . , ck such that v = c1v1 + c2v2 + + ck vk . c1, c2, . . . , ck are called the coecients of the linear combination. Example (Example 1.6, 1.7) 0 as a linear combination of u = 3 2 1 and v = 1 1

Find w =

Binary Vectors and Modular Arithmetic The set Z2 = {0, 1} is called the integers modulo 2, where addition and multiplication are performed as usual, but calculated as the remainder when divided by 2. For example 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 0, 1 + 1 + 1 = 1. In general the set Zm = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , m 1} is called the integers modulo m, where addition and multiplication are performed as usual, but calculated as the remainder when divided by m. For example in Z7 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} 3 + 4 = 0, 3 4 = 5, 5 + 4 = 2. A binary vector is a vector with components 0 1 from Z2 = {0, 1}. For example 1 0 0 , . 1 1 A binary vector of length n will be denoted Zn. 2
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In general an m-ary vector of length n represents a vector of length n with components from Zm, and is denoted by Zn m

Example (Example 1.8 - 1.14)

Calculate in Z2: 1 + 1 + 1 + 1

What is 23456 equivalent to in Z2?

Calculate in Z4: 2 3 + 1 For Z4 calculate: 2 1 2 0 + 2 1 0 2 3 Solve for x over Z7: 2x = 3

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