Anatomy and Physiology Cell Cycle The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes

place in a cell leading to its division and duplication (replication). In cells without a nucleus (prokaryotic), the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission. In cells with a nucleus (eukaryotes), the cell cycle can be divided in two brief periods: interphase during which the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis and duplicating its DNAand the mitosis (M) phase, during which the cell splits itself into two distinct cells, often called "daughter cells". The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a singlecelled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. Phases The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided between the two daughter cells, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides in half forming distinct cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase. Schematic of the cell cycle. outer ring: I = Interphase, M = Mitosis; inner ring: M = Mitosis, G1 = Gap 1, G2 = Gap 2, S = Synthesis; not in ring: G0 = Gap 0/Resting. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begins the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients, gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. This system may be seen strictly as a blood distribution network, but some consider the circulatory system as composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The most primitive animal phyla lack circulatory systems. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system. Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make up the circulatory system Parts of the Circulatory System three major parts: The circulatory System is divided into: 1. The Heart 2. The Blood 3. The Blood Vessels HEART The human heart is a muscular organ that provides a continuous blood circulation through the cardiac cycle and is one of the most vital organs in the human body. The heart is divided into four main chambers: the two upper chambers are called the left and right atria and two lower chambers are called the right and left ventricles.

Pericardial Membranes three layers that enclose the heart 1. The outer, fibrous pericardium, made of fibrous connective tissue, is a loosefitting sac that surrounds the heart and extends over the diaphragm and the bases of the great vessels. 2. The parietal pericardium is a serous membrane that lines the fibrous pericardium. 3. The visceral pericardium, or epicardium, is a serous membrane on the surface of the myocardium. 4. Serous fluid between the parietal and visceral pericardial membranes prevents friction as the heart beats. Chambers of the heart 1. Cardiac muscle tissue, the myocardium, forms the walls of the four chambers of the heart. 2. Endocardium lines the chambers and covers the valves of the heart; is simple squamous epithelium that is very smooth and prevents abnormal clotting. 3. The right and left atria are the upper chambers separated by the interatrial septum. The atria receive blood from veins. Right Atrium 1. Receives blood from the upper body by way of the superior vena cava and receives blood from the lower body by way of the inferior vena cava. 2. The tricuspid (right AV) valve prevents backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium when the right ventricle contracts. Left Atrium 1. Receives blood from the lungs by way of four pulmonary veins. 2. The mitral (left AV or bicuspid) valve prevents backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts. 3. The walls of the atria produce atrial natriuretic peptide when stretched by increased blood volume or BP. ANP increases the loss of Na+ ions and water urine, which decreases blood volume and BP to normal. Right Ventricle has relatively thin walls 1. Pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. 2. The pulmonary semilunar valve prevents backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle when the right ventricle relaxes. 3. Papillary muscles and chordate tendineae prevent inversion of the right AV valve when the right ventricle contracts. Left Ventricle has thicker walls than does the right ventricle 1. Pumps blood to the body through aorta. 2. The aortic semilunar valve prevents backflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle when the left ventricle relaxes. 3. Papillary muscles and chordate tendineae prevent inversion of the left AV valve when the left ventricle contracts.

4. The heart is a double pump: the right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs; the left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body. Both sides of the heart work simultaneously. Coronary Vessels 1. Pathway: ascending aorta to right and left coronary arteries, to smaller arteries, to capillaries, to coronary veins, to the coronary sinus, to the right atrium. 2. Coronary circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the myocardium. 3. Obstruction of a coronary artery causes a myocardium due to lack of oxygen BLOOD The general functions of blood are transportation, regulation, and protection. Characteristics of Blood 1. Amount 4 to 6 liters; 38% to 48% is cells; 52% to 62% is plasma 2. Color arterial blood has high oxygen content and is bright red; venous blood has less oxygen and is dark red. 3. pH- 7.35 to 7.45; venous blood has more CO2 and a lower Ph than arterial blood. 4. Viscosity t thickness or resistance to flow; due to the presence of cells and plasma proteins; contributes to normal blood pressure. Plasma the liquid portion of blood 1. 91% water 2. Plasma transports nutrients, wastes, hormones, antibodies, and CO2 as HCO3-. 3. Plasma proteins: clotting factors are synthesized by the liver; albumin is synthesized by the liver and provides colloid osmotic pressure that pulls tissue fluid into capillaries to maintain normal blood volume and blood pressure; alpha and beta globulins are synthesized by the liver and are carriers for fats and other substances in the blood; gamma globulins are antibodies produced by lymphocytes. Blood Cells 1. Formed elements are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. 2. After birth the primary hemopoietic tissue is the red bone marrow, which contains stem cells. Lymphocytes mature and divide in the lymphatic tissue of the spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus, which also have stem cells for lymphocytes.

