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Internationales Jahrbuch des Deutschen Idealismus

International Yearbook of German Idealism


Internationales Jahrbuch
des Deutschen Idealismus
International Yearbook
of German Idealism

Begehren
13 ‧ 2015
Desire

Herausgegeben von/edited by
Dina Emundts (Berlin) und/and Sally Sedgwick (Chicago)
Redaktion/Associate editors
Jaroslaw Bledowski und/and Anne Mone Sahnwaldt
Begründet von/founded by
Karl Ameriks (Notre Dame) und/and Jürgen Stolzenberg (Halle/S.)
Fortgeführt von/continued by
Fred Rush (Notre Dame), 2008–2014, mit/with Jürgen Stolzenberg (Halle/S.)

Wissenschaftlicher Beirat/Editorial Board


Karl Ameriks (Notre Dame), Andreas Arndt (Berlin), Manfred Baum (Wuppertal), Frederick C. Beiser (Syracuse),
Robert Brandom (Pittsburgh), Daniel Breazeale (Lexington), Claudio Cesa (Pisa), Klaus Düsing (Köln), Michael
N. Forster (Chicago), Eckart Förster (Baltimore), Manfred Frank (Tübingen), Paul Franks (Toronto), Hans Fried-
rich Fulda (Heidelberg), Karen Gloy (Luzern), Henry S. Harris (Toronto), Vittorio Hösle (Notre Dame), Rolf-Peter
Horstmann (Berlin), Michael Inwood (Oxford), Wilhelm G. Jacobs (München), Jörg Jantzen (München), Walter
Jaeschke (Bochum), Salvi Turró (Barcelona), Charles Larmore (Chicago), Béatrice Longuenesse (New York),
Frederick Neuhouser (New York), Robert B. Pippin (Chicago), Claude Piché (Montreal), Terry Pinkard (George­
town), Alain Renaut (Paris), Michael Rosen (Cambridge, Mass.), Fred Rush (Notre Dame), Birgit Sandkau-
len (Bochum), Hans-Jörg Sandkühler (Bremen), Dieter Schönecker (Siegen), Ludwig Siep (Münster), Pirmin
Stekeler-Weithofer (Leipzig), Jürgen Stolzenberg (Halle/S.), Dieter Sturma (Bonn), Charles Taylor (Montreal),
Lars-Thade Ulrichs (Halle/S.), Violetta L. Waibel (Wien), Michael Wolff (Bielefeld), Allen W. Wood (Stanford),
Günter Zöller (München)
ISBN 978-3-11-057787-7
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-057980-2
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-057912-3
ISSN 1613-0472

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek


Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen
Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet
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© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston


Datenkonvertierung/Satz: Konrad Triltsch Print und digitale Medien GmbH
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♾ Gedruckt auf säurefreiem Papier, das die US-ANSI-Norm über Haltbarkeit erfüllt.
Printed in Germany

www.degruyter.com
Inhalt

Vorwort VII

Preface IX

Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick


Einleitung XI

Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick


Introduction XVII

I. Beiträge/Essays

Alix Cohen
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 3

Paul Guyer
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 19

Federica Basaglia
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen und sein Verständnis vom
tierischen Leben 39

Andreas Schmidt
Streben und Trieb.
Zur Demarkationslinie zwischen Transzendentalphilosophie und Anthropologie
in Fichtes Wissenschaftslehre 59

Allen Wood
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 75

Christoph Halbig
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124)
Überlegungen zur Bedeutung der affektiven und konativen Dimension des
Menschen für Hegels Normativitätstheorie und Ethik 97

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-101
VI Inhalt

Ulrich Pothast
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 127

Judith Norman
The Question of Romantic Desire 151

Thomas Khurana
The Self-Determination of Force:
Desire and Practical Self-Consciousness in Kant and Hegel 179

Ludwig Siep
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 205

Sebastian Gardner
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 233

II. Rezensionen/Reviews

Markus Kohl 259


Daniel Sutherland 265
Michael Nance 271
Allen Speight 277
Robert Seymour 283

III. Anhang/Appendix

Autoren/Authors 291

Hinweis an die Verlage/Letter to Publishers 295


Vorwort

Der dreizehnte Band des Internationalen Jahrbuchs des Deutschen Idealismus/


International Yearbook of German Idealism ist dem Thema Begehren/Desire ge-
widmet. Wir danken Gertrud Grünkorn für die Zusammenarbeit und die Unter-
stützung bei dem Band. Den Autorinnen und Autoren und den Rezensentinnen
und Rezensenten danken wir für ihre Beiträge.
Unser Dank gilt außerdem auch diesmal wieder Jaroslaw Bledowski und Anne
Mone Sahnwaldt für die kompetente redaktionelle Betreuung des Bandes. Danken
möchten wir auch allen, die uns mit ihrem Rat beiseite gestanden haben, ins-
besondere Karl Ameriks und Rachel Zuckert.
Der nächste Band, Band 14, wird dem Thema Deutscher Idealismus und die
Rationalisten gewidmet sein.

Dina Emundts (Berlin) und Sally Sedgwick (Chicago)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-102
Preface

The thirteenth volume of the International Yearbook of German Idealism is dedi-


cated to the theme Desire. We thank Gertrud Grünkorn for her invaluable assis-
tance in producing the volume. We are of course grateful to the authors of the
volume’s papers and book reviews. Karl Ameriks and Rachel Zuckert provided
useful guidance at various points; we therefore wish to express our appreciation
to them as well. Finally, we are once again indebted to Jaroslaw Bledowski and
Anne Mone Sahnwaldt for their excellent editorial assistance. The theme of Vol-
ume 14 will be German Idealism and the Rationalists.

Dina Emundts (Berlin) und Sally Sedgwick (Chicago)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-103
Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick
Einleitung

Die Beiträge des dreizehnten Bandes des Internationalen Jahrbuchs des Deutschen
Idealismus/International Yearbook of German Idealism widmen sich dem Thema
Begehren/Desire im Deutschen Idealismus. Dieses Thema lädt sowohl zu grund-
legenden Fragen als auch zu Einzeluntersuchungen bei den Philosophen ein, und
beidem sind die Autorinnen und Autoren in diesem Band nachgegangen.
In fast allen Beiträgen kann man sehen, dass es zufolge der eigenen philo-
sophischen Einschätzung der Autorinnen und Autoren wichtig ist, Begehrungen
und Gefühlen eine essentielle Rolle zuzusprechen, und dass sie es als Defizit
ansehen, wenn eine philosophische Theorie dies nicht leisten kann. Diese Wert-
schätzung emotionaler und leiblicher Aspekte unseres moralischen Lebens ent-
spricht wahrscheinlich einer heute insgesamt in der Philosophie vorherrschenden
Tendenz und steht im Hintergrund der systematisch ausgerichteten Auseinan-
dersetzung mit der klassischen deutschen Philosophie. Vor diesem Hintergrund
wird die Frage, inwiefern Kant hier als Negativfolie angesehen werden muss oder
selbst einen fruchtbaren Beitrag liefert, virulent. Die Beiträge in diesem Band
vermitteln einerseits tendenziell das Bild, dass Kant selbst dazu in der Lage ist,
diesen Aspekten menschlicher Natur eine essentielle Rolle in der Moralphiloso-
phie zuzusprechen. Andererseits wird in einigen Beiträgen auch deutlich, dass
zumindest Hegel und Schelling sich in damit verbundenen Aspekten als Alter-
native zu Kant verstanden haben. Es ist, so könnte man vielleicht zusammen-
fassend sagen, nach Einschätzung unserer Autorinnen und Autoren nicht so
fraglich, ob man Begehren eine wichtige und auch positive Rolle zusprechen
muss. Vielmehr ist strittig, wie diese Rolle genau umzusetzen ist. Zu dieser Frage
geben die Beiträge unseres Bandes in verschiedenen Aspekten in der Auseinan-
dersetzung mit Philosophen der klassischen deutschen Philosophie verschiedene
wegweisende Antworten.
Alix Cohen und Paul Guyer beschäftigen sich grundlegend mit der Rolle, die
Begehren und Gefühle in Kants Moralphilosophie spielen können und müssen. In
beiden Abhandlungen wird dafür argumentiert, dass in Kants Moralphilosophie,
anders als oft angenommen, Begehren und Gefühlen eine essentielle Rolle spie-
len. Damit etablieren sie eine Auffassung, der zufolge Kants Moralphilosophie
weniger formal und kognitiv ist als oft behauptet. Sie ermöglichen es darüber
hinaus aber auch, eine klare Kontinuität zwischen Kants früheren und späteren
Schriften zur praktischen Philosophie zu sehen. Cohens und Guyers Thesen dazu,
wie Kant emotionalen Aspekten Rechnung tragen kann, sind allerdings mit Blick

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XII Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick

auf die Frage der Metaphysik der Moral unterschiedlich und wohl sogar alternativ
zu verstehen.
Alix Cohen untersucht in ihrem Beitrag „Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral De-
sires and the Cultivation of Virtue“ die Verbindung von Begehren und Tugend. Sie
tritt der oft vertretenen Auffassung entgegen, dass es für Kant mit Vernunft und
Begehrungsvermögen zwei Quellen gibt, die uns motivieren. Stattdessen entwi-
ckelt Cohen die These, dass Gefühle für Kant die einzige Quelle für Motivationen
sind. Es kann daher auch nicht nur der Wille tugendhaft sein, sondern Begehren
und Gefühle können dies in gewisser Hinsicht auch sein. Weiterhin schlägt Cohen
vor, dass Kant auch auf die These verpflichtet ist, dass unsere tugendhafte Praxis
den Willen beeinflussen kann. Indem unsere tugendhaften Anlagen gestärkt
werden, kann tugendhaftes Wollen generiert werden.
Paul Guyer fordert mit seinem Beitrag „Moral Worth and Moral Motivation:
Kant’s Real View“ diejenigen heraus, die Gefühlen bei Kant keine kausale Rolle
zugestehen. Gegen Barbara Herman und andere, die argumentiert haben, dass der
einzige Bestimmungsgrund bei moralischen Handlungen der kategorische Im-
perativ sei, verteidigt Guyer die These, dass auch Gefühle notwendige Bedin-
gungen für moralische Handlungen sind. Guyer zufolge vertritt Kant auf dem
phänomenologischen Level eine Hobbesianische Theorie der Motivation. Kant ist
daher, so Guyer, zu der These verpflichtet, dass es keine moralisch wertvollen
Handlungen gibt, die nicht mit moralischen Gefühlen verbunden sind. Das mo-
ralische Gesetz bedeutet nicht nur eine Limitierung unserer Gefühle, sondern
kann auch die richtigen moralischen Gefühle generieren, nämlich die, die ver-
lässlich zu moralischen Handlungen führen.
Federica Basaglia behandelt in ihrem Beitrag „Kants Definition von Begeh-
rungsvermögen und sein Verständnis vom tierischen Leben“ ein spezielleres
Thema, nämlich die Frage, welche Rolle das Begehrungsvermögen für Kants
Thesen dazu hat, was der moralische Status von Tieren bzw. unseren Handlungen
Tieren gegenüber ist. Eine ihrer grundlegenden Thesen lautet, dass Kant Tieren
den Status von Personen absprechen will, dass er sie aber dadurch keineswegs zu
Sachen degradieren muss, weil er die Unterteilung in Personen und Sachen als
nicht vollständig ansieht. Um zu einem angemessenen Verständnis von Kants
Einschätzung der Tiere zu kommen, untersucht Basaglia Kants Verständnis des
tierischen Lebens, und hierbei spielt das Begehrungsvermögen eine entschei-
dende Rolle, weil es zu den Vermögen zählt, die Menschen und Tiere gemeinsam
haben.
Andreas Schmidt und Allen Wood beschäftigen sich in ihren Beiträgen mit
Begehren bei Fichte. Sie stellen jeweils eine Gesamtkonzeption von Fichte dar, so
dass sich das Begehren als etwas zeigt, dass in dieser Gesamtkonzeption eine
spezifische Rolle einnimmt. In beiden Beiträgen kann man gut sehen, wie bei
Einleitung XIII

Fichte mit dem Thema Begehren das Thema des Verhältnisses von theoretischer
und praktischer Philosophie verbunden ist und wie wichtig die Unterscheidung
von transzendentaler und empirischer Philosophie ist.
Andreas Schmidt schlägt in seinem Beitrag „Streben und Trieb. Zur Demar-
kationslinie zwischen Transzendentalphilosophie und Anthropologie in Fichtes
Wissenschaftslehre“ zunächst vor, dass Fichte mit dem Gedanken des unendli-
chen Strebens die Idee von Kants höchstem Gut aufgegriffen habe. In den zwei
folgenden Teilen ist das leitende Thema die wichtige Frage, wie bei Fichte Streben
und Trieb in der transzendentalphilosophischen und in der empirischen philo-
sophischen Theorie entwickelt werden. Im zweiten Teil wird dargestellt, wie
Fichte in der Sittenlehre von 1798 der Theorie des Strebens eine Trieblehre an die
Seite stellt, die als eine transzendentale Anthropologie anzusehen ist. Im dritten
Teil werden Probleme der Abgrenzung der Begriffe und Theorien von Streben und
Trieb diskutiert.
Allen Woods Abhandlung „Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte“ beginnt mit
einer Darstellung von Fichtes Transzendentalphilosophie und konzentriert sich
dann auf das Thema Volitionen. Besonders stellt Wood heraus, dass Freiheit für
Fichte die Freiheit eines endlichen körperlichen Wesens meint, das nach Har-
monie mit dem Nicht-Ich strebt. In dem Essay werden dann verschiedene Formen
dieses Strebens unterschieden und untersucht. Das Streben kann, zum Beispiel,
die Form des Strebens nach dem Ethischen annehmen oder das Streben nach der
Befriedigung unserer natürlichen Bedürfnisse sein, welches dann für Fichte das
Begehren darstellt. Es ergibt sich auf diese Weise eine systematische Theorie des
Strebens, in der das Begehren einen Platz hat. Begehren ist für Fichte etwas
Natürliches, das in der körperlichen Natur wurzelt, dennoch aber eine notwen-
dige Komponente des ethischen Strebens ist.
Christoph Halbig widmet sich in seinem Aufsatz „,Das Recht […], sich be-
friedigt zu finden‘ (RPh § 124). Überlegungen zur Bedeutung der affektiven und
konativen Dimension des Menschen für Hegels Normativitätstheorie und Ethik“
der Frage, auf welche Weise Hegel affektive Dimensionen des menschlichen Le-
bens in seine Philosophie integriert. Halbig entwickelt die These, dass Hegel zwar
die Ressourcen für eine Philosophie hat, in der Gefühlen eine wesentliche Rolle
zukommt und dass angesichts Hegels kritischer Auffassung von Kant zu erwarten
wäre, dass Hegel diese Ressourcen auch ausschöpft, dass er dies aber überra-
schenderweise zumindest nicht dort macht, wo es besonders nahe liegen würde:
bei der Konzeption der Tugenden bzw. in der Form einer Tugendlehre. Hegel hat,
so Halbig, letztlich selbst keinen reichen Begriff von Tugend entwickelt und damit
einer solchen Einbindung der Gefühle keine positive Rolle zugewiesen.
Ulrich Pothast arbeitet in seinem Aufsatz „The Role of Desire in Schopen-
hauer’s View of Human Life“ heraus, dass für Schopenhauer Begehren das Pri-
XIV Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick

märe ist und auch gegenüber dem Intellekt diese Rolle einnimmt. Hierbei wird die
metaphysische Theorie des Willens als Grund von allem dargestellt und zugleich
analysiert, wie dieser sich phänomenologisch in dem menschlichen Wünschen,
die keine wahre Befriedigung finden können, aufdecken lässt.
Pothast stellt in seinem Aufsatz immer wieder kritische Fragen – zum Beispiel
warum es keine Existenzweise jenseits des Wollens gibt; warum Wollen so negativ
konnotiert ist und wie man Leiden beim metaphysischen Willen zu denken hat
(da die menschlichen Phänomene hier kaum passen können); er kommt bei den
subtilen Antworten zu diesen Fragen aber auch zu dem Ergebnis, dass viele der
entsprechenden Thesen Schopenhauers nicht weiter begründete Setzungen sind.
Die Bedeutung und auch der Einfluss von Schopenhauers Annahmen zum Un-
bewussten (unbewussten Wünschen etc.) wird herausgearbeitet und Schopen-
hauers Auffassung Platonischer Ideen, die Rolle der Kunst und die Selbstver-
neinung transparent gemacht.
Judith Norman untersucht in ihrem Beitrag „The Question of Romantic De-
sire“ den Charakter des Begehrens oder Sehnens (desire) in der deutschen Ro-
mantik. Sie bezieht sich hierfür auf das zentrale Organ der deutschen Romantik,
das Athenaeum. Es soll gezeigt werden, dass der Begriff des Sehnens hier nicht die
Konnotationen hat, die oft angenommen werden. Weder ist eine Sehnsucht nach
einem verlorenen Paradies gemeint, noch geht es um ein gerichtetes Sehnen nach
etwas Unerreichbarem oder Jenseitigem. Die Pointe von Normans Vorschlags liegt
in der Entwicklung eines neuen Begriffs des Sehnens oder Begehrens (desire):
Sehnen oder Begehren ist eine produktive, experimentelle und revolutionäre
Lebensform.
Dass sich das Thema Begehren dazu anbietet, grundlegende Fragen zur
Moralphilosophie oder zur philosophischen Konzeption insgesamt zu stellen, hat
sich in diesen Beiträgen auf verschiedene Weise gezeigt. Außerdem eignet sich
dieses Thema auch, um Positionen dieser Zeit in eine Diskussion miteinander zu
bringen und die Frage zu beantworten, wie sich die Philosophen nach Kant auf
Kant beziehen. Auch dies hat sich beispielsweise in den Beiträgen von Schmidt
und Halbig schon angedeutet. In den letzten drei Aufsätzen des Bandes wird dies
explizit so aufgenommen, dass Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede zur Diskus-
sion gestellt werden können.
Thomas Khurana stellt in seinem Aufsatz „The Self-Determination of Force:
Desire and Practical Self-Consciousness in Kant and Hegel“ das Thema Begeh-
rungsvermögen bei Kant und Hegel dar. Er vertritt die These, dass Kant und Hegel
mit Blick auf das Verhältnis von Begehren und Wille oder praktischer Vernunft im
Wesentlichen übereinstimmen. Selbstbestimmung bedeutet bei beiden, dass man
sich reflexiv auf seine Begehrungen bezieht. Hegels Behauptung in der Phäno-
menologie, dass Selbstbewusstsein ‚Begehren überhaupt‘ ist, ist daher nach
Einleitung XV

Khurana keine Abwendung von Kant, sondern steht in Harmonie mit der Kanti-
schen Einsicht, dass die praktische Vernunft sich durch ihren Bezug auf die
sinnlichen Begehrungen bestimmt.
Ludwig Siep widmet sich in seinem Aufsatz „Begehren, Autonomie und Ge-
rechtigkeit“ der Geschichte des Begriffs „Begehren“. Er versteht die Theorien von
Kant bis Hegel zu Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit als Antworten auf ein
systematisches Problem, das sich uns allen stellt, insofern tendenziell eine Au-
tonomiegefährdung durch das Begehren besteht. Für die Antworten, die sich in
der klassischen deutschen Philosophie finden, ist der Begriff der Subjektivität der
entscheidende Schlüssel. Begehren wird in der klassischen deutschen Philoso-
phie nicht der Autonomie entgegengesetzt, sondern ist eine Form von Selbstbe-
wusstsein. Dies gilt, wie Siep zeigt, auch schon für Kant. Ebenfalls findet sich
schon bei Kant die Idee, dass die Ausuferung des Begehrens durch rechtliche und
institutionelle Rahmenbedingungen verhindert werden müsse. Diese Gedanken
greift nach Siep zunächst Fichte und dann (in anderer Form) Hegel auf. Diese
Antworten werden von Siep am Ende unter der Perspektive ihrer heutigen An-
schlussfähigkeit kritisch betrachtet. Gerade vor diesem Hintergrund scheinen die
Gemeinsamkeiten innerhalb der Klassischen Deutschen Philosophie groß zu sein.
Bei Sebastian Gardners Darstellung der klassischen deutschen Philosophie
werden die Unterschiede der Positionen stärker herausgestellt. Die grundlegende
These des Aufsatzes „The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy“
ist, dass wir das Anliegen der klassischen deutschen Philosophen so verstehen
sollten, dass sie Antworten finden wollten auf Kants Frage, wie wir Freiheit und
Natur verbinden können, und dass bei der Beantwortung dieser Frage das Sehnen
(desire) nach einer Einheit eine wesentliche Rolle spielt. Eine zentrale Figur für
Gardner ist Friedrich Schiller, dessen Briefe zur ästhetischen Erziehung sich kri-
tisch mit Kants Trennung von theoretischer und praktischer Philosophie ausein-
andersetzen. Schiller entwickelt nach Gardner die These, dass wir uns nach einer
nicht relationalen Einheit sehnen, die nicht Produkt einer Harmonisierung von
Teilen sein kann. Das ‚Selbst‘ stellt für Schiller auch eine solche Einheit dar, denn
unsere verschiedenen formalen und materialen Wünsche gründen in einer Ein-
heit, die kein Aggregat ist. Nach der Darlegung von Schillers Konzeption werden
die Reaktionen von Herder, Fichte, Schelling und Hegel auf Kant und Schiller in
den Blick genommen. Während Fichte meint, dass mit dem richtigen Verständnis
von Kant das Problem der Lücke zwischen theoretischer und praktischer Philo-
sophie nicht besteht, sind Hegel und Schelling mit Schiller der Meinung, dass
man diese Lücke sehen und überwinden muss.
XVI Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick

Den Band schließen die Buchbesprechungen von Markus Kohl, Michael Nance,
Daniel Sutherland, Allen Speight und Robert Seymour zu Büchern zur klassischen
deutschen Philosophie ab.
Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick
Introduction

The papers of this thirteenth volume of the International Yearbook of German


Idealism are dedicated to the theme of desire in German idealism. This theme
raises fundamental philosophical questions, and it stimulates engagement
with the specific philosophers our authors discuss. In nearly all these essays,
our authors agree on the philosophical importance of desires and feelings,
and judge those philosophical systems to be deficient that award desires and
feelings too little importance. In stressing the value of the emotional and phys-
ical aspects of moral life, our authors reflect an attitude or preference that dom-
inates contemporary philosophical discussions. Our authors bring this prefer-
ence to their discussions of classical German philosophy, and many assess
Kant’s philosophy with this preference in mind. Our contributors tend to agree
that, perhaps despite appearances, even Kant awards desire an essential role
in his moral philosophy. Some of our authors argue, however, that at least
Hegel and Schelling understood themselves to depart from the Kantian view of
desire in significant respects. Although in general our authors agree on the im-
portance of awarding desire a positive philosophical role, there is disagreement
about the precise nature of this role. In their engagement with the classical Ger-
man philosophical tradition, the essays of this volume offer various treatments
of this issue.
Alix Cohen and Paul Guyer provide in-depth examinations of the role desires
and feelings can and must play in Kant’s moral philosophy. Both argue that,
given the essential role Kant awards desires and feelings, his moral theory is
less formal and cognitive than is often supposed. Both suggest that it is possible
to discover continuities in the early and later Kantian texts in practical philoso-
phy. Cohen and Guyer differ, however, in exactly how they each characterize the
emotional or affective elements of Kant’s position, especially in their respective
treatments of his metaphysics of morals.
In her contribution “Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultiva-
tion of Virtue”, Alix Cohen considers the connection between desire and virtue in
Kant. She challenges the view that, on his account, there are two separate sour-
ces of motivation: reason and desire. Cohen argues instead that Kant holds that
there is only one source of motivation, namely feeling, which is the source of all
our desires. This thesis has the implication, in her view, that moral willing no
less than non-moral willing is motivated by desire. It is thus not the case, she
argues, that for Kant only the will can be virtuous; desires and feelings can in
a certain respect be virtuous as well. Cohen furthermore suggests that Kant is

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XVIII Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick

committed to the thesis that the practice of virtue can itself influence our willing.
It can strengthen our virtuous disposition, and in doing so, generate in us further
instances of virtuous willing.
In “Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View”, Paul Guyer chal-
lenges those who contend that Kant awards feeling no causal role in moral ac-
tion. Against Barbara Herman and others who argue that commitment to the
moral law is the sole determining ground of action, for Kant, Guyer defends
the thesis that Kant holds that feelings are necessary conditions of moral action.
According to Guyer, Kant is committed to a Hobbesian theory of motivation at the
phenomenological level. The proximate cause of all action, on the Kantian ac-
count, is either moral or pathological feeling; and there can be no moral worthy
action in the absence of certain dispositions such as (moral) love for others and
respect for the moral law. The moral law, on Guyer’s interpretation of Kant, does
not just serve to limit our feelings. It can also generate in us the right kind of feel-
ings, namely feelings that reliably produce moral actions.
Federica Basaglia’s contribution explores the significance of Kant’s treat-
ment of desire for his view of the moral status of animals and our treatment
of them. It is a principal thesis of her paper, “Kants Definition von Begehrungs-
vermögen und sein Verständnis vom tierischen Leben”, that although Kant de-
nies animals the status of persons [Personen], he by no means degrades them
to the status of things [Sachen]. The two categories, on Basaglia’s reading of
Kant, are not exhaustive. In the service of offering an accurate representation
of Kant’s treatment of animals, Basaglia takes a careful look at his understand-
ing of animal life and of the important role he assigns desire in animal life. She
emphasizes that, for Kant, desire is one of the capacities that humans and ani-
mals share.
The papers of Andreas Schmidt and Allen Wood consider Fichte’s treatment
of desire. Each author is concerned to identify the specific role desire plays in
Fichte’s philosophy as a whole. Each gives us an account of the way in which
the theme of desire is for Fichte closely tied to his understanding of the relation
between theoretical and practical philosophy. Schmidt and Wood in addition
emphasize the importance for Fichte of distinguishing transcendental and em-
pirical levels of philosophical inquiry.
In “Streben und Trieb. Zur Demarkationslinie zwischen Transzendentalphi-
losophie und Anthropologie in Fichtes Wissenschaftslehre”, Andreas Schmidt
suggests, first, that the Fichtean thought of infinite striving is inspired by
Kant’s idea of the will striving to achieve the highest good. In the two following
sections of his paper, his main interest is to determine how Fichte develops the
notions of striving [Streben] and drive [Trieb] in his transcendental-philosophical
and anthropological theories. In his second section, Schmidt proposes that, in
Introduction XIX

the Sittenlehre of 1798, Fichte adds to his theory of striving a doctrine of drives
that is to be regarded as belonging to transcendental anthropology. In the
third section of his paper, Schmidt discusses problems connected with the prop-
er demarcation of the concepts and theories of striving and drive.
Allen Wood’s paper, “Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte”, begins with a
general overview of Fichte’s transcendental philosophy and then focusses atten-
tion on the theme of volition. Wood places special emphasis on the fact that the
freedom of the ‘I’ is for Fichte that of a finite, embodied being that strives for har-
mony with the ‘not-I’. The essay explores various forms this striving [Streben] or
drive [Trieb] may take. It may take the form, for example, of the drive to become
ethical (to realize our spiritual nature). Or, our striving may have as its object the
satisfaction of our natural needs. According to Wood, this latter form of striving
is desire [Begehren]. Desire, for Fichte, is thus a natural drive rooted in the self’s
material and embodied nature. It is nonetheless a necessary component of eth-
ical willing.
In his paper, “‚Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden‘ (RPh § 124). Überle-
gungen zur Bedeutung der affektiven und konativen Dimension des Menschen
für Hegels Normativitätstheorie und Ethik”, Christoph Halbig considers the
way in which Hegel integrates affective dimensions of human life in his philos-
ophy. Halbig develops the thesis that Hegel has the resources for a philosophy in
which feelings play an essential role, and we would indeed expect Hegel to ex-
ploit these resources in light of his critique of Kant. Halbig argues that Hegel
does not do so, however, and that this is especially surprising in the context
of his doctrine of virtue. According to Halbig, Hegel does not in the end give
us a rich concept of virtue. Like Kant, he does not sufficiently integrate the affec-
tive dimensions of human life into his system.
Ulrich Pothast’s contribution, “The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of
Human Life”, emphasizes the respect in which it is not thinking or sensing that
are fundamental to consciousness, for Schopenhauer, but desire. On Pothast’s
account, Schopenhauer holds that the metaphysical (versus empirical or phe-
nomenal) will is the ultimate ground or substance of every being. It makes itself
felt in human self-awareness as desire. We may experience brief satisfaction of
our desires, but satisfaction soon leads to boredom, which in turn stimulates
in us new desires and hence more suffering. Pothast raises a number of critical
questions in his essay. He asks, for instance, what Schopenhauer could mean in
asserting that the metaphysical will exists only outside the sphere of phenom-
ena. Why, furthermore, does willing for Schopenhauer always involve suffering?
Pothast in addition explores Schopenhauer’s views on the unconscious, as well
as his ascetic prescriptions for freeing ourselves from life’s “pendulum between
pain and boredom”.
XX Dina Emundts/Sally Sedgwick

In “The Question of Romantic Desire”, Judith Norman considers the charac-


ter of desire [Begehren] or longing [Sehnen] in German romanticism. Drawing her
evidence primarily from the central journal of German romanticism, the Athe-
naeum, Norman suggests that the Romantics’ concept of desire does not have
the implications often associated with it. In the writings of the Athenauem, desire
is neither a nostalgia for a lost paradise, nor a forward-looking and goal-oriented
longing for an unachievable and transcendent alternative to the perceived frag-
mentation and alienated state of the present. Norman argues that, for the Athe-
nauem romantics, desire is instead a productive, experimental and revolutionary
life form.
As the above-mentioned essays demonstrate, the theme “desire” invites fun-
damental questions not just about moral philosophy but about philosophy in
general. The theme provides an opportunity to compare philosophical positions
of this specific philosophical period; it also suggests a way to pose questions
about the relation of the German idealists to Kant (a relation treated especially
in the papers by Schmidt and Halbig). The final three essays of this volume
set out to assess more explicitly the extent to which some of the German idealists
agree with and depart from Kant.
Thomas Khurana’s paper is a comparative study of Kant and Hegel on the
faculty of desire. In “The Self-Determination of Force: Desire and Practical
Self-Consciousness in Kant and Hegel”, Khurana argues that the two philoso-
phers substantially agree on the relation of desire to the will or practical reason.
Both Kant and Hegel are committed to the thesis that desire and practical reason
are not radically distinct, and that practical reason is, as Kant says, a “higher fac-
ulty of desire”. According to Khurana, Hegel’s remark in the Phenomenology that
self-consciousness is “desire itself” is not a repudiation of Kant. Instead, it har-
monizes with the Kantian insight that our higher or rational desires emerge out
of a self-conscious grasping of the truth (and limitations) of our lower, sensible
desires.
Ludwig Siep’s essay, “Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit”, is a discus-
sion of the history of the concept “desire”. Siep understands theories from Kant
to Hegel on desire, autonomy and justice as answers to a systematic problem that
presents itself to all of us insofar as we consider desire to be a threat to our au-
tonomy. For Siep, the decisive solution offered by classical German philosophy is
given in the concept of subjectivity. In classical German philosophy, desire is not
opposed to autonomy but is indeed a form of self-consciousness. On Siep’s ac-
count, this is Kant’s view as well. We also find in Kant the idea that the effects
of desire need to be limited by legal and other institutional constraints. Siep sug-
gests that these Kantian ideas are first taken up by Fichte and then (in different
form) by Hegel. His essay ends with an evaluation of classical German ap-
Introduction XXI

proaches to desire from a contemporary perspective. From that perspective, Siep


argues, we can see significant similarities in the German idealists’ approaches to
desire.
In “The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy”, Sebastian
Gardner argues that we should understand the concern in classical German phi-
losophy with the problem of the desire of the whole as an effort to be truer than
Kant himself was to a “platonic dimension” of his formalism. Gardner considers
responses of Schiller and other German idealists to Kant’s effort to harmonize
freedom and nature. Schiller complains in his Letters on Aesthetic Education,
for example, that Kant cannot give us an account of the unity of the various
“I’s” of his theoretical and practical philosophy or of our various kinds of
aims and desires. Kant’s system requires these oppositions as a matter of constit-
utive necessity. But according to Schiller, each of us desires a non-relational
unity, that is, a unity that cannot be a matter of harmonizing distinct parts. Gard-
ner goes on to explore reactions to Schiller and Kant of Herder, Fichte, Schelling
and Hegel. Fichte is persuaded that if we read Kant correctly, we discover that his
system does not imply a problematic gap between freedom and nature. Hegel
and Schelling are more sympathetic to Schiller’s critique of Kant, on Gardner’s
account. Moreover, they suggest ways of overcoming weaknesses in Schiller’s ac-
count of our desire for the whole.

