In-depth Overview of 2007 AL Chemistry Syllabus

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Contents
A. Physical Chemistry
Section 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
Section 2 The electronic structures of atoms and the periodic table
Section 3 Energetics
Section 4 Bonding and Structure
4.1 Nature of forces holding atoms together
4.2 Metallic Bonding
4.3 Ionic Bonding
4.4 Covalent bonding
4.5 Bonding intermediate between ionic & covalent
4.6 Intermolecular forces
4.7 Structures and properties of substances
Section 5 Chemical Kinetics
Section 6 Chemical Equilibria
6.1 Dynamic Equilibria
6.2 Ionic Equilibrium
6.3 Redox Equilibria
6.4 Phase Equilibrium (Out of syllabus)

B. Inorganic Chemistry
Section 1 Periodic Properties of Elements in the Periodic Table
(Periodic Variations in Physical Properties of the Elements from H to Ar)
Section 2 Periodic Properties of Elements in the Periodic Table
(Periodic Relationships Amongst the Oxides of the Elements from Li to Cl)
Section 3 The s-Block elements (Group I & II Elements)
Section 4 The p-Block Elements
4.1 The Halogens
4.2 Nitrogen and its compounds (Out of syllabus)
4.3 Sulphur and its compounds (Out of syllabus)
4.4 Group IV Elements (Newly added)
Section 5 The d-Block Elements
5.1 General Features of d-Block Elements from Sc to Zn
5.2 Characteristic Properties of d-block Elements and Their Compounds

C. Organic Chemistry
Section 1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry – Structure & Naming
Section 2 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry – Isomerism
Section 3 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry – Organic Acids, Bases and Mechanisms
Section 4 Introduction to Practical Organic Chemistry
Section 5 Alkanes & Alkenes (Aliphatic Hydrocarbons)
Section 6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Section 7 Halogeno-compounds
Section 8 Hydroxy Compounds
Section 9 Carbonyl Compounds
Section 10 Carboxylic Acids & their Derivatives
Section 11 Nitrogen Compounds

D. Chemistry and the Environment (Out of Syllabus)

Air Pollution (Out of Syllabus)
Water Pollution (Out of Syllabus)
Solid Waste (Out of Syllabus)
Pollution Control in Hong Kong (Out of Syllabus)

E. Chemistry and Food (Partly Out of Syllabus)

Proteins (In Syllabus)
Carbohydrates (Out of Syllabus)
Fats and oils (In Syllabus)
Food Preservation (Out of Syllabus)
F. Chemistry In Action (Newly Added)
Polymers
Drugs
Green Chemistry

Physical Chemistry

Section 1 Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry

Objectives:
1. Recognize that protons, neutrons & electrons are constituents of the atom
2. State the relative masses & charges of proton, neutron & neutron
3. Recognize that the atomic nucleus is much smaller than the atom
4. Distinguish among relative isotope mass, relative atomic mass & mass no.
5. Recognize that the relative atomic mass of an element is an average value of all the relative isotope
masses of the element
6. Calculate the relative atomic mass from the relative isotopic masses & relative abundances
7. Calculate the relative molecular mass of a compound from relative atomic masses
8. Recognize the mass spectrometer can be used to determine the mass-to-charge ratio of a particle
9. State the main functions of the various parts of the mass spectrometer: vaporization chamber,
ionization chamber, electric field, magnetic field, ion detector & the recorder
10. Recognize that a mass spectrum of an element may consist of many peaks due to the presence of
isotopes with different mass/charge ratio
11. Recognize that the number of C atoms in 12g of carbon-12 is called the Avogadro’s constant
12. Recognize that equal no. of moles of gases occupy equal volumes at the same temperature and
pressure (Avogadro’s Law).
13. Recognize that the molar volumes of a gas at R.T.P. and S.T.P. are approximately 24dm³ and
22.4dm³ respectively
14. Perform calculation involving mole, e.g. finding the
 no. of moles from a given mass of substance or the volume of a gas at R.T.P. or S.T.P.
 no. of particles in a given mass of substance
 molarity from mass or no. of moles of substance & the volume of solution
15. Use the ideal gas equation: PV=nRT in calculation, e.g. finding density, pressure, volume, relative
molecular mass etc.
16. Recognize that the ideal gas equation is a generalization of the Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law,
pressure law & Avogadro’s law
17. Define the partial pressure & mole fraction
18. State the Dalton’s Law of partial pressures & its derivation from the ideal gas equation
19. Derive the equation: ρ=PM/RT
20. Calculations of empirical and molecular formulae
21. Balancing redox equations
22. Calculations of theoretical yield and percentage yield of a reaction
23. Recognize several types of titrations e.g. acid-base titration, redox titration, back titration
24. State the procedures of volumetric analysis including the preparation of a standard solution

Out of Syllabus
1. Radioactivity
 Name of α, β particles and γ radiation
 Balance equations of nuclear reactions
 Uses of radioactive isotopes in leak detection, radiotherapy, nuclear power and as tracers
2. The Faraday and the mole
 The Faraday as the quantity of electricity of one mole of electrons
 Relationship between the mass liberated and the quantity of electricity passed in electrolysis
 No. of mole of metal deposited during electrolysis = It/nF
, where I = current, t = time, n = no. of mole of electrons, F = Faraday’s constant (96500C)

Note: Nothing is added in this section

Section 2 The electronic structures of atoms and the periodic table

Objectives:
1. Recognize that the atomic emission spectrum of an element is unique & is an important evidence
for the electronic structure of the atom
2. Recognize that there exists discrete energy levels for the electron(s) in an atom
3. State the cause of the emission spectrum of hydrogen: an electron in a lower energy level can be
excited by the absorption of energy; when this electron falls back to the lower energy level, a
photon with specified frequency or wavelength corresponding to the energy difference is emitted
4. Recognize that the difference in energy between 2 energy levels can be found by the Plank’s
equation: E=hv
5. Recognize the uniqueness of atomic emission spectra which can be used to identify different
elements
6. State the experimental procedure for flame test
7. Recognize that each series of emission lines of hydrogen converges at high energy end & the
 convergence limit of the Lyman series of the hydrogen atom can be used to find the ionization
enthalpy of hydrogen
8. Recognize that electrons show particle nature and wave nature
9. Recognize that in the wave mechanics model of atom, the electrons in an atom do not localized in
fixed orbitals but move very fast in regions that extend to infinty. These regions are called orbitals,
within which the probability of finding an electron is high
10. Distinguish between shell, subshell & orbital
11. Recognize the pictorial representations of the s, p & d orbitals
12. Recognize the relative energy levels of subshells in
 non hydrogen atoms: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p
13. Predict the electronic configuration of an atom or ion for elements with Z <= 36 based on the
following 3 rules:
 Aufbau principle – electorons enter orbitals in order of increasing energy
 Hund’s rule – orbitals of the same energy must be occupied singly before pairing occurs
 Pauli’s exclusion principle – electrons in the same orbital have opposite spin
14. Recognize that the electronic configuration of an element is closely related to its position in the
Periodic Table
15. Able to write ground state electronic configurations for H to Kr (Z=36) by
 notations using 1s, 2s, 2p etc.
 electrons-in-boxes diagram

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 3 Energetics
Objectives:
1. State the Law of Conservation of Energy
2. Recognize that the energy change accompanying a chemical reaction is caused by the difference in
the energies absorbed to break the bonds of the reactants and the energy released from the
formation of bonds of the products
3. Draw the energy profile (a graph of potential energy versus the reaction coordinate) of a chemical
reaction
4. Recognize that in an energy profile there exists a highly unstable state (the transition state)
between the reactants & products
5. Define enthalpy change (∆H) as constant pressure
6. Recognize that for exothermic reactions: (∆H < 0)
 Energy absorbed to break the bonds of the reactants < Energy released from the formation of
bonds of the products
7. Recognize that for endothermic reactions: (∆H > 0)
Energy absorbed to break the bonds of the reactants > Energy released from the formation of
bonds of the products
8. State the standard conditions in thermochemistry: 1 atm, 298K & 1 moldmˉ³
9. Define the standard enthalpy changes of:
 neutralization
 solution
 formation
 combustion
10. Outline the experimental methods for the determination of ∆H, in particular the enthalpy change of
neutralization and state the sources of errors
11. State Hess’s Law – the total enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is independent of the path
taken
12. Draw enthalpy cycle & enthalpy energy level diagram for givens sets of equations and perform
thermochemical calculations