Red Blood Cells erythrocytes 1. Biconcave discs; no nuclei when mature. 2. RBCs carry O2 bonded to the iron in hemoglobin. 3. RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow from hemocytoblasts (stem cells, the precursor cells) 4. Hypoxia stimulates the kidneys to produce the hormone erythropoietin, which increases the rate of RBC production in the RBM. 5. Immature RBCs: normoblasts (have nuclei) and reticulocytes; large numbers in peripheral circulation indicate a need for more RBCs to carry oxygen. 6. Vitamin B12 is the extrinsic factor, needed for DNA synthesis (mitosis) in stem cells in the RBM. Intrinsic factor is produced by the parietal cells of the stomach lining; it combines with B12 to prevent its digestion and promote its absorption. 7. RBCs live for 120 days and are then phagocytized by macrophages in the liver, spleen, and RBM. The iron is returned to the RBM or stored in the liver. The heme of the hemoglobin is converted to bilirubin, which the liver excretes into bile to be eliminated in feces. Colon bacteria change bilirubin to urobilinogen. Any urobilinogen and excreted absorbed is converted to urobilin and excreted by the kidneys in urine. Jaundice is the accumulation of bilirubin in the blood in the blood, perhaps due to liver disease. Erythropoiesis is the development process in which new erythrocytes are produced, through which each cell matures in about 7 days. Through this process erythrocytes are continuously produced in the red bone marrow of large bones, at a rate of about 2 million per second in a healthy adult. (In the embryo, the liver is the main site of red blood cell production.) The production can be stimulated by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO), synthesized by the kidney. Just before and after leaving the bone marrow, the developing cells are known as reticulocytes; these comprise about 1% of circulating red blood cells. White Blood Cells leukocytes 1. Larger than RBCs; have nuclei when mature; produced in the red bone marrow, except some lymphocytes produced in the thymus. 2. Granular WBCs are the neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. 3. Agranular WBCs are the lymphocytes and monocytes. 4. Neutrophils and monocytes phagicytize pathogens; monocytes become macrophages, which also phagocytize dead tissue. 5. Eosinophils detoxify foreign proteins during allergic reactions and parasitic infections; they phagocytize anything labeled with antibodies. 6. Basophils contain the anticoagulant heparin and histamine, which contributes to inflammation. 7. Lymphocytes: T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. T cells recognize foreign antigens and destroy them. B cells become plasma cells, which produce antibodies to foreign cell membranes.

8. WBCs carry out their functions in tissue fluid and lymphatic tissue, as well as in the blood. Platelets thrombocytes 1. Platelets are formed in the RBM and are fragments of megakaryocytes; the hormone thrombopoietin from the liver increases platelet production. 2. Platelets are involved in all mechanisms of hemostasis (prevention of blood loss) 3. Vascular spasm large vessels constrict when damaged, the myogenic response. Platelets release serotonin, which also causes vasoconstriction. The break in the vessel is made smaller and may be closed with a blood clot. 4. Platelet plugs rupture of a capillary creates a rough surface to which platelets stick and form a barrier over the break. 5. Chemical clotting involves platelet factors, chemicals from damaged tissue, prothrombin, fibrinogen and other clotting factors synthesized by the liver and calcium. The clot is formed of fibrin threads that form a mesh over the break in the vessel. 6. Clot retraction is the folding of the fibrin threads to pull the cut edges of the vessel closer together to facilitate repair. Fibrinolysis is the dissolving of the clot once it has served its purpose. 7. Abnormal clotting (thrombosis) is prevented by the very smooth endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) that lines blood vessels; heparin, which inhibits the clotting process; and antithrombin (synthesized by the liver), which inactivates excess thrombin. BLOOD VESSELS

The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart. There are various kinds of blood vessels: Arteries o Aorta (the largest artery, carries blood out of the heart) o Branches of the aorta, such as the carotid artery, the subclavian artery, the celiac trunk, the mesenteric arteries, the renal artery and the iliac artery.

Arterioles Capillaries (the smallest blood vessels) Venules Veins o Large collecting vessels, such as the subclavian vein, the jugular vein, the renal vein and the iliac vein. o Venae cavae (the 2 largest veins, carry blood into the heart)

They are roughly grouped as arterial and venous, determined by whether the blood in it is flowing away from (arterial) or toward (venous) the heart. The term "arterial blood" is nevertheless used to indicate blood high in oxygen, although the pulmonary artery carries "venous blood" and blood flowing in the pulmonary vein is rich in oxygen. This is because they are carrying the blood to and from the lungs, respectively, to be oxygenated. The spleen and bone marrow are considered the birthplace and nursery of RBC and WBC. Function of the Spleen The spleen is a multifunctional organ. In the circulatory system, its main role is to destroy and remove old or defective red blood cells and cell debris or bacteria from the blood stream. It also produces red blood cells when required, as well as lymphocytes, plasma cells, and antibodies. It therefore acts as both a storage reservoir for stem cells and mature blood cells, which it will release into the blood circulation when the body requires it (e.g. to fight infections). It also acts as a filtration system to purify blood. Although it has many seemingly important functions, the human body is capable of surviving without a spleen, or with a spleen that is damaged. Function of the Bone Marrow The marrow is the spongy red-yellow tissue found inside most human bones, especially bones of the hip and thigh, and is the site where blood cells are made. The marrow consists of many types of cells, such as fat (lipid) cells, bone-forming osteoblasts and blood-forming hematopoietic stem cells. The latter are able to grow into every type of white and red blood cell in the human body, from erythrocytes (red blood cells), to macrophages, neutrophils, and mast cells. Millions of blood cells are produced here every day, and the bone marrow also serves as the site where they are stored and matured before they enter the circulatory system.