Photosynthesis

1) Light Dependent Reactions

- Non-cyclic photophosphorylation (occurs in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast) A photon of light strikes photosynthetic pigment in PS2. Light energy is transferred from one photosynthetic pigment to another photosynthetic pigment by resonance, and finally to special chlorophyll a p680 in reaction centre of PS2. An electron in special chlorophyll a p680 is excited and boosted to a higher energy level, and accepted by a primary electron acceptor. It is then passed down a series of electron carries in the electron transport chain of the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast, and finally to special chlorophyll a p700 in reaction centre of ps1. Meanwhile, a photon of light strikes photosynthetic pigment in ps1, and light energy is passed from one pp to another pp by resonance, and finally to special chlorophyll a p700 in reaction centre of ps1. An electron is excited and boosted to a higher energy level and accepted by another primary electron acceptor. It is then passed down a series of electron carriers in another electron transport chain, and it passes through ferredoxin. It then combines with H+ to form H2O, reducing NADP+ to NADPH. Flow of electrons follow Z scheme. - Cyclic Photophosphorylation A photon of light strikes photosynthetic pigment in ps1. Light energy is transferred from one pp to another pp by resonance, and finally to special chlorophyll a p700 in reaction centre of ps1. An electron is excited and boosted to a higher energy level and accepted by a primary electron acceptor. Electron is then passed through ferredoxin, then down a series of electron carriers on the electron transport chain between PS1 and PS2. It then returns to the same special chlorophyll a p700. - ATP Synthesis As electrons are passed down a series of electron carriers, which are arranged in a series of progressively lower + energy level, energy is released. Energy released is used to pump H ions from stroma across thylakoid membrane to the + + thylakoid lumen. As the membrane is impermeable to H , accumulation of H ions occurs, creating a proton gradient. + Photolysis of water also contributes to H+ accumulation. H2O 2H + 1/2O2 + 2e As H+ diffuses down the proton gradient via stalked particles, electrical potential energy is released, driving the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP via ATPase.

2) Light Independent Reaction

-Calvin Cycle (occurs in the stroma) RuBP combines with CO2 to form 6C unstable product, reaction catalysed by Rubisco (Ribulose phosphate carboxylase). 6C unstable product immediately breaks down to form glycerate phosphate. Glycerate phosphate receives a phosphate group from ATP phosphorylation, forming glycerate bisphosphate. Glycerate bisphosphate is then reduced to triose phosphate by NADPH. NADPH is oxidized to NADP+ for reuse in non-cyclic photophosphorylation. Some triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP to ensure theres RuBP for carboxylation. 1 ATP is needed for every RuBP regenerated. Pairs of triose phosphate are used to produce hexose sugar, which then isomerizes to form starch. Altogether: 12 NADPH used, 18 ATP used, 12 TP produced, 6 RuBP used.

3) Carotenoids
act as accessory pigments. Absorb wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot absorb function in photoprotection protects chlorophyll from damage by excessive light intensity. Carotenoids absorb and dissipate excess light energy and protect chlorophyll from light destruction. Protects chlorophyll from oxidation by 02 produced in photosynthesis and prevents photobleaching of chlorophyll by too much sunlight

4) Thylakoid membrane
Provides large surface area which holds photosynthetic pigments, enzymes and electron carries of the electron transport chain which are need for light dependent reactions.

Holds PP in suitable position to absorb maximum amount of light energy Site of ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis

Respiration
1) Glycolysis (occurs in cytosol)
Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate. Glucose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated by ATP to form glucose-1,6-phosphate, which then isomerizes to fructose-1,6-phosphate. Fructose-1,6-phosphate splits and forms triose phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which isomerizes to TP. TP is oxidized and phosphorylated to 2 mols of glycerate bisphosphate by NAD+, reducing NAD+ to NADH. Glycerate Bishphosphate is converted to 2 mols of glycerate phosphate, forming ATP via substrate level phosphorylation. Glycerate bisphosphate is converted to 2 mols of pyruvate, forming ATP via SLP. Overall net gain of 2 ATP

2) Link Reaction (occurs in mitochondrial matrix)

Pyruvate is translocated from cytosol to mitochondrial matrix. It undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl + CoA. Acetyl CoA attaches to oxidized 2C fragments, releasing two mols of Co 2 and reducing NAD to NADH. NADH is transferred to ETC for use in oxidative phosphorylation.

3) Krebs Cycle
Acetyl CoA condenses to form Citrate. Oxaloacetate displaces CoEnzyme A, allowing it to bind to another 2c fragment. + Citrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form a-ketoglutarate, reducing NAD to NADH, releasing CO2. + a-ketoglutarate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form succinate, reducing NAD to NADH, releasing CO2, and forming ATP via SLP. Succinate undergoes oxidation to form Fumarate, reducing FAD to FADH2. Fumarate converts to Malate. + Malate undergoes oxidation to regenerate oxaloacetate, reducing NAD to NADH. Oxaloacetate is now ready to combine with more acetyl CoA for another turn of the Krebs cycle. Overall: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2, 2 ATP Importance of Krebs Cycle: Completes the oxidative breakdown of glucose to CO2 and H2O and releasing sufficient energy. Release hydrogen (NADH) which can be used in oxidative phosphorylation to provide energy to produce ATP. Carbohydrates intermediates can be converted to amino acid, and amino acids can be allowed to enter Krebs cycle when glucose is in short supply. 4) Oxidative Phosphorylation NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle are transferred to inner mitochondrial membrane. H + + atoms dissociate from NADH and FADH2, regenerating NAD and FAD. H atoms split to form H and e . Electrons are passed down a series of electron carriers arranged in progressively lower energy levels in the ETC via redox reactions to final electron acceptor, O2. + O2 + H + e H2O, reaction catalysed by cytochrome oxidase. For every pair of H atoms passed to O2, NADH 3 ATP and FADH2 2 ATP. Synthesis of ATP: During electron transfer down ETC, energy is released and used to pump h+ ions via active transport from mitochondrial matrix, across inner mitonchondrial membrance, to intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient. Since + + + inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to H , accumulation of H occurs. As H diffuses down proton gradient via stalked particles, electrical potential energy is released, driving the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP via ATPase. + Importance of OP: Regenrate NAD and FAD for use in glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs cycle and produces large amount of ATP. Overall: 10 NADH X 3 ATP, 2 FADH X 2 ATP = 34 ATP

OVERALL RESPIRATION: 34 ATP (from OP) + 2 ATP (from glycolysis) = 2 ATP (from Krebs cycle) =38 ATP