Newly added objectives

1. Recognize that entropy change (∆S) is related to the change in the degree of disorder of a system, a
process with increase in randomness has a +ve ∆S, and is more favorable to occur
2. Recognize that free energy change (∆G = ∆H - T∆S) is the driving force of a reaction, a
spontaneous reaction should have a –ve ∆G

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

Section 4 Bonding and Structure

4.1 Nature of forces holding atoms together
Objectives:
1. Recognize that chemical bonds are strong electrostatic forces holding atoms or ions together,
which are formed by the rearrangement of electrons
2. Recognize that atoms tend to form chemical bonds in order to achieve a noble gas structure
3. Recognize that there are 3 types of chemical bondings: Ionic bond, covalent bond and metallic
bond
4. Sketch energy profiles of the formations of ionic bond & covalent bond
5. Recognize that covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
6. Recognize that ionic bond & covalent bond are different in terms of
 the distribution of the electron clouds
 the electrostatic interactions between electrons and nuclei

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

4.2 Metallic Bonding

Objectives:
1. Describe the formation of metallic bonding – metal consists of a giant lattice of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of electrons
2. Explain the electrical & thermal conductivities & malleability of metal using metallic bonding
3. Recognize that the strength of metallic bond increases when
 the metallic radius of the metal decreases, and/or
 the no. of valence electrons of the metal increases
4. Recognize that a metallic crystal consists if a repeating pattern of metal atoms
5. Distinguish between close-packed structures and open structures

Newly added objectives:

1. Recognize that an alloy is a homogeneous mixture formed by the addition of other elements into
molten metals
2. Relate the uses of alloys to their properties as compared to the pure metals
3. State the major constituents of: brass (Cu + Zn), bronze (Cu + Sn), steel (Fe + C + other metal e.g.
chromium), solder (Sn + Pb), coinage metals (Ni + Cu or Cu + Zn + Ni) & gold of different carats
(Au + Ag + Cu)

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

4.3 Ionic Bonding

Objectives:
1. Recognize that the high tendency for atoms of elements in Groups I & II to form cations &
elements in Groups VI & VII to form anions – both the anion & the cation have the noble gas
structure
2. Draw dot and cross diagrams for simple ionic compounds
3. Define the electron affinity as the standard enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic compound
is formed from its constituent ions in the gaseous state
4. Recognize that lattice enthalpy can be calculated from the Born-Haber cycle
5. Recognize that there are 6 enthalpy terms in the Born-Haber cycle
6. Recognize that an ionic crystal consists of a large no. of regularly packed ions to form a 3-
dimensional structure
7. Describe the crystal packings & draw diagrams for the crystal structures of NaCl, CsCl
8. Recognize that the formula of an ionic compound can be deduced from the coordination numbers
of the cation & anion in the crystal
9. Define Ionic radius
10. Recognize that an anion is larger than a neutral atom and a cation is smaller than a neutral atom
11. Describe and explain the trends of ionic radii in the Periodic Table

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

4.4 Covalent bonding

Objectives:
1. Recognize that a covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electron pair(s)
2. Describe the formation of covalent bond using the concept of the overlapping of atomic orbitals
3. Draw dot and cross diagrams for simple molecules & ions, e.g. CH4, NH3, H2O, HF, NH4+ &
NH2-
4. Recognize that the octet rule had some limitations, e,g, in SF6, PCl5, BF3
5. Recognize that dative covalent bond is a special case of covalent bond (e.g. in H3NBF3) which
is formed by the overlapping of an empty orbital with an orbital by a lone pair of electrons
6. Recognize that bond enthalpies can be used to compare the strengths of covalent bonds
7. Define covalent radius and explain the trends of covalent radii in the Periodic Table
8. State approximate additivity rules of nond enthalpies & covalent radii. Recognize that the break
down of additivity rules indicates that a particular bond is dependent on its environment & the
inadequacy of simple bonding model (e.g.benzene)
9. State the relationship between covalent bond enthalpies and bond lengths as illustrated by
hydrogen halides
10. Recognize that covalent bonds are directional & predict the shapes of molecules & ions using the
electron pairs repulsion theory
11. Recognize that the atomic orbitals of an atom can hybridize to give hybrid orbitals, e.g. sp, sp2 &
sp3
12. Describe the formation of σ bond and π bond by the overlapping of orbitals
13. Recognize that a double bond is made up of a σ bond and a π bond while a triple bond is made up
of a σ bond and 2 π bonds
14. Recognize that the delocalization of electrons exists in some molecules and ions, e.g. benzene,
 CO32- & NO3-
15. Describe the crystal packing & draw diagrams for covalent crystals, e.g. diamond, graphite and
quartz

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

4.5 Bonding intermediate between ionic & covalent

Objectives:
1. Recognize that pure covalent & ionic bonds are extremes of 2 bonding models
2. Recognize that there may be incomplete electron transfer in an ionic bond (polarization of ionic
bond)
3. State the conditions for the polarization of ionic bonds
4. Recognize that the difference in lattice enthalpies calculated from Born-Haber cycle & from
theoretical value is an evidence for the failure of the pure ionic model
5. Recognize that the electron density in a covalent bond may not be equally shared – polar covalent
bond
6. State the evidences for the existence of polar molecules
7. Explain the cause for polar covalent bond in a molecule using the concept of electronegativity
8. Recognize that dipole moment is a vector quantity & the resultant dipole moment of a molecule is
the vector sum of all the bond dipole moments
9. Recognize that the dipole moment of a molecule is governed by
 polarity of bond
 shape of molecule
 position of lone pair(s)
10. Recognize that a molecule with polar bonds may have zero resultant dipole moment because of the
high symmetry of the molecule, e.g. CCl4
11. Recognize that the dipole moment of a molecule can provide information about the shape of the
molecule, e.g. dipole moment of CO2 = 0 supports a linear structure, while the dipole moment of
SO2 > 0 supports a bent structure

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

4.6 Intermolecular forces

Objectives:
1. Recognize that intermolecular forces are weak forces holding molecules together
2. Recognize that there are 2 types of intermolecular forces: van der Waals’ forces & hydrogen bonds
3. Explain the formation of van der Waals’ forces in terms of
 permanent dipoles
 instantaneous dipoles
 induced dipoles
4. State the 3 types of van der Waals’ forces:
 dipole-dipole attractions (permanent dipole-permanent dipole attractions)
 dispersion forces (instaneous dipole-induced dipole attractions)
 induction forces (permanent dipole-induced dipole attractions)
5. Recognize that the strength of van der Waals’ forces increases with the ease of distortion of
electron cloud (or polarizability) of the molecule which in turn increases with molecular size (or
number of electrons)
6. Recognize that van der Waals’ forces exist in ALL molecules (polar & non-polar)
7. Explain the meaning of van der Waals’ radius
8. Recognize that the van der Waals’ radius of a nonmetal is larger than the covalent radius because
the strength of covalent bond is about 100 to 200 times stronger than the van der Waals’ forces
9. Describe the structure of molecular crystals: iodine, carbon dioxide
10. State the meaning of triple point, critical point, vaporization curve, sublimation curve & fusion
curve in the pressure-temperature diagrams of CO2 & H2O
11. Sketch the pressure-temperature diagrams of CO2 & H2O & state the special features in these
phase diagrams – negative slope of fusion curve in H2O & triple point pressure > 1 atm in CO2
12. Recognize that hydrogen bond is formed by a H situated between 2 electronegative elements: F, N
or O
13. Explain the cause & nature of hydrogen bond
14. Describe an experiment to find the approziamate strength of hydrogen bond
15. Recognize that hydrogen bond can be intermolecular or intramolecular
16. Explain the following by the existence of hydrogen bond:
 abnormally high b.p. of NH3/H2O/HF over other Group 5/6/7 hydrides
 high enthalpy changes of vaporization of alcohols & carboxylic acids
 dimerization of carboxylic acid
 open structure of ice
 special properties of water: high m.p., high b.p., high heat capacity etc.
 helical structure of protein & DNA base pairing