The volume concludes with reviews of books on classical German philosophy by


Markus Kohl, Michael Nance, Daniel Sutherland, Allen Speight and Robert Sey-
mour.
I. Beiträge/Essays
Alix Cohen
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and
the Cultivation of Virtue¹
Abstract. This paper argues that contrary to what is often thought, virtue for Kant
is not just a matter of strength of will; it has an essential affective dimension. To
support this claim, I show that certain affective dispositions, namely moral feelings
and desires, are virtuous in the sense that they are constitutive of virtue at the af-
fective level. There is thus an intrinsic connection between an agent’s practice of
virtue and the cultivation of her affective dispositions.

In diesem Beitrag wird für die These argumentiert, dass für Kant – anders als oft
behauptet – Tugend nicht nur eine Frage der Stärke des Willens ist, sondern we-
sentlich auch eine affektive Seite hat. Zur Stützung dieser These wird aufgezeigt,
dass bestimmte affektive Dispositionen wie moralische Gefühle und Wünsche des-
halb tugendhaft sind, weil sie auf einer affektiven Ebene konstitutiv für Tugend sind.
Es gibt also eine intrinsische Verbindung zwischen den Handlungen aus Tugend und
der Kultivierung der affektiven Dispositionen des Handelnden.

Introduction
Kant defines virtue in terms of strength of will: “Virtue is the strength of a human
being’s maxims in fulfilling his duty […], the will’s conformity with every duty,
based on a firm disposition” (MM 524– 525 [Ak. 6, 394‒395]).² This conception

 Acknowledgments. I would like to thank the participants of the Kant’s Scots workshop at the
University of St Andrews for their helpful feedback on an earlier draft of this paper. I would also
like to thank Yoon Choi for her unwavering support and her insightful comments, and Dina
Emundts, Sally Sedgwick, and an anonymous referee of this journal for their invaluable feed-
back.
 Insofar as the following works by Kant are cited frequently, I have identified them by these
abbreviations: A: Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. CPrR: Critique of Practical Rea-
son. CJ: Critique of Judgment. G: Groundwork. LA: Lectures on Anthropology. LE: Lectures on
Ethics. LM: Lectures on Metaphysics. MM: Metaphysics of Morals. TS: On a recently prominent
tone of superiority in philosophy. For the sake of clarity in the references to Kant’s writings, I
have chosen to use titles rather than the author/date system. I have also included a citation
to the English translation from the Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant, followed
by a citation to the German text of the Prussian Academy edition (Ak. volume and page refer-
ence) in brackets.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-001
4 Alix Cohen

of virtue is usually understood by contrast with the Aristotelian view according


to which virtue is the result of training ourselves to feel and desire in particular
ways.³ According to this standard story, virtue, for Kant, is a matter of will, not of
affective states.⁴ Yet in contrast with this view, I will argue that on Kant’s ac-
count, certain affective dispositions, namely moral feelings and desires, are in-
trinsically virtuous in the sense that they are constitutive of virtue at the affective
level. In this sense, contrary to what is often thought, virtue for Kant is not just a
matter of strength of will; it has an essential affective dimension.
To support this claim, the first section begins by examining the relationship
between the faculty of feeling and the faculty of desire. I suggest that we do not
have two distinct sources of motivation (reason vs. desire) but one, the faculty of
feeling, which gives rise to desires. On this basis, the second and third sections
argue that the relationship between feeling and desire is the same in moral as in
non-moral motivation. While section 2 focuses on the motivational role of the
faculty of feeling, section 3 turns to the relationship between feeling and desire
in moral willing. I show that insofar a desire is a representation accompanied by
a feeling of pleasure, a moral desire is the representation of an obligatory end
accompanied by a feeling of moral pleasure. This claim is crucial for the possi-
bility of virtuous affective states since it suggests that moral feelings and desires
are constitutive of moral willing. Finally the fourth section turns to the claim that
there is an intrinsic connection between the practice of virtue and the cultivation
of certain affective dispositions. As I argue, through its effect on feeling and de-
sire, virtuous willing generates and enhances affective dispositions that are
themselves intrinsically virtuous for they can only follow from virtue as its affec-
tive consequence.

1 The relationship between desire and feeling


While it is often underappreciated, Kant holds a tripartite view of the mind ac-
cording to which our mental powers are constituted by three faculties: the facul-
ty of cognition, the faculty of desire and the faculty of feeling.⁵ Each faculty gives

 E. g., Nussbaum 2001, p. 172 and Annas 1995, p. 53.


 On some accounts, affective states have at best an instrumental value for virtue, although
some deny even this (e. g., Thomason 2017). See for instance Sherman 1990 for a defense of
the instrumental value of affective states for moral agency.
 These faculties are distinct in kind, so that contrary to common misconceptions, the faculty of
cognition does not include “all the faculties of the mind”: “We can trace all faculties of the
human mind without exception back to these three: the faculty of cognition, the feeling of pleas-
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 5

rise to different kinds of mental states and has a distinct function in the general
economy of the mind.⁶ Without getting into the details of Kant’s account, what is
crucial for the purpose of my argument is that this conception of the mind has
important implications of our understanding of his account of desire. Although
commentators often assimilate desires with feelings, affective states can take one
of two forms, depending on whether they originate from the faculty of desire or
the feeling of pleasure and pain.⁷ There is thus a distinction between the order of
desire and the order of feeling.
According to Kant, a desire is an “impelling cause […]” (LM 64 [Ak. 28, 254]).
It urges me toward an action: “A desire, as a striving (nisus) to be a cause by
means of one’s representations, is still always causality, at least within the sub-
ject” (MM 492 [Ak. 6, 356‒357]). Desires provide me with incentives to act in par-
ticular ways. “Habitual sensible desire[s]” (A 353 [Ak. 7, 251]) are what Kant calls
inclinations (Neigungen): they are dispositions to have certain desires.⁸ Having
an inclination means that I am prone to particular kinds of desires. But neither
inclinations nor desires determine me, they merely influence me since I have an
executive power of choice (Willkür). This capacity enables me to choose whether
or not to act on an impelling cause. Once I have made my choice, the desire be-
comes an active desire – the activity of willing that a particular object be real-
ised: “The faculty of desire (Begehrungsvermögen) is a being’s faculty to be by
means of its representations the cause of the reality of the objects of these rep-
resentations” (CPrR 180 [Ak. 5, 50]). An act of will is thus the cause of the reality
of the object of the desire I have chosen.

The faculty of desire in accordance with concepts, insofar as the ground determining it to
action lies within itself and not in its object, is called a faculty to do or to refrain from doing
as one pleases. Insofar as it is joined with one’s consciousness of the ability to bring about
its object by one’s action it is called choice (Willkür). (MM 374‒375 [Ak. 6, 213])

ure and displeasure, and the faculty of desire.” (CJ 11 [Ak. 5, 206]) For a comprehensive map of
the different faculties, their subfaculties, and their interrelations, see Wuerth 2014, pp. 221‒234.
 “To every faculty of the mind one can attribute an interest, that is, a principle that contains the
condition under which alone its exercise is promoted.” (CPrR 236 [Ak. 5, 119]) For detailed dis-
cussions of Kant’s account of the faculties and their respective functions, see Ferrarin 2015,
pp. 25‒57.
 See for instance Grenberg’s claim that “For the purposes of describing action, there is, how-
ever, little distinction to be made between the possession of a practical pleasure and that of de-
sire.” (Grenberg 2001, p. 163)
 See also: “lasting grounds of desire” (LA [Ak. 25, 1114]), “habitual desire” (MM 373 [Ak. 6, 212]).
For a clear and detailed discussion of Kant’s account of inclinations, see Frierson 2014, ch. 2.
6 Alix Cohen

The power of choice is the executive dimension of the faculty of desire.⁹ There is
thus a prima facie distinction between what is in effect the causal power to real-
ise the object of my desires and inclinations, namely the faculty of desire, and
what has a causal influence on the power of choice, namely desires and inclina-
tions. All desires and inclinations are caused by feelings: “all inclination and
every sensible impulse is based on feeling” (CPrR 198 [Ak. 5, 72]).¹⁰ Feelings des-
ignate the relation between the subject and the object as (potentially or actually)
pleasurable or painful, and trigger a desire to either realize or avoid the object.

[I] desire or abhor nothing which is not based on pleasure or displeasure. For that which
give me no pleasure, I also do not want. Thus pleasure or displeasure precedes desire or
abhorrence. (LM 247 [Ak. 29, 877‒878])¹¹

The pleasure taken in a representation triggers a sensible desire for the object
that is represented. The pleasure is thus the cause of the desire – its immediate
cause. For instance, I have an inclination for gin and tonic, which explains why
when I see a gin and tonic, I have an anticipatory feeling of pleasure followed by
a desire to drink it. In this sense, Kant’s understanding of desire is much like our
everyday notion of it: I have a desire to drink because I feel like drinking – the
thought of the drink gives me an anticipatory feeling of pleasure that gives rise to
a desire.
On this basis, the account of the relationship between feeling and desire just
delineated may seem to apply only to the case of non-moral motivation. For it
might be thought that in the case of moral action, the power of choice must

 See also: “The faculty for acting according to satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the practical,
active faculty of desire […] active desire, or the faculty for doing and for refraining according
to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the object, so far as it is a cause of the active power for
producing it, is the power of free choice.” (LM 69 [Ak. 28, 254]) As Wuerth puts it, the power
of choice (Willkür) is “the executive faculty of desire.” (Wuerth 2014, p. 245) The distinction be-
tween Wille and Willkür amounts to the distinction between the executive (power of choice) and
the legislative (reason as ground of law): “Laws proceed from the will [Wille], maxims from
choice [Willkür].” (MM 380 [Ak. 6, 226]) As Beck succinctly puts it, “Wille does not act. It
gives only a law for the submission of Willkür, which does act.” (Beck 1960, p. 180) For discus-
sions of the distinction between Wille and Willkür, see Allison 1990, pp. 129‒132 and Wuerth
2014, pp. 239‒243.
 Note that for Kant, the converse is not true: not all feelings give rise to desires and inclina-
tions – the feeling of the beautiful being a case in point. As Kant writes, “a feeling of pleasure
which is independent of the determination of the faculty of desire […] is incontrovertibly given.”
(CJ 12 [Ak. 5, 207])
 See also: “through sensation it excites a desire for objects of the same sort” (CJ 92 [Ak. 5,
207]).
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 7

be motivated by reason alone.¹² However, the aim of sections 2 and 3 is to argue


that the relationship between feeling and desire is the same in moral as in non-
moral motivation; that is, moral willing, just like non-moral willing, involves
being motivated by a feeling and acting on a desire. This claim is crucial for mak-
ing room for the possibility of virtuous affective states, for it will allow me to
conclude that their supposed impossibility is based on a misunderstanding of
the relationship between feeling and desire in Kant’s account of moral motiva-
tion.

2 The function of feeling and the feeling of


respect
The argument defended in this section starts from a conception of feeling that I
have begun to develop in previous work.¹³ Here I will simply lay out features of
this view without trying to defend it in any detail. My account of feeling will thus
be rather sketchy, but its sole purpose is to argue against the claim that for Kant
moral motivation is based on reason and non-moral motivation is based on feel-
ing and desire. On my reading, we do not have two distinct sources of motiva-
tion; we only have one, the faculty of feeling, which gives rise to desires.
Kant defines the feeling of pleasure and pain in terms of the promotion and
hindrance of life: “Pleasure is the representation of the agreement of an object or
of an action with the subjective conditions of life” (CPrR 144 [Ak. 5, 9n]). While this
statement is not as clear as it could be, what it means is that the function of the
faculty of feeling is to enable an agent to track and evaluate her activity and its
conditions – its function is orientational.¹⁴ On this basis, we can make sense of

 This type of claim motivates the intellectualist interpretations of Kant’s ethics that preserve
the purity of reason’s role in moral motivation by defining it as the only real cause of acting from
duty. For instance, as Reath notes, “to show that the will is directly responsive to practical rea-
son, […] [Kant] must avoid a view which makes use of a natural desire, or disposition, that moves
us toward moral conduct […]. Thus respect can be neither a source of motivation, nor a standard
of moral judgment, which is independent of our recognition of the law” (Reath 1989, p. 11). By
contrast with this view, I believe that we can retain the motivational role of the feeling of respect
without threatening the purity of the moral motive.
 See Cohen forthcoming a.
 Kant hints at this definition of feeling in the following passage: “Here the representation is
related entirely to the subject, indeed to its feeling of life, under the name of the feeling of pleas-
ure or displeasure, which grounds an entirely special faculty for discriminating and judging that
contributes nothing to cognition but only holds the given representation in the subject up to the
8 Alix Cohen

the painfulness of feelings of pain and the pleasantness of feelings of pleasure in


light of the fact that they manifest the negative or positive effects of a represen-
tation upon the subject and her potential for activity. Anything that inhibits her
potential for activity is painful while everything that facilitates it is pleasurable.
The function of feeling is thus to make her aware of the representations that pro-
mote and those that hinder activity: “Life is the inner principle of self-activity.
[…] Only active beings can have pleasure and displeasure. Subjects that are ac-
tive according to representations have pleasure and displeasure” (LM 63 [Ak. 28,
247‒248]).
According to Kant, feelings can be oriented either towards objects, or towards
the subject. This is due to the fact that each faculty of the mind has a higher and
lower sub-faculty. Whereas the lower faculties passively receive representations
from objects, the higher faculties are themselves sources of representations. In
the case of the faculty of feeling, its higher faculty is concerned with the subject,
its lower faculty with objects.

The lower faculty of pleasure and displeasure is a power to find satisfaction or dissatisfac-
tion in the objects which affect us. The higher faculty of pleasure and displeasure is a power
to sense a pleasure and displeasure in ourselves, independently of objects. (LM 48‒49
[Ak. 28, 228])

Insofar as lower feelings are object-based, when a sensible feeling of pleasure is


prompted by the representation of an object, it triggers a sensible desire, as was
spelt out in the preceding section: “inclination is thereby aroused” (CJ 93 [Ak. 5,
207]).¹⁵ By contrast, higher feelings are subject-based in the sense that they man-
ifest the state of the subject’s mental agency.¹⁶
The feeling of respect for the moral law is one of these higher feelings – or
rather, it is two of these feelings, for although this is not always sufficiently
noted, the feeling of respect consists in both a feeling of pleasure and a feeling
of pain. The polarized nature of the effects of the moral law on the faculty of feel-
ing can be accounted for by the fact that it promotes the activity of one of our
capacities while hindering that of another. On the one hand, the feeling of
pain can be explained by the fact that the moral law is effectively an “infringe-
ment upon all inclinations insofar as they could be opposed to that law” (CPrR

entire faculty of representation, of which the mind becomes conscious in the feeling of its state”
(CJ 90 [Ak. 5, 204]; my emphasis).
 See what Kant calls “animal pleasure” and pain, which corresponds to “animal” life as op-
posed to human and spiritual life, in LM 64 [Ak. 28, 248].
 For an account of the function of higher feelings, see Cohen forthcoming b.
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 9

199 [Ak. 5, 72]). Since anything that hinders agency triggers a feeling of pain, I am
conscious of the representation of the law and its categorical demands as an in-
hibition of my sensible inclinations, which causes a feeling of pain: “we can see
a priori that the moral law as determining ground of the will, by thwarting all our
inclinations, must bring about a feeling that can be called pain” (CPrR 199 [Ak. 5,
72– 73]). On the other hand, since anything that furthers agency triggers a feeling
of pleasure, the feeling of respect consists in a feeling of pleasure that manifests
the capacity to determine myself rationally and thus independently of patholog-
ical incentives: “so far as I am conscious of this freedom in following my moral
maxims, it is the sole source of an unchangeable contentment” (CPrR 234 [Ak. 5,
117]).¹⁷
While the feeling of respect is a feeling like any other insofar as it “is an ef-
fect on feeling”, it is essential to the preservation of its “peculiar” status that it is
preceded by the moral law (CPrR 201 [Ak. 5, 76]).

Pleasure that must precede one’s observance of the law in order for one to act in conformity
with the law is pathological and one’s conduct follows the order of nature; but pleasure that
must be preceded by the law in order to be felt is in the moral order. (MM 511 [Ak. 6, 378])¹⁸

The autonomy of the act of will is guaranteed by the fact that the feeling of re-
spect is a rational feeling – a feeling that is caused by practical reason.¹⁹ As Kant
notes, while “every influence on feeling and every feeling in general” is “patho-
logical”, the feeling of respect is “practically effected” rather than “sensibly ef-
fected”: “the incentive of the moral disposition must be free from any sensible
condition […] on account of its origin, [respect] cannot be called pathologically
effected” (CPrR 201 [Ak. 5, 75]). What distinguishes the feeling of respect from all
feelings “received by means of influence” is that it is “a feeling self-wrought by
means of a rational concept and therefore specifically different from all feelings
of the first kind [i. e., sensible feelings]” (G 56 [Ak. 4, 401]). In contrast with
pathological feelings, respect is a feeling that is autonomously generated by rea-

 Some commentators have suggested that rather than being a positive feeling in its own right,
respect is merely the absence of feeling (e. g., Reath 2006, pp. 10‒12). Some passages support
this negative reading (e. g., CPrR 201 [Ak. 5, 75]) but others support a positive reading instead
(e. g., CPrR 205 [Ak. 5, 80‒81]). For other readings of the positive effect of the moral law on feel-
ing, see Clewis 2009, pp. 129‒130 and McCarthy 2009, p. 180.
 See also: “That pleasure (or displeasure) which must necessarily precede the law, if the act is
to take place, is pathological; but that which the law must necessarily precede, for this to hap-
pen, is moral” (TS 436 [Ak. 8, 395]).
 For a detailed discussion of the notion of rational feeling in Kant’s system, see Cohen forth-
coming b.
10 Alix Cohen

son and thus independent from any sensible cause. As such, it can legitimately
function as an incentive for the moral law: “respect for the moral law […] must
therefore be regarded as a subjective ground of activity – that is, as the incentive
to compliance with the law” (CPrR 204 [Ak. 5, 79]).
Yet by emphasising that the feeling of respect is a rational feeling, one may
object that I am in effect reintroducing a twofold conception of motivation ac-
cording to which some feelings are rationally generated whereas others aren’t.
If so, this may seem like a concession to those who believe that Kant is commit-
ted to the claim that there are two distinct bases for motivation, namely reason
and desire.²⁰
As already pointed out, on Kant’s account, all acts of will have subjective
grounds based on feelings, even those motivated by the moral law. Of course,
the pleasure at play in the agreeable and the moral do not belong to the same
level – the former is lower while the latter is higher. But they both belong to
the same faculty, the faculty of feeling, and they are both practical pleasures
in the sense that they are both “necessarily connected with desire” (MM 374
[Ak. 6, 212]). On the one hand, the power of choice is always free to act for the
sake of the moral law since it is necessarily motivated by practical reason
through the feeling of respect for the law. On the other hand, sensible inclina-
tions motivate us insofar as feelings have an influence on our power of choice
but do not determine us to act accordingly. Thus on my reading of Kant, we
do not have two distinct motivational sources of motivation (either reason for
moral action, or desire for non-moral action); we only have one, the faculty of
feeling, which motivates the power of choice in the same fashion in both
moral and non-moral motivation: “Every determination of choice proceeds
from the representation of a possible action to the deed through the feeling of
pleasure or displeasure.” (MM 528 [Ak. 6, 399]) However, a full defence of this
claim requires that I show that any choice, whether moral or not, is not just mo-
tivated by a feeling, it also involves acting on a desire. The following section will
explore this claim.

 I would like to thank an anonymous referee of this journal for pressing me on this point.
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 11

3 The relationship between feeling and desire in


moral willing
On my reading, acting morally does not entail that we do not act on a desire. We
do, but it is a pure moral desire rather than a natural desire that arises from sen-
sible feeling.²¹

[I]f a pleasure can only follow upon an antecedent determination of the faculty of desire it
is an intellectual pleasure, and the interest in the object must be called an interest of reason
[…]. Although where a merely pure interest of reason must be assumed no interest of incli-
nation can be substituted for it, yet in order to conform to ordinary speech we can speak of
an inclination for what can be an object only of an intellectual pleasure as a habitual desire
(habituelles Begehren) from a pure interest of reason; but an inclination of this sort would
not be the cause but rather the effect of this pure interest of reason, and we could call it a
sense-free inclination (sinnenfreie Neigung). (MM 374 [Ak. 6, 212– 213])

Moral desires follow from moral feeling understood as the capacity to be moved
by the moral law: “we have […] a susceptibility on the part of free choice to be
moved by pure practical reason (and its law), and this is what we call moral feel-
ing” (MM 529 [Ak. 6, 400]).²² Thus acting on a moral desire is acting for the sake
of the moral law insofar as the incentive of our action is a moral feeling.²³ On this
basis, in accordance with Kant’s definition of desire, a moral desire is the repre-

 For another defense of this claim, see Wood: “pure reason can determine the will because it
is also a source of desire. The big mistake is to think that Kant regards moral truths (or our be-
liefs about them) as bringing about action in a way that is entirely distinct from (and even pre-
cludes) desire. For example: “A distinction between ‘having a motive’ and ‘desiring’ was intro-
duced by Kant. For, according to Kant, we have in the thought that we ought to do some act a
motive for doing it: but ‘having a motive’ does not here entail ‘having a desire” (W. D. Falk,
Ought, Reasons and Morality, p. 24)” (Wood 1999, p. 348).
 Moral feeling “is the susceptibility to feel pleasure or displeasure merely from being aware
that our actions are consistent with or contrary to the law of duty” (MM 528 [Ak. 6, 399]). As
Packer notes, “When reflection operates on practical rules, the pleasure elicited is not the dis-
interested sort that results from the theoretical contemplation of nature but the practical kind, or
moral feeling” (Packer 1989, p. 440).
 As is now well-known, in the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant presents us with a set of four
moral feelings, which he calls aesthetic predispositions to the concept of duty: moral feeling,
conscience, love of others and respect for oneself (MM 528 [Ak. 6, 399]). While I cannot discuss
them in detail due to lack of space, note that these feelings are “natural predispositions of the
mind (praedispositio) for being affected by concepts of duty” – that is to say, they are “subjective
conditions of receptiveness to the concept of duty” (MM 528 [Ak. 6, 399]). For discussions of
these feelings, see for Wood 2008, pp. 34– 35 and Geiger 2011.
12 Alix Cohen

sentation of an end accompanied by a moral feeling. But just as natural desires,


it still needs to be incorporated into a maxim in order to move an agent to act.²⁴
Desires, even moral ones, do not determine the power of choice. Rather, they rep-
resent certain ends we can choose to adopt or not. In the case of moral desires,
however, the ends they represent are not ordinary ones; they are ends that are
also duties.²⁵ For they are grounded on the moral law: “it is not a question
here of ends the human being does adopt in keeping with the sensible impulses
of his nature, but of objects of free choice under its laws, which he ought to make
his ends” (MM 517 [Ak. 6, 385]). Thus although this point is often misunderstood,
the fact that these ends are grounded on the moral law does not entail that our
pursuit of them is motivated by something other than a desire.²⁶ On the contrary,
on my reading, insofar as to desire something is to have a representation of it
accompanied by a feeling of pleasure, a moral desire is the representation of
an obligatory end accompanied by a feeling of moral pleasure.
To flesh out our understanding of moral desires and their relationship with
moral feelings, let’s examine the case of a moral action that is the realisation of
an obligatory end, namely the duty of beneficence, which is the duty “to promote
according to one’s means the happiness of others in need, without hoping for
something in return” (MM 572 [Ak. 6, 453]). On my reading, acting on the duty
of benevolence involves a moral desire for others’ well-being – what Kant
calls “an aptitude of the inclination to beneficence in general” (MM 351 [Ak. 6,
402]). This inclination consists in the representation of the end of the duty of be-
neficence, namely the happiness of others, accompanied by a moral feeling of
pleasure, namely the feeling of love of others. Insofar as it is the desire to realise
an end that is also a duty, acting on it amounts to realizing one of our duties,
namely the duty to promote “the happiness of other human beings, whose (per-
mitted) end I thus make my own end as well” (MM 519 [Ak. 6, 388]). It is in this
sense that our desire for others’ well-being is a moral desire, both in terms of its
incentive, the moral feeling of love of others, and in terms of its end, the end of
the duty of benevolence, the happiness of others.²⁷ Although there is no space to

 See Allison 1990, p. 40 for an account of the incorporation thesis.


 See MM 517 [Ak. 6, 385].
 “An end is an object of the choice (Willkür) (of a rational being), through the representation
of which choice is determined to an action to bring this object about” (MM 513 [Ak. 6, 381]).
 According to Kant, the duty of beneficence is one of three duties of love, together with the
duty of gratitude and sympathy. Although there is no space here to defend this claim, what I
have argued of the former is true of the latter. The inclination to sympathy (MM 575 [Ak. 6,
457]) and the inclination to active gratitude (MM 573 [Ak. 6, 454– 455]) are habitual moral desires
that consist in the representation of the ends of the duties of love accompanied by a moral feel-
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 13

do so here, a similar analysis can be given for the other end that is also a duty,
namely the duty to make our own perfection our end.²⁸ The moral desire for my
own perfection consists in the representation of its end accompanied by the
moral feeling of respect for myself. As Kant writes, “Love and respect are the feel-
ings that accompany [begleiten] the carrying out of these duties” (MM 568 [Ak. 6,
448]). Moral feelings are associated with the realisation of these duties insofar as
they provide incentives for it and generate desires to realise the ends they rep-
resent.
Yet one may object that these feelings and desires cannot replace the feeling
of respect, that we cannot act on them and still act from duty. For Kant seems to
state clearly that desires and inclinations cannot generate moral maxims: “Even
an inclination to what conforms with duty (e. g., to beneficence) can indeed
greatly facilitate the effectiveness of moral maxims but cannot produce any”
(CPrR 235 [Ak. 5, 118]). However, in this passage, the inclination to beneficence
Kant refers to merely “conforms with duty”. It is thus a sensible desire based
on a pathological feeling rather than a moral desire that is constitutive of acting
from duty. By contrast, when we choose to act on the moral desire to promote the
happiness of others, not only do we have the moral feeling of love of others as
the incentive²⁹, we do so for duty’s sake since the end the desire represents is an
end that is also a duty, namely the duty of beneficence. In this sense on the in-
terpretation put forward in this section, when we act from duty, the ground of the
power of choice (Willkür) remains practical reason (Wille) and its incentive
(Triebfeder) remains moral feeling (moralisches Gefühl). But insofar as this feel-
ing generates a moral desire (Begierden) to realize our obligatory ends, moral

ing of love of others. Allen Wood has hinted at a similar claim: “The feelings in which ‘acting
from duty’ consists are therefore more varied than the opening pages of the Groundwork
might suggest. […] ‘the motive of duty’ in this example [the sorrowful man who acts beneficently
from duty] would be much more plausibly regarded as ‘love of human beings’ – that is, the sor-
rowful man helps others because he has moral grounds to care about them and make their well-
being his end.” (Wood 2008, p. 35) The interpretation defended here allows us to make sense of
this claim by showing the intrinsic connection between moral feelings, moral desires and virtu-
ous disposition.
 See MM 517 [Ak. 6, 385].
 Another way of formulating this point is that Kant’s discussion of moral feelings in the Met-
aphysics of Morals suggests that the feeling of respect is but one of at least four distinct moral
feelings. For recall that for Kant, the feeling of love of others and the feeling of respect for myself
are moral feelings: they are “effects of the consciousness of the moral law on our mind”. As he
notes, “consciousness of [these feelings] is not empirical in origin; it can, instead, only follow
from consciousness of a moral law, as the effect this has on the mind” (MM 528 [Ak. 6, 399]).
In light of this, different moral feelings would motivate different kinds of acting from duty. Un-
fortunately, I cannot defend this claim here.
14 Alix Cohen

willing is nothing but choosing to act on the moral desire to realise certain ends
because they are duties. This claim is crucial for the possibility of virtuous affec-
tive states, for it suggests that certain affective states, namely moral feelings and
desires, are constitutive of moral willing. What remains to be shown, however, is
that there is an intrinsic connection between moral willing and these affective
dispositions.