Newly added Objectives:

1. Describe the structure molecular crystal: buckminsterfullerene (C60)

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

4.7 Structures and properties of substances
Objectives:
1. Recognize that the structure and bonding of a material governs its physical properties
2. Recognize that the m.p. & b.p. of a substance are related to the strengths of the
 intermolecular forces (for simple molecular substances)
 chemical bonds (for metals, giant ionic & giant covalent substances)
3. Recognize that the electrical conductivity of a substance is due to the presence of delocalized
electrons or mobile ions
4. Recognize that the solubility of a substance in a solvent is dependent on the polarities of the solute
and the solvent
Newly added objectives:
1. Recognize the the properties of bukminsterfullerene are related to its unique structure
2. State the impacts of modern materials, such as semiconductors, nanotubes & liquid crystals on our
daily life

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

Section 5 Chemical Kinetics

Objectives:
1. Explain the meaning of reaction rate & its units
2. express rate in terms of the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time
3. Describe the various physical and chemical methods for measuring the rate:
 monitor the change in amount (or concentration) of reactant or product by quenching
followed by titration
 determining the volume of gas formed at different times
 colorimetric measurement of light intensity at different times
4. State the various factors affecting the rate:
--concentration
--temperature
--pressure
--surface area
--temperature
--light
5. Describe experiments for studying the various factors on the reaction rate:
-- concentration: HCL/Mg
 -- temperature: HCl/Na2S2O3
-- particle size: acid/marble chips and acid/powdered CaCO3
-- catalyst: MnO2 on the decomposition of H2O2
-- light: Br2/hexane
6. Explain the meaning of rate equations for zeroth order, first order and second order reactions
7. Recognize that the unit of a rate constant is dependent on the rate equation
8. Recognize that radioactive decay is a first order process
9. State the meaning of half-life of a reaction
10. Derive the relationship for the first order reactions: k=0.6931/t½ where t½= half-life
11. Interpret rate data of concentration ([A]) at various time (t) by plotting appropriate graphs:
-- [A] versus t for zeroth order reaction (negative slope)
-- ln[A] versus t for first order reaction (negative slope)
-- 1/[A] versus t for second order reaction (positive slope)
12. Interpret rate data of initial rates at various initial concentrations of reactant by calculation
13. Recognize that the order of a reaction reflects the molecularity of the rate determining step
14. Recognize that in order to start a chemical reaction, an amount of energy which is larger than or
equal to the activation energy must be supplied
15. Recognize that the activation energy of a reaction can be calculated using the Arrhenius equation: k
= A exp(-Ea/RT) when the rate constants at 2 different temperatures are known

16. Recognize that molecules in a gas show a wide range of speeds – the Maxwell-Boltzmann
distribution of molecular speeds
17. Recognize that collision theory can be used to explain the rate of a reaction & recognize the
limitation and inadequacy
18. Explain the effect of temperature on reaction rate based on the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
curve
19. Recognize that the course of a reaction can be represented graphically by an energy profile – a
graph of potential energy against reaction coordinate
20. Recognize the existence of transition state in an energy profile
21. Distinguish between the order of a reaction & molecularity of an elementary step
22. Recognize that some reactions involve only 1 single step (single stage reactions) while some
reactions involve more than 1 step (multi-stage reactions)
23. Recognize that the mechanism of a reaction is a step-by-step description of how the reaction
occurs
24. Recognize that the rate determining step in a multi-stage reaction is the slowest elementary step
(highest activation energy)
25. Recognize that a catalyst can change BOTH the rate AND mechanism of a reaction by providing
an alternative pathway for the reaction
26. Explain the difference between homogeneous catalysis & heterogeneous catalysis
27. State examples of homogeneous catalysis & heterogeneous catalysis
28. State the various applications of catalysts:
 V2O5 in contact process, Fe in Haber process
 Ni (Pt or Pd) in the hydrogenation of unsaturated oils
 Pt in catalytic converters
 Enzyme

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 6 Chemical Equilibria

6.1 Dynamic Equilibria
Objectives:
1. Recognize that a chemical equilibrium is dynamic
2. State the characteristics of a chemical equilibrium
 It is dynamic
 It exists only in a closed system
 It can be reached from either directions, quickly or slowly
 The relative amounts of the reactants & products do not change
 At equilibrium: forward reaction = backward reaction rate ≠ 0
 The position of equilibrium can be shifted by changes in conditions
 The percentage yield for the reversible reaction is always less than 100%
3. State the factors affecting equilibrium position: concentration, pressure & temperature
4. State the Le Chatelier’s Principle
5. Predict qualitatively the effect of changes in pressure, concentration & temperature on the
equilibrium position using the Le Chatelier’s principle on the following systems:
 Br2 (aq) + H2O (l) ↔ H+ (aq) + Br‾ (aq) + HOBr (aq)
 Cr2O72‾ (aq) + H2O (aq) ↔ 2CrO42‾ (aq) + 2H+ (aq)
 BiCl3 (aq) + H2O (l) ↔ BiOCl (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2Cl‾ (aq)
 N2O4 (g) ↔ 2NO2 (g)
6. State the meaning of equilibrium constants Kc & Kp
7. Perform calculation in Kc & Kp
8. Describe the experiments for the determination of Kc in
 esterification by titration
 Fe³+ (aq) + NCS‾ (aq) ↔ [Fe(NCS)]²+ (aq) by colorimetry
9. Recognize that the equilibrium constant of a reaction is dependent only on the temperature & not
 affected by concentration or pressure
10. Recognize that the shift in equilibrium position by the change in concentration or pressure can be
explained in terms of the equilibrium law
11. Explain the effect of temperature on equilibrium using: lnK = constant – (∆H/RT)
12. Recognize that choosing the operating conditions for the Haber Process & Contact Process can be
explained in terms of equilibrium

13. Recognize that the partition (distribution) of a non-volatile solute in 2 immiscible liquids can be
described using the partition coefficient
14. Calculations involving partition coefficient
15. State the applications of solvent extraction
16. State the principle of paper chromatography

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

6.2 Ionic Equilibrium

Objectives:
1. Define an acid or base using the Brønsted-Lowry theory
2. Recognize that acid-base equilibria involve the competition for protons
3. Recognize that water undergoes ionization slightly:
2H2O (l) ↔ H3O+ (aq) + OH‾ (aq)
4. Define the ionic product of water, Kw
5. Define the pH value as –log10[H3O+(aq)]
6. Recognize the dissociation constants of Ka & Kb of weak acid & weak base respectively
7. State the meanings of pKw, pKa & pKb
8. Recognize that a strong acid has a large Ka (small pKa), while a strong base has a large Kb (small
pKb)
9. Recognize that for solutions of the same concentration, a strong acid (or base) has a lower (or
higher) pH value & a higher conductivity
10. Recognize that a strong acid has a weak conjugate base, while a strong base has a weak conjugate
acid
11. Recognize that a buffer can resist the change in pH of a solution
12. Recognize that a more concentrated buffer has a higher buffering capacity (i.e. more resistant to
the change in pH)
13. State the different methods to prepare a buffer
14. Describe experimental procedure to find Ka & kb by pH measurement
15. Explain the change in colour of acid-base indicators using acid-base equilibra
16. Describe experimental procedure & perform calculation for the titration using double indicators for
a mixture of NaHCO3 & Na2CO3 against standard HCl
17. State & explain the change in pH for acid-base titration
18. Sketch different titration curves for changes in pH & choose suitable indicator or method(s) fr an
acid-base titration
19. Perform calculation in volumetric analysis
20. Perform calculation involving
 pH, Ka, Kb & buffer: pH = pKa + log[A‾]/[HA] or pOH = pKb + log[HB+]/[B]
 hydrolysis of salt: conjugate base (Kh = Kw/Ka) & conjugate acid (Kh = Ka = Kw/Kb)
 indicator: pH = pKln + log([ln‾]/[Hln])

Newly added objectives:

1. Define the solubility product Ksp of a sparingly soluble electrolyte, e.g.
-- PbS (Ksp = [Pb2+(aq)][S2‾(aq)]
-- AgCl (Ksp = [Ag+(aq)][Cl‾(aq)]
-- Ag2CrO4 (Ksp = [Ag+(aq)]²[CrO4²ˉ(aq)]
2. Describe experimental procedure to find Ksp
3. Recognize that for a sparingly soluble compound such as AgCl (aq), the solubility of AgCl can be
decreased by the addition of either Ag+ &/or Cl‾ (common ion effect)

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

6.3 Redox Equilibria

Objectives:
1. Define oxidation, reduction, oxidant (oxidizing agent) & reductant (reducing agent) in terms of
electron transfer & the change in oxidation number (state)
2. Recognize that a redox equilibrium: oxidant + ne‾ ↔ reductant represents the competition for e‾
3. Use half-equation to represent electron transfer of redox reaction
4. Identify the cathode & anode in an electrochemical cell
5. Recognize that the following are common half-cells:
 metal & its ion, e.g. Cu2+ (aq) + 2e‾ ↔ Cu (s)
 non-metal & its ion, e.g. I2 (aq) + 2e‾ ↔ 2I‾ (aq)
 ions in different oxidation numbers, e.g. Fe3+ (aq) + e‾ ↔ Fe2+ (aq)
  metal & insoluble metal salt, e.g. PbSO4 (s) + 2e‾ ↔ Pb (s) + SO42‾ (aq)
6. State the standard conditions in electrochemistry
7. Explain the meaning of standard electrode (reduction) potential and how to obtain it from
experiment using standard hydrogen electrode
8. State how the standard electrode potential can be used to compare the relative tendency for a
metal/metal ion system to gain or to lose electrons
9. E.m.f. of a cell (with a given cell diagram) ∆Eø cell = Eright – Eleft
10. Recognize that the electrochemical series (given in the exam) can be used to compare the strength
of ozidizing agents or reducing agents

Newly added objectives:

1. Recognize that the electrode potential can be calculated from the molarities of RA & OA by the
Nerst equation:
E = Eø + (0.059/n)log([oxidant]/[reductant])
2. Use the standard electrode potential to predict the feasibility of redox reactions and state the
limitation of this approach due to kinetic factor
3. State the structure, electrochemical processes & uses of primary cell (e.g. Zn-C cell), secondary cell
(e.g. lead-acid accumulator) & hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

Out of syllabus:
1. IUPAC conventions in writing cell diagrams (but you must be able to read it)
2. Corrosion of iron and its prevention
 The electrochemical process involved in rusting
 Prevention corrosion by coating and cathodic protection
 Socioeconomic implications of corrosion and prevention

6.4 Phase Equilibrium (Out of syllabus)

1. Two component system:
-- Studies limited to phase diagrams for mixtures of two miscible liquids
(i) vapour pressure against mole fraction (with temperature constant)
(ii) boiling point against mole fraction (with pressure constant)
2. Ideal systems:
 Raoult’s Law. The characteristic properties of an ideal system explained in terms of
molecular interactions
3. Non-ideal system:
 Positive and negative deviations from raoult’s Law explained in terms of molecular
interactions. Enthalpy changes on mixing as evidence of non-ideal behaviour
  Azeotropic mixtures
4. Fractional distillation:
 Explaination of the principle of fractional distillation using the boiling point – composition
curve
 Application of fractional distillation in oil refining
- End of Physical Chemistry -
Inorganic Chemistry

Section 1 Periodic Properties of Elements in the Periodic Table

(Periodic Variations in Physical Properties of the Elements from H to Ar)
Objectives:
1. Recognize that the properties of elements are periodic functions of the atomic number
2. Recognize that elements can be classified into metals (on the left of Periodic Table), Semi-metals
(middle) & non-metals (on the right)
3. Recognize that the properties of elements may be predicted using the Periodic Table
4. Define the following terms:
 Ionization enthalpy
 Atomic radius (metallic radius, covalent radius, van der Waals’ radius)
 Electron affinity
 Electronegativity
 Polarizing power of cation
 Polarizability of anion
5. Describe and explain the variation of the following physical properties of elements from Li to Ar
 Structure & bonding
 Melting point
 Atomic radius
 Ionization enthalpy
 Electron affinity
 Electronegativity
 Polarizing power of cation & polarizability of anion
6. State and explain the diagonal relationship of the following pairs of elements: Li & Mg, Be & Al,
B & Si
7. Recognize that second period elements (Li to F) show anomalous properties from the other
members in the same group

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 2 Periodic Properties of Elements in the Periodic Table
(Periodic Relationships Amongst the Oxides of the Elements from Li to Cl)
Objectives:
1. Recognize that elements Li to Cl show a wide range of reactivities towards
 water
 oxygen
 hydrogen
 clorine
 dilute non-oxidizing acid
2. Recognize that the oxidation states & chemical reactivities of elements are periodic functions of
the atomic numbers
3. Describe the formulae, bonding nature & structures of the oxides of Li to Cl
4. Describe the bonding in oxides & explain the acid/base behavior & hydrolytic behaviour of oxides
in terms of the structures of the oxides
5. Describe & predict the reactions between oxide and
 water
 dilute acids
 dilute alkalis

Out of syllabus
1. Periodic Relationships Amongst the Chlorides and Hydrides of the Elements from Li to Cl

Note: Nothing is added in this section

Section 3 The s-Block elements (Group I & II Elements)

Objectives:
1. State and explain the major characteristics of s-block elements:
 high metallic character & low electronegativity
  fixed oxidation state in their compounds
 formation of ionic & basic oxides
 show characteristic flame colour in flame test
 relativity weak tendency to form complexes
2. Outline the experimental procedure for carrying out flame test & memorize the flame colour of s-
block elements, e.g. Na (yellow), K (Lilac), Ca (brick-red), Ba (apple-green)
3. Explain the similarities shown by elements within the same group and their compounds using
electronic configurations and chemical bonding
4. Explain the general trends in the variation of the following physical properties of s-block elements
in terms of bonding & structure:
 m.p. & b.p. usually decrease down the group
 atomic radius (& ionic radius) increases down the group
 1st (or sum of 1st & 2nd) ionization enthalpy decreases down the group
 standard reduction potential usually becomes more –ve down the group
 hydration enthalpy of cations becomes less –ve down the group
5. Explain the general trends in the variation of the following chemical properties:
 reducing properties
 reactivities, e.g. with water & non-metals increase down the group
 polarizing power of cations decreases down the group
 stabilization of anion (e.g. CO3²ˉ) by the cation increases down the group
 tendency to form covalent bond decreases down the group
 tendency to form complexes or hydrated compounds decreases down the group
 basic strengths of oxides & hydroxides increase down the group
6. Write equations for the following reactions of s-Block elements
 reaction with water
 reaction with oxygen
 reaction with acids
 reaction with nitrogen
7. Describe & explain the following properties of the compounds of s-block elements
 Thermal stability of carbonates & hydroxides (in terms of polarization & difference in lattice
enthalpies) – for compounds with
(i) small anions e.g. HOˉ, thermal stability decreases down the group
(ii) large anions e.g. CO3²ˉ, thermal stability increases down the group
 Solubility of sulphates(VI) & hydroxides (in terms of hydration enthalpy & lattice enthalpy)
– for compounds with
(i) small anions e.g. HOˉ, solubility increases down the group
(ii) large anions e.g. SO4²ˉ, solubility decreases down the group
8. Recognize that Li & Be show anomalous properties and explain these properties in terms of the
 small cationic sizes and high electronegativities