4 The intrinsic connection between the practice


of virtue and affective dispositions
To support the claim that there is an intrinsic connection between moral willing
and our affective dispositions, we need to examine the effect of the practice of
virtue on the faculties of feeling and desire. For as I will argue, insofar as
these effects can only follow from virtue as its affective consequence, they are
intrinsically virtuous in the sense that they are constitutive of virtue at the affec-
tive level.
To make sense of this claim, let’s return to our discussion of the duty of be-
nevolence. According to Kant, acting on the duty of benevolence generates a
feeling of love for the person helped: “Beneficence is a duty. If someone practices
it often and succeeds in realizing his beneficent intention, he eventually comes
actually to love the person he has helped” (MM 530 – 531 [Ak. 6, 402]). The repeat-
ed practice of the duty of benevolence generates and cultivates a feeling of pleas-
ure in the well-being of the person helped: “Benevolence is satisfaction in the
happiness (well-being) of others” (MM 571 [Ak. 6, 452]). This feeling of satisfac-
tion arises because of our moral capacity for the feeling of love of human beings.
By contrast with pathological love, it belongs to our “moral endowments” (MM
528 [Ak. 6, 399]).³⁰ Moreover, the practice of benevolence also generates a desire
for more benevolence: “do good to your fellow human beings, and your benefi-
cence will produce love of them in you (as an aptitude of the inclination to be-
neficence in general)” (MM 531 [Ak. 6, 402]).³¹ By acting benevolently out of duty,
we strengthen our feeling of love for others, our desire to realise their happiness
and thus our inclination to beneficent actions in general. On my reading, these

 See MM 530 – 531 [Ak. 6, 401– 402]. For an account of the distinction between practical and
pathological love, see Seymour Fahmy 2010.
 See also: “if I love others from obligation, I thereby acquire a taste for loving, and by practice
it becomes love from inclination.” (LE [Ak. 27, 418 – 419])
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 15

benevolent feelings and desires are intrinsically virtuous. For they can only fol-
low from virtue as its affective consequence.
To make sense of the claim that the affective dispositions that are the effect
of virtuous willing are themselves virtuous, let’s turn to Kant’s discussion of the
feeling of moral contentment. According to Kant, this feeling follows from virtue,
that is habitually willing for duty’s sake: “contentment with oneself” (Selbstzu-
friedenheit) “must necessarily accompany consciousness of virtue” (CPrR 234
[Ak. 5, 117]).³² While I cannot get into the details of Kant’s account here, what
matters for my argument is that the feeling of moral contentment only occurs
as the effect of virtue.

I [Kant] must assume [a person] beforehand to be righteous and obedient to the law, i. e., to
be one in whom the law precedes the pleasure, in order for him subsequently to feel a pleas-
ure of the soul in the consciousness of his well-conducted course of life. (TS 436 [Ak. 8,
395])

The feeling of moral contentment cannot exist prior to virtuous willing; it can
only follow from it.³³ Moreover, it is not the result of one-off moral willing but
rather the result of repeated moral willing, i. e., the exercise of virtue: “I certainly
do not deny that frequent practice in conformity with this determining ground
can finally produce subjectively a feeling of satisfaction with oneself” (CPrR
171 [Ak. 5, 38]).³⁴ Moral contentment cannot be expected after the performance
of a single act but only after one is “at least half way” moral (CPrR 171 [Ak. 5,
38]). It is the sign that one has already to some extent acquired a virtuous dispo-
sition. There is thus an intrinsic connection between the practice of virtue and
the feeling of moral contentment.

 “Contentment in the moral sense, however, always has reference to a state founded on con-
sciousness of the law-abiding use of our freedom, and thus on the conformity of our own actions
with the moral law. It relates, therefore, to the agent and the actions he has decided upon as a
free being, and is truly a contentment with himself, since it can only be effected through a state
of affairs in accordance with the moral law” (LE 382 [Ak. 27, 643 – 644]). See also G 54 [Ak. 4,
399], 106 [Ak. 4, 460], CPrR 171 [Ak. 5, 38], 234 [Ak. 5, 117], 235 [Ak. 5, 119]. For another instance
of positive feeling of moral contentment, see Kant’s discussion of sweet merit (MM 522 [Ak. 6,
391]).
 For a detailed discussion of moral contentment, see Walschots forthcoming and Elizondo
2016.
 Of course, Kant is clear that morality should not be a matter of habit (cf. MM 515 – 16 [Ak. 6,
383 – 384], 592 [Ak. 6, 479]). However, what is habitual in this context is the moral desire and its
connection with virtuous willing, not the virtuous willing itself or the activity of the power of
choice.
16 Alix Cohen

On my reading, there is a similar connection between moral willing and the


benevolent feelings and desires under consideration: these affective dispositions
manifest our virtuous disposition. Their occurrence signals its presence since
they can have no cause other than virtuous striving, just as moral contentment
can only be caused by virtue. As reliable signs of our virtuous disposition and
its strength, they manifest our moral striving. This suggests that the affective dis-
positions generated by virtuous willing are themselves virtuous insofar as they
can only follow from virtue as its affective consequence. Furthermore, insofar
as they are in effect constitutive of virtue at the affective level, their cultivation
enhances our moral striving itself. For strengthening our inclination to virtue in
general reduces the influence of non-moral inclinations. The stronger our moral
inclinations, the weaker, in relation, our sensible inclinations become. Thereby
we become less susceptible to temptation.

Impulses of nature, accordingly, involve obstacles within the human being’s mind to his
fulfillment of duty and (sometimes powerful) forces opposing it […]. Now the capacity
and considered resolve to withstand a strong but unjust opponent is fortitude (fortitudo)
and, with respect to what opposes the moral disposition within us, virtue (virtus, fortitudo
moralis). (MM 513 [Ak. 6, 380])

In this sense, the practice of virtue is intrinsically connected to the agent’s affec-
tive dispositions: they manifest as well as enhance her moral striving.

Conclusion
This paper set out to show that contrary to what is often thought, virtue for Kant
is not just a matter of strength of will but has an intrinsic affective dimension. As
I have argued, certain affective dispositions, namely moral feelings and desires,
are intrinsically virtuous in the sense that they are constitutive of virtue at the
affective level. They actively contribute to the strength of our ongoing commit-
ment to the moral law and thus to our moral striving. To support this claim, I
have shown that for Kant we do not have two distinct sources of motivation (rea-
son vs. desire) but one, the faculty of feeling, which gives rise to desires. Since to
desire something is to have a representation of it accompanied by a feeling of
pleasure, a moral desire is the representation of an obligatory end accompanied
by a moral feeling. As a result, the supposed impossibility of virtuous affective
states is based on a misunderstanding of the relationship between feeling and
desire in Kant’s account of moral motivation. Just as non-moral willing, moral
willing involves being motivated by a feeling and acting on a desire. On this
basis, I have concluded that our practice of virtue is intrinsically connected to
Kant on Moral Feelings, Moral Desires and the Cultivation of Virtue 17

our affective dispositions: they manifest as well as enhance our moral striving. It
is in this sense that our affective dispositions and their cultivation are an essen-
tial part of leading a virtuous life.³⁵

References
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eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
G, CPrR, MM | Kant, Immanuel (1999): Practical Philosophy. Gregor, Mary J.; Wood, Allen W.
(eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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 “[T]aking something to heart, which means to make a firm resolution to adopt any good ad-
vice or teaching, is the deliberate determination to connect our will with a sufficiently strong
feeling for carrying it out. – The penitence of the self-tormentor is completely wasted effort;
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18 Alix Cohen

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Paul Guyer
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s
Real View
Abstract. Authors such as Barbara Herman have argued that Kant should be un-
derstood as modeling moral motivation by the idea of a choice or commitment to a
fundamental maxim rather than through the idea of some sort of desire or feeling
in favor of the morally preferred action outweighing or overwhelming inclination in
favor of some alternative. I argue that this approach fails to do justice to Kant’s
own two-level approach to moral motivation, on which the choice of the moral
law as one’s fundamental maxim expresses itself through the cultivation of feelings
that can outweigh contra-moral inclinations. Kant builds this model upon his tran-
scendental idealism, of course, but we could jettison his metaphysics and still have
a better model of moral motivation.

Autoren wie Barbara Herman haben argumentiert, dass man Kant so verstehen
sollte, dass die moralische Motivation durch die Idee einer Wahl oder einer Zu-
stimmung zu einer fundamentalen Maxime modelliert wird und nicht durch die Idee
einer Art von Wunsch oder Gefühl für die moralisch bevorzugte Handlung, die
Neigungen für Alternativen überwiegen oder verdrängen. In diesem Aufsatz wird
argumentiert, dass man auf diese Weise Kants Zwei-Ebenen-Auffassung einer mo-
ralischen Motivation nicht gerecht werden kann, der zufolge die Wahl des morali-
schen Gesetzes als seiner fundamentalen Maxime sich durch die Kultivierung von
Gefühlen, die die kontra-moralischen Neigungen überwiegen, ausdrückt. Kant baut
bei diesem Modell natürlich auf seinem transzendentalen Idealismus auf, aber wenn
wir seine Metaphysik über Bord werfen, haben wir damit ein besseres Modell für
moralische Motivation.

1 Hard-Hearted Morality?
I return to the hoary question whether Kant’s conception of moral worth, suc-
cinctly expressed in the statement that “What is essential to any moral worth
of actions is that the moral law determine the will immediately” (CPracR, Ak. V,
71),¹ excludes any causal role for inclination or feeling in behalf of the morally

 Kant’s works in moral philosophy will be cited from Kant 1996a, using the following abbrevi-
ations: “G” for Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, “CPracR” for the Critique of Practical

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-002
20 Paul Guyer

requisite action in the motivation of the agent, or even the mere presence of such
inclination. The assumption, and objection, that Kant’s conception of moral
worth does preclude any such feeling is often associated with a famous distich
by Friedrich Schiller, published in 1796:

Scruples of Conscience
I like to serve my friends, but unfortunately I do it by inclination
And so I am often bothered by the thought that I am not virtuous.

Decision
There is no other way but this! You must seek to despise them
And do with repugnance what duty bids you.²

But the objection had already been raised, a decade earlier, before the ink in
Kant’s Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals was even dry, by Gottlob August
Tittel in his ill-tempered screed On Mr. Kant’s Moral Reform. Tittel had written:
“In the case of a good will, the human being always acts from duty. Thus –
not on account of any use. Also […] contrary to his inclination, only because it
is his duty to act, as for example an unhappy person preserves his life without
loving it.”³ Actually, Tittel continues in a way that is not completely at odds with
Kant’s real view of moral worth, but I will return to that later. For now, I’m just
using him to document the antiquity of my opening question.
In a paper written almost two centuries after the remarks by Tittel and Schil-
ler but by now a classic in its own right, Barbara Herman basically resolved this
question by arguing that Kant’s conception of moral worth is best understood as
treating commitment to the moral law (its immediate determination of the will)
as a second-order motive that functions as a limiting condition on first-order mo-
tives, so that the moral worth of an agent turns on the character of her second-

Reason, and “MM DV” for the Metaphysics of Morals, Doctrine of Virtue. Religion within the Boun-
daries of Mere Reason (“Rel”) will be cited from Kant 1996b. Volume and page numbers from the
Akademie (Ak.) edition will be used throughout.
 Translation quoted from Wood 1999, p. 28. Though still doggerel, as poetry I prefer the trans-
lation by Hastings Rashdall in his The Theory of Good and Evil, quoted by H. J. Paton:
Gladly I serve my friends, but alas I do it with pleasure.
Hence I am plagued with doubt that I am not a virtuous person.
Sure, your only resource is to try to despise them entirely,
And then with aversion to do with your duty enjoins.

But here I have used Wood’s translation because his use of “inclination” rather than “pleasure”
better brings out one of the issues I will discuss.
 Tittel 1786, p. 12.
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 21

rather than first-order motivation, and in this she was followed, with variations
of course, by Marcia Baron and Philip Stratton-Lake.⁴ One point that I want to
make here is that the general form of this solution is confirmed by a passage
in Kant’s Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason that Herman did not
cite. But Herman also accompanied the general form of her solution with an insist-
ence that Kant’s model of motivation is not a model on which motives are feelings,
inclinations, or incentives (Triebfeder) fighting it out for some sort of quantitative
superiority, such that the moral law wins out if a feeling associated with it out-
weighs or outlasts other inclinations. (This model has come to be called “Hu-
mean,” though it might be more accurate to call it “Hobbesian.” I will call it
the latter.) Her view is that it is thinking about motivation in that way that gives
rise to the Tittel-Schiller objection in the first place. As she puts it, “If one takes
motives to be desires, and desires are a kind of cause, when a motive is present
it should have an effect (direct or indirect) on choice of actions,” but “The key
to understanding Kant is in the idea that moral worth does not turn on the pres-
ence or absence of inclination supporting an action, but on its inclusion in the
agent’s maxim as a determining ground of action.”⁵
On this I want to argue that Herman is only partly right. She is right about
what Kant considers the ultimate locus of the determination of the will, in his
terms the level of our noumenal reality, where temporally structured feelings
and thus a temporal struggle between them are supposed to have no place.
But she fails to take account of Kant’s own two-level model of motivation, on
which his conception of the phenomenal etiology of action is deeply Hobbesian,
with the noumenal determination of the will by the moral law expressing itself in
the creation, or, on Kant’s most mature statement of his view, the cultivation of
feelings, “the aesthetic preconditions of the mind’s susceptibility to concepts of
duty” as Kant calls them (MM DV, Introduction, section XII, Ak. VI, 399), that
function precisely as temporally proximate causes of action, outweighing or out-
lasting competing feelings as necessary. Thus Kant’s final model of morally wor-
thy motivation is not one on which a second-order commitment to the moral law
as a limiting condition on any first-order motives renders the presence or ab-
sence of inclinations irrelevant; it is rather one on which an underlying commit-
ment to the moral law leads to the cultivation of feelings at the phenomenal level
that are, at least typically, necessary conditions of morally worthy action. “At
least typically,” I say, because even given Kant’s own transcendental idealism,

 Herman 1993, pp. 1– 22; see pp. 14– 15. See also Baron 1995, Part II, chapters 4– 6, and Strat-
ton-Lake 2000, chapter 4, especially pp. 61– 63.
 Herman 1993, p. 11.
22 Paul Guyer

this level of his theory is actually empirical, and should be subject to the con-
straints of empirical theory.
In the following sections, I will first show how Kant’s Religion confirms the
general form of the second-order, limiting-condition model of moral worthy ac-
tion. Then I will turn to Kant’s notorious examples of dutiful action in Section I of
the Groundwork and argue that not only do these examples have a specific, lim-
ited purpose, just that of helping us to correctly formulate the moral law (as
many authors have observed), but also that they can hardly be taken to express
Kant’s considered view because they are discussed from the standpoint of “com-
mon rational moral cognition” and not from the standpoint of Kant’s own tran-
scendental idealist theory of the free moral will. I will then argue that Kant’s full-
blown transcendental idealist theory of moral motivation includes precisely the
kind of Hobbesian psychology at the empirical level that Herman rejects as non-
Kantian. I believe that Kant’s model of the relation between fundamental moral
maxim and moral feelings can stand on its own without transcendental ideal-
ism, but will not attempt to prove that here.

2 The Choice of Fundamental Maxim


Kant’s Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason, published in book form in
1793, is as difficult a work as he ever wrote. But the point of its Part One, origi-
nally published in the Berlinische Monatsschrift in 1792 under the title “Of the
radical evil in human nature,” seems straightforward: the evil that so many, per-
haps all of us do, is fully imputable to each of us, not because of the original sin
of some distant ancestor, but because it is freely chosen; but by the same token,
since our evil is a product of our own free choice, we can just as well use our
freedom to choose good, and thus undergo moral conversion. Kant does not
add any argument for the fact of our radical freedom to what he had already es-
tablished to his own satisfaction in the Critique of Practical Reason, nor, contrary
to what several recent interpreters have supposed, does he aim to provide any
argument from a priori premises that human beings must choose evil before
they can choose good.⁶ His point is just that the radical freedom that allows
us to be responsible for evil also allows us to choose to be good.
The form that the choice that we can make between good and evil is ex-
pressed as the choice whether to subordinate self-interest to morality or vice
versa, that is, whether to adopt the fundamental maxim of acting on self-love

 See Morgan 2005 and Sussman 2005.


Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 23

only when morality allows it or that of acting on morality only when self-love
allows it. To choose evil is to make the latter one’s fundamental maxim, deter-
mining all one’s more particular maxims, while to choose good is to make the
former one’s maxim. In Kant’s terms,

The difference, whether the human being is good or evil, must not lie in the difference be-
tween the incentives that he incorporates into his maxim (not in the material of the maxim),
but in their subordination (in the form of the maxim): which of the two he makes the con-
dition of the other. It follows that the human being […] is evil only because he reverses
the order of his incentives in incorporating them into his maxims. […] he makes the incen-
tives of self-love and their inclinations the condition of compliance with the moral law –
whereas it is this latter that, as the supreme condition of the satisfaction of the former,
should have been incorporated into the universal maxim of the power of choice as the
sole incentive. (Rel, Ak. VI, 36)

That is, the difference between the good person and the evil person does not lie
in what inclinations they have, but in how they choose to respond to their own
inclinations: whether, out of self-love, to act on them even when that is contrary
to what morality requires, or, out of respect for the supremacy of morality, to act
on them only when morality permits. There is no suggestion that morality re-
quires the absence or extirpation of any feelings or inclinations, only that if
they conflict with the requirements of morality they not be allowed to determine
action. The clarity of Kant’s claim is only slightly obscured by his twofold use
here of the term “incentives” (Triebfeder), in the first sense as mere inclinations
and in the second sense as “incorporated” into the agent’s maxim and thus ele-
vated to the status of a genuine determinant of action (properly, Bewegungs-
grund). Yet it remains clear enough that neither evil nor good is directly deter-
mined by the presence or absence of any inclinations or feelings, but only by
the choice, expressed in the agent’s fundamental maxim, whether or not to act
on such feelings only if the actions to which they incline are compatible with
morality.
And indeed it is part of Kant’s larger argument in the Religion that our incli-
nations or feelings are by nature predispositions toward the good that can be
perverted by our free choice to subordinate morality to self-love but are other-
wise compatible with and even conducive to morality (Rel, Ak. VI, 26 – 27).
This position represents Kant’s synthesis of a teleological conception of nature
with his radical conception of human freedom. Kant further summarizes his po-
sition by saying that

If it is said, The human being is created good, this can only mean nothing more than: He
has been created for the good and the original predisposition in him is good; the human
being is not thereby good as such, but he brings it about that he becomes either good or
24 Paul Guyer

evil, according as he either incorporates or does not incorporate into his maxims the incen-
tives contained in that predisposition (and this must be left entirely to his free choice). (Rel,
Ak. VI, 44)

The free choice of maxims, which in turn rests on a free choice between funda-
mental maxims, is what determines good or evil, nothing less and nothing more.
Thus Kant’s distinction between inclinations on the one hand and the fun-
damental maxims of agents on the other confirms the distinction between first-
and second-order motives recommended by Herman, Baron, and Stratton-Lake.
However, the relation between nature with its mechanisms on the one hand and
transcendental freedom on the other that is the background for Kant’s theory of
all action, a fortiori of moral action, raises a question about the simple contrast
between a Hobbesian theory of motivation by feelings and a supposedly Kantian
theory of motivation by reason in contrast to feelings with which Herman accom-
panies her two-order model of moral motivation. I will turn to that issue shortly,
but first I want to consider an obvious objection to my use of the passage from
the Religion to interpret Kant’s conception of moral worth. I take the Religion to
be a mature statement of fundamental aspects of Kant’s moral philosophy, but
the obvious objection to my use of this passage is just that Kant does not actually
use the term “moral worth” in it. That is true. But Kant does characterize the
choice of which of the maxims of self-love and morality to subordinate to the
other as the most fundamental in one of its senses, namely the most radical ex-
pression of human freedom, thus this idea of the choice of the will between two
fundamental maxims seems to be Kant’s reformulation of his earlier conception
of the basic activity of the will, its being a “ground and never [an] effect” (G, Ak.
IV, 400), that makes a will a good will, now modified to reflect his recognition
that the will can also use its freedom to become evil. In the Religion, he also
characterizes dishonesty in the service of self-love as that “by which we throw
dust in our own eyes and which hinders the establishment in us of a genuine
moral disposition” (Rel, Ak. VI, 38), which suggests that by contrast subordinat-
ing self-love to morality is what does establish a “genuine moral disposition,”
which would seem to be the same as a good will and thus the necessary and suf-
ficient condition for moral worth.
Further, in the Religion Kant also identifies the correct choice of fundamental
maxim with the necessary condition of the virtue of a human being, that is, the
empirical condition of a morally worthy human being. The passage in which
Kant introduces the concept of virtue into the argument of the Religion is
worth quoting at length for several reasons. Kant identifies conversion from
evil to good with the “restoration of the original predisposition to good in us”
that was never lost even when we chose evil, and then continues:
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 25

The restoration is therefore only the recovery of the purity of the law, as the supreme ground
of all our maxims, according to which the law itself is to be incorporated into the power of
choice, not merely bound to other incentives, nor indeed subordinated to them (to inclina-
tions) as conditions, but rather in its full purity, as the self-sufficient incentive of that power.
The original good is holiness of maxims in the compliance to one’s duty, hence merely out of
duty, whereby a human being, who incorporates this purity into his maxims, though on this
account still not holy as such (for between maxim and deed there is still a wide gap), is
nonetheless upon the road of endless progress toward holiness. When the firm resolve to
comply with one’s duty has become a habit, it is called virtue also in a legal sense, in
its empirical character (virtus phaenomenon). Virtue here has the abiding maxim of lawful
actions, no matter whence one draws the incentives that the power of choice needs for
such actions. Virtue, in this sense, is accordingly acquired little by little, and to some it
means a long habituation (in the observance of the law), in virtue of which a human
being, through gradual reformation of his conduct and consolidation of his maxims, passes
from a propensity to vice to its opposite. But not the slightest change of heart is necessary
for this; only a change of mores [Sitten]. (Rel, Ak. VI, 46 – 47)

There is far more in this passage than I can discuss here. What is crucial for our
purposes is that in explaining the return to the good, in the Religion’s terminol-
ogy, with “compliance to one’s duty […] merely out of duty,” Kant identifies it
with the condition for the achievement of a good will and moral worth in the ter-
minology of the Groundwork. This condition is in turn identified with the “purity
of the law, as the supreme ground of all our maxims,” which requires that the
good agent’s choice of fundamental maxims not be “bound to other incentives,
nor indeed subordinated to them (as inclinations).” But nothing is said that
would exclude the presence of inclinations, whether contrary to morality or har-
monious with it, in the good or morally worthy agent. Further, while Kant intro-
duces the concept of holiness into this passage, he is careful to require of human
beings only holiness of maxims, which is clearly the same as purity of maxims,
not holiness “as such” or of the whole person. He is clearly not requiring of
human beings holiness in the sense of the complete absence of any inclinations
contrary to the moral law, “a perfection of which no rational being of the sensi-
ble world is capable at any moment of his existence” (CPracR, Ak. V, 122), so
there is hardly any reason to suppose that either does he require of the good, vir-
tuous, or morally worthy human being the absence of any inclinations harmo-
nious with or favorable to morality. Finally, and on the contrary, Kant’s concep-
tion of virtue in this passage, as an empirical condition, as a gradually acquired
change of mores – Sitten in the sense of customary actions rather than moral
principles – but not a “change of heart,” seems to be one in which feelings or
inclinations are gradually brought into line with the purity of the agent’s funda-
mental maxim, but not one in which such feelings are extirpated.
26 Paul Guyer

No doubt a great deal more could be said about this passage, but my next
objective will be to show, contra Herman, that Kant’s real position on moral
worth, moral goodness, or virtue involves a reconciliation with a Hobbesian
model of motivation, not a rejection of it. But before I turn to that, I will return
to the Groundwork to say a few words about why anyone should ever have read it
as Tittel and Schiller did.

3 Misreading Groundwork I
What would have given anyone the idea that Kant requires the absence of friend-
ly inclinations toward one’s friends or of sympathetic feelings toward the ill if
one is to be credited with moral worth under any of its names for morally appro-
priate action toward them? A misreading of Groundwork I, especially of its noto-
rious examples of morally worthy action from the motive of duty, is the obvious
culprit. But two related yet distinct points must be kept in mind in reading
Groundwork I. First, the examples are not intended as empirical examples of mo-
rally worthy conduct, that is, as fleshed-out characterizations of the actual em-
pirical psychology of such conduct, but as thought-experiments that can be used
to clarify the fundamental principle of morality. But more generally, the entire
argument of Groundwork I is supposed to be made from the standpoint of “com-
mon rational moral cognition,” moral common sense, and this means not only
that the premises of the thought-experiments that are to clarify the fundamental
principle of moral sense are supposed to be common-sensical, but also that the
model of action that is being used in this section is merely common-sensical,
thus does not yet involve Kant’s own philosophy of action, that is, his transcen-
dental idealist theory of freedom of the will. Thus, Groundwork I does not yet as-
sume nor have room for Kant’s theory that the choice of fundamental maxim is a
noumenal act that grounds or underlies phenomenal or empirical character, thus
that the choice of maxim can be expressed in what sorts of feelings a person ul-
timately has or how those are cultivated, although that is precisely how Kant ul-
timately supposes the choice of fundamental maxim is expressed. Instead, the
argument of Groundwork I can be made on the basis of a single-level model of
motivation in the empirical world, the only world there is on this model, on
which mere feelings on the one hand and pure practical reason on the other
can only be seen as competing forces. On this model, acting from a law furnished
by pure reason can indeed seem like an alternative to acting from feeling, not a
complement to the latter or a ground for acting from certain feelings.
The first point has been widely noted, for example by Christine Korsgaard
and by Herman herself. Korsgaard writes that in Groundwork I “Kant proposes
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 27

to look at cases in which we should say that a person acted ‘from duty’ in order
to discover the principle of action which characterizes a good will,”⁷ and Herman
writes that “The way the examples are set up suggests that they are offered as
cases in which good willing is perspicuous, rather than as the only kinds of
cases in which good willing is present or can be known.”⁸ Herman’s statement
might be taken to mean that the examples are intended to be examples of opti-
mal conditions for evaluating the moral worth of actual agents, but Herman sub-
sequently says that her “reading of the […] examples does not (and is not intend-
ed to) give us an account of what moral worth is or a clear idea of the conditions
for its correct attribution.”⁹ While I am not sure what she intends by the first part
of this disclaimer, the latter part must be right, for Kant makes it clear that the
assessment of any actual agent’s motivation is not our business but something
that must be left to God (for example, Rel, Ak. VI, 67). So her first statement
should be taken, like Korsgaard’s, to mean that Kant’s examples are just
meant as aids to the formulation of the moral law, or more precisely to the clar-
ification of a principle that in fact we all already know and acknowledge.
Kant’s argument is then as follows. The opening claim that a good will, un-
like gifts of internal and external nature and fortune, is the only thing that is of
unconditional value, thus the only thing that can give an agent moral worth, is
supposed to be a matter of moral common sense. The further claim that the “con-
cept of duty […] contains that of a good will, though under certain subjective lim-
itations and hindrances” (G, Ak. IV, 397), namely that we human beings have
feelings that could incline us to do otherwise than as morality demands, is
also supposed to be moral common sense. The first two points in Kant’s analysis
of the concept of duty are likewise supposed to be common sense. These first two
points are that acting simply “under the influence of inclination” and therefore
acting just in order to realize “every object of the will” that is given by inclination
are not what we consider acting from duty, and these two premises are then sup-
posed to lead to the proper formulation of the moral law by means of the infer-
ence that since “an action from duty is to put aside entirely the influence of in-
clination and with it every object of the will, hence there is left for the will
nothing that could determine it except objectively the law, and subjectively
pure respect for this practical law.” This law, since “the will has been deprived
of every impulse that could arise for it from obeying some law,” can be nothing
other than the requirement of “the conformity of actions as such with universal

 Korsgaard 1996, p. 55.