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 4 The p-Block Elements

4.1 The Halogens
Objectives:
1. State & explain the major characteristics of the halogens:
 high electronegativity
 formation of ionic halides & covalent halides with -1 oxidation state
 formation of oxoanions & oxoacids with oxidation states from +1 to +7
2. Explain the general trends in the variation of the following physical properties of halogens:
 m.p. & b.p.
 atomic radii & ionic radii
 first ionization enthalpies & electron affinities
 standard reduction potentials
3. Explain the similarities shown by the halogens and their compounds using electronic
configurations and chemical bonding
4. Describe the laboratory preparation of the halogens, especially Cl2
5. Describe & explain the following chemical properties of F2, Cl2, Br2 & I2:
 variable oxidation states (except for F)
 oxidizing properties (decrease down the group)
 reactions with water & alkalis (mainly disproportionation)
 reactions with metals (e.g. Na + Cl2, Br2 or I2)
 reactions with non-metals (e.g. H2 + Cl2, Br2 or I2)
 reactions with iron(II) (Cl2 & Br2)
6. Describe the observations and write equations for the following reactions:
 solid ionic halide (NaX) + conc. H2SO4 – formation of HX (if X = F, Cl) or X2 (if X = Br &
I)
 solid ionic halide (NaX) + conc. H3PO4 – formation of HX
 aqueous solution of halide (Xˉ) + Ag+ (aq) – formation of insoluble AgX (s) – can be used
for identification
7. State the necessary conditions for disproportionation
8. Explain the variation of the acid strength of hydrogen halides (HX) and oxoacids (HXOn)
9. Recognize that HF shows anomalous behaviour – extensive hydrogen bonding & weaker acidity
than other HX (explain in terms of ion-pair formation)
10. Predict possible redox reactions involving halogens & halides
11. Recognize that F2 shows anomalous properties and explain these properties in terms of the small
atomic radius and high electornegativity

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

4.2 Nitrogen and its compounds (Out of syllabus)

4.3 Sulphur and its compounds (Out of syllabus)

4.4 Group IV Elements (Newly added)

Objectives:
1. Explain the general trends in the variation of the following physical properties of Group IV
elements in terms of structure and bonding:
 m.p. & b.p.
 enthalpies of atomization
 atomic radii & ionic radii
 first ionization enthalpies
2. Recognize that Group IV elements show different chemical properties down the group (while
Group I, II, VII elements show similarities in the group)
3. Explain the dissimilarities shown by elements within the same group and their compounds using
electronic configurations and chemical bonding
4. Explain the relative stabilities of the +2 and +4 oxidation no. of the Group IV elements using the
concepts of promotion energy, bond energy and inert pair effect
5. Describe the composition and structures of oxides
6. Explain the hydrolytic behaviour and relative stabilities of the chlorides
7. Describe the compositions and structures of oxides
8. Explain the relative stabilities of the +4 & +2 oxides
9. Describe & explain the variation of the acidic, amphoteric and basic properties of the oxides down
the group
10. Describe & explain the uniqueness of carbon
11. State the uses of silicon
12. Describe the bonding and structures of silicates
13. Explain the effect of structure on properties of silicates as exemplified by chain silicates, sheet
silicates and network silicates
14. Recognize the importance of silicon and its compounds such as feldspar, mica and quartz in daily
life
Section 5 The d-Block Elements
5.1 General Features of d-Block Elements from Sc to Zn
Objectives:
1. Define transition elements & d-block elements
2. Recognize that elements in the first transition series (Sc to Zn) have electronic configurations of
[Ar]3d(1-10)4s(1-2)
3. Draw electrons-in-box diagrams for the first transition series (Sc to Zn) and their ions using
Hund’s rule
4. Explain the irregularities in electronic configurations of d-block elements & their ions on terms of
 the fact that the energies of 3d & 4s are very close
 the extra stabilities of the half-filled d-subshell & full-filled d-subshell, e.g. Cr90), Cu(0),
Mn(II), Fe(III) etc.
5. Explain the general trends in the cariation of the following physical properties of the elements
across the period from Sc to Zn:
 ionization enthalpies
 electronegativities
 m.p. & hardness
 densities
 atomic (metallic) radii & ionic radii
 standard reduction potentials
6. Recognize that similarities in physical properties of transition elements are closely related to the
similarities in
 electronic structure
 the no. of electrons participated in the metallic bond
 atomic radii
7. Explain the formation of coloured compounds & complexes using the concept of splitting of d-
orbitals & the absorption of visible light
8. Recognize that coloured compounds or ions are associated with atoms/ ions with d1 to d9
electronic configuration
9. Compare & explain the differences and similarities between Group I/II elements and transition
elements e.g
 stronger metallic bond
  variable oxidation states
 formation of complexes
 formation of coloured compounds
 catalytic behaviour

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

5.2 Characteristic Properties of d-block Elements and Their Compounds
Objectives:
1. State the 4 major characteristic properties of d-block elements/ transition elements & their
compounds: variable oxidation states, complex formation, coloured ions & catalytic properties
2. Recognize that transition elements can exist in variable oxidation states in various compounds
such as chlorides, oxides & complexes
3. Recognize that the variable oxidation states of transition element are caused by the low successive
ionization enthalpies of that element
4. Explain the relative stabilities of oxidation states in terms of electronic structures
5. Predict possible reactions (& write equations) using standard electrode potentials under acidic,
neutral & alkaline conditions
6. Recognize that the change in oxidation states of transition metal can lead to the change in colour
7. Describe the interconversion between oxidation states of compounds of vanadium (+2, +3, +4, +5)
& manganese (+2, +4, +7)
8. Recognize that a complex is formed from ligands and a metal ion or atom
9. Recognize that a ligand is a Lewis base which donates eˉ pair(s) to a metla ion/atom
10. Recognize that in a complex, the metal ion or atom and the ligands are bonded by dative covalent
bonds / coordinate bonds
11. Give the IUPAC name of a complex
12. Draw the common shapes of complexes: octahedral, tetrahedral & square planar
13. Recognize that geometrical & structural isomerism may exist in complexes & draw
stereostructures of these complexes
14. Recognize that transition metal ions in aqueous solution actually exist as ‘aquo’ complex which
can undergo hydrolysis
15. Recognize that the stability of a complex can be expressed in terms of the stability constant which
is dependent on the nature of the metal, nature of the ligand and the no. of ligands attached to the
metal
16. Recognize that a stronger ligand can displace a weaker ligand from a complex due to the formation
of a more stable complex
17. Explain the ligand substitution reactions of Cu(II) complexes in terms of the relative stabilities of
the complexes
18. Explain the formation of coloured compounds & complexes using the concept of splitting of d-
 orbitals
19. State the colour of the hydrated ions of Fe(II), Fe(III), Co(II) & Cu(II)
20. Recognize that transition metals and their ions can act as catalyst
21. Explain the homogeneous catalysis & heterogeneous catalysis of transition metals and their ions
22. State the role of transition metals & their compounds as catalysts in industrial processes
 Fe in Haber Process
 Fe²+ or Fe³+ in the reaction between I2 & S2O8²ˉ
 MnO2 in the decomposition of H2O2

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

- End of Inorganic Chemistry -

Organic Chemistry
Section 1 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry – Structure & Naming
Objectives:
1. State the natural sources of organic compounds:
 Alkanes. Alkenes & aromatic hydrocarbons from crude oil & coal
 Carbohydrates, proteins & fats in living organisms
2. Recognize that the uniqueness of carbon in forming a large no. of organic compounds is mainly
due to the ability of carbon to catenate
3. Recognize the 3 types of hybridization of C atom in organic compounds:
 sp, e.g. in alkynes
 sp². e/g/ in alkenes
 sp³, e.g. in alkanes
4. Recognize that most organic molecules can be represented by a carbon parent chain linked to one
or more functional group(s)
5. Recognize the function groups of the following compounds & give the systematic names of
organic compounds containing these functional groups:
 alkenes
 alkynes
 halogenocompounds
 phenols & alcohols
 ethers
 aldehydes
 ketones
 carboxylic acids
 1°, 2°, 3° amines
 nitriles
 esters
 acid halides/ acyl halides
 1°, 2°, 3° amides
 acid anhydrides
6. Describe the effect of functional group, relative size & branching of the carbon chain on the
physical properties of a homologous series, e.g. melting points, boiling points & solubilities in
 water
7. Recognize that the shape of an organix molecule can be explained in terms of
 the hybridizations of C atoms in the molecule,
 the repulsion between electron pairs
8. Describe the structures, shapes & bondings in the following hydrocarbons:
 saturated hydrocarbons – in alkanes, each C atom is sp³ hybridized
 Unsaturate hydrocarbons – in alkenes, each C atom involved in the C=C bond is sp²
hybridized. In alkynes, each C atom involved in the C≡C bond is sp hybridized
 Aromatic hydrocarbons – In benzene, the 6 C atoms are arranged in a planar 6-membered
ring, each C atom is sp² hybridized with delocalization of π electrons
9. Recognize that the delocalization of π electrons in the benzene ring
 leads to the higher stability of benzene over other unsaturated hydrocarbons
 gives rise to a unique class of hydrocarbons which are chemically different from alkenes
10. Describe simple tests to
 distinguish between saturated (e.g. cyclohexane) & unsaturated compounds (e.g.
cyclohexene) by bromine, manganate(VII) & sulphuric(VI) acid
 distinguish benzene from other unsaturated compounds by bromine & manganate(VII)

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 2 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry – Isomerism

Objectives:
1. Recognize that isomerism can be classified into
 structural isomerism
 stereoisomerism (which can be further classified into geometrical isomerism & optical
isomerism/ enantiomerism)
2. Recognize that structural isomers are isomers different in the ways the atoms linked. They may be
isomers containing the same functional group or isomers containing different functional groups,
e.g.
 branched chains & unbranched chains hydrocarbons
 distributed benzenes
 ethers & alcohols
 ketones & aldehydes
 carboxylic acids & esters
3. Recognized that geometrical isomers in acyclic compounds are caused by the rigidity of C=C bond
(cannot freely rotate)
4. Recognized that geometrical isomerism occurs in alkenes (e.g. but-2-ene & hexan-1,3-dienes) &
its derivatives (e.g. butenedioic acid)
5. Recognize that a pair of geometrical isomers such as cis-/trrans-butenedioic acid have different
physical properties (e.g. m.p. & solubility in water) & chemical properties (e.g. acidity & ease of
dehydration on heating)
6. Recognize that enantiomerism is usually caused by the presence of chiral centre(s) in an organic
molecule. A chiral centre in organic compound is an asymmetric carbon atom linked to 4 different
atoms or groups of atoms
7. Recognize that a pair of enantiomers
 are non-superimposable mirror images of each other (i.e. chiral)
 have identical physical properties except different effects on plane polarized light
 have identical chemical roperties towards optically inactive reagent
8. Recognize that an equimolar mixture of a pair of enantiomers does not show optical activity. This
mixture is known as a recemate or recemic mixture
9. Recognize that diastereomers (diastereoisomers) (e.g. geometrical isomers) are stereoisomers that
are not enantiomers

Newly Added Objectives:

1. Recognize that many drugs are chiral

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

Section 3 Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry – Organic Acids, Bases and Mechanisms

Objectives:
1. Recognize that organic reactions can be rationalized & classified using the electronic theory –
rearrangement of eˉ of reactants to give products
2. Describe the 2 ways to break a covalent bond:
 homolysis (symmetrical fission)
 heterolysis (unsymmetrical fission)
3. Describe the 3 types of reactive species in organic chemistry & give examples:
 free radical (usually with 7 outermost eˉ)
 electrophile (usually with 6 outermost eˉ, seeks for negative centres)
  nucleophile (usually with 8 outermost eˉ, seeks for positice centres)
4. Recognize that a negatively charged nucleophile (e.g. HOˉ) is a stronger nucleophile than its
conjugate acid (e.g. H2O)
5. Recognize that a curly arrow is used to describe the movement of 2 eˉs & a fishhook arrow is used
to describe the movement of 1 eˉ
6. Recognize that the electronic effects and steric effects are major factors affecting organic reactions
7. Recognize that there are 2 types of electronic effects: inductive effects & mesomeric (resonance)
effects. Electronic effects can be electron-donating or electron-withdrawing
8. Recognize that an alkyl group is electron-donating
9. Predict & explain the relative stabilities of the carbocations
10. Recognize that the acidity of acid and the basicity of a base can be explained in terms of the
relative stabilities of the reactant & product
11. Predict & explain the following relative acidities in terms of the stability of the anion formed:
 stability of anion: R-Oˉ < H-Oˉ << phenoxide < RCOOˉ
 acidity R-OH < H2O << phenol < RCOOH
12. Predict and explain the following relative basic strengths:
(2° > 1° > 3°) aliphatic amines > ammonia > aromatic amines (e.g. phenylamine)
13. Describe the mechanisms (using curly arrows & fishhook arrows) & give examples of the 6 major
types of organic reactions:
 free radical substitution : chlorination of alkane (chain reaction mechanism)
e.g. CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl
 electrophilic addition on C=C – obeys the Markownikoff’s rule
e.g. RCH=CH2 + H-Br  RCHBrCH3
 electrophilic substitution on benzene ring : nitration of benzene (newly added)
 nucleophilic substitution – SN1 (2 Steps) & SN2 (1 Step)
e.g. RX + OHˉ  ROH + Xˉ (X = Halogen)
 nucleophilic addition on carbonyl compounds
e.g. RCHO + HCN  RCH(OH)CN
 nucleophilic acyl substitution
RCOCl + H2O  RCOOH + HCl

Note: Nothing is cut in this section

Section 4 Introduction to Practical Organic Chemistry

Objectives:
1. Recognize that the molecular formula of a compound can be determined from analytical data (e.g.
% mass) & relative molecular mass
2. Recognize that the structure of a compound can be deduced:
 from reactions of functional groups & physical properties
 by spectroscopic methods such as mass spectrometry (MS), Infra-red (IR) spectroscopy &
nuclear magnetic resonance
3. Recognize that infra-red spectroscopy depends on the vibrations of atoms with respect to each
other in the molecule. The infra-red spectrum can tell us whether particular functional groups are
present in a molecule
4. Recognize that different functional groups have characteristic absorption wavenumbers
5. Use infra-red spectrum in the identification of the following groups C-H, O-H, N-H, C=C, C≡C,
C=O & C≡N in organic compounds
6. State the working principle of mass spectrometry
7. Recognize that from a mass spectrum, it is possible to obtain structural information from masses of
molecular ions & fragments
8. Recognize that nuclear magnetic resonance depends on the magnetic properties of the atomic
nuclei such as hydrogen nuclei in a molecule. The proton NMR spectrum can tell us the number of
hydrogen nuclei present in the molecule & give information avout the structural environment of
the hydrogen
9. State the uses of the following practical methods in organic chemistry
 heating under reflux
 purification methods such as adsorption, drying, recrystallization, solvent extraction,
distillation, fractional distillation, chromatography
10. Recognize that a pure compoundhas a sharp (or narrow range of) melting / boiling point, while an
impure compound has a wide range of melting / boiling point

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 5 Alkanes & Alkenes (Aliphatic Hydrocarbons)