 Herman 1993, p. 3.
 Herman 1993, p. 6.
28 Paul Guyer

law […] the principle, that is, I ought never to act except in such a way that I could
also will that my maxim should become a universal law” (G, Ak. IV, 400, 402). It is
in support of the first premise of this argument (a premise that is not explicitly
stated until Kant is ready to draw the conclusion) that Kant offers his examples
of action from duty.
There are two examples, illustrating the perfect duty to self to refrain from
suicide and the imperfect duty of beneficence to others. First, Kant argues that
“the often anxious care that most people take” to preserve their lives “has no
inner worth and their maxim has no moral content,” and they “look after
their lives” merely “in conformity with duty.” But, he continues,

if adversity and hopeless grief have quite taken away the taste for life; if an unfortunate
man, strong of soul and more indignant about his fate than despondent or dejected, wishes
for death and yet preserves his life without loving it, not from inclination or fear but from
duty, then his maxim has moral content. (G, Ak. IV, 397– 398)

Second, he proposes, while “there are many souls so sympathetically attuned


that, without any other motive of vanity or self-interest they find an inner satis-
faction in spreading joy around them, […] in such a case an action of this kind,
however it may conform with duty and however amiable it may be, has neverthe-
less no true moral worth […] for the maxim has no moral content, namely that of
doing such actions not from inclination but from duty”; but if “the mind of this
philanthropist were overclouded by his own grief, which extinguished all sympa-
thy with the fate of others,” if “he nevertheless tears himself out of this deadly
insensibility and does the action without any inclination, simply from duty; then
the action first has its genuine moral worth” (G, Ak. IV, 398).
Picking up on the singular reference “this philanthropist” (jenes Menschen-
freundes) and the word “first,” Herman holds that “The key to the sympathy ex-
ample is found in attending to the fact that it describes the moral situation of the
same man in two different circumstances.”¹⁰ But there is actually no clear ante-
cedent for the singular “this” (jenes), and it is not necessary to get Kant’s point
that we imagine the same person undergoing an actual change of feelings in ei-
ther of Kant’s cases. All that we are being asked to do is to contrast the case of
someone moved solely by feeling (as is possible and is in fact, as Kant says, often
the case) with the case of someone moved only “from duty.” More precisely,
since Kant does refer to the maxims of our imagined agents, at least in the
case of the would-be suicide, we are being asked to contrast (possible) agents
whose maxims must be simply to act on their inclinations, and thus to do

 Herman 1993, p. 19.


Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 29

what duty requires only if they are so inclined, with (possible) agents whose
maxims must be to act as duty requires whether or not they are so inclined. Com-
mon moral sense then tells us that actions of the first kind are “amiable” and
even to be encouraged (at least under certain conditions) but that they have
no genuine moral worth, while actions of the second kind (that is, performed
under the second kind of maxim) clearly have moral worth. Thus common
sense tell us that the moral law clearly cannot be simply to act on one’s inclina-
tions (even, contrary to a moral sense theorist like Francis Hutcheson, simply to
act on one’s benevolent inclinations). And since Kant supposes that this ex-
cludes all objects of inclination from having, as such, that is, merely as objects
of inclination, any role in the moral principle, the only alternative is that the
moral law concerns solely the form of our maxims, that is, that it tells us to
act only on maxims that can also have the form of universal law. This is what
and all that we are supposed to learn from these examples, shot through with
the language of thought-experiments (“if,” “in such a case,” “Suppose, then,”
and so on). And it is supposed to be a matter of common sense, as is further evi-
denced by Kant’s claim that ordinary moral agents confronted with temptation
ask themselves precisely whether they “would indeed be content that [their]
maxims […] should hold as a universal law” even if they have not consciously
formulated the moral law as Kant has done. “Thus then we have arrived, within
the moral cognition of common human reason, as its principle, which it admit-
tedly does not think so abstractly in a universal form” (G, Ak. IV, 403).
This last remark is important, because it makes clear that in speaking of ac-
tion “from duty” Kant is not saying that an actual moral agent must be conscious
of the moral law and thinking about it to the exclusion of any other motivation,
let alone at the moment of action. The moral law may serve the agent as a sec-
ond-order motive, a limiting condition, or a fundamental maxim, as an underly-
ing ground or necessary condition of her action, without being part of the imme-
diate phenomenology of action. This is enough to take care of the “one thought
too many” objection of Charles Fried, Bernard Williams, and Michael Stocker.¹¹
They all find repugnant the idea that morally worthy agents have to think about
the permissibility or necessity of the actions to which they are prompted by their
feelings, even toward their own wife or sick friend, but Kant says no such thing.
He only says that the morally worthy agent acts from duty, and that if in doubt
about an actual case an actual agent will ask herself whether the maxim on
which she is considering acting could also serve as a universal law. And while

 Fried 1970; Williams, “Persons, Character, and Morality,” in Williams 1981, pp. 14– 19; and
Stocker 1976.
30 Paul Guyer

asking this question in real life might presuppose that some inclination to the
contra-moral act is present, it would not imply that any inclination in behalf
of the morally correct action is absent. In any case, all that Kant is asking us
to do at this stage of the Groundwork is to recognize that the moral law as he for-
mulates it is in fact the principle of common moral cognition as well.
But the further point to mention here is that on Kant’s own theory of action,
not to be revealed until Section III of the Groundwork, further argued in the Cri-
tique of Practical Reason, and simply presupposed throughout the Religion, a real
agent’s actual choice of fundamental maxim takes place at the noumenal rather
than phenomenal level, and so is never immediately present to consciousness.
For this metaphysical reason, as well as for the empirical fact of the human ca-
pacity for self-deception, a conscious thought that one is being motivated solely
by the moral law would be no more proof that one is really acting from duty than
an absence of conscious thought of duty combined with the presence of inclina-
tions favorable to duty would be proof that one is acting merely from inclination
rather than from duty. But the distinction between phenomenal and noumenal
will, or between intelligible and empirical character as Kant calls it in the Cri-
tique of Pure Reason, is not part of the standpoint of common sense as Kant is
presenting it in Groundwork I: although in Groundwork III Kant remarks, remark-
ably, that transcendental idealism is part of common sense, in Groundwork I he is
appealing only to what he takes to be common-sense conceptions of good will,
duty, and moral worth. For this reason, he can construct his examples in Ground-
work I in terms of a phenomenological contrast between acting from inclination
and acting from duty, or at least be read as if he were treating acting from incli-
nation and acting from duty as if they were exclusive alternatives at a single, em-
pirical level of motivation, but that is not his own real theory of motivation. Au-
thors such as Tittel and Schiller and more recently Fried, Williams, and Stocker
were arguing with Kant’s thought-experiments as if these examples revealed
Kant’s full theory of morally worthy motivation, but they were never intended
to do any such thing.
I should concede here that Kant himself may have offered encouragement to
his critics in Groundwork III. The core of this section is Kant’s argument from
transcendental idealism, namely that rationality and thus both knowledge of
the moral law and the capacity for “self-activity” are the fundamental character-
istics of our noumenal selves, even though our apparent, “sensible” or phenom-
enal selves are passive, entirely subject to mere laws of nature (G, Ak. IV, 451–
452). But no sooner has he stated this argument than Kant reverts to a more com-
mon conception, writing as if “the natural law of desires and inclinations” can
compete with the “principle of the autonomy of the pure will” (G, Ak. IV, 453),
thus as if they were alternatives at the same level of motivation. This could easily
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 31

give rise to the view that the human agent must be motivated either by pure rea-
son or by inclination, but not both, and that the morally worthy agent will be the
one motivated only by pure reason, not at all by inclination.
But this is not Kant’s real theory of moral motivation. As I mentioned earlier,
we might consider that to be a synthesis of a Hobbesian theory of motivation at
the phenomenal level combined with Kant’s own theory that the choice of fun-
damental maxim takes place at the noumenal level, thus as part of his larger
synthesis between nature and freedom. On this theory, although of course
some of our inclinations would push us in the direction of action contrary to
morality, inclination as a whole need not, because the state of our inclinations
can, indeed must be an expression of our noumenal choice of fundamental
maxim. As Kant puts it in the Critique of Practical Reason, “every action” of a
human agent “– and in general every determination of his being changing con-
formably with inner sense, even the whole sequence of his existence as a sensi-
ble being – is to be regarded in the consciousness of his intelligible existence as
nothing but the consequence and never as the determining ground of his causal-
ity as a noumenon” (CPracR, Ak. V, 98). If everything about the sensible being of a
human agent, including his inclinations, is to be regarded as a consequence of
his noumenal choice, then inclinations will not have to be excluded from the
morally worthy empirical self and even from the causation of action in the em-
pirical self, because they themselves can be regarded as consequences of the
morally worthy noumenal choice of maxim by the noumenal self.

4 Kant’s Real Theory of Moral Motivation


In fact, the key to Kant’s real theory of moral motivation is the statement in the
Introduction to the Doctrine of Virtue of the Metaphysics of Morals that “Every
determination of choice proceeds from the representation of a possible action
to the deed through the feeling of pleasure, taking an interest in the action or
its effect. The state of feeling here (the way in which inner sense is affected) is
either pathological or moral” (MM DV, Introduction, Section XII, Ak. VI, 399).
The reference to inner sense here makes it clear that feeling obtains at the phe-
nomenal level of human existence, thus that in the phenomenal or empirical eti-
ology of action feeling is typically the proximate cause of action. The difference
between “pathological” and “moral” feeling will then be that the former is feel-
ing or inclination on which the agent simply allows himself to act, while the lat-
ter is feeling on which the agent allows himself to act only if that is consistent
with morality, but further which turns out, as Kant continues, to be cultivated
and strengthened out of duty so that it does reliably produce morally appropriate
32 Paul Guyer

action. Of course, on Kant’s official, transcendental idealist theory of the will, the
choice whether to simply act on inclinations whatever they might be or to act on
inclinations cultivated in the name of morality itself will be a noumenal choice,
not immediately accessible to the agent or any other finite being. And it should
also be noted that since we have no direct access to the noumenal grounding of
the phenomenal, we cannot be sure that any particular state of phenomenal feel-
ings is actually the consequence of a particular choice at the noumenal level. (I
here just assume that there is no bar to Kant talking about noumenal grounding,
because the logical relation of ground and consequence, as distinct from the tem-
poral relation of cause and effect, is at least thinkable with regard to things in
themselves.) Moreover, since Kant’s theory about the phenomenal etiology of ac-
tion can itself only be an empirical theory, his assertions at that level should be
confined to what is typically rather than invariably the case, a nicety that I have
observed but that he does not.
These details aside, Kant’s view of the relation between the noumenal choice
of fundamental maxim and the phenomenal etiology of morally worthy action
evolves through three phases, which I will here briefly describe.¹² In the Ground-
work, the goal of which is only “the search for and establishment of the supreme
principle of morality” (G, Ak. IV, 392), and which therefore has no space for a de-
tailed account of the empirical consequences of noumenal choice, Kant makes
only the briefest comment about a feeling of respect. His first reference to respect
in the Groundwork, in the already quoted statement that once inclination has
been eliminated as a source of moral worth “there is left for the will nothing
that could determine it except objectively the law and subjectively pure respect
for this practical law” (G, Ak. IV, 400), does not clearly refer to a feeling, for
here respect could be taken to be merely the positive attitude of the will to the
moral law, without any specific phenomenology, like a propositional attitude to-
ward a proposition. In the footnote to the next paragraph, however, Kant raises
the objection that he only seeks “refuge, behind the word respect, in an obscure
feeling,” then responds that “though respect is a feeling, it is not one received by
means of influence; it is, instead, a feeling self-wrought by means of a rational
concept and therefore specifically different from […] inclination”; he then expli-
cates this feeling as “merely consciousness of the subordination of my will to a
law without the mediation of other influences on my sense” (G, Ak. IV, 401n.).
Perhaps this remark should be interpreted along the lines of what we might
call Philip Stratton-Lake’s adverbial interpretation of respect as “reverential”
awareness of the moral law rather than as a separate feeling causally related

 I have described them in greater detail than I will offer here in Guyer 2010.
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 33

to cognition of the moral law.¹³ But however it is interpreted, either as an aspect


or as a consequence, as “consciousness of the subordination of my will to the
moral law” respect here would seem to be consciousness of the determination
of my will, not just of the moral law itself, and thus to play no role in the etiology
of action itself. On this account respect seems to be epiphenomenal, part of the
phenomenology of morally worthy action but not itself a cause of any kind of
such action.
In the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant devotes a whole chapter to respect,
under the telling title “On the Incentives of Pure Practical Reason” and function-
ing as the “transcendental aesthetic” of the second Critique. Although the chap-
ter on incentives is Chapter III of the Analytic of Pure Practical Reason, thus com-
ing at its end rather than at is beginning, (as is the case with the Transcendental
Aesthetic in the first Critique), Kant explains that this is because “in the present
Critique we shall begin with principles and proceed to concepts, and only then,
where possible, from them to the senses, whereas in the case of speculative rea-
son we had to begin with the senses and end with principles” (CPracR, Ak. V, 16).
But the fact that the chapter on incentives is compared at all to the Transcenden-
tal Aesthetic, which describes the indispensable role of sensible intuition in all
theoretical cognition, suggests that the feeling of respect that it is about to de-
scribe must also play an indispensable role in moral action. What such a role
might be is not immediately apparent, for Kant begins the chapter with the
claim, noted at the outset of this paper, that “What is essential to any moral
worth of actions is that the moral law determine the will immediately” (CPracR,
Ak. V, 71). This suggests that, as in the Groundwork, the feeling of respect will
be merely epiphenomenal, the result of the determination of the will by the
moral law but not itself a cause of action. As Kant continues, however, it
looks as if the feeling of respect does play an indispensable causal role in the
transition from the determination of the will by the moral law to the performance
of action, and indeed morally worthy action. Kant describes the feeling as both
painful and pleasurable, painful because it is produced by the moral law striking
down “self-conceit,” yet pleasurable, because “inasmuch as [the moral law] even
strikes down self-conceit, that is, humiliates it, it is an object of the greatest re-
spect and so too the ground of a positive feeling that is not of empirical origin
and is cognized a priori” (CPracR, Ak. V, 73). He then says that by this feeling

the hindrance to pure practical reason is lessened and the representation of the superiority
of its objective law to the impulses of sensibility is produced and hence, by removal of the
counterweight, the relative weightiness of the law (with regard to a will affected by impuls-

 Stratton-Lake 2000, p. 38.


34 Paul Guyer

es) in the judgment of reason [is also produced]. And so respect for the law is not the in-
centive to morality; instead it is morality itself subjectively considered as an incentive in-
asmuch as pure practical reason, by rejecting all the claims of self-love in opposition
with its own, supplies authority to the law, which now alone has influence. (CPracR, Ak.
V, 75 – 76)

This suggests that the determination of the will by the moral law produces the
feeling of respect, which counteracts the influence of contra-moral impulses
and allows the moral law sufficient influence on the action of the agent, thereby
producing the morally intended action. This might be interpreted as all a con-
scious process, going from thought of the law and decision to act upon the
law to a feeling of respect that outweighs other feelings and leads to action.
But in light of Kant’s transcendental idealism, we should probably interpret
his own view to be that the determination of the will by the moral law is noume-
nal, and that what is manifest to empirical consciousness is the feeling of re-
spect, its victorious struggle with contra-moral inclinations if those are present,
and then the performance of the action dictated by the moral law in the case at
hand. That can be taken as Kant’s way of stating the view that the commitment to
the moral law can function as a background, limiting condition on one’s action,
and need not be present to consciousness at the moment of action for action to
count as morally worthy. Either way, it is clear that Kant does not suppose that
morally worthy action takes place without positive feeling toward the morally
requisite action; it takes place precisely through the occurrence of such feeling.
Kant’s position on the role of feeling in the virtuous performance of duty is
refined in numerous ways in the Metaphysics of Morals – which, to be sure, nei-
ther Tittel nor Schiller could have seen at the time of their responses (but which
later critics of Kant should have seen), and which indeed may have been Kant’s
response to their criticisms. The premise of Kant’s account of the “aesthetic pre-
conditions of the mind’s receptivity to concepts of duty as such,” where the term
translated as “mind” is Gemüt, Kant’s term for mind in the discipline of empiri-
cal rather than rational psychology, is, as previously quoted, that “Every deter-
mination of choice proceeds from the representation of a possible action to
the deed through the feeling of pleasure or displeasure, taking an interest in
the action or its effect” (MM DV, Introduction, Section XII, Ak. VI, 399, emphasis
added). He also supposes that the capacities for the several varieties of pleasur-
able (or painful) feelings that he is about to enumerate are “natural predisposi-
tions,” without which human beings would simply be deaf to the demands of
morality or “morally dead,” thus which obviously play an indispensable role
in the fulfillment of duty, and which cannot be created ab novo, but which
can and must be “cultivated” and “strengthened” through appropriate exercises
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 35

(MM DV, Ak. VI, 400). He then describes four such “aesthetic preconditions”:
moral feeling in general, which seems to be the same as the feeling of respect
described in the earlier works (Kant uses the term “moral feeling” as synony-
mous with “respect” at CPracR, Ak. V, 76); conscience, which is not so much a
feeling as it is empirical consciousness “holding the human being’s duty before
him for his acquittal or condemnation in every case that comes under a law”
(MM DV, Introduction, Section XII, Ak. VI, 400), though no doubt either in its ret-
rospective or prospective role, speaking to what one has done or what one
should do (as Kant says, conscience can warn or prosecute; MM DV, § 13, Ak.
VI, 440), it has an effect on feeling; “love of human beings,” presumably other
human beings (MM DV, Introduction, Section XII, Ak. VI, 401); and finally respect
now in the sense of self-esteem (MM DV, Ak. VI, 402). The latter two in particular
seem to be specific feelings that would prompt an agent to the fulfillment of du-
ties to others and duties to self respectively, or proximate causes of such actions;
and the first of these, love of other human beings, seems to be precisely the sort
of feeling towards his friends that Schiller thought that Kant proscribed. Now we
see that Kant hardly proscribed such feelings, but instead took them to be an in-
dispensable element in the empirical etiology of morally worthy action (here, be-
neficent action), themselves cultivated out of respect for the moral law in general
but in turn functioning as the proximate causes of beneficent action.
Well, Kant does not quite say that in his initial description of “love of human
beings,” where he actually says that such love will follow rather than precede be-
neficence: “If someone practices it often and succeeds in realizing his beneficent
intention, he eventually comes actually to love the person he has helped” (MM
DV, Ak. VI, 402). Perhaps this would be enough to assuage Schiller, assuring him
that there is no point in trying to despise his friends because if he practices be-
neficence toward them he will irresistibly come to love them anyway (or, since
Kant’s whole theory of feelings is properly empirical, will usually come to love
them anyway). But if this is not enough, Kant returns to the role of positive feel-
ings toward others when he subsequently discusses the “duties of love” toward
others, specifically beneficence, gratitude, and sympathy, and argues that “sym-
pathetic joy and sadness (sympathia moralis) […] sensible feelings of pleasure or
displeasure (which are therefore to be called ‘aesthetic’) at another’s state of joy
or pain (shared feeling, sympathetic feeling)” are the means that nature has af-
forded us “to promoting active and rational benevolence” (MM DV, § 34, Ak. VI,
456), “so many means to sympathy based on moral principles” (MM DV, § 35, Ak.
VI, 457). What he means now is not that feelings of love or sympathy will follow
the performance of beneficent acts, but that they are (typically) the proximate
causes of such actions. And because we have a natural disposition to such feel-
ings but these feelings must be strengthened and cultivated to make them strong
36 Paul Guyer

enough to play that role, we have an “indirect duty to cultivate the compassion-
ate natural (aesthetic) feelings in us,” for example by visiting sickrooms and
debtors’ prisons. The purpose of that is presumably to press home the suffering
of others, no doubt a painful feeling, but one that will in turn evoke a feeling of
pleasure at the thought of helping the unfortunate. Our feelings towards our
friends will perhaps not be so painful, except of course when it is they who
are suffering, when perhaps both the sympathetic feelings of pain at their dis-
tress and of pleasure at the prospect of helping them will be even greater than
usual. But whatever the details, it is clear that in claiming that sympathetic feel-
ings are the means that nature has afforded us to perform beneficent actions
Kant is illustrating his opening claim that the determination of the will to action
proceeds through feelings of pleasure and pain. Feelings are not to be abolished
from morally worthy action, but are an essential element in it.
I should close with that conclusion, but one more point has to be at least
briefly made. This is that Kant remarks that using sympathetic feelings as a
means to promoting active and rational benevolence is “a particular, though
only a conditional, duty” (MM DV, § 34, Ak. VI, 456). He does not explain what
he means by this remark, but we can take it to mean that although we typically
cannot perform beneficent actions without being prompted by well-cultivated
sympathetic feelings, we also cannot act on them every time we are so prompted:
there may be cases in which they would prompt us to help someone who does
not deserve help, as in Barbara Herman’s example of the thief struggling to re-
move a bulky object from the back door of the art museum;¹⁴ and even leaving
such fraught cases aside, just because beneficence is an imperfect duty, of wide
obligation, our well-cultivated feelings of sympathy may lead us to want to per-
form more beneficent actions than we actually can. The first sort of case will be
precisely when we should think about the moral law and exercise conscience be-
fore acting, when doing so will not be “one thought too many.” As for the second
sort of case, that’s just a nice problem to have.
In sum: For Kant, commitment to a fundamental maxim of morality and mo-
tivation by moral feelings strong enough to overcome other inclinations are not
alternatives, rather the latter is the effect of the former. And thus commitment to
the moral law must not be merely a limiting condition on one’s action on feel-
ings, but should also be a governing principle in one’s cultivation of feelings
throughout one’s life. Kant understands this through the lens of his transcenden-
tal idealism, with the noumenal choice of fundamental maxim affecting the phe-
nomenal cultivation of aesthetic preconditions of the mind’s susceptibility to

 Herman 1993, p. 4.
Moral Worth and Moral Motivation: Kant’s Real View 37

concepts of duty. But surely we do not have to accept transcendental idealism in


order to recognize that our commitment to morality as a matter of principle, how-
ever exactly we understand that, will have an effect upon our feelings, and that it
may well be our feelings rather than our principles that are most salient at an
actual moment of actions. But that phenomenological fact, if it is one, will not
mean that we are not also acting on principle.

References
G, CPracR, MM DV | Kant, Immanuel (1996a): Practical Philosophy. Gregor, Mary J. (ed.,
trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rel | Kant, Immanuel (1996b): Religion and Rational Theology. Wood, Allen W.; di Giovanni,
George (eds., trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Baron, Marcia W. (1995): Kantian Ethics Almost Without Apology. Ithaca and London: Cornell
University Press.
Fried, Charles (1970): An Anatomy of Values: Problems of Personal and Social Choice.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Guyer, Paul (2010):: “Moral Feelings in the Metaphysics of Morals.” In: Denis, Lara (ed.):
Kant’s Metaphysics of Morals: A Critical Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
pp. 130 – 151. German version (2013): “Kant über moralische Gefühle: Von den
Vorlesungen zur Metaphysik der Sitten.” In: Euler, Werner; Tuschling, Burkhard (eds.).
Kants “Metaphysik der Sitten” in der Diskussion: Ein Arbeitsgespräch an der Herzog
August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel 2009. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 177 – 210.
Herman, Barbara (1993): “On the Value of Acting from the Motive of Duty.” In: Herman,
Barbara. The Practice of Moral Judgment (Chapter 1). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press. Original version in: Philosophical Review 90 (1981), pp. 359 – 382.
Korsgaard, Christine M. (1996): “Kant’s Analysis of Obligation: The Argument of Groundwork
I.” In: Korsgaard, Christine M. Creating the Kingdom of Ends. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 43 – 76. Original in: The Monist 72 (1989), pp. 311 – 340.
Morgan, Serriol (2005): “The Missing Formal Proof of Humanity’s Radical Evil in Kant’s
Religion.” In: Philosophical Review 114, pp. 63 – 114.
Stocker, Michael (1976): “The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories.” In: Journal of
Philosophy 73, pp. 453 – 466.
Stratton-Lake, Philip (2000). Kant, Duty, and Moral Worth. London: Routledge.
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Tittel, Gottlob August (1786): Über Herrn Kants Moralreform. Frankfurt and Leipzig: Gebrüder
Pfähler.
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Wood, Allen W. (1999): Kant’s Ethical Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Federica Basaglia
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen
und sein Verständnis vom tierischen Leben
Abstract. In diesem Beitrag werde ich einige Thesen zu Kants Verständnis des tier-
ischen Lebens vorschlagen, die die von den meisten Interpreten nicht beachteten
Gemeinsamkeiten in der Kantischen Theorie zwischen Menschen und nichtvernünf-
tigen Tieren erhellen. Meine Überlegungen richten sich gegen die Behauptungen ei-
niger Autorinnen und Autoren, die aus Kants Auffassung zum moralischen Status
der Tiere schließen, dass Tiere für Kant keine andere moralische Berücksichtigung
als diejenige verdienen, die Menschen leblosen Gegenständen schulden. Ich werde
zeigen, dass diese Deutung der Kantischen Theorie Kants Verständnis des tierethi-
schen Lebens und seines Wertes nicht richtig wiedergibt und Kants Unzufriedenheit
mit der begrifflichen Unterscheidung zwischen Personen und Sachen nicht berück-
sichtigt.

In this paper, I will consider the Kantian understanding of animal life and argue
that for Kant humans and animals have important characteristics in common.
On the basis of Kant’s account of the moral status of animals, some interpreters
have suggested that Kant holds that animals do not deserve more moral consider-
ation than unanimated objects. I will show that such interpretations do not correct-
ly understand Kant’s view on animal life and do not take into account his dissat-
isfaction with the conceptual distinction between persons and things.

I Der moralische Status der Tiere


Im zweiten Abschnitt der Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten lesen wir:

Die Wesen, deren Dasein zwar nicht auf unserm Willen, sondern der Natur beruht, haben
[…], wenn sie vernunftlose Wesen sind, nur einen relativen Werth, als Mittel, und heißen
daher Sachen, dagegen vernünftige Wesen Personen genannt werden, weil ihre Natur sie
schon als Zwecke an sich selbst, d.i. als etwas, das nicht bloß als Mittel gebraucht werden
darf, auszeichnet, mithin so fern alle Willkür einschränkt (und ein Gegenstand der Achtung
ist). (GMS, AA 4, S. 428, Z. 18 – 25; meine Hervorhebung)

Nur Menschen – qua Vernunftwesen und Moralsubjekte – haben für Kant den
moralischen Status von Personen. Sie dürfen nicht einfach zu beliebigen Zwecken
verwendet werden, sondern müssen immer auch als Zwecke an sich selbst gelten,

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-003
40 Federica Basaglia

deren absoluter Wert immer geachtet werden muss. Dagegen haben vernunftlose
Tiere für Kant nur einen relativen Wert. Ihnen wird nur der moralische Status von
Sachen zugesprochen: Sie stehen nicht unter dem Instrumentalisierungsverbot,
das Menschen schützt.
Das Thema der menschlichen Verpflichtungen gegenüber den Tieren be-
handelt Kant bekanntlich im § 17 der Tugendlehre. Hier erklärt Kant, dass, obwohl
Tiere nicht den moralischen Status des Menschen haben und aus diesem Grund
keine Träger von Rechten sind, Menschen die Pflicht haben, die tierische
Schmerzempfindlichkeit und Sensibilität in ihrem Handeln zu berücksichtigen.
Denn durch die gewaltsame und grausame Behandlung von Tieren sowie Un-
dankbarkeit für die Dienste, die die Tiere für uns Menschen leisten, wird nach
Kant „das Mitgefühl an ihrem Leiden im Menschen abgestumpft und dadurch eine
der Moralität im Verhältnisse zu anderen Menschen sehr diensame natürliche
Anlage geschwächt und nach und nach ausgetilgt“ (MS, AA 6, S. 443, Z. 13 – 16).
Dementsprechend ist es nach Kant erlaubt, Tiere zu töten, dabei soll es sich al-
lerdings um eine schnelle und möglichst schmerzlose Tötung handeln (MS, AA 6,
S. 443, Z. 16 – 17). Menschen dürfen auch wissenschaftliche Versuche an Tieren
durchführen, allerdings ausschließlich dann, wenn es unbedingt notwendig zum
Erreichen eines wissenschaftlichen Zwecks ist und nur in den Fällen, in denen es
keine alternativen Methoden gibt (MS, AA 6, S. 443, Z. 19 – 21). Da Tiere nicht den
moralischen Status des Menschen haben und nicht als Zwecke an sich gelten,
handelt es sich hierbei für Kant nicht um direkte Pflichten der Menschen gegen die
Tiere, sondern um indirekte Pflichten der Menschen „in Ansehung“ der Tiere, die
eigentlich (direkte) Pflichten des Menschen gegen sich selbst sind (MS, AA 6,
S. 443, Z. 23 – 25).
Das Kantische Argument für indirekte Verpflichtungen gegenüber den Tieren
gilt für die Meisten als ein nicht zufriedenstellender Versuch, tierethische Ver-
pflichtungen in eine wesentlich logozentrische und anthropozentrische Moral-
theorie einzufügen, in der die Empfindungsfähigkeit der Tiere moralisch nicht
beachtet wird und ihnen im Endeffekt genau dieselbe moralische Relevanz wie
leblosen Gegenständen zukommt.¹
Sowohl in der tierethischen Literatur als auch in der Kant-Forschung irritiert
vor allem die Tatsache, dass Kant den Tieren nicht nur den moralischen Status
von Personen verweigert, sondern explizit den Status von Sachen zuspricht.² Jens

 Vgl. z. B. Broadie/Pybus 1974, S. 375; Wolf 2012, S. 41– 44. Gegen diese Auffassung argumen-
tieren überzeugend Denis 2000, Baranzke 2005 und Kain 2012. Siehe auch Basaglia 2016, ins-
besondere S. 32– 34.
 Vgl. O’Hagan 2009, S. 541 u. 553; Gruen 2014, S. 7.
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 41

Timmermann z. B. schreibt in seinem Aufsatz „When the Tail Wags the Dog:
Animal Welfare and Indirect Duty in Kantian Ethics“:

Many readers will by now have a strong suspicion that something must have gone seriously
wrong. The Kantian tail seems to be wagging the moral dog. Even if one is sympathetically
inclined towards a Kantian duty to care for one’s own moral well-being as a person, one
would still tend to think that animals like dogs or horses as such deserve more consideration
than beautiful crystals; and that this fact should not be explained with recourse to the
psychology of the human agent. (Timmermann 2005, S. 134; meine Hervorhebung)

In diesem Beitrag werde ich mich weder mit den Gründen der Kantischen Ab-
lehnung des moralischen Status der Tiere und der Tierrechte, noch mit dem
darauf aufbauenden Argument für die indirekten Pflichten des Menschen „in
Ansehung“ der Tiere auseinandersetzen, sondern einige Überlegungen über das
Kantische Verständnis des tierischen Lebens vorschlagen, die meiner Meinung
nach die von den meisten Interpreten nicht beachteten Gemeinsamkeiten in der
Kantischen Theorie zwischen Menschen und nichtvernünftigen Tieren erhellen.
Meine Überlegungen richten sich gegen die Meinung von denjenigen Auto-
rinnen und Autoren, die – wie z. B. Timmermann – aus Kants Auffassung zum
moralischen Status der Tiere schließen, dass Tiere für Kant keine andere mora-
lische Berücksichtigung als diejenige verdienen, die Menschen leblosen Gegen-
ständen schulden. Ich werde zeigen, dass ihre Lektüre des Kantischen Werks und
ihre Deutung der Kantischen Theorie 1. Kants Verständnis des tierethischen Le-
bens und seines Wertes nicht richtig wiedergibt und 2. Kants Unzufriedenheit mit
der begrifflichen Unterscheidung zwischen Personen und Sachen nicht berück-
sichtigt.
Gegen die Auffassung, dass Tiere für Kant nicht mehr moralische Berück-
sichtigung als leblose Gegenstände verdienen, spricht entschieden das Kantische
Verständnis des tierischen Lebens. Dieses Thema findet allerdings keine eigen-
ständige Behandlung im Kantischen Werk. Vielmehr bedarf es einer Rekonstruk-
tion, die – wie in der Folge klar werden wird – zwingend Bezug auf einige Begriffe
nehmen muss, die nicht nur für die Kantische theoretische, sondern auch prak-
tische Philosophie zentral sind, wie Begehren, Vorstellen, Bewusstsein, Leben
und Instinkt. Dies ist das Thema des zweiten Paragrafen. Das im zweiten Para-
grafen rekonstruierte Kantische Verständnis des tierischen Lebens bringt die Ei-
genschaften ans Licht, die nach Kant Menschen und Tiere gemeinsam haben,
nämlich Bewusstsein, Vorstellungs- und Begehrungsvermögen. Ich werde zeigen,
dass die Kantische Ansicht, dass Menschen und Tiere wichtige Eigenschaften
gemeinsam haben, nicht nur in der Definition des Begehrungsvermögens, son-
dern auch in wichtigen Passagen über die menschliche Natur sichtbar werden.
Das wird das Thema des dritten Paragrafen sein. Im vierten Paragrafen werde ich
42 Federica Basaglia

mich schließlich der Frage zuwenden, warum Kant – trotz seiner Ansicht über die
nichtvernünftigen Tiere – ihnen den moralischen Status von Sachen zuspricht.