Objectives:
1. State the natural sources of hydrocarbons: crude oil, coal & natural gas
2. Recognize that crude oil is the major source of alkanes & other hydrocarbons & coal is the major
source of aromatic hydrocarbons
3. State the chemical principles & economic importance of the fraction distillation of crude oil
4. State the main uses of alkanes: as fuels & raw material for cracking
5. State the uses of LPG, naphtha, petrol, kerosene & gas oil
6. Recognize that extensive use of fossil fuels may lead to global warming
7. Recognize that the inertness if alkanes is due to the essentially non- polar nature of the C-H bond
which does not facour heterolysis
8. State the major reactions of alkanes: combustion, free radical substitution (halogenation) &
cracking
9. Outline the free radical substitution mechanism of the chlorination/bromination of alkane
10. Explain the distribution of % yield of the monohalogenated products in terms of the stability of
free radicals
11. Describe the bonding in alkenes
12. State the major synthesis of alkenes: dehydration of ROH & dehydrohalogenation of RX at high
temperature
13. Recognize that alkenes can be obtained industrially from the cracking of alkanes followed by
fractional distillation
14. Recognize that a more substituted alkene is more stable than a less substituted on ( Sayteff’s rule)
15. Recognize that the high reactivities of alkenes over alkanes are due to the presence of the π
electrons rich C=C double bond which can be attacked by electrophile or radical
16. State the major reactions of alkenes:
 electrophilic addition of HBr
 electrophilic addition of Br2 (in aqueous & non-aqueous solvents)
 electrophilic addition of conc. H2SO4 & acid-catalyzed hydration of alkenes
 catalytic hydrogenation
 ozonolysis
 reaction with dilute neutral/alkaline KMnO4
 polymerization of ethane, propene and phenylethene to give poly(ethene), poly(propene) &
poly(phenylethene) respectively
17. Outline the mechanism for the electrophilic addition of hydrogen halide on alkene
18. State the Markownikoff’s rule for the electrophilc addition of hydrogen halide on alkene
19. Recognize that the Markownikoff’s rule can be explained in terms of the stability of the
carbocation intermediate
20. Recognize that catalytic hydrogenation is used for the hardening of oils (making margarine)
21. State the reaction conditions & products of the ozonolysis of alkenes
22. Recognize that ozonolysis can be used to determine the positions of C=C bonds in alkenes
23. Recognize that the properties of poly(alkene) are governed by the internal structure of the polymer
24. Recognize that the IR spectra of alkenes contain a peak at around 1645 cm-1 due to the stretching
of the C=C bond
25. Describe the tests for alkenes using bromine & potassium manganate (VII)
Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Objectives:
1. Recognize that the higher stability of aromatic compounds over cyclic alkenes is due to the
delocalization of π eˉ over the benzene ring
2. Describe the bonding in benzene & state the supporting evidences
3. Recognize that the stability of the benzene can be demonstrated by comparison of the standard
enthalpy changes of hydrogenation or combustion for benzene & cyclohexene
4. State the differences in chemical properties among cyclohexane, cyclohexene, benzene &
methylbenzene
5. State the major sources of aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes)
6. Recognize that benzene is rather resistant to oxidation & addition reactions
7. State the general mechanism of electrophilic substation for the reaction:
Benzene + Cl2 + AlCl3  chlorobenzene + HCl
8. State the reaction conditions & reagents for the major reactions of benzene:
 nitration
 halogenation
 sulhonation
 alkylation
 acylation
9. Recognize that the presence of –OH or –NH2 group on an aromatic ring can increase the reactivity
of the aromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution
10. Recognize that an alkyl group attached on a benzene ring can be oxidized by acidified or basified
KMnO4 to –COOH
11. Recognize that the IR spectrum of aromatic hydrocarbon consists of characteristic peaks at 1500 &
1600 cm-1 (partial C=C stretching) & 3000-3100 cm-1 (C-H stretching)
12. Describe the tests for aromatic compounds
13. State the uses of aromatic compounds
14. Recognize that PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) pose health problems

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 7 Halogeno-compounds
Objectives:
1. Recognize that halogenoalkanes (alkyl halide, RX) are classified into 1°, 2°, 3°
2. State the major synthesis of halogeno-compounds (X = halogen)
 Halogenoalkanes: ROH + PCl5 or SOCl2 / HCl + ZnCl2 / P + Br2 / P + I2
 Halogenoalkanes: electrophilic addition of HX or X2 on C=C or C≡C
 Halogenoarenes: arene + X2 + Fe / X2 + Al / X2 + AlX3
 Halogenoalkanes or halogenoarene: R-H or Ar-R + Cl2/ Br2 + UV light
3. Explain the relative reactivities of ROH towards halogenation: 3° > 2° > 1°
4. Outline the Lucas test for alcohols
5. Recognize that the presence of halogen in halogenoalkanes can increase the reactivity of
halogenoalkanes towards nucleophilic substitution & elimination
6. Recognize that the C-X bond in halogenoarene (Ar-X) possesses some double bond character due
to the overlappong of the lone pair p orbital of X with the π orbitals of the benzene ring to give a
stable delocalized system
7. Describe the SN1 mechanism (for 3° RX) and SN2 mechanism (for 1°, 2° RX) for the substitution
of –X in alkyl halides by –OH
8. Recognize & explain the relative reactivities for the hydrolysis of R-X & Ar-X:
 3° R-X > 1° R-X > 2° R-X >> halogenoarenes
 RCl < R-Br< R-I
9. State the major reactions of R-X:
 substitution by aqueous OHˉ to give R-OH
 substitution by CNˉ to give R-CN
 substitution by NH3 (& amines) to give R-NH2 (& other amines)
 elimination by alcoholic KOH/NaOH to give C=C
10. State the preparations & reactions of dihaloalkanes
11. Recognize that chloroethene undergoes addition polymerization to give poly(chloroethene) [PVC]
12. State the properties of PVC as related to the structure of the polymer
13. Describe tests to distinguish between R-X & Ar-X
14. Recognize that the IR spectra (in the range of 1400 to 4000 cm-1) of R-X (or Ar-X) are similar to
those of alkanes (or arenes)
15. State the applications of halogeno-compounds: solvents in dry-cleaning, raw materials in the
 manufacture of poly(chloroethene) & poly(tetrafluoroethene), CFC as aerosol propellant, BFC &
BTM as fire extinguishing agents
16. Recognize that halogeno-compounds may cause pollution problems

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 8 Hydroxy Compounds

(this section is combined with halogeno-compounds, refer to section 3 & 7)

Section 9 Carbonyl Compounds

Objectives:
1. Describe structures of aldehydes & ketones & recognize that the C in C=O is sp² hybridized
2. Recognize that benzaldehyde & phenylethanone are examples of aromatic carbonyl compounds
3. State the major preparations of:
 aldehyde by the mild oxidation of 1° alcohol RCH2OH
 ketone by the oxidation of 2° alcohol R2CHOH
 aldehyde & ketone by the hydrolysis of gem-dihalides (e.g. R2Cl2)
4. Recognize that the C in C=O is a positive centre & can be attacked by nucleophiles
5. Describe the mechanism of the nucleophilic addition of HCN on carbonyl compounds
6. Explain the order of reactivities of aldehydes & ketones towards nucleophilic addition reactions in
terms of electronic & steric sffects of R & Benzene
H2C=O > RCHO > R2CHO > benzaldehyde > phenylalkanone > 1,2-diphenylmethanone
7. State the main reactions of aldehydes & ketones:
 Nucleophilic addition of HCN
 Nucleophilic addition of NaHSO3
 Addition-elimination (condensation) with NH2OH & 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
 Oxidation (aldehyde can be easily oxidized to RCOOH, but ketone is resistant to oxidation
& cannot be easily oxidized)
 Reduction to ROH by LiAlH4 & NaBH4 (aldehyde  1° ROH, ketone  2° ROH)
 Triiodomethane reaction for CH3COR(H) (an oxidation reaction)
 Oxidation by Cu(II) as in Fehling’s reagent and Ag(I) as in Tollen’s reagent
9. Recognize that the condensation reaction is in fact an addition followed by elimination
10. Recognize that the reaction between sodium hydrogensulphate(VI) & carbonyl compounds can be
used for the purification of carbonyl compounds
11. Recognize that the formation of oximes or 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazones of carbonyl compounds
 can be used for the identification of carbonyl compounds
12. Describe the identification of aldehydes & ketones by the
 preparation of the derivative of a carbonyl compound, e.g. 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone
 Tollen’s reagent (silver mirror test)
 Fehling’s solution
13. State the chemicals required & the intermediates for the following synthetic conversions:
 RCHO  RCH(OH)COOH
 RCOCH3  RCH2OH
 RCOCH3  RCH2COOH
14. Recognize that the IR spectra of carbonyl compounds show a strong & sharp peak at 1680 to 1750
cm-1 due to the strectching of the C=O bond
15. State the use of methanal in the manufacture of condensation polymers (phenol-methanal & urea-
methanal) & the use of propanone as a solvent and a raw material in the manufacture of the
addition of polymer Perspex

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 10 Carboxylic Acids & their Derivatives

Objectives:
1. Describe the structures & bonding of carboxylic acids, acyl chlorides (acid chlorides), acid
anhydrides, amides & esters
2. State the 3 special features of carboxylic acids
 high acidity of carboxylic acids over other organic compounds
 less likely to undergo nucleophilic addition than carbonyl compounds
 presence of extensive hydrogen bonding
3. State the major preparations of carboxylic acids:
 hydrolysis of nitrile, amide or ester
 oxidation of 1° alkanols
 oxidation of aldehydes
 cigourous oxidation of side chain of aromatic compounds
4. Predict & explain the acidity of the carboxylic acid in terms of
 the equilibrium: RCOOH + H2O ↔ H3O+ RCOOˉ
 the stability of the carboxylate ion due to delocalization
 the influence of substituents by electronic effects on the stability of the carboxylate ion
5. State the main reactions of RCOOH
 neutralization: formation of salt
 formation of esters [RCOOR’], acyl chlorides [RCOCl], acid anhydrides [(RCO)2O] &
amides [RCONH2]
 reduction to RCH2OH by LiAlH4
6. State the procedure for the separation of carboxylic acid from other organic substances by the
extraction with Na2CO3(aq) or NaHCO3(aq)
7. Explain the differences in chemical & physical properties of cis-butenedioic acid & trans-
butenedioic acid
8. State the chemicals, intermediates & conditions for the following conversions:
 RCH2Cl  RCOOR’
 RCl  RCH2Cl (1 C added)
 RCOOH  RCl or ROH (1 C removed)
 RCH2Cl  RCl (1 C removed)
 ROH  RCOOH (1 C added)
9. State the general mechanism of nucleophilic acyl substitution as exemplified by hydropysis of acyl
chloride
10. Explain the reactivities of carboxylic acid derivatives:
RCOCl > (RCO)2O > RCOOR > RCONH2
11. State the major preparations of acyl chlorides, acid anhydrides, amides & esters
12. State the main reactions of acyl chlorides
 reaction with water – hydrolysis to give RCOOH
 reaction with R’OH to give RCOOR’
 reaction with RCOOˉ - formation of acid anhydrides [(RCO)2O]
 reaction with NH3 or amines – formation of amides [e.g. RCONH2]
13. State the main reactions of esters
 acid hydrolysis or alkaline hydrolysis with HCl (aq) or NaOH (aq) to give RCOOH or
RCOOˉNa+ respectively
 reduction to RCH2OH ( + R’OH)
14. Recognize that fats & oils are esters. On hydrolysis, fats & oils can be hydrolysed into propane-
1,2,3-triol & fatty acids
15. Recognize that oil contains a higher % of fatty acids with unsaturated hydrocarbon chains than fat
16. Define the iodine value & recognize that the degree of unsaturation of fats & oils can be compared
in terms of the iodine value
17. Recognize that the hardening of vegetable oils is the hydrogenation process of the unsaturated
hydrocarbon chains in oils
18. State the main reactions of amides
 alkaline hydrolysis to give RCOOˉNa+
  Hofmann Degradation of RCONH2 to give RNH2
 Reduction to amines
19. Describe experiments on
 oxidation of 1° or 2° ROH, RCHO or alkylarenes
 hydrolysis of nitrile or amide (e.g. preparation of benzoic acid from benzamide)
 analysis of commercial asprin tablets
 the formation of acyl chlorides
 esterification
 acid/ alkaline hydrolysis of esters
20. Recognize that the IR spectra of carboxylic acids & their derivatives show a strong & sharp peak
at 1680 to 1750 cm-1 due to the vibration of the C=O bond. In addition, carboxylic acids show a
broad band in the region 2500 to 3300 cm-1 due to O-H stretching
21. State the uses of carboxylic acids & their derivatives
 benzoic acid & benzoates as food preservatives
 polyesters (e.g. terylene or Dacron) and polyamides (e.g. nylon 6.6) as synthetic fibres
 esters as flavourings
 esters as fat / oil
22. Recognize theat the rancidity of fats & oils is caused by the hydrolysis &/or oxidation (free
radicals reactions)
23. Describe the principle of antioxidants ( e.g. BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) & BHT (butylated
hydroxytoluene) to prevent the autoxidation of fat/oil

Note: Nothing is cut or added in this section

Section 11 Nitrogen Compounds

(this section is combined with carboxylic acid and its derivatives, refer to section 10)
In Syllabus
1. Preparation of amines, amides
2. Reactions of amines, amides
 formation of diazonium salt from R-NH2, phenylamine
 coupling reaction: diazonium salt from 1° aromatic amine reacts with e.g. phenol or
naphthalein-2-ol to give azo-dyes
 Hofmann degradation of amides
3. Amino acids
 bifunctional compounds having both acid and basic properties (Zwitterion)
  dipeptides and polypeptides of amino acids

- End of Organic Chemistry-

D. Chemistry and the Environment (Out of Syllabus)

12.1 Air Pollution (Out of Syllabus)
12.2 Water Pollution (Out of Syllabus)
12.3 Solid Waste (Out of Syllabus)
12.4 Pollution Control in Hong Kong (Out of Syllabus)

E. Chemistry and Food (Partly Out of Syllabus)

13.1 Proteins (In Syllabus)
1. amino acids
2. Hydrolysis of proteins

13.2 Carbohydrates (Out of Syllabus)

1. Structures of glucose, fructose, sucrose
2. Hydrolysis of sucrose
3. Fehling’s test to distinguish between reducing and non-reducing sugars

13.3 Fats and oils (In Syllabus)

1. Hydrolysis of fats and oils
2. Use of iodine value
3. Hydrolytic and oxidative rancidity of fats/oils
Note: refer to section 10 carboxylic acid and its derivatives

13.4 Food Preservation (Out of Syllabus)

1. Techniques of food preservation (chilling, canning , etc.)
2. Food additives (except benzoic acid, BHT, BHA)
3. Menace of food additives

-End of Chemistry and the Environment and Food-

F. Chemistry In Action (Newly Added)
14.1 Polymers
1. Natural occurring polymers
-- proteins, polysacchrides, DNA
2. Synthetic polymers
-- Addition polymers e.g. Poly(ethene), poly(propene), polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride PVC, etc.
--Condensation polymers e.g. Nylon, urea-methanal, Dacron
3. Effect of structure on properties such as density, hardness, rigidity, elasticity and biodegradability

14.2 Drugs
1. Key stages of drug development exemplified by asprin
-- lead compound discovery
-- molecular modification
-- formulation development
-- safety tests and human trials
-- approval for marketing
2. Narcotic drugs such as morphine and heroin and their adverse effects
3. Stimulants such as ketamine and phenylethanamine and their adverse effects

14.3 Green Chemistry

1. Green chemistry practices exemplified by
-- decaffeination using superficial carbon dioxide
-- the use of H2O2 in the presence of manganese based catalyst as bleaching agent

-End of Chemistry and Action-