II Kants Verständnis des tierischen Lebens:


Rekonstruktion anhand seiner Definition des
Begehrungsvermögens
Bereits Steve Naragon³ und Heike Baranzke⁴ haben überzeugend für Kants an-
ticartesianische Auffassung der Tiere argumentiert.⁵ Wie Thomas Höwing in sei-
ner Studie Praktische Lust. Kant über das Verhältnis von Fühlen, Begehren und
praktischer Vernunft richtig hervorhebt, finden wir in der Tat entscheidende Be-
lege für Kants anticartesianische Auffassung der Tiere in seinen Definitionen von
Leben und Begehrungsvermögen.⁶ In der Folge möchte ich mich auf diese Kan-
tischen Definitionen konzentrieren und anhand ihrer aufzeigen, dass Kants Ver-
ständnis des tierischen Lebens sehr viel tiefer ist und der Komplexität des tieri-
schen Lebens sehr viel gerechter wird, als gewöhnlich angenommen.
Der Ausdruck ‚Begehrungsvermögen‘ steht bei Kant nicht einfach, wie in der
heutigen Bedeutung, für die Fähigkeit, etwas zu begehren, sondern bezieht sich
auf die kausaltheoretische Bedeutung, mit der die Begriffe ‚Vermögen‘ und
‚Handlung‘ in der Schulphilosophie verwendet wurden. Denn Kant übernimmt
den Begriff ‚Vermögen‘ aus der Metaphysik der Schulphilosophen, wo er in Ver-
bindung mit den Begriffen von ‚Handlung‘, ‚Leiden‘ und ‚Fähigkeit‘ eingeführt
wird, um das Phänomen der Veränderung zu erklären. In diesem Zusammenhang
bezieht sich ‚handeln‘ auf die Veränderung des Zustandes einer Substanz, die sie
selbst herbeiführt, während ‚leiden‘ auf die Veränderung ihres Zustandes refe-
riert, die durch eine fremde Kraft verursacht wird. Dementsprechend stellt ein
Vermögen die Möglichkeit zu handeln dar, während eine Fähigkeit (oder Emp-
fänglichkeit) die Möglichkeit zu leiden darstellt.⁷ Der Begriff von Handlung steht

 Naragon 1990.
 Baranzke 2005.
 Nach Decartes sind Tiere nichts weiter als nichtbeseelte Tiermaschinen, deren Verhalten bloß
mechanisch zu verstehen ist.
 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 40 – 43.
 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 18 – 19. Wie Höwing zusammenfasst: „Ein Vermögen disponiert ein Wesen
dazu, zur Ursache einer Veränderung zu werden (d. h. zu ‚handeln‘), während eine Fähigkeit bzw.
Empfänglichkeit die Disposition darstellt, durch eine äußere Ursache verändert zu werden (d. h.
zu ‚leiden‘)“ (Höwing 2013, S. 18 – 19).
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 43

dementsprechend bei Kant, wie Volker Gerhardt gezeigt hat, nicht für absichtli-
ches Handeln, sondern im Allgemeinen für die „Wirksamkeit einer Kraft“.⁸
„Vermögen und Fähigkeit stellen folglich für Kant elementare Typen von dispo-
sitionalen Eigenschaften dar, die ein aktives Verändern oder ein passives Verän-
dert-Werden erklärt“⁹.
Die kausaltheoretische Bedeutung des Vermögensbegriffs aus der rationa-
listischen Schulphilosophie finden wir in Kants Definition des Begehrungsver-
mögens wieder. In einer Fußnote in der Vorrede zur Kritik der praktischen Vernunft
lesen wir:

Leben ist das Vermögen eines Wesens, nach Gesetzen des Begehrungsvermögens zu han-
deln. Das Begehungsvermögen ist das Vermögen desselben, durch seine Vorstellungen Ur-
sache von der Wirklichkeit der Gegenstände dieser Vorstellungen zu sein. (KpV, AA 5, S. 9,
Z. 16 – 18; meine Hervorhebung)¹⁰

Ähnlich definiert Kant Begehrungsvermögen und Leben in der Metaphysik der


Sitten: „Begehrungsvermögen ist das Vermögen durch seine Vorstellungen Ursa-
che der Gegenstände dieser Vorstellungen zu sein. Das Vermögen eines Wesens,
seinen Vorstellungen gemäß zu handeln, heißt das Leben“ (MS, AA 6, S. 211,
Z. 6 – 9; meine Hervorhebung).
Eindeutig geht aus der Kantischen Definition die kausale Rolle des Begeh-
rungsvermögens hervor: Diejenigen Wesen, die mit einem Begehrungsvermögen
ausgestattet sind, sind imstande, die Wirklichkeit des begehrten Gegenstandes
durch die Vorstellung desselben zu realisieren; sie können durch ihre Vorstellung
des begehrten Gegenstandes die Ursache seiner Realisierung werden.¹¹
Die entscheidende Frage für unsere Rekonstruktion des Kantischen Ver-
ständnisses des tierischen Lebens ist folgende: Welche sind die Wesen, die nach
Kant ein Begehrungsvermögen haben? Gehören auch nichtvernünftige Tiere nach
Kant zu den Wesen, die begehren? Denn nur, wenn man belegen kann, dass für
Kant auch nichtvernünftige Tiere (und nicht nur Menschen) dazu disponiert sind,
durch ihre Vorstellungen Ursache der von ihnen begehrten Gegenstände zu

 Gerhardt 1986, S. 112. Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 19.


 Höwing 2013, S. 19.
 Siehe hierzu Höwing 2013, S. 20 – 21.
 Vgl. hierzu Höwing 2013, S. 21– 22. Aus anderen Textstellen könnte man den Eindruck ge-
winnen, dass für Kant die Vorstellung über kausale Kraft verfügt (vgl. z. B. MS, AA 6, S. 357, Z. 4– 8
und EE KU, AA 20, S. 206, Z. 18 – 23).Wie Höwing richtig hervorhebt, spricht Kant meistens davon,
dass das vorstellende Wesen selbst durch seine Vorstellung des begehrten Gegenstandes, den
Gegenstand realisieren kann (Höwing 2013, S. 21– 22; vgl. MS, AA 6, S. 211, Z. 6 – 9, AA 6, S. 356,
Z. 13 – 17 und KU, AA 5, S. 177, Z. 31– 33).
44 Federica Basaglia

werden, hat man ein überzeugendes Argument in der Hand, um der Auffassung
entgegenzutreten, dass Kant zwischen dem Wert von leblosen Gegenständen und
dem von nichtvernünftigen Tieren nicht unterscheidet.
Man kann der oben zitierten Definition von Leben und Begehrungsvermögen
aus der KpV entnehmen, dass für Kant alle Lebewesen ein Begehrungsvermögen
haben. Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen steht eindeutig in unmittel-
barem Verhältnis zu seinem Verständnis von Leben und lebendigem Wesen: Denn
Leben besteht in der Disposition eines Wesens, nach Gesetzen des Begehrungs-
vermögens zu handeln, d. h. durch die Vorstellung von Gegenständen in der Welt
kausal wirksam zu werden und die begehrten Gegenstände zu bewerkstelligen.
Wie Kant in einer anderen Textstelle noch deutlicher ausdrückt, äußert sich „im
Begehrungsvermögen“ die „Lebenskraft“ eines Lebewesens (KpV, AA 5, S. 23,
Z. 17– 18).¹²
Alle Lebewesen sind also nach Kant Wesen, die begehren und kraft ihrer
Begierde handeln. Dabei steht noch offen, ob auch nichtvernünftige Tiere nach
Kant zu solchen Wesen gezählt werden können, d. h. zu den Wesen, die sich
Gegenstände vorstellen, diese begehren und kraft ihrer Begierde kausal wirksam
werden können, um die begehrten Gegenstände durch ihre Handlungen zu rea-
lisieren. Bevor ich zu dieser Frage zurückkomme, möchte ich mich zunächst auf
weitere Elemente des Kantischen Begriffs von Begehrungsvermögen konzentrie-
ren, die, wie wir in der Folge sehen werden, relevant für meine Hauptthese sind,
nach der Kants Definition des Begehrungsvermögens sein Verständnis des tieri-
schen Lebens erläutern kann.
Der Definition von Lust, die der oben zitierten von Leben und Begehrungs-
vermögen unmittelbar folgt, können wir weitere für unsere Frage interessante
Aspekte des Kantischen Begriffs von Begehrungsvermögen entnehmen:

Lust ist die Vorstellung der Übereinstimmung des Gegenstandes oder der Handlung mit den
subjectiven Bedingungen des Lebens, d.i. mit dem Vermögen der Causalität einer Vorstellung
in Ansehung der Wirklichkeit ihres Objects (oder der Bestimmung der Kräfte des Subjects zur
Handlung es hervorzubringen). (KpV, AA 6, S. 9, Z. 18 – 21; meine Hervorhebung)

 In dieser Textpassage behandelt Kant die Unterscheidung zwischen oberem und unterem
Begehrungsvermögen, die er aus der Scholastik und aus der Wollfschen Schule übernimmt (KpV,
AA 5, S. 22, Z. 27–S. 25, Z. 10; vgl. hierzu Schönecker 2005, S. 25 – 26). Kants Aussage in der Kritik
der Urteilskraft, die wir in der Folge näher betrachten werden und nach der wir aus der Analogie
mit menschlichem Handeln berechtigterweise schließen können, „daß die Thiere auch nach
Vorstellungen handeln (nicht, wie Cartesius will, Maschinen sind) und ungeachtet ihrer specifi-
schen Verschiedenheit doch der Gattung nach (als lebende Wesen) mit dem Menschen einerlei
sind“ (KU, AA 5, S. 464, Z. 21– 23), scheint also von mehreren Passagen aus weiteren publizierten
Werken bestätigt zu werden.
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 45

Wie oben gesehen, definiert Kant das Vermögen der Kausalität einer Vorstellung
hinsichtlich der Realisierung ihres Gegenstandes als das Begehrungsvermögen.
Aus dieser Textstelle können wir also schließen, dass das Begehrungsvermögen
das Vermögen der Bestimmung der Kräfte des Subjekts zur Handlung ist, die – im
Fall einer erfolgreichen Handlung – den Gegenstand der Vorstellung realisiert.¹³
Außerdem ist es wichtig zu beachten, dass hier das Begehrungsvermögen mit den
subjektiven Bedingungen des Lebens gleichgesetzt wird.¹⁴
Weitere Elemente des Kantischen Begehrungsvermögens kommen ans Licht,
wenn wir die kausale Rolle der Vorstellung des begehrten Gegenstandes näher
betrachten und uns fragen, was die Vorstellung in Gang setzt, die die Realisierung
des Gegenstandes verursachen kann. In der Abhandlung „Vom Begehrungsver-
mögen“ im dritten Buch der Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht lesen wir:

Begierde (appetitio) ist die Selbstbestimmung der Kraft eines Subjekts durch die Vorstellung
von etwas Künftigem als einer Wirkung derselben. […] Das Begehren ohne Kraftanwendung
zu Hervorbringung des Objekts ist der Wunsch. (Anth, AA 7, S. 251, Z. 3 – 7; meine Hervor-
hebung)

Wenn ein Wesen etwas begehrt, richtet es also selbst durch seine Vorstellung des
begehrten Gegenstandes seine Kraft auf die erfolgreiche Realisierung des Ge-
genstandes.
Beim Begehren wird also das vorstellende Subjekt selbst die Ursache der
Realisierung des vorgestellten Gegenstandes, den es begehrt. Dass ein Wesen mit
Begehrungsvermögen ausgestattet ist, bedeutet also nach Kant, dass es dazu
disponiert ist, durch seine Vorstellungen von bestimmten Gegenständen selbst
seine Kräfte zur Handlung zu bestimmen, um die Wirklichkeit dieser Gegenstände
hervorbringen zu können. Die Realisierung des begehrten Gegenstandes ge-
schieht nicht notwendigerweise dadurch, dass sich das vorstellende Wesen den
begehrten Gegenstand vorstellt. Die Vorstellung des begehrten Gegenstandes
bringt vielmehr das Wesen dazu, weitere Kräfte anzuwenden, um den Gegenstand
zu bewerkstelligen. Ohne Kraftanwendung bleibt das Begehren nur ein Wunsch.¹⁵

 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 22.


 Höwing macht darauf aufmerksam, dass Kant in den praktischen Schriften einen spezifischen
Begriff von Leben verwendet, nach dem Begehren und Leben nicht dasselbe bedeuten. Das Be-
gehren (neben dem Denken) sei „eine uns empirisch bekannte Gestalt des Lebens einer endlichen
materiellen Substanz“ (Höwing 2013, S. 37). „‚Leben‘ und ‚Begehrungsvermögen‘ sind folglich
nicht einfach intensional identische Begriffe. Vielmehr ist das Begehren-Können ein Charakte-
ristikum des Lebens, das uns empirisch zugänglich ist“ (Höwing 2013, S. 37).
 Dabei bleibt die Möglichkeit offen, dass die Handlung nicht erfolgreich ist, und den begehrten
Gegenstanden nicht realisiert (vgl. hierzu Höwing 2013, S. 22– 23).
46 Federica Basaglia

Dass ein Wesen mit Begehrungsvermögen ausgestattet ist, bedeutet also für
Kant zweierlei:
1. dass es sich Gegenstände vorstellen kann, und
2. dass es das Vermögen hat – d. h. dazu disponiert ist – selbst Ursache der
vorgestellten Gegenstände zu werden.

Um die Frage zu klären, welche nach Kant die Wesen sind, die mit Begehrungs-
vermögen ausgestatten sind, soll also geklärt werden,
1. welche die Wesen sind, die Vorstellungen haben, und
2. welche die Wesen sind, die sich selbst zur Handlung (kraft ihrer Vorstellun-
gen) bestimmen können.

Mit dem ersten Punkt sind zwei weitere Fragen verbunden: 1. ob ein Wesen sich
bewusst auf die Inhalte seiner Vorstellungen beziehen können muss, um sich
überhaupt etwas vorstellen zu können; 2. ob nichtvernünftige Tiere über ein Be-
wusstsein verfügen.
Die erste Frage kann relativ einfach beantwortet werden. Es ist nämlich leicht
zu belegen, dass sich nach Kant das begehrende, vorstellende Wesen nicht be-
wusst auf die Inhalte seiner Vorstellungen beziehen können muss. Für Kant kann
es Wesen geben, die Vorstellungen haben, sich ihrer jedoch nicht bewusst sind.¹⁶
Belege dazu finden wir u. a. in der Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht. Dort
schreibt Kant, dass uns im Fall von „dunklen“ Vorstellungen nur mittelbar be-
wusst ist, sie zu haben. Das passiert nach Kant z. B., wenn wir einen Menschen auf
einer Wiese aus der Entfernung sehen und, obwohl wir uns der Wahrnehmung
seiner Körperteile nicht bewusst sind, trotzdem behaupten, das Beobachtete ist
ein Mensch. Wir sind uns zwar nicht bewusst, seine Augen, Nase, Mund und
weitere Körperteile wahrzunehmen. Wenn wir aber aus diesem Grund behaupten
würden, dass wir die Vorstellung seiner Körperteile in unserer Anschauung nicht
haben, würden wir, da eine Menschengestalt aus ihren Körperteilen zusammen-
gesetzt ist, nicht sagen können, dass wir einen Menschen sehen (Anth, AA 7,
S. 135, Z. 3 – 22). Solche dunklen Vorstellungen können nach Kant auch Tiere
haben:

Daß das Feld unserer Sinnenanschauungen und Empfindungen, deren wir uns nicht bewußt
sind, ob wir gleich unbezweifelt schließen können, daß wir sie haben, d.i. dunkeler Vor-
stellungen im Menschen (und so auch in Thieren), unermeßlich sei, die klaren dagegen nur
unendlich wenige Punkte derselben enthalten, die dem Bewußtsein offen liegen; daß
gleichsam auf der großen Karte unseres Gemüths nur wenig Stellen illuminirt sind: kann uns

 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 24– 25.


Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 47

Bewunderung über unser eigenes Wesen einflößen; denn eine höhere Macht dürfte nur
rufen: es werde Licht! (Anth, AA 7, S. 135, Z. 23 – 30; meine Hervorhebung)¹⁷

Dunkle Vorstellungen – d. h.Vorstellungen, von denen wir uns nicht bewusst sind,
sie zu haben – können also nach Kant auch Tiere haben.
Darüber hinaus kann man anhand einiger Textstellen aus den publizierten
Werken dafür argumentieren, dass für Kant Tiere über ein Bewusstsein verfügen.
Auf eine sowohl von Naragon¹⁸ als auch von Höwing¹⁹ bereits kommentierte
Passage aus der Logik gestützt kann man in der Tat behaupten, dass Tiere nach
Kant über einen gewissen Grad des objektiven Gehalts der Erkenntnis und des
Bewusstseins verfügen, wenn auch über einen im Vergleich zu dem des Menschen
niedrigeren Grad:

Der erste Grad der Erkenntniß ist: sich etwas vorstellen;


Der zweite: sich mit Bewußtsein etwas vorstellen oder wahrnehmen (percipere);
Der dritte: etwas kennen (noscere) oder sich etwas in der Vergleichung mit anderen Dingen
vorstellen sowohl in der Einerleiheit als der Verschiedenheit nach;
Der vierte: mit Bewußtsein etwas kennen, d. h. erkennen (cognoscere).
Die Thiere kennen auch Gegenstände, aber sie erkennen sie nicht. (Log, AA 9, S. 64, Z. 32–
S. 65, Z. 6)²⁰

Kant scheint in dieser Passage zu behaupten, dass Tiere über die ersten drei Grade
der Erkenntnis verfügen. Demnach können sie sich etwas mit Bewusstsein vor-
stellen und wahrnehmen und dieses von anderen vorgestellten und wahrge-
nommenen Objekten unterscheiden, d. h. kennen. Erkennen können sie Gegen-
stände allerdings nicht: Sie können nicht mit Bewusstsein etwas kennen.Was dies
bedeutet, wird deutlicher, wenn man eine Anmerkung Kants zum Unterschied
zwischen dunklen und klaren Vorstellungen in der Kritik der reinen Vernunft
hinzuzieht:

Klarheit ist nicht, wie die Logiker sagen, das Bewußtsein einer Vorstellung; denn ein ge-
wisser Grad des Bewußtseins, der aber zur Erinnerung nicht zureicht, muß selbst in man-

 Vgl. hierzu Höwing 2013, S. 25, sowie Naragon 1990, S. 9.


 Naragon 1990, S. 10 – 11.
 Höwing 2013, S. 25 – 28.
 Kant schreibt von drei weiteren Graden: Der fünfte Grad besteht darin, etwas zu verstehen
(intelligere) – „durch den Verstand und vermöge der Begriffe erkennen und concipieren“ (Log, AA
9, S. 65, Z. 7– 8). Der sechste Grad ist, „etwas durch die Vernunft erkennen oder einsehen (per-
spicere)“ (Log, AA 9, S. 65, Z. 12– 13). Der letzte und siebte Grad ist „etwas begreifen (compre-
hendere), d. h. etwas in dem Grade durch die Vernunft oder a priori erkennen, als zu unsrer
Absicht hinreichend ist“ (Log, AA 9, S. 65, Z. 16 – 18).
48 Federica Basaglia

chen dunkelen Vorstellungen anzutreffen sein, weil ohne alles Bewußtsein wir in der Ver-
bindung dunkeler Vorstellungen keinen Unterschied machen würden, […]. [E]ine Vorstellung
ist klar, in der das Bewußtsein zum Bewußtsein des Unterschiedes derselben von anderen
zureicht. Reicht diese zwar zur Unterscheidung, aber nicht zum Bewußtsein des Unter-
schiedes zu, so müßte die Vorstellung noch dunkel genannt werden. (KrV, B 414; meine
Hervorhebung)

Dunkel sind also diejenigen Vorstellungen, bei denen wir uns zwar des Inhalts der
Vorstellung bewusst, des Unterschiedes zu vorgestellten Inhalten jedoch nicht
bewusst sind.²¹ Dass Tiere etwas kennen, aber nicht erkennen können, scheint
demnach zu bedeuten, dass sie zwischen vorgestellten Inhalten unterscheiden
können, allerdings sich nicht der Unterschiede zwischen diesen Inhalten be-
wusstwerden können.²²
Aus den bisher ausgeführten Elementen des Kantischen Begriffs von Begeh-
rungsvermögen scheint mir Höwing in der Tat sehr plausibel zu behaupten, dass
für Kant auch bei Wesen wie Tieren, die sich nur im geringen Grad bewusst auf die
Inhalte ihrer Vorstellungen beziehen können, der Inhalt ihrer Vorstellung eine
kausale Rolle einnimmt bzw. die Kräfte des Wesens kontrolliert.²³ Diese These
setzt allerdings voraus, dass Tiere das Vermögen haben – d. h. dazu disponiert
sind – selbst Ursache der von ihnen vorgestellten Gegenstände zu werden.
Es stellt sich hier nun die oben bereits eingeführte Frage, ob nach Kant nur mit
Vernunft begabte Wesen sich selbst zur Handlung bestimmen können, oder ob die
Bestimmung der Kräfte des Subjekts zur Handlung durch die Vorstellung eines
begehrten Gegenstandes auch ohne Intervention der Vernunft erfolgen kann.
Eine Bestimmung zur Handlung ohne Intervention der Vernunft ist nach Kant
tatsächlich möglich. Im ersten Abschnitt der Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der
Sitten erklärt uns Kant nämlich, dass Glückseligkeit unmöglich der Zweck der
menschlichen Natur sein kann, weil Glückseligkeit ein Ziel ist, das man auf sehr
viel sichereren Wegen durch den Instinkt erreichen kann, als durch einen guten
(moralischen) Willen. Hätte die Natur Glückseligkeit als Zweck und Bestimmung
der menschlichen Gattung vorgesehen, hätte sie den Menschen weder mit Ver-
nunft noch mit einem Willen ausstatten müssen, weil zum Erreichen der Glück-
seligkeit die Instinkte völlig ausreichen (GMS, AA 4, S. 395, Z. 4– 27, vgl. GMS, AA
4, S. 396, Z. 14– 18). Kant präzisiert diesbezüglich, dass, wenn die Natur Glück-
seligkeit als Endzweck menschlichen Handelns vorgesehen hätte, sie „nicht allein
die Wahl der Zwecke, sondern auch der Mittel selbst übernommen und beide mit

 Zu dieser Stelle siehe Wunderlich 2005, S. 143 – 145, und Höwing 2013, S. 26 – 27.
 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 25.
 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 28 – 29.
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 49

weiser Vorsorge lediglich dem Instincte anvertraut“ (GMS, AA 4, S. 395, Z. 25 – 27)


hätte. Dies bedeutet, dass bei nichtvernünftigen Wesen nach Kant die Wahl von
Zwecken und Mitteln allein durch den Instinkt erfolgt.²⁴
Wie Höwing richtig hervorhebt, bedeutet dieser Sachverhalt, dass auch bei
nichtvernünftigen Wesen „der Vorstellungsinhalt einen Einfluss auf die Kräfte des
Subjekts gewinnt“.²⁵ Diesbezüglich stellt Höwing die meiner Ansicht nach sehr
überzeugende Hypothese auf, dass auch beim nichtvernünftigen Wesen „der In-
halt der Vorstellung die körperlichen Kräfte regulieren oder kontrollieren kann“.²⁶
Höwings Hypothese wird von der folgenden Definition des Instinktes in
Verbindung mit dem Begehrungsvermögen bestätigt, die wir in der Anthropologie
finden:

Die subjektive Möglichkeit der Entstehung einer gewissen Begierde, die vor der Vorstellung
ihres Gegenstandes vorhergeht, ist der Hang (propensio); – die innere Nöthigung des Be-
gehrungsvermögens zur Bestimmung dieses Gegenstandes, ehe man ihn noch kennt, der In-
stinct (wie der Begattungstrieb, oder Älterntrieb des Thiers seine Junge zu schützen u. d. g.).
(Anth, AA 7, S. 265, Z. 21– 26; meine Hervorhebung)

Der Instinkt besteht also nach dieser Definition in der Nötigung des Begeh-
rungsvermögens durch die Vorstellung eines Gegenstandes, den das vorstellende
Wesen noch nicht kennt. Das deutet darauf hin, dass für Kant die Bestimmung zur
Handlung durch Vorstellungen, worin die Rolle des Begehrungsvermögens be-
steht, keine Intervention der Vernunft benötigt.
Im Hinblick auf Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen konnten wir also
folgendes feststellen:
– Alle Lebewesen sind nach Kant Wesen, die begehren.
– Das Begehrungsvermögen ist das Vermögen der Bestimmung der Kräfte des
Subjekts zur Handlung, wodurch ein vorgestellter Gegenstand realisiert wird.
– Das begehrende Wesen setzt selbst durch seine Vorstellungen seine Kraft an
und bestimmt sich selbst zur Handlung.
– Die Vorstellung eines Gegenstandes setzt kein Bewusstsein der Vorstellung
voraus. Ein unbewusstes Wesen kann im Prinzip Vorstellungen haben.
– Tiere verfügen über einen gewissen Grad von Bewusstsein. A fortiori also
können Tiere Vorstellungen haben.
– Die Selbstbestimmung zur Handlung kann auch ohne Intervention der Ver-
nunft erfolgen, z. B. bloß durch Instinkt.

 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 28 – 30.


 Höwing 2013, S. 24. Gegen L. W. Becks (Beck 1960) Deutung der Kantischen Konzeption des
Begehrens siehe Höwing 2013, S. 23 – 24.
 Höwing 2013, S. 24.
50 Federica Basaglia

Der Schluss ist also berechtigt, dass auch nichtvernünftige Tiere nach Kant ein
Begehrungsvermögen haben. Kant behandelt auch die Frage, wie wir die An-
nahme rechtfertigen können, dass Tiere über ein Begehrungsvermögen und über
einen gewissen Grad von Bewusstsein verfügen.
Nach Kant geht es nicht um die Entdeckung eines Vermögens bei Tieren, das
wir Menschen auch haben, sondern um einen analogischen Schluss: Wenn wir die
Wirkungsart der Tiere mit der der Menschen vergleichen, können wir richtiger-
weise schließen, dass auch Tiere nach Vorstellungen handeln. Da das Vermögen
nach Vorstellungen zu handeln das Begehrungsvermögen ist, sind wir berechtigt
zu behaupten, dass auch Tiere ein Begehrungsvermögen haben. Da Kant das
Leben als das Vermögen definiert, nach Gesetzen des Begehrungsvermögens zu
handeln, gehören Tiere und Menschen zu derselben Gattung der lebendigen
Wesen. Was in dieser Hinsicht Menschen von Tieren unterscheidet, ist der Grund
ihrer Wirkungsart – der Grund des tierischen Verhaltens ist der Instinkt, der
Grund des menschlichen Verhaltens ist die Vernunft.

So denken wir uns zu den Kunsthandlungen der Thiere in Vergleichung mit denen des
Menschen den Grund dieser Wirkungen in den ersteren, den wir nicht kennen, mit dem
Grunde ähnlicher Wirkungen des Menschen (der Vernunft), den wir kennen, als Analogon
der Vernunft; und wollen damit zugleich anzeigen: daß der Grund des thierischen Kunst-
vermögens unter der Benennung eines Instincts von der Vernunft in der That specifisch
unterschieden, doch auf die Wirkung (der Bau der Biber mit dem der Menschen verglichen)
ein ähnliches Verhältniß habe. – Deswegen aber kann ich daraus, weil der Mensch zu seinem
Bauen Vernunft braucht, nicht schließen, daß der Biber auch dergleichen haben müsse, und
es einen Schluß nach der Analogie nennen. Aber aus der ähnlichen Wirkungsart der Thiere
(wovon wir den Grund nicht unmittelbar wahrnehmen können), mit der des Menschen (dessen
wir uns unmittelbar bewußt sind) verglichen, können wir ganz richtig nach der Analogie
schließen, daß die Thiere auch nach Vorstellungen handeln (nicht, wie Cartesius will, Ma-
schinen sind) und ungeachtet ihrer specifischen Verschiedenheit doch der Gattung nach (als
lebende Wesen) mit dem Menschen einerlei sind. (KU, AA 5, S. 464, Z. 13 – 23; meine Her-
vorhebung)²⁷

Menschen und Tiere haben also nach Kant viel mehr gemeinsam, als die flüchtige
Lektüre des oben zitierten § 17 der Tugendlehre zu den indirekten Pflichten des

 Vgl. hierzu Vgl. Naragon 1990, S. 4, Baranzke 2005, S. 350 – 351, und Höwing 2013, S. 40 – 41. In
Anlehnung an einige Passagen aus den Reflexionen zur Metaphysik (Refl, AA 17, S. 313, Z. 14–S. 314,
Z. 8) argumentiert Heike Baranzke in ihrem Aufsatz „Tierethik, Tiernatur und Moralanthropologie
im Kontext von § 17, Tugendlehre“, dass „[f]ür Kant […] Tiere […] keine cartesianischen materiellen
Automaten, sondern mit Vorstellungs-, Strebe- und Empfindungsvermögen und daher auch mit
Bewusstsein, nicht aber mit Selbstbewusstsein und Verstand, begabte Lebewesen [sind], die er in
Anlehnung an Leibniz als ‚geistige Automaten‘ (automata spiritualia) bezeichnet“ (Baranzke
2005, S. 351).
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 51

Menschen „in Ansehung“ der Tiere vielleicht den Eindruck geben kann. Die im-
mer noch in der Forschungsliteratur zu Kants tierethischem Argument wirkende
Ansicht, Kant habe gemeint, leblose Gegenstände und vernunftlose Tiere besitzen
denselben moralischen Wert, erweist sich nach den hervorgebrachten Überle-
gungen zu Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen als irreführend. Diese An-
sicht suggeriert nämlich, Kant habe die Tiere aufgrund ihrer Vernunftlosigkeit mit
(leblosen) Sachen gleichgesetzt. Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen zeigt,
dass Kant ein sehr komplexes Verständnis des tierischen Lebens hat und dass ihm
die Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen Menschen und Tieren sehr wohl bewusst waren.
Wie Höwing deutlich zusammenfasst: „Das Vorliegen eines Begehrungsvermö-
gens ist […] für Kant das gemeinsame Merkmal aller lebendigen Wesen, die uns
zugänglich sind (also von Menschen und Tieren) […]“.²⁸ Zwischen dem mensch-
lichen und dem tierischen Begehrungsvermögen besteht allerdings ein wesent-
licher Unterschied: Beim menschlichen Begehren wird die Verbindung zwischen
der Vorstellung des begehrten Gegenstandes und der Kraftanwendung, wodurch
die Handlung zustande kommt, durch Begriffe hergestellt. Anders als Menschen
verfügen Tiere nicht über die Fähigkeit, nach Begriffen zu begehren, und bei ih-
nen erfolgt die Verbindung zwischen der Vorstellung des begehrten Gegenstandes
und der Kraftanwendung beim Handeln lediglich durch den Instinkt.²⁹ Eine
sorgfältige Betrachtung der Kantischen Behandlung der Begriffe von Leben und
Begehrungsvermögen verrät uns aber wesentliche Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen
Menschen und Tieren, denen Kant, wie im IV. Paragrafen gezeigt wird, sehr wohl
auch in seiner Moraltheorie gerecht wird. In der folgenden Sektion möchte ich
mich mit diesen Gemeinsamkeiten beschäftigen.

III Die tierische Anlage im Menschen – was


Menschen und Tiere gemeinsam haben
Im vorigen Paragrafen habe ich gezeigt, dass Tiere nach Kant mit Bewusstsein,
Vorstellungs- und Begehrungsvermögen ausgestattete Wesen sind. Kants Über-
legungen über das Begehrungsvermögen und den Einfluss der Vorstellungen auf
die Kräfte des vorstellenden Wesens zum Zweck der Realisierung des vorgestellten
Gegenstandes bringen ans Licht, wie viel Menschen und Tiere nach dem Kö-
nigsberger Philosophen gemeinsam haben. Wie oben bereits erläutert, unter-

 Höwing 2013, S. 17. Wichtig sei allerdings dabei zu beachten, dass sich der Begriff von Be-
gehrungsvermögen nur auf eine Gattung von Vermögen bezieht (Höwing 2017, S. 18).
 Vgl. Höwing 2013, S. 18.
52 Federica Basaglia

scheidet sich das menschliche Begehrungsvermögen vom tierischen dadurch,


dass beim menschlichen Begehren die Verbindung zwischen der Vorstellung des
begehrten Gegenstandes und der Kraftanwendung, wodurch die Handlung zu-
stande kommt, durch Begriffe hergestellt wird, während die Verbindung beim
tierischen Begehren durch den Instinkt erfolgt. Dieser Unterschied ist ein we-
sentlicher und qualitativ entscheidender. Er rechtfertigt den Unterschied des
moralischen Status von Tieren und Menschen.
Einige Textpassagen aus Kants Werken erinnern uns jedoch daran, dass
Menschen einen Teil ihrer Physiologie und Psychologie mit Tieren gemeinsam
haben. Bereits in der oben zitierten Stelle aus der Anthropologie weist Kant z. B.
darauf hin, dass „das Feld […] dunkeler Vorstellungen im Menschen (und so auch
in Thieren) […] unermeßlich“ ist (Anth AA 7, S. 135, Z. 23 – 26; meine Hervorhebung).
Kant wiederholt einige Zeilen später, dass die dunklen Vorstellungen sogar den
großen Teil des Feldes menschlicher Vorstellungen ausmachen: „So ist das Feld
dunkler Vorstellungen das größte im Menschen“ (Anth, AA 7, S. 136, Z. 14; meine
Hervorhebung). Kant scheint zu behaupten, dass die Menge an klaren Vorstel-
lungen im Menschen relativ klein ist, und dass die Mehrheit seiner Vorstellungen
eigentlich aus dunklen Vorstellungen besteht. Diese dunklen Vorstellungen mö-
gen zwar von unterschiedlichen Gegenständen sein, ihre Art aber – der dunklen
Vorstellungen – ist eine, die auch Tiere haben können.
Die menschlichen und tierischen Gemeinsamkeiten hebt Kant aber vor allem
in der Religionsschrift in seiner Behandlung „der ursprünglichen Anlage zum
Guten in der menschlichen Natur“ (RGV, AA 6, S. 26, Z. 2– 3; vgl. Anth, AA 7, S. 322,
Z. 21–S. 324, Z. 32) hervor. Diese macht zusammen mit der Anlage zur Menschheit
und der Anlage zur Persönlichkeit die menschliche ursprüngliche Anlage zum
Guten aus. Diese sind nach Kant die einzigen Anlagen im Menschen, die prakti-
sche Relevanz besitzen: Sie beziehen sich „unmittelbar auf das Begehrungsver-
mögen und den Gebrauch der Willkür“ (RGV, AA 6, S. 28, Z. 22– 24).

Wir können sie [die ursprüngliche Anlage zum Guten in der menschlichen Natur, F.B.] in
Beziehung auf ihren Zweck füglich auf drei Klassen, als Elemente der Bestimmung des
Menschen, bringen:

1. Die Anlage für die Thierheit des Menschen, als eines lebenden;
2. Für die Menschheit desselben, als eines lebenden und zugleich vernünftigen;
3. Für seine Persönlichkeit, als eines vernünftigen und zugleich der Zurechnung fähigen
Wesens.

1. Die Anlage für die Thierheit im Menschen kann man unter den allgemeinen Titel der
physischen und bloß mechanischen Selbstliebe, d.i. einer solchen bringen, wozu nicht
Vernunft erfordert wird. Sie ist dreifach: erstlich zur Erhaltung seiner selbst; zweitens zur
Fortpflanzung seiner Art durch den Trieb zum Geschlecht und zur Erhaltung dessen, was
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 53

durch Vermischung mit demselben erzeugt wird; drittens zur Gemeinschaft mit anderen
Menschen, d.i. der Trieb zur Gesellschaft. (RGV, AA 6, S. 26, Z. 4– 18)

Kant spricht explizit von einer natürlichen Anlage zur Tierheit im Menschen, die
nicht aus Vernunft (RGV, AA 6, S. 28, Z. 9 – 10), sondern aus physischer, auf Na-
turkausalität beruhender Selbstliebe besteht. Diese Anlage treibt Menschen nach
Kant nicht nur zur Selbsterhaltung und Fortpflanzung, sondern auch dazu, sich
um ihren Nachwuchs zu kümmern und gemeinschaftlich mit anderen Menschen
zu leben. Kant vermittelt hier den Eindruck, diese Eigenschaften seien Menschen
und Tieren gemein.
Der Missbrauch jeder der drei Anlagen führt nach Kant zu menschlichen
Lastern, sie sind jedoch Anlagen zum Guten und zwar in einem negativen Sinne –
„sie widerstreiten nicht dem moralischen Gesetze“ (RGV, AA 6, S. 28, Z. 13) – und
in einem positiven Sinne – „sie befördern die Befolgung desselben“ (RGV, AA 6,
S. 28, Z. 14). Das gilt nach Kant auch für die Anlage zur Tierheit: Obwohl „[a]uf sie
[…] allerlei Laster gepfropft werden [können]“ (RGV, AA 6, S. 26, Z. 18 – 19), stellt
die tierische Anlage nicht die Wurzel dieser Laster dar und sie wird von Kant zur
menschlichen Anlage zum Guten gezählt. So wie die Anlagen zur Menschheit und
Persönlichkeit gehört auch die Anlage zur Tierheit – d. h. die Eigenschaften, die
der Mensch mit nichtvernünftigen Tiere teilt – zu den Eigenschaften eines Men-
schen, die notwendigerweise das ausmachen, was er ist (RGV, AA 6, S. 28,
Z. 17– 21).
Ich bin der Meinung, dass diese Überlegungen über das Begehrungsvermögen
bei den nichtvernünftigen Tieren und die Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen Menschen
und Tieren hinsichtlich der tierischen Anlage des Menschen zum Guten die An-
nahme weniger glaubwürdig erscheinen lassen, dass Kant die moralische Be-
rücksichtigung der Tiere mit der, die Menschen leblosen Dingen schulden,
gleichsetzt. Man sollte sich mindestens fragen, warum Kant lebendigen Wesen,
die mit derselben Art von Vorstellungs- und Begehrungsvermögen wie Menschen
ausgestattet sind, nur denselben moralischen Status wie leblosen Sachen zu-
spricht. Das wird das Thema des nächsten Paragrafen sein.

IV Personen und Sachen: Kants Unzufriedenheit


mit dem „gesetzlichen Zweig“
Der wahre Grund, warum Kant nichtvernünftigen Tieren nur den moralischen
Status von leblosen Gegenständen zuspricht, bleibt meist unbeachtet. Bei der
Unterscheidung zwischen Personen und Sachen handelt es sich um das, was
54 Federica Basaglia

Christine Korsgaard „den gesetzlichen Zweig“ genannt hat:³⁰ nach der Tradition
des Römischen Rechts unterscheidet das Rechtssystem die Welt in Sachen
(Rechtsobjekte) und Personen (Rechtssubjekte). Dementsprechend hat alles, was
keine Person ist, den moralischen Status einer Sache.
Dass Kant selbst mit dieser Unterscheidung nicht zufrieden war und keines-
falls der Ansicht war, die Tiere sollten moralisch nach dem gleichen Maßstab wie
leblose Sachen betrachtet werden, zeigt deutlich, dass er explizit zwischen dem
Wert der Tiere und dem Wert der Dinge unterscheidet.
In der oben zitierten Passage aus der GMS z. B. werden die nichtvernünftigen
Tiere von den „Gegenstände[n] der Neigungen“ (GMS, AA 4, S. 428, Z. 11– 12) bzw.
von „alle[n] durch unsere Handlungen zu erwerbenden Gegenstände[n]“ (GMS,
AA 4, S. 428, Z. 17– 18) – d. h. von bloßen Dingen – ausdrücklich unterschieden.
Zur Kategorie der „Dinge“ zählt Kant also leblose Naturgegenstände, die Gegen-
stand unserer Neigungen sein können, und Artefakte, d. h. alle Gegenstände, die
wir durch unser Handeln zustande bringen können. Dinge haben nach Kant bloß
einen „jederzeit bedingt[en]“ Wert (GMS, AA 4, S. 428, Z. 17– 18), d. h. sie sind nur
wertvoll für uns, wenn sie Gegenstand unserer Neigungen (Naturgegenstände)
oder Gegenstände sind, die wir durch unser Handeln erzeugen können (Artefak-
te). Nichtvernünftige Tiere können ersichtlich kein Produkt unseres Handelns
sein. Offensichtlich hängt ihr Wert für Kant auch nicht davon ab, ob sie Gegen-
stand unserer Neigungen sind: Kant nennt sie, wie oben bereits gesehen, „[d]ie
Wesen, deren Dasein […] nicht auf unserm Willen, sondern auf der Natur beruht“
(GMS, AA 4, S. 428, Z. 18 – 20). In Bezug auf Tiere spricht Kant nicht von einem
bedingten Wert, der davon abhängt, dass sie Gegenstand unserer Neigung bzw.
Gegenstände sind, die wir durch unser Handeln erzeugen können. Da sie nicht-
vernünftige Wesen sind, können sie dennoch nicht als Zwecke an sich gelten und
den „absoluten Wert“ des Menschen besitzen (GMS, AA 4, S. 428, Z. 30). Ihr Wert
ist dementsprechend nach Kant kein absoluter, sondern nur ein „relativ[er] Wert“
(GMS, AA 4, S. 428, Z. 20 – 21)³¹. Die Welt scheint also nach Kant in drei Gruppen
von Entitäten eigenteilt zu sein: bloße Dinge, nichtvernünftige Tiere und Men-

 Korsgaard 2013, S. 629.


 Kant scheint hier meiner Ansicht nach absichtlich von einem relativen Wert der nichtver-
nünftigen Tiere und von einem bedingten Wert der leblosen Gegenstände zu sprechen, um den
wesentlichen Unterschied zwischen dem Wert der ersteren von dem der zweiten auszudrücken.
Leblose Gegenstände besitzen einen Wert für Menschen nur unter der Bedingung, dass sie Ge-
genstand unserer Neigungen sind bzw. dass wir sie erzeugen möchten. Der Wert der nichtver-
nünftigen Tiere steht nicht unter dieser Bedingung, d. h. besteht unabhängig davon, dass Tiere
Gegenstand unserer Neigung sind. Da sie nichtvernünftige Wesen sind, ist ihr Wert jedoch kein
absoluter, und kann nach Kant nur ein relativer sein.
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 55

schen³². Was die Zusprechung eines moralischen Status zu diesen Entitäten an-
geht, stehen Kant dennoch nur die zwei obengenannten Kategorien zur Verfü-
gung: Tiere können nicht als Personen gelten und fallen daher als nichtvernünf-
tige Wesen in die Kategorie der Sachen.
Der siebzehnte Paragraf der Tugendlehre bestätigt diesen Sachverhalt. Die
menschlichen Verpflichtungen gegenüber Tieren und gegenüber den leblosen
Naturgegenständen werden von Kant zwar im selben Paragrafen, jedoch separat
behandelt. Der Mensch habe die Pflicht gegen sich selbst, seinen „Hang zum
bloßen Zerstören“ (MS, AA 6, S. 443, Z. 3) zu bändigen, weil das grundlose Zer-
stören von schönen Naturgegenständen das für die Moralität sehr befördernde
Gefühl im Menschen zerstört, „etwas auch ohne Absicht auf Nutzen zu lieben“
(MS, AA 6, S. 443, Z. 7– 8). Die grausame und gewaltsame Behandlung von Tieren
ist aber für Kant – aufgrund der durch Grausamkeit an Tieren verursachten
Austilgung des Mitgefühls im menschlichen Gemüt – „der Pflicht des Menschen
gegen sich selbst weit inniglicher entgegengesetzt“ (MS, AA 6, S. 443, Z. 12– 13;
meine Hervorhebung).
Es kann daher jetzt behauptet werden, dass Kants Argument sehr wohl grö-
ßere moralische Berücksichtigung für Tiere als für schöne Kristallisationen ein-
räumt. Darüber hinaus geben uns die in den vorigen Paragrafen eingeführten
Überlegungen gute Gründe anzunehmen, dass (im Gegensatz zu dem, was u. a.
Timmermann behauptet hat)³³ der Grund der größeren moralischen Berücksich-
tigung der Tiere im Vergleich mit den leblosen Sachen nur zum Teil in den Kon-
sequenzen der grausamen Handlungen gegen Tiere für die menschliche Psy-
chologie liegt. Es ist nämlich vielmehr plausibel, dass sich für Kant solche
Konsequenzen für die menschliche Psychologie nur deswegen ergeben, weil Tiere
und Menschen gewisse Ähnlichkeiten aufweisen. Wie in den vorigen Paragrafen
gezeigt, geht es dabei nicht nur um das Vorhandensein eines Nervensystems und
einer Empfindungsfähigkeit, sondern auch um Bewusstsein, Begehrungs- und
Vorstellungsvermögen. Hätten nämlich Menschen nicht so viel gemeinsam mit
den vernunftlosen Tieren, schiene es weniger verständlich, warum Kant meint,
dass die menschliche Grausamkeit gegenüber Tieren eine ernsthaftere Übertre-
tung der Pflichten des Menschen gegen sich selbst darstellt.

 Dabei ist es wichtig zu beachten, dass der Mensch nach Kant Zweck an sich nicht (nur) als
vernünftiges Wesen ist – d. h. als Wesen, das über die intellektuelle Fähigkeit verfügt, Prinzipien
und Gesetze im Hinblick auf die Zwecke, die es erreichen will, selbst zu formulieren (sprich:
technische und pragmatische Imperative zu bilden). Zweck an sich ist der Mensch als moralisches
Vernunftwesen, d. h. als Wesen, das der moralischen Zurechnung fähig ist (vgl. RGV, AA 6, S. 26,
Z. 8‒11; vgl. hierzu Baranzke 2005, S. 350, und Brandt 2010, S. 218 u. 124– 125).
 Vgl. Timmermann 2005, S. 134.
56 Federica Basaglia

V Schluss
Wie im ersten Paragrafen erläutert, verfolgt mein Beitrag das Ziel, der Irritation
entgegenzuwirken, die viele Kantleserinnen und -leser bei der Lektüre der am
Anfang zitierten Passage aus der GMS empfinden, in der Kant nichtvernünftigen
Tieren den moralischen Status von Sachen zuspricht.
Ausgehend von Kants Definition des Begehrungsvermögens habe ich im
zweiten Paragrafen versucht, Kants Verständnis der nichtvernünftigen Tiere als
bewusste, vorstellende und begehrende Wesen zu rekonstruieren. Wir haben
feststellen können, dass Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen beinhaltet,
dass alle Lebewesen anhand von Begehrungen – nach der Vorstellung von be-
gehrten Gegenständen – handeln. Des Weiteren haben wir expliziert, dass das
Begehrungsvermögen das Vermögen der Bestimmung der Kräfte des Subjekts zur
Handlung ist, die den vorgestellten Gegenstand realisieren kann, und dass diese
Bestimmung eine Selbstbestimmung der eigenen Kräfte zur Handlung ist. Der
Frage folgend, welche dann nach Kant die Wesen sind, die über solch ein Ver-
mögen verfügen, haben wir feststellen können, dass für Kant die Tätigkeit des
Vorstellens nicht voraussetzt, dass sich das vorstellende Wesen seiner Vorstel-
lungen bewusst ist. Außerdem haben wir darauf aufmerksam gemacht, dass Tiere
nach Kant über einen gewissen Grad von Bewusstsein verfügen. Da nach Kant die
Selbstbestimmung eines Wesens zur Handlung auch ohne die Intervention der
Vernunft, nämlich auch bloß durch den Instinkt erfolgen kann, haben wir Nar-
agons, Baranzkes und Höwings Ergebnisse bestätigen können, nach denen Tiere
für Kant über Vorstellungs- und Begehrungsvermögen verfügen.
Im dritten Paragrafen habe ich einige Überlegungen über das Kantische
Verständnis der Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen Menschen und Tieren vorgeschlagen,
die sich vor allem auf Kants Definition der menschlichen Anlagen zum Guten in
der Religionsschrift und in der Anthropologie stützen, wo er explizit von einer
natürlichen, tierischen Anlage im Menschen spricht. Durch die im zweiten und
dritten Paragrafen ausgeführten Überlegungen leuchtet ein, dass für Kant ver-
nunftlose Tiere lebendige, vorstellende, begehrende Wesen sind, die viele phy-
siologische und psychologische Eigenschaften mit dem Menschen gemeinsam
haben. Die Frage, warum Kant solchen Wesen nur den moralischen Status von
Sachen zuspricht, habe ich im vierten Paragrafen behandelt. Ich habe gezeigt,
dass Kant von drei Kategorien von Gegenständen spricht, mit denen der han-
delnde Mensch konfrontiert wird: leblose Sachen, vernunftlose Tiere und Men-
schen (Vernunftwesen). Nach der Tradition des römischen Rechts stehen ihm
jedoch nur zwei Kategorien von Objekten der moralischen Berücksichtigung zur
Verfügung: Sachen und Personen. Da Tiere keine Vernunftwesen und daher keine
Kants Definition von Begehrungsvermögen 57

Moralsubjekte sind, fallen sie in die Kategorie der Sachen. Dass Kant die Unter-
scheidung zwischen Sachen und Personen nicht zufriedenstellend fand, habe ich
anhand der einschlägigen Passagen aus der GMS und der Tugendlehre aufzuzei-
gen versucht.
Aufgrund dieser Überlegungen ist es einleuchtend, dass Kant sehr wohl
größere moralische Berücksichtigung für Tiere als für leblose Gegenstände ein-
räumt und dass sich sein tierethisches Argument nicht nur auf die Folgen der
Grausamkeit gegen Tiere für die menschliche Psychologie stützt.

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Andreas Schmidt
Streben und Trieb.
Zur Demarkationslinie zwischen Transzendentalphilosophie
und Anthropologie in Fichtes Wissenschaftslehre

Abstract. Der Beitrag untersucht die Rolle des unendlichen Strebens und des Triebs
bei Fichte. Im ersten Teil wird Fichtes Begriff des unendlichen Strebens auf Kants
Theorie der unendlichen Annäherung an das höchste Gut zurückgeführt, und es wird
argumentiert, dass Fichte diesen Gedanken mit Hilfe einer Anregung Maimons zu
einem genuin transzendentalen Prinzip transformiert. Im zweiten Teil wird die These
vertreten, dass Fichte die transzendentale Lehre vom unendlichen Streben in der
Sittenlehre von 1798 ergänzt durch eine Trieblehre, die als anthropologisches Ge-
genstück zur Theorie des unendlichen Strebens dient. Im dritten Teil wird gezeigt,
dass sich in Fichtes Texten Abgrenzungsprobleme zwischen der transzendentalen
und der empirisch-anthropologischen Ebene ergeben. Es wird argumentiert, dass
der Bereich des Transzendentalen nach Fichtes eigenen Prämissen kein Ort für
dispositionelle Eigenschaften sein kann und der Begriff des Triebes daher strikt von
ihm fernzuhalten ist.

In this article, I examine the role that infinite striving and drive play in Fichte’s
work. In the first part, I trace Fichte’s concept of infinite striving back to Kant’s
theory of infinite approximation to the highest good and I argue that Fichte trans-
forms this idea into a genuinely transcendental principle by seizing on a suggestion
he found in the work of Maimon. In the second part, I interpret the theory of drives
that Fichte expounds in his Sittenlehre of 1798 as an anthropological counterpart
to his transcendental theory of infinite striving. In the third part of the article, I sug-
gest that Fichte has difficulties delineating between the transcendental and an-
thropological realms. I argue that according to Fichte’s own premises the transcen-
dental realm cannot be characterized with the help of dispositional properties and
its description must, therefore, be kept entirely free from the notion of drive.

1 Das unendliche Streben


Der plot, durch den Fichte seine Theorie des unendlichen Strebens in der
Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre einführt, ist wohlbekannt. Das erste
Prinzip der Wissenschaftslehre ist das absolute Ich, dessen Wesen darin besteht,
sich selbst zu setzen und dem daher vollständige Autonomie zukommt. Dieses Ich

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-004
60 Andreas Schmidt

ist jedoch mit einem einschränkenden Anstoß konfrontiert, den es zu bewältigen


hat und der für es der Grund ist, sich ein Nicht-Ich entgegenzusetzen. Wenn
freilich das Ich völlig autonom ist, kann es einen Anstoß nur geben, wenn das Ich
ihn zulässt. Wieso lässt das Ich sich auf diese Einschränkung ein? Die Antwort ist
einfach: Das absolute Ich kann es nur geben, wenn es sich seiner bewusst ist. Es
kann sich seiner aber nur bewusst sein, wenn es auf einen einschränkenden
Widerstand trifft, der es zur Reflexion veranlasst. Daher muss das Ich sich selbst
soweit beschränken, dass ein Anstoß auf es erfolgen kann. Ist das Ich aber ein-
geschränkt, befindet es sich in einem Mangelzustand; es realisiert sein Wesen –
vollständige Autonomie – nicht vollständig und muss daher danach streben, den
Mangel aufzuheben. Das Gebot, die Autonomie wieder zu restituieren, identifi-
ziert Fichte mit dem Kantischen Kategorischen Imperativ; es ist eine unbedingte
Forderung, die vom Ich an das Ich ergeht. Allerdings ist das Ich damit in einer
paradoxen Situation: Da der Anstoß die Autonomie des Ichs einschränkt, muss
das Ich sich bemühen, ihn zu negieren, um seine volle Autonomie zurückzuge-
winnen. Da der Anstoß aber Bedingung des Selbstbewusstseins ist und das Ich
nicht ohne Selbstbewusstsein existieren kann, muss das Ich zugleich dafür Sorge
tragen, dass der Anstoß erhalten bleibt. Daher kann das Ich nur als unendliches
Streben existieren, das nie an sein Ziel gelangt – es scheint, es sei, wie Hegel
kritisch schreibt, in einen Zustand permanenter „Qual“ gebannt.¹ In der Phäno-
menologie des Geistes bezeichnet Hegel dieses Streben als „Begierde“ und be-
schreibt ihre sich selbst perpetuierende Struktur mit folgenden Worten:

Die Begierde und die in ihrer Befriedigung erreichte Gewißheit seiner selbst ist bedingt durch
ihn [sc. den Gegenstand bzw., mit Fichte gesprochen, den „Anstoß“, A. S.], denn sie ist durch
Aufheben dieses Anderen; daß dies Aufheben sei, muß dies Andere sein. Das Selbstbe-
wußtsein vermag also durch seine negative Beziehung ihn nicht aufzuheben; es erzeugt ihn
darum vielmehr wieder, so wie die Begierde. (TW III, 143)

Freilich können wir uns mit einer solch einfachen philosophischen Erzählung,
deren theoretischer Status unklar bleibt, nicht zufrieden geben. Die Frage ist,
welche Signifikanz dem Begriff des unendlichen Strebens im Rahmen einer
Transzendentalphilosophie tatsächlich zukommen kann. Im Folgenden möchte
ich zur Beantwortung dieser Frage einen Beitrag liefern, indem ich erstens den
Begriff des unendlichen Strebens zurückführe auf seine Kantischen Ursprünge,
und erläutern, wie Fichte diesen Begriff mit Hilfe einer Anregung Maimons zu
einem grundlegenden transzendentalen Prinzip transformiert. Zweitens werde ich

 TW I, 299. Hegels Werke werden nach der Theorie-Werkausgabe (TW) des Suhrkamp Verlags mit
Band- und Seitenzahl zitiert.
Streben und Trieb. 61

einen kurzen Abriss der Fichteschen Triebtheorie geben, die Fichte als Teil einer
transzendentalen Anthropologie der Transzendentalphilosophie im engeren Sinn
zur Seite stellt und in der das transzendentale Streben in Form eines Gefüges von
Trieben im Bereich der Erscheinungen wiederkehrt. Drittens werde ich zeigen,
dass sich für Fichte Abgrenzungsprobleme zwischen dem Begriff des Strebens
und dem Begriff des Triebs, also zwischen Transzendentalphilosophie und tran-
szendentaler Anthropologie ergeben, und werde einen möglichen Ausweg für
Fichte vorschlagen.

1 Fichtes Streben und Kants ‚ins Unendliche


gehender Progressus‘
Das Verbindungsstück, das uns erlaubt, Kant und Fichte in Beziehung zu setzen,
ist der Begriff der reinen praktischen Vernunft. Fichte setzt nämlich das absolute
Ich mit der Vernunft gleich. So schreibt er in der Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo:
„In der gedrukten WissenschaftsLehre ist das reine Ich zu verstehen als Vernunft
überhaupt, die von der persönlichen Ichheit ganz verschieden ist“ (WLnm-K, GA
IV/2, 240).² Gemeint ist dabei nicht – oder zumindest nicht primär, ich komme
darauf zurück – die theoretische, sondern die praktische Vernunft. In der Sit-
tenlehre von 1798 lesen wir nämlich: „So wird […] behauptet das Primat der Ver-
nunft, in wiefern sie praktisch ist. Alles geht aus vom Handeln, und vom Handeln
des Ich“ (SL 98, GA I/5, 95). Nun sind für Kant „reine praktische Vernunft“ und
„reiner Wille“ synonyme Ausdrücke – Kant spricht von der „objective[n] Realität
eines reinen Willens oder, welches einerlei ist, einer reinen praktischen Vernunft“
(KpV, AA V, 55) –, und auch darin folgt Fichte Kant und identifiziert das absolute
Ich nicht nur mit der praktischen Vernunft, sondern auch mit dem reinen Willen.
Er schreibt: „[W]enn man von etwas an sich reden wollte, so wäre es der reine
Wille[,] der sich in der Empirie zeigt als Sittengesetz. Dieß bemerkt auch K[ant] in
der K[ritik]. der r[einen]. Vernunft“ (WLnm-K, GA IV/3, 446, eckige Klammern im
zit. Text), und ergänzt einige Seiten später: „In diesem Wollen nun in der letzten
Rücksicht ist nun mein ganzes Sein und Wesen bestimmt für einmal auf alle

 Ich verwende folgende Abkürzungen für einzelne Werke Fichtes: Grundlage der gesamten
Wissenschaftslehre = GWL, Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo (Krause-Nachschrift) = WLnm-K,
Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo (Hallesche Nachschrift) = WLnm-H, System der Sittenlehre nach
Prinzipien der Wissenschaftslehre = SL 98. Für Werke Kants werden verwendet: Grundlegung zur
Metaphysik der Sitten = GMS, Kritik der praktischen Vernunft = KpV.
62 Andreas Schmidt

Ewigkeit; ich bin nichts als ein so wollendes, und mein Sein ist nichts als ein so
wollen. Dieß ist die ursprüngliche Realität des Ich“ (WLnm-K, GA IV/3, 449).
Man könnte vielleicht vermuten, zumindest die Gleichsetzung der reinen
praktischen Vernunft (bzw. des reinen Willens) mit dem Ich sei Fichtesches
Sondergut. Aber auch das ist nicht der Fall. In der Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der
Sitten stellt Kant selbst diese Gleichsetzung her:

Sogar sich selbst und zwar nach der Kenntnis, die der Mensch durch innere Empfindung von
sich hat, darf er sich nicht anmaßen zu erkennen, wie er an sich selbst sei. Denn da er doch
sich selbst nicht gleichsam schafft und seinen Begriff nicht a priori, sondern empirisch
bekommt, so ist natürlich, dass er auch von sich durch den innern Sinn und folglich nur
durch die Erscheinung seiner Natur und [durch] die Art, wie sein Bewusstsein affiziert wird,
Kundschaft einziehen könne, indessen er doch notwendiger Weise über diese aus lauter
Erscheinungen zusammengesetzte Beschaffenheit seines eigenen Subjekts noch etwas an-
deres zum Grunde Liegendes, nämlich sein Ich [!], so wie es an sich selbst beschaffen sein
mag, annehmen und sich also [einerseits] in Absicht auf die bloße Wahrnehmung und
Empfänglichkeit der Empfindungen zur Sinnenwelt, [andererseits] in Ansehung dessen aber,
was in ihm reine Tätigkeit sein mag, (dessen, was gar nicht durch Affizierung der Sinne,
sondern unmittelbar zum Bewusstsein gelangt) sich zur intellektuellen Welt zählen muss,
die er doch nicht weiter kennt. (GMS, AA IV, 451, Ergänzungen in eckigen Klammern von
A. S.)³

Obwohl wir uns mittels des inneren Sinns also nur erkennen, wie wir uns er-
scheinen, so muss doch etwas dieser Erscheinung Zugrundeliegendes ange-
nommen werden – das „Ich“ oder das, was in uns „reine Tätigkeit“ ist: erstaunlich
Fichteanische Formulierungen. Dieses „Ich“ ist aber, wie Kant sofort klar macht,
nichts anderes als „die Autonomie des Willens, samt ihrer Folge, der Moralität“
(GMS, AA IV, 453).
Zumindest im Rahmen einer Spekulation erwägt Kant auch, diesem Ich
Selbstbewusstsein zuzuschreiben und dieses Selbstbewusstsein mit dem Be-
wusstsein des kategorischen Imperativs zu identifizieren:

Freiheit und unbedingtes praktisches Gesetz weisen also wechselweise auf einander zurück.
Ich frage nun nicht, ob sie auch in der Tat verschieden sind, und nicht vielmehr ein unbe-
dingtes Gesetz bloß das Selbstbewußtsein einer reinen praktischen Vernunft, diese aber
ganz einerlei mit dem positiven Begriff der Freiheit sei […]. (KpV, § 6, AA V, 29)

Auch das ist eine These, die Fichte, wie ich eingangs bereits erwähnt habe, auf-
genommen hat. Damit haben wir genügend Verbindungsstücke gefunden, um

 Den Hinweis auf diese Passage verdanke ich Reid 2003, 272.
Streben und Trieb. 63

eine systematische Lektüre der Fichteschen Wissenschaftslehre im Licht der


Kantischen Theorie zu ermöglichen.
Wie kommen wir von hier aus nun zu Fichtes These vom unendlichen Stre-
ben? Die Kantische Quelle findet sich in den ersten fünf Schritten des Unsterb-
lichkeitsbeweises, den Kant in seiner Kritik der praktischen Vernunft liefert. Kant
argumentiert dort folgendermaßen:
1. Obwohl nur das moralische Gesetz der Bestimmungsgrund des reinen Willens
sein kann, so bedarf der reine Wille doch eines Objekts, auf dessen Reali-
sierung er ausgeht. Dieses Objekt nennt Kant das „höchste Gut“: „Die Be-
wirkung des höchsten Guts in der Welt ist das notwendige Objekt eines durchs
moralische Gesetz bestimmbaren Willens“ (KpV, AA V, 122).⁴
2. Ein Aspekt des höchsten Gutes ist „die völlige Angemessenheit der Gesin-
nungen zum moralischen Gesetz“ (ibid.), die Kant als „Heiligkeit“ (ibid.)
bezeichnet. Das Moralgesetz fordert also die „Bewirkung“ von Heiligkeit.
3. Und da aus Sollen Können folgt, muss diese Bewirkung möglich sein.
4. Auf den ersten Blick ist das aber nicht der Fall. Heiligkeit ist, so Kant, „eine
Vollkommenheit, deren kein vernünftiges Wesen in der Sinnenwelt, in keinem
Zeitpunkte seines Daseins, fähig ist“ (ibid.) – die Bewirkung von Heiligkeit
scheint also unmöglich zu sein.
5. Aber dieses Dilemma lässt sich vermeiden, wenn wir das höchste Gut als
Grenzwert einer unendlichen Annäherung auffassen und die geforderte
„Bewirkung“ des höchsten Gutes als diese unendliche Annäherung an einen
Grenzwert reinterpretieren. Bei einer solchen unendlichen Annäherung ver-
schwindet die Distanz zum Grenzwert zwar nie vollständig; doch tendiert sie
gegen Null, sie wird ‚so gut wie Null‘. Das höchste Gut kann somit nur „in
einem ins Unendliche gehenden Progressus zu jener Angemessenheit ange-
troffen werden, und es ist, nach den Prinzipien der reinen praktischen Ver-
nunft, notwendig, eine solche praktische Fortschreitung als das reale Objekt
unseres Willens anzunehmen“ (ibid.).

Von hier aus glaubt Kant nun einen Unsterblichkeitsbeweis entwickeln zu kön-
nen – für meine Zwecke ist aber eine Darstellung der weiteren Schritte auf diesem

 Vgl. auch KpV, AA V, 109: „Das moralische Gesetz ist der alleinige Bestimmungsgrund des
reinen Willens. Da dieses aber blos formal ist (nämlich allein die Form der Maxime als allgemein
gesetzgebend fordert), so abstrahirt es als Bestimmungsgrund von aller Materie, mithin von allem
Objecte des Wollens. Mithin mag das höchste Gut immer der ganze Gegenstand einer reinen
praktischen Vernunft, d. i. eines reinen Willens, sein, so ist es darum doch nicht für den Be-
stimmungsgrund desselben zu halten, und das moralische Gesetz muß allein als der Grund an-
gesehen werden, jenes und dessen Bewirkung oder Beförderung sich zum Objecte zu machen.“
64 Andreas Schmidt

Weg nicht nötig. Hier reicht es zu sehen, dass es auch bei Kant ein unendliches
Streben gibt: Der reine Wille – den auch Kant, wie gezeigt, mit dem Ich identifi-
ziert – strebt notwendigerweise einem durch die praktische Vernunft vorgegebe-
nen, aber nie realisierbaren Ziel zu.
Aber es gibt auch Unterschiede zwischen Kants und Fichtes Theorie des un-
endlichen Strebens. So ist der Hinderungsgrund für die Realisierung des ange-
strebten Idealzustandes bei Fichte nicht nur, dass wir als vernünftige Sinnenwe-
sen unserer sinnlichen Neigungen niemals völlig ledig sein können, sondern der
Hinderungsgrund ist unsere Endlichkeit überhaupt, also unsere Rezeptivität den
Empfindungen gegenüber. Wenn aber bereits Endlichkeit als Realisierungs-
hemmnis gilt, dann kann es nicht nur die praktische Vernunft im engeren, mo-
ralischen Sinn sein, der hier Widerstand geleistet wird, denn es wäre nicht ein-
sichtig, dass es die Endlichkeit überhaupt ist, die die Realisierung des höchsten
moralischen Gutes, der Heiligkeit, verhindert. Die Endlichkeit überhaupt kann
nur ein Realisierungshemmnis sein, wenn auch die theoretische Vernunft nach
dem Vorbild der praktischen Vernunft als Wille zu einem unrealisierbaren epis-
temischen höchsten Gut beschrieben wird. Fichte kann sich bei dieser Ergänzung
auf Salomon Maimon berufen. Dieser schreibt in seinem Philosophischen Wör-
terbuch von 1791:

Das Ding an sich ist also eine Vernunftidee, die von der Vernunft selbst zur Auflösung einer
allgemeinen Antinomie des Denkens überhaupt gegeben ist. Denn das Denken überhaupt
bestehet in Beziehung einer Form (Regel des Verstandes) auf eine Materie (das ihr sub-
sumirte Gegebne). Ohne Materie kann man zum Bewußtseyn der Form nicht gelangen,
folglich ist die Materie eine nothwendige Bedingung des Denkens, d. h. zum reellen Denken
einer Form oder Verstandesregel muß nothwendig eine Materie, worauf sie sich beziehet,
gegeben werden; auf der andern Seite hingegen erfordert die Vollständigkeit des Denkens
eines Objekts, daß nichts darinn gegeben, sondern alles gedacht werden soll. Wir können
keine dieser Forderungen als unrechtmäßig abweisen, wir müssen also beyden Genüge
leisten dadurch, daß wir unser Denken immer vollständiger machen, wodurch die Materie
sich immer der Form nähert bis ins Unendliche, und dieses ist die Auflösung dieser Anti-
nomie.⁵

Es gibt also eine Antinomie der Erkenntnis. These: Um einen Gegenstand zu er-
kennen, ist ein nichtkonzeptuelles Gegebenes nötig. Antithese: Ein Gegenstand
ist erst wirklich erkannt, wenn alles Nichtkonzeptuelle in Begriffe transformiert
wurde. Aufgelöst wird die Antinomie durch unendliches Streben. Zwar über-
nimmt Fichte nicht Maimons Reinterpretation des Dinges an sich als Vernunft-
idee, aber davon abgesehen liefert Maimon in dieser Passage Fichte das Modell

 Maimon 1791, 162 f. (= Maimon 1970, Bd. 3, 186 f.).


Streben und Trieb. 65

für seine Tieferlegung der Kantischen Theorie des höchsten Gutes.⁶ Dadurch rückt
das Theorem des unendlichen Strebens in eine transzendentale Position: Das
unendliche Streben ist Voraussetzung dafür, dass es eine Erscheinungswelt gibt:
„Kein Streben, kein Objekt“ (GWL, GA I/2, 397).

2 Fichtes transzendentale Anthropologie


Fichte geht noch in einem zweiten Schritt deutlich über Kant hinaus. Das absolute
Ich ist der Konstitutionsgrund der Erscheinungswelt. Das Ich taucht aber auch
innerhalb dieser Erscheinungswelt als räumlich und zeitlich bestimmtes Wesen
auf, und es stellt sich daher die Frage, wie die transzendentalen Handlungen des
absoluten Ichs in das in Raum und Zeit erscheinende Ich implementiert werden
können. Fichte versucht daher, der Transzendentalphilosophie eine transzen-
dentale Anthropologie an die Seite zu stellen. Im Rahmen dieser transzenden-
talen Anthropologie, die sich vor allem in der Sittenlehre von 1798 findet, entwi-
ckelt Fichte eine Trieblehre als Komplement seiner Theorie des unendlichen
Strebens, die ich im Folgenden näher betrachten möchte.
Fichte konstatiert im § 8 der Sittenlehre einen Widerspruch, der sich aus fol-
genden drei Sätzen konstruieren lässt:
1. Es gibt kein Objektbewusstsein ohne Bewusstsein eigener Tätigkeit, denn
Objektbewusstsein entsteht nur aufgrund des Bewusstseins eingeschränkter
Ich-Tätigkeit.
2. Es gibt aber auch kein Bewusstsein der eigenen Tätigkeit ohne Objektbe-
wusstsein; denn ich kann mir eigene Tätigkeit nur zuschreiben, wenn sie eine

 Diese Tieferlegung hat außerdem eine weitere wichtige Konsequenz. Während das Ich nor-
malerweise seine Handlungsziele gedanklich antizipiert, ist das im Fall des Ideals des Fichte-
schen Strebens nicht der Fall, da – in Maimons Worten – die Bedingungen des reellen Denkens in
diesem Fall unterschritten werden. Das Ich strebt hier also einen Zustand an, den es denkend
nicht repräsentieren und daher nicht antizipieren kann. Damit Handlungen möglich sind, muss
das Ideal durch repräsentierbare endliche Zwecke substituiert werden, die, jedes für sich ge-
nommen, dem Ideal aber nicht gerecht werden können. In Fichtes Worten: „Das unbedingte
Streben überhaupt, – das insofern freilich nicht Streben heißen sollte, weil es kein Objekt hat, für
welches wir aber keine Benennung haben, noch haben können, – welches außerhalb aller Be-
stimmbarkeit liegt – ist unendlich; aber als solches kommt es nicht zum Bewußtseyn, noch kann
es dazu kommen, weil Bewußtseyn nur durch Reflexion, und Reflexion nur durch Bestimmung
möglich ist. Sobald aber über dasselbe reflektirt wird, wird es notwendig endlich. So wie der Geist
inne wird, daß es endlich sey, dehnt er es wieder aus; sobald er sich aber die Frage aufwirft: ist es
nun unendlich, wird es gerade durch diese Frage endlich; und so fort in’s Unendliche“ (GWL, GA
I/2, 403).
66 Andreas Schmidt

zielgerichtete Tätigkeit ist. Bestimmte Ziele setzen aber Objektbewusstsein


voraus, als die Quelle, aus der die Ziele geschöpft werden.
3. Objektbewusstsein und Bewusstsein eigener Tätigkeit sind numerisch ver-
schieden und setzen einander wechselseitig voraus. Dem Objektbewusstsein
muss ein Tätigkeitsbewusstsein vorausgehen (das dann gehemmt wird), das
Tätigkeitsbewusstsein muss seinerseits einen Zweckbegriff aber schon bein-
halten, und Zweckbegriffe setzen Objektbewusstsein voraus.

Es scheint, als befänden wir uns in einem Zirkel. Freilich liegt eine einfache Lö-
sung parat: Wir negieren (3), indem wir geltend machen, dass es naturgegebene
und unbewusste Zwecke gibt, die einem Lebewesen natürlicherweise Handlun-
gen vorschreiben, noch bevor es Objektbewusstsein erlangt, und die bewusst
werden, wenn sie auf Widerstände treffen und Objektbewusstsein entsteht. Tä-
tigkeits- und Objektbewusstsein sind dann gleichursprünglich. Das Ziel, das
dieser Tätigkeit einbeschrieben ist, ist dann freilich nicht frei gewählt, sondern
naturwüchsig. Die Tätigkeit muss daher als Aktualisierung eines Naturtriebs an-
gesehen werden, und es handelt sich, strenggenommen, dann auch nicht um
‚meine‘ Tätigkeit, sondern eher um eine Tätigkeit ‚in mir‘. Naturtriebe sind also
notwendig, denn Naturtriebe sind der Ort, an dem der bewusste Kontakt zwischen
Ich-Tätigkeit und widerständigem Nicht-Ich noch vor der Bildung von frei ge-
wählten Zweckbegriffen stattfindet: „Ich bin selbst in gewisser Rücksicht, unbe-
schadet der Absolutheit meiner Vernunft und meiner Freiheit, Natur; und diese
meine Natur ist ein Trieb“ (SL 98, § 8, GA I/5, 108).
Daher beginnt Fichte an dieser Stelle der Sittenlehre eine Argumentations-
sequenz, mit der er eine Theorie des Ichs als eines natürlichen Triebwesens zu
entwickeln und dessen Stellung im Naturganzen zu erläutern versucht. Die neue
Frage ist jetzt: Wie muss die Natur als ganze beschaffen sein, wenn sie ein Ich als
ein Wesen mit Naturtrieben enthalten soll? Nach Fichte muss die Natur – soll sie
derartige Triebwesen enthalten – selbst als ein organisches Ganzes gedacht
werden, das unter dem Gesetz eines „Bildungstriebes“ steht, d. h. des Triebes,
organische Ganzheiten hervorzubringen, die miteinander interagieren.
Wäre das Ich aber nur dies – könnte es sich nur Naturtriebe zuschreiben (und
nur auf dieser Basis Zweckbegriffe bilden), dann wäre eine Realisierung des
Moralgesetzes ausgeschlossen. Fichte hat ja, um den ursprünglichen Realitäts-
kontakt zu erklären, die Ich-Tätigkeit zu einem Naturtrieb depotenziert; die
Tätigkeit tritt auf dieser Ebene nicht mehr als Vernunfttätigkeit auf. Auf der Ver-
nunfttätigkeit und ihrer Selbstgesetzgebung beruht aber die ganze Moralphilo-
sophie Fichtes.
Daher muss sich nun eine weitere Argumentationssequenz anschließen.
Fichte muss zusätzlich zu den Naturtrieben einen reinen Trieb postulieren, einen
Streben und Trieb. 67

„Trieb nach Freiheit um seiner selbst willen“ (SL 98, GA I/5, 132). Dieser reine Trieb
fungiert als das empirische Gegenstück des reinen Willens innerhalb der Er-
scheinungswelt; es ist dessen ‚anthropologisches‘ Korrelat – und als Trieb etwas
durchaus Gegebenes. ⁷ Aber worauf geht dieser Trieb? Was soll man in concreto
tun, wenn man „Freiheit um seiner selbst willen“ realisieren will? Es scheint, dass
der reine Trieb für sich genommen inhaltsleer ist. Und so ist es in der Tat. Fichte
argumentiert, dass der reine Trieb nur solche Inhalte besitzt, die ihm durch die
Naturtriebe geliefert werden. Dadurch ist der Mensch den Naturtrieben aber
keineswegs unterworfen; der reine Trieb wählt aus ihnen diejenigen aus, in denen
sich die Freiheit am besten manifestieren kann:

Der reine Trieb [der den reinen Willen im Feld der Erscheinungen repräsentiert, A. S.] geht
auf absolute Unabhängigkeit, die Handlung ist ihm angemessen, wenn sie gleichfalls auf
dieselbe ausgeht, d. i. in einer Reihe liegt, durch deren Fortsetzung das Ich unabhängig werden
müßte. (SL 98, § 12, GA I/5, 140 – 141.)

Und etwas später wird dies noch näher ausgeführt:

Das Verhältniß des Naturtriebes zu dem aufgestellten Princip ist dieses: In jedem Momente
ist etwas unserer sittlichen Bestimmung angemessen; dasselbe wird zugleich durch den
Naturtrieb (wenn er nur natürlich, und nicht etwa durch eine verdorbne Phantasie ver-
künstelt ist) gefodert: aber es folgt gar nicht, daß alles, was der letztere [sc. der Naturtrieb,
A. S.] fodert, dem erstern gemäß ist. Die Reihe des letztern [des Naturtriebs, A. S.], bloß an
sich betrachtet, sey = ABC u. s. f.[;] durch die sittliche Bestimmung des Individuum wird
vielleicht aus B. nur ein Theil heraus gehoben, und wirklich gemacht […]. (SL 98, § 12, GA I/5,
142)

Die Idee ist also folgende: Die Naturtriebe bieten dem Ich eine Bandbreite von
Handlungsoptionen dar, zu denen es eine gewisse Motivation verspürt. Der reine
Trieb greift diejenige Option heraus, die sich am besten als Mittel zur schrittweisen
Verwirklichung des Endzwecks – absolute Unabhängigkeit – eignet. Stimmt eine
Option mit dem Interesse des reinen Triebs überein, stellt sich ein Gefühl der
Billigung ein; stimmt sie nicht überein, dann stellt sich ein Gefühl der Missbilli-
gung oder Selbstverachtung ein – denn es gibt neben den Naturtrieben und dem
reinen Trieb noch einen „Urtrieb“, das von Naturtrieben bestimmte Ich mit dem
reinen Trieb in Übereinstimmung zu bringen.⁸ Damit ist auch die Art und Weise

 Fichte kann hier an Reinhold anknüpfen: „Ich nenne sie [die praktische Vernunft] einen Trieb,
in wie ferne sie unwillkührlich thätig ist, und eine bestimmte, einzig mögliche, folglich
schlechthin nothwendige Handlungsweise hat“ (Reinhold 1792, 181– 182; 6. Brief).
 Ich vereinfache Fichtes Theorie hier. In der Sittenlehre stellt sich die Sache tatsächlich kom-
plexer dar. Zwei Punkte seien hier erwähnt: Erstens unterscheidet Fichte verschiedene Reflexi-
68 Andreas Schmidt

erreicht, in der das Moralgesetz sich tatsächlich im empirischen Bewusstsein


äußert; das Gefühl der Billigung oder Missbilligung ist sozusagen das empirisch-
reale Substrat, das wir, wenn wir darauf reflektieren, als kategorischen Imperativ
konzeptualisieren können. Der Gedanke des Sittengesetzes ist, in Isolation be-
trachtet, nur eine Abstraktion:

Es wird eben so wenig behauptet, daß dieser Gedanke mit der Allgemeinheit und in der
Abstraction, als wir ihn abgeleitet haben, unter den Thatsachen des gemeinen Bewußtseyns
vorkomme; daß man sich, ohne weiteres Zuthun des freien Nachdenkens, eines solchen
Gesetzes für seine Freiheit überhaupt bewußt werde. Lediglich durch philosophische Ab-
straction erhebt man sich zu dieser Allgemeinheit. (SL 98, GA I/5, 71)

Das reale Selbstbewusstsein der reinen praktischen Vernunft erreichen wir erst
mit der Ableitung der Gefühle der Billigung und Missbilligung:

[W]ir fühlen uns gedrungen dies oder jenes zu thun, und machen uns Vorwürfe, etwas nicht
gethan zu haben – dies dient zur Berichtigung in Rücksicht derer, die kein Bewußtseyn des
categorischen Imperativs […] und auch nicht eines reinen Triebes zugeben. Es wird durch
eine gründliche Transscendental-Philosophie ein solches Bewußtseyn auch nicht behauptet.
Der reine Trieb ist etwas außer allem Bewußtseyn liegendes, und bloßer transscendentaler
Erklärungsgrund von etwas im Bewußtseyn. (SL 98, GA I/ 5, 142 f.)⁹

Der reine Trieb kann also nichts wählen, was die Naturtriebe ihm nicht anbieten.
Das ist der Fall, weil nur die Naturtriebe das Ich mit der Natur verbinden, nur sie
bestimmen den Skopus dessen, woran ich Interesse habe. Sie lassen sich modi-
fizieren und kultivieren, aber nie eliminieren: „Es ist Thatsache, daß einige Be-
gebenheiten uns ganz gleichgültig sind, andere uns interessiren […]. Was mich
interessirt, muß […] eine unmittelbare Beziehung auf meinen Trieb haben; denn
das Interesse wird selbst unmittelbar empfunden, und läßt sich durch keine
Vernunftgründe hervorbringen“ (SL 98, § 11, GA I/5, 135). Nun setzt Fichtes Theorie
freilich voraus, dass es eine Schnittmenge gibt zwischen den Interessen der Na-
turtriebe und den Interessen des reinen Triebes. Das kann Fichte aber behaupten,
da für ihn (anders als bei Kant) die Naturtriebe schon eine erste, wenn auch noch

onsniveaus, auf denen unterschiedliche Wertmaßstäbe dominieren; erst auf dem höchsten Re-
flexionsniveau ist der reine Trieb in der Lage, sich adäquat zu äußern (SL 98, § 16); zweitens hängt
die Bandbreite der Handlungsoptionen nicht nur von den Naturtrieben allein, sondern auch von
der Prüfung der Situation durch die Urteilskraft ab (SL 98, § 15).
 Ich lese Fichte hier so, dass der reine Trieb zwar „außer allem Bewußtsein“ und Erklärungs-
grund der bewussten moralischen Empfindungen, aber dennoch anders als der reine Wille bereits
Teil der Erscheinungswelt und Gegenstand einer transzendentalen Anthropologie ist.
Streben und Trieb. 69

inadäquate Objektivierung des reinen Willens sind; im Selbsterhaltungstrieb etwa


kündigt sich bereits in verzerrter Form die Forderung nach Vernunftautonomie an.
Durch die Auswahlakte, die durch den reinen Trieb motiviert sind, entsteht
eine Reihe, durch die das Ich sich immer größerer Unabhängigkeit annähert. Auch
diese Reihe ist unendlich – absolute Unabhängigkeit ist nie erreichbar. Und so hat
das unendliche Streben auf der Ebene der transzendentalen Anthropologie ein
Gegenstück:

[D]er Endzweck des Sittengesetzes ist absolute Unabhängigkeit, und Selbständigkeit […].
Nun ist dieses Ziel unerreichbar, aber es findet doch eine stete und ununterbrochene An-
näherung zu demselben Statt. Es muß sonach […] eine stete ununterbrochne Reihe von
Handlungen geben, durch welche man sich annähert. Das Gewissen kann jedesmal nur
diejenige billigen, die in dieser Reihe liegt. (SL 98, § 17, GA I/5, 191)

3 Trieb und Tätigkeit


Ich habe Fichtes Theorie bis jetzt so dargestellt, als ob die Triebe erst im Rahmen
der transzendentalen Anthropologie eine Rolle spielen, das Streben bereits auf
der Ebene der transzendentalen Bedingungen. Es ist aber nicht so klar, ob das der
Fall ist. Manchmal verwendet Fichte die Begriffe „Trieb“ und „Streben“ syn-
onym¹⁰, und vor allem scheint es, als verwende Fichte den Trieb-Begriff bereits auf
der Ebene der transzendentalen Akte, die die Erscheinungswelt konstituieren.
Darin läge freilich ein Problem für Fichte. Man kann mit Hilfe Fichtescher Prä-
missen nämlich folgendes Argument konstruieren:
1. Alles, was objektiv ist, ist konstituiert durch mentale Akte.
2. Daher können diese konstituierenden mentalen Akte selbst nichts Objektives
sein – ansonsten ergäbe sich ein Regress.¹¹
3. Etwas ist objektiv genau dann, wenn hinsichtlich seiner Sein und Erscheinen
nicht identisch sind.¹²

 „Trieb ist ein sich selbst produzierendes Streben“ (WLnm-H, GA IV/2, 60), „§. 5. der Wissen-
schaftslehre hat das Streben[,] den Trieb als das eigentliche Vehikulum der Realität angegeben“
(Brief an Jacobi, 8. Mai 1806, GA III/5, 356).
 „[I]nsofern kein Objekt gesezt werden kann, wenn nicht eine Thätigkeit des Ich vorhanden ist,
welcher die des Objekts entgegengesezt ist, und diese Thätigkeit nothwendig vor allem Objekte
schlechthin und lediglich durch das Subjekt selbst im Subjekte seyn muß, mithin die reine
Thätigkeit desselben ist, ist die reine Thätigkeit des Ich, als solche, Bedingung aller ein Objekt
setzenden Thätigkeit“ (GWL, GA I/2, 398).
 „Das Objective bei eigentlichen Vorstellungen soll immer noch in einer gewissen Rücksicht
unabhängig von der Vorstellung selbst existiren, entweder als wirkliches Ding, oder als Ver-
70 Andreas Schmidt

4. Also müssen im Fall der konstituierenden Akte Sein und Erscheinung iden-
tisch sein. (Diese Identität bezeichnet Fichte als „Subjekt-Objekt“ oder auch
„intellektuelle Anschauung“.)

Das hat aber eine interessante Konsequenz, nämlich:


5. Den konstituierenden mentalen Akten kann es nicht wesentlich sein, Ak-
tualisierungen von Vermögen zu sein.

Denn wäre das der Fall, wären hinsichtlich ihrer Sein und Erscheinung nicht
identisch; das, was in der intellektuellen Anschauung gegeben wäre – der ma-
nifeste mentale Akt –, wäre zu explizieren unter Rekurs auf etwas, das nicht in der
intellektuellen Anschauung präsent ist – das Vermögen, diesen mentalen Akt
hervorzubringen. Vermögen gehören daher in den Bereich des Objektivierten,
Konstituierten, nicht in den Bereich der konstituierenden Akte. Fichte sagt es
explizit: „Ein Vermögen ist […] nichts weiter, als ein Produkt des bloßen Denkens,
um an dasselbe [Vermögen], da die endliche Vernunft nur discursiv und vermit-
telnd denken kann, eine nicht ursprünglich gesetzte, sondern erst in der Zeit
entstehende, Wirklichkeit anknüpfen zu können. Wer unter dem Begriffe des
Vermögens etwas anderes denkt, als ein bloßes Mittel der Anknüpfung, der ver-
steht sich selbst nicht“ (SL 98, GA I/5, 86).¹³

6. Triebe sind aber Vermögen. Denn ein Trieb ist „fortdauernde Tendenz nach
Thätigkeit – kein handeln – […] keine äußere, sondern zurückgehaltene
Thätigkeit, die Thätigkeit seyn würde, sobald der Widerstand weichen wür-
de.“ (WLnm-H, GA IV/2, 60 f.)
7. Also können die konstituierenden mentalen Akte nicht wesentlich Aktuali-
sierungen von Trieben sein.

Wo vom Trieb die Rede ist, da befinden wir uns also schon im Bereich der Er-
scheinung. Und einerseits scheint Fichte dem zuzustimmen:

Wenn man das Ich ursprünglich objectiv denkt, […] so kann man seine Bestimmtheit nicht
anders beschreiben, als durch eine Tendenz oder einen Trieb […]. Die objective Beschaf-

nunftgesetz; denn nur dadurch wird es ein objectives, und nur dadurch ist die Unterscheidung
eines subjectiven von ihm möglich“ (SL 98, § 8, GA I/5, 106).
 Vgl. auch WLnm-H, GA IV/2, 219: „Da gehen viele ϕlosophen aus von einem Vermögen, von
Verstand pp. wie Reinhold in seiner Theorie des Vorstellungsvermögens. Dieses ist eben falsch,
indem sie blos von Erscheinung ausgehen; denn was ist das Vermögen, der Verstand pp. anders
als Erscheinung?“
Streben und Trieb. 71

fenheit eines Ich ist keinesweges ein Seyn oder Bestehen; denn dadurch würde es zu seinem
Entgegengesetzten, dem Dinge. Sein Wesen ist absolute Thätigkeit und nichts als Thätigkeit:
aber Thätigkeit, objectiv genommen, ist Trieb.“ (SL 98, § 8, GA I/5, 105)

Die Rede von Trieben setzt also bereits eine Objektivierung voraus. Zwar handelt
es sich nicht um eine Objektivierung, die bereits ein bloßes „Bestehen“ zur Folge
hätte, aber doch um eine Objektivierung, die uns von der reinen Tätigkeit des Ichs
wegführt.
Aber andererseits führt Fichte den Begriff „Trieb“ bereits in seiner Lehre des
Anstoßes ein, wenn es darum geht, die endlichen, eingeschränkten Handlungen
des Ichs zu beschreiben, die ohne Zweifel noch auf der Ebene der konstituierenden
Akte zu lokalisieren sind. „Trieb und Beschränktheit sind einerlei. Es ist also ein
die Thätigkeit hinderndes zugleich damit verbunden. Der Grund des Triebes liegt
im Subjekt; in so fern der Grund von der Thätigkeit im Subjekte liegt; er liegt aber
auch nicht im Subjekt, in so fern diese Thätigkeit nun nicht Thätigkeit ist, in so
fern ein verhinderndes da ist. Der Trieb des Ich geht auf Thätigkeit aus und ist in
derselben beschränkt – dies ist das Wechselverhältniss.“ (WLnm-H, GA IV/2,
61) Fichte vergleicht das Entstehen dieses Wechselverhältnisses mit einem elas-
tischen Körper, der von außen deformiert wird und danach strebt, seine ur-
sprüngliche Gestalt wiederherzustellen:

So gewiß das Ich über sich reflektirt, ist es begrenzt, d. i. es erfüllt die Unendlichkeit nicht,
die es doch strebt zu erfüllen. […] Setzet demnach eine elastische Kugel =A. und nehmt an,
daß sie durch einen andern Körper eingedrükt werde, so […] sezt ihr in derselben eine Kraft,
die, sobald die entgegengesezte Gewalt weicht, sich äussern wird, und das zwar ohne alles
äussere Zuthun; die demnach den Grund ihrer Wirksamkeit lediglich in sich selbst hat. […] Es
ist Gleichgewicht des Strebens und des mittelbaren Gegendruckes im Körper selbst, also
dasjenige, was wir oben Trieb nannten. Es ist daher in dem angenommenen elastischen
Körper ein Trieb gesezt. (GWL, GA I/2, 422)

Gegen diese Lehre vom Trieb als „zurückgehaltene[r] Thätigkeit, die Thätigkeit
seyn würde, sobald der Widerstand weichen würde“ (WLnm-H, GA IV/2, 61),
lassen sich genau genommen zwei Einwände erheben. Erstens: Wenn das Wesen
des Ichs in reiner Tätigkeit besteht – was Fichte behauptet – dann wäre eine
zurückgehaltene Tätigkeit, die sich nicht äußern kann, nichts anderes als die
Vernichtung des Ichs. Wir müssen uns die „zurückgehaltene Tätigkeit“ also eher
vorstellen als eine Tätigkeit, deren Realisierung nur partiell, aber nie vollständig
verhindert wird: Der Widerstand gegen die Tätigkeit ist immer schon dabei,
überwunden zu werden.¹⁴ Wir könnten diese Tätigkeit, die dabei ist, einen Wi-

 Siehe z. B.: „[S]onach käme in jedem Momente der Reflexion auf mich vor eine Thätigkeit u.
72 Andreas Schmidt

derstand zu überwinden, mit Hilfe der aristotelischen Definition der Bewegung


charakterisieren, als die Aktualisierung einer Potentialität als solcher, ἡ τοῦ δυ-
νάμει ὄντος ἐντελέχεια, ᾗ τοιοῦτον (Phys. 201a10 – 11), sofern man sie versteht als
Aktualisierung einer Potentialität, die zugleich Potentialität für weitere Aktuali-
sierung bleibt. Aber – zweitens – damit ist immer noch nicht der Begriff des Triebs
oder des Vermögens eliminiert, was für die konstituierenden Akte des Ichs doch,
wie oben erläutert, erforderlich wäre.
Fichte hätte jedoch die begrifflichen Ressourcen für so eine Eliminierung. In
der Ersten Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre (1797) schreibt er:

Die Intelligenz [d. h. das Ich, A. S.] ist dem Idealismus ein Thun, und absolut nichts weiter;
nicht einmal ein Thätiges soll man sie nennen, weil durch diesen Ausdruck auf etwas Be-
stehendes gedeutet wird, welchem die Thätigkeit beiwohne. So etwas anzunehmen aber hat
der Idealismus keinen Grund, indem in seinem Princip es nicht liegt, und alles übrige erst
abzuleiten ist. Nun sollen aus dem Handeln dieser Intelligenz abgeleitet werden bestimmte
Vorstellungen, die von einer Welt, einer ohne unser Zuthun vorhandenen, materiellen, im
Raume befindlichen Welt u. s. w. […]. Mithin müßte jenes zum Grunde gelegtes Handeln der
Intelligenz ein bestimmtes Handeln seyn, und zwar, da die Intelligenz selbst der höchste
Erklärungsgrund ist, ein durch sie selbst und ihr Wesen, nicht durch etwas außer ihr, be-
stimmtes Handeln. Die Voraussetzung des Idealismus wird sonach diese seyn: die Intelligenz
handelt, aber sie kann vermöge ihres eigenen Wesens nur auf eine gewisse Weise handeln.
Denkt man sich diese nothwendige Weise des Handelns abgesondert vom Handeln, so nennt
man sie sehr passend, die Gesetze des Handelns: also es giebt nothwendige Gesetze der
Intelligenz. (GA I/4, 200)

Anstatt das Streben des Ichs als Disposition zu einer unendlichen Annäherung an
eine unbeschränkte Tätigkeit auszulegen, wäre es daher angemessener zu sagen,
das Streben sei eine Wesensstruktur aktualer, in intellektueller Anschauung ge-
gebener Tätigkeiten des Ichs, nämlich die eigene Endlichkeit als defizienten Zu-
stand und deren Aufhebung als Sollzustand aufzufassen. Ein Rekurs auf einen
Trieb, der die Tätigkeit zu einer Aktualisierung eines vorausgehenden Vermögens
macht, ist dazu nicht nötig; das Ich ist nichts anderes als reine Aktualität, ein
„esse in mero actu“ (GA II/8, 230), wie Fichte in der Wissenschaftslehre von 1804
(2. Vortrag) das Absolute nennt.

die Negation einer Tätigkeit. Dieß widerspricht sich, muß aber gedacht werden, wenn Selbstbe-
wußtsein möglich sein soll. Es kann vermittelt werden durch ein Vermögen, das absolut entge-
gengeseztes vereinigt; dieß ist die Einbildungskraft, diese schwebt zwischen entgegengesezten[,]
hier von Thätigkeit zu Nichtthätigkeit, u. umgekehrt. Hierdurch entsteht mir erst eine Zeitdauer, u.
etwas, das den Moment füllt[;] ist dieß, so läßt sich eine Zeitreihe aus diesen Momenten zu-
sammensetzen.“ (Vorlesungen über Logik und Metaphysik SS 1797, GA IV/1, 210)
Streben und Trieb. 73

Aber vielleicht hat Fichte unsere Belehrung gar nicht nötig. Vielleicht war er
sich der Differenz von Streben und Trieb durchaus bewusst. Denn Fichte führt in
der Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre den Trieb tatsächlich erst nach
dem Streben ein, und er beginnt diese Einführung mit folgender Passage:

Das Streben des Ich wird gesezt, als solches. […] Es wird überhaupt gesezt, als Etwas, nach
dem allgemeinen Gesetze der Reflexion; mithin nicht als Thätigkeit, als etwas, das in Be-
wegung, Agilität ist, sondern als etwas fixirtes, festgeseztes. […] Ein sich selbst produci-
rendes Streben aber, das festgesezt, bestimmt, etwas gewisses ist, nennt man einen Trieb.
(GWL GA I/2, 417 f.)

Hier deutet sich an, dass der Trieb auch in der Grundlage der gesamten Wissen-
schaftslehre – zumindest wenn Fichte sich vorsichtig ausdrückt – bereits eine erste
Objektivierung der konstituierenden Tätigkeit ist – konstituiert, nicht mehr rein
konstituierend. Das Streben, gesetzt als solches, wird zu einer Disposition objek-
tiviert; das Streben selbst, vor der Objektivierung, ist dann etwas durchaus Ak-
tuales, eine Tätigkeit mit einer bestimmten Wesensstruktur.

Literatur
GA | Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. (1962 – 2012). Gesamtausgabe der Bayerischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften. Lauth, R.; Jacob, H. (Hrsg.). Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt:
Frommann-Holzboog.
GWL | Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre. In: GA I/2.
SL 98 | Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. System der Sittenlehre nach Prinzipien der Wissenschaftslehre.
In: GA I/5.
WLnm-H | Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo (Hallesche Nachschrift).
In: GA IV/2.
WLnm-K | Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo (Krause-Nachschrift). In:
GA IV/3.
TW | Hegel, G. W. F. (1986). Theorie-Werkausgabe in 20 Bänden. Moldenhauer, Eva; Michel
Karl, Markus (Hrsg.). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
AA | Kant, Immanuel. (1900 ff.). Gesammelte Schriften. Preußische [jetzt: Berlin
Brandenburgische] Akademie der Wissenschaften (Hrsg.). Berlin: De Gruyter.
KpV | Kant, Immanuel. Kritik der praktischen Vernunft. In: AA V.
GMS | Kant, Immanuel. Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten. In: AA IV.

Maimon, S. (1791): Philosophisches Wörterbuch, oder Beleuchtung der wichtigsten


Gegenstände der Philosophie in alphabetischer Ordnung, Erstes Stück. Berlin: Unger [=
ders. (1970). Gesammelte Werke. Verra, Valerio (Hrsg.). Bd. 3. Hildesheim: Olms].
Reid, J. D. (2003). „On the Unity of Theoretical Subjectivity in Kant and Fichte“. In: The Review
of Metaphysics 57, No. 2, S. 243 – 277.
Reinhold, K. L. (1792). Briefe über die Kantische Philosophie, Bd. 2. Leipzig: Göschen.
Allen Wood
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte
Abstract. Fichte’s account of our conative functions and activities such as desire
and volition is grounded on his transcendental theory of our freedom as finite
agents. This essay briefly sketches their derivation, which proceeds from the central
Fichtean concept of drive, then the concepts of the pure and empirical drives, the
original or fundamental drive from which they emerge, and the ethical drive in
which they are united. Finally, the essay considers the relation of desire in Fichte
to value, and suggests Fichte’s stance on issues of twentieth century metaethics.
Here we see how his position was decisively shaped by the influence of Spinoza.

Fichtes Auffassung unserer konativen Funktionen und Aktivitäten wie Wünschen


und Wollen gründet in seiner transzendentalen Theorie unserer Freiheit als endli-
chen Wesen. Dieser Beitrag skizziert ihre Ableitung, welche mit Fichtes zentralem
Begriff des Triebes beginnt und dann die Begriffe des reinen und empirischen
Triebes erläutert, des ursprünglichen oder fundamentalen Triebes, von dem diese
herkommen, und des ethischen Triebes, in dem diese sich alle vereinigen. Ab-
schließend wird in dem Essay die Beziehung von Wunsch und Wert bei Fichte be-
dacht, und es wird Fichtes Haltung zu Themen der Metaethik des 20. Jh. entworfen.
Hierbei wird deutlich, wie sehr Fichtes Position durch Spinoza beeinflusst worden
ist.

Fichte was a transcendental philosopher. Although his philosophy of mind and


action was the inspiration for much of the development of empirical psychology
in the nineteenth century, his own approach was aimed at expounding the a pri-
ori conditions of the possibility of both our cognition of an objective world and
the possibility of our action in and upon it. More precisely, the project of Fichte’s
Doctrine of Science (Wissenschaftslehre) was to set forth a theory that could
avoid the self-undermining incoherence to which he thought all “dogmatic” phi-
losophy was doomed. What dooms it, according to Fichte, is that it does not take
human freedom as its starting point.
The dogmatist attempts to objectify human agency (today we might say “nat-
uralize” it). It treats our action in the world, including our agency as knowers of
the world, as the necessitated result of the causal interaction of things. Dogma-
tism acknowledges the inevitable appearance that we are free – that we have
genuine choices, that our situation always offers us multiple possibilities and
that what we choose to do depends on us – but treats it as an illusion, which
can be overcome by a better understanding of ourselves as objects. Such an ac-

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-005
76 Allen Wood

count, Fichte argues, is self-undermining. For we can have no cognitive access to


an objective world except by freely acting in it. We must raise questions about
the world to which a variety of different answers are possible for us, among
which we must choose, and we must ground our choice on reasons. The choice
among these answers, the acceptance or rejection of reasons, must be a free
choice. It must be up to us, and we must have a plurality of real options in mak-
ing it. It is a conceptual truth about choices made for reasons that they cannot be
causally necessitated.
In his first Jena system (1794– 1796), Fichte treats the freedom or “self-posit-
ing” of the I as a kind of self-evident first principle, like the Cartesian cogito
(BWL 1, 39 – 43). In the later Jena system of 1797, he revises the status of this
first principle, acknowledging that we cannot theoretically refute the dogmatist’s
claim that the appearance of freedom is an illusion. Fichte no longer claims to be
able to refute a philosopher who argues in this manner (EE 1, 430). He even
speaks of our acceptance of the appearance that we are free as a “faith” ground-
ed on a practical choice (SL 4, 26). But he argues that there is no honest alterna-
tive to this faith, because the dogmatist’s position rests on a corresponding faith
in a “thing in itself” which not only cannot be justified on the basis of the con-
ditions of possible experience, but is even self-undermining, since dogmatists
must treat even their own self-consciousness as an illusion or deception, and
cannot unite their claims about the objective world with any account of how
they are capable of grounding these claims on reasons or justified convictions.
The freedom to ask questions and choose for reasons among the possible an-
swers to them is the foundation of all theoretical reason (SL 4, 75). Therefore, if
the results of inquiry concluded that freedom is an illusion, that would under-
mine theoretical inquiry itself, including those very results. Fichte concludes:
“Freedom is our vehicle for cognizing objects, but the cognition of objects is
not, in turn, the vehicle for cognizing our freedom” (SW 4, 79). A dogmatist
can think his philosophy – can represent a world of things in themselves in
which freedom, reason and even consciousness itself are illusions resulting
from the causal interaction of things. But the dogmatist can never be convinced
of his philosophy, or believe it based on arguments or evidence – that is, based
on reasons (ZE 1, 513). Dogmatism is therefore self-undermining.
Fichte’s rejection of dogmatism also undergoes alteration in the second Jena
system. He now perceives the dogmatist position, at least in most of its adher-
ents, as the expression of a moral failure – the decision to repudiate the ground
of all human dignity and to base the dogmatist’s own sense of self-worth entirely
on the causal control over things – including other human beings, who are also
objectified as things and turned into objects to be dominated and controlled
(EE 1, 433 – 434).
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 77

For Fichte, ‘freedom’ has two senses: we act with formal freedom insofar as
we are presented with the appearance that our actions are not causally necessi-
tated and act with this consciousness. Freedom, however, also has its own prac-
tical law, or self-legislated categorical imperative, which normatively (not causal-
ly) necessitates what we ought to do. We act with material freedom when we use
our formal freedom to obey this law. The fundamental failure of dogmatism is
the refusal to act with material freedom, which it then may rationalize by declar-
ing formal freedom (the consciousness or appearance of freedom) to be an illu-
sion. In his later Jena period, Fichte no longer pretends he can convince a dog-
matist who takes this position. But he thinks the dogmatist cannot coherently
ground his own philosophy on conviction-for-reasons, since the dogmatist is
committed to regarding reasons, along with freedom, as illusory (at most, the
dogmatist can offer us some deflated or else objectified – in contemporary jar-
gon, “expressivist” or else “externalist” – substitute for reasons). Fichte now
claims to be able to convince only those who choose to act with material free-
dom, since in so doing they presuppose that the appearance of formal freedom
is not an illusion.
The dogmatist’s basic failure, however, is moral: the passive, self-indulgent
choice to give in to one’s desires. Dogmatists cannot recognize the basis of
human dignity, which lies in freedom. They must therefore get their sense of
self-worth from things and the control over them – including one’s domination
over other human beings, which they regard as mere things, objects of causal ne-
cessitation – preferably objects of their own manipulation and coercion (EE 1,
432– 435).
It is the aim of Fichte’s philosophy to summon us all to assert our own free-
dom by rejecting the dogmatist alternative and choosing a way of life that ex-
presses a commitment to morality and to the dignity of all human beings.
Fichte’s critical or transcendental idealist system views theoretical and practical
reason as interdependent and in constant reciprocal interaction (SL 4, 1– 10). But
it is practical reason, grounded solely on our absolute freedom, which has prior-
ity. Fichte was the originator of the philosophical project, now best known to us
in its twentieth century exemplification by Husserl, Heidegger and Sartre, that
understands the objective world as first of all the world of our meaningful ac-
tion, and only then, and on that basis, as a world of which we can achieve
knowledge both in everyday life and in the empirical sciences.¹

 For a fuller account of all these matters, see Wood 2016, especially Chapters 2 and 3.
78 Allen Wood

The I and the not-I.


Fichte’s philosophy is rooted in the common sense world of everyday experience
and agency. But it begins with a deliberate abstraction from this world, in order
to understand and confirm common sense through transcendental philosophy.
This starting point is the free self-positing of the I. The I is not a thing of any
sort but only an act (GWL 1, 96 – 97, EE 1, 440, 462– 463, NR 3, 1– 2, SL 4,
3 – 4). Because it is an abstraction from everyday life, this philosophical starting
point is incomplete. It can be made coherent only by developing out of it the nec-
essary series of thoughts required to complete it. Thus the aim of transcendental
philosophy is gradually to work back toward its starting point in the everyday, by
rigorously demonstrating how a series of familiar concepts and assertions ac-
quire their meaning and justification as conditions of the possibility of the coher-
ent experience of a world (NR 3, 24). Fichte calls the method by which philoso-
phy proceeds the “synthetic” method. It operates through generating a series of
antinomies or apparent contradictions and then resolving each of them through
a new concept that overcomes the antinomy by synthesizing the opposed mo-
ments. The result is a coherent system of concepts and theorems through
which philosophy approaches the original common sense starting point, which
is now both comprehended and justified transcendentally.
The I posits itself as active. In order to form a concept of itself as an act, the I
must distinguish itself from something else – which is in the first instance deter-
mined merely as that upon which it acts (K1 1, 524). In other words, it must posit
a “not-I” – a material world, which is opposed to its acting and which, as an ob-
ject of its knowledge, must be posited as acting in turn on the I. In order to posit
itself as acting and being acted on by this material world, the I must therefore
also ascribe its own acting to a material thing that interacts with this world –
the I’s material body. A free act, therefore, can be only the act of a finite and
an embodied being (VBG 6, 295). (Fichte declares a Cartesian immaterial sub-
stance to be a transcendental impossibility, not something that can be coherent-
ly thought.)
Because Fichte argues that the original relation between the I and the not-I is
only one of difference or opposition, he has often been misunderstood as a phi-
losopher who sees our active relation to the world as one of mutual disharmony,
as though the only relation of the I to its world were one of struggle and mutual
destruction. This ignores, however, the most essential feature of Fichte’s synthet-
ic method. The I begins with an opposed relation to the not-I, but seeks to resolve
the opposition by bringing the not-I into conformity with the I (SW 1, 263 – 264).
The very principle of the I, in fact, is that of harmony or unity (VBG 6, 296 – 297).
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 79

The original relation of the I’s body to nature is likewise one of a difference to be
overcome, by placing the external material world in a relation to the I’s material
body – a relation that harmonizes the nature of this body with the external na-
ture around it. This relation grounds Fichte’s conception of striving, desire and of
the practical in general.
Another common misunderstanding of Fichte related to this one is that be-
cause Fichte rejects the dogmatist’s conception of a thing in itself, as something
assumed prior to any transcendental deduction, he rejects the external world it-
self, and is an “idealist” in something like the Berkeleyan sense of that term. But
this is about as far as can be imagined from Fichte’s actual position. For the
whole point of transcendental philosophy is to vindicate and explain the every-
day belief in the material world and our relation to it as embodied agents and
cognizers. The very notion of Berkeleyan immaterial spiritual substance is for
Fichte “unthinkable” and self-undermining (VBG 6, 295). This is why Fichte in-
sists that Berkeley is not an idealist at all in Fichte’s sense of the term; instead,
Berkeleyan idealism is a species of dogmatism (EE 1, 438).
Fichte’s position is that the relation of the I to the not-I is itself a kind of par-
adoxical circle, from which philosophy must find an escape through a more ad-
equate understanding of the terms in which the paradox has been framed. Fichte
poses the problem as follows:

The finite spirit must necessarily posit something absolute outside itself (a thing in itself),
and yet must recognize on the other side that the latter exists only for it. This is the circle
which it is able to extend to infinity but can never escape. A system which pays no attention
to this circle is a dogmatic idealism […]; a system which fancies itself to have escaped from
it is a transcendent realist dogmatism. (GWL 1, 281)

The true solution to the problem is the transcendental or critical idealist one: phi-
losophy begins from the free agency of the I, and treats all reality opposed to it as
only the necessary condition of its own activity. This idealism is merely methodo-
logical. It is an artifact of the abstraction from everyday life with which philoso-
phy begins. Its aim is gradually to return to the realist standpoint of everyday
life, justifying the realism of common sense and understanding the reality in
which we all believe by deducing it from the conditions under which we can
know it and act on it. The idealism of transcendental philosophy is a self-con-
scious philosophical method, not a metaphysical dogma.
80 Allen Wood

The practical I: striving and feeling.


The I and the not-I act upon each other. Taken abstractly, this threatens us with a
contradiction, since each apparently negates the very condition of its own exis-
tence (GWL 1, 128). The way out of the contradiction, Fichte argues, is to under-
stand the action of each on the other in a way that is compatible with their in-
dependent existence and reciprocal interaction. The I acting on the not-I is to be
conceived as originally something that opposes it without being able to effect its
non-existence – Fichte’s paradoxical phrase here is: “a causality that is not a
causality” (GWL 1, 286). The action of the not-I on the I is grasped as a way
the I is at the same time active and also passive. Both these actions must be con-
ceived as originally unconscious; we are not immediately aware of them, though
their reality is inferred as a condition of the I’s conscious self-positing. The basic
function of the I is unification – the unification of all the acts and states it claims
as its own as single and self-identical. The unification of itself with the world,
and also with itself, is an endless process. The unifying relation of the I to its
material body is the transcendental condition through which we conceive this
body as a single organic whole – a living and a lived body (NR 3, 77– 80, SL
4, 114– 116). By contrast, the not-I confronts the I as a multiplicity (VBG 6,
296). The I’s endless task is to unify this manifold theoretically into a conception
of a single objective world and to bring it practically into harmony with its own
activity.
Fichte thinks it is characteristic of dogmatism to emphasize the theoretical
over the practical, and to regard us as passive in relation to the effects of the ex-
ternal world upon us. The truth of the matter, however, is just the opposite of
this: “It is not the not-I that encroaches upon us, but we who encroach upon
it” (SL 4, 93).
The I’s original act toward the not-I is expressive of both the organic unity of
the I’s body and also its struggle to unite itself harmoniously with the multiplic-
ity of external objects outside the body. But the I’s action is resisted by the not-I,
and its striving is limited by the world. When the I is limited in this way, it acts ‒
but its action is experienced as restricted. This restriction, in Fichte’s view, occurs
at any point where the I and the not-I limit each other, and this original restric-
tion occurs prior to consciousness: we know about it by a transcendental infer-
ence from the conditions of our self-consciousness. The original act by which the
I’s organic body relates to the external world is one that must be conceptualized
not as successful acting, but as a mere restriction on its action. Fichte’s name for
this “causality which is not a causality” is striving (Streben) (or conatus, a con-
cept Fichte derives from Spinoza).
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 81

On the other side, the I’s original passivity to the not-I is grasped not as an
objective cognition of the not-I but wholly subjectively, as a passivity which must
likewise be grasped as an (originally unconscious) expression of the I’s restricted
activity (SW 1, 295). When it comes to be experienced as the I’s inability, it is
“feeling” (Gefühl) (GWL 1, 266, 289 – 291, SL 4, 106). In relation to cognition
(where the I must conform its concepts to the not-I), feeling takes a more deter-
minate form as sensation (Empfindung) (GEW 1, 323, 339). When the theoretical I
“tears itself free from the encroaching not-I” and posits this restriction on the I’s
own activity as something it can observe and cognize, this is called “intuition”
(Anschauung) (GEW 1, 344).

Drive.
The original meaning of all feeling, however, is practical: it is the I’s purely sub-
jective awareness of its restricted activity, that is, its striving. When this striving is
experienced as a mere indeterminate limitation of the I, then the experience is
that of “longing” (Sehnen) – a dissatisfaction, the feeling of a lack but without
any determinate conception of anything that is lacked (GWL 1, 291, GEW 1,
302– 306, SL 4, 106 – 107). When related to an object, striving is called a drive
(Trieb).
The concept of a drive is basic to Fichte’s psychology of desire, action and
volition. It was Fichte’s concept that proved basic to much of nineteenth and
twentieth century psychology, used especially by William James, Sigmund
Freud and Clark Hull. The concept of drive (Trieb) also appears in pre-Kantian
philosophy and psychology.² But the term Trieb was not given significant use
by Kant. The concept in Kant that comes closest to it is that of instinct, which re-
fers to a natural predisposition to desire or be pleased by something even prior
to our acquaintance with it (Anth 7, 265). (Of course we cannot actually desire or
be pleased by something until we become acquainted with it: but we can be pre-
disposed to desire it or be pleased by it.) This is one aspect of Fichte’s concept of
drive (SL 4, 124, cf. VBG 6, 299n), but not the whole of it. And it seems to be
Fichte’s concept that influenced later psychologists.
For Fichte the concept “drive” is transcendentally necessary, because it is the
only way to escape the antinomy arising from the following threatened vicious
circularity: (1) a rational being can have cognition at all only through the limita-
tion of its activity, while also (2) its self-activity itself can arise only through a

 See Buchenau 2002.


82 Allen Wood

cognition, and moreover a cognition within the rational being itself (SL 4, 102–
103). The antinomy consists in the necessity of both cognition and activity, and
their impossibility if neither can be explained except in a viciously circular man-
ner. The I’s restriction by the not-I must, in other words, manifest itself within the
I itself and as a kind of activity, a striving of the I, but one determined by the I’s
passivity to nature rather than by its freedom. “Drive” is Fichte’s name for this
necessary concept (SL 4, 105).
A drive for Fichte is nature or external objectivity acting within the free
agent, manifesting the restricted character of its striving. Fichte argues that it
is a transcendentally necessary truth, not an empirical one, that I have a body
(VBG 6, 295). My body, as a transcendental condition of both my cognition
and my agency, is therefore for me distinct from the rest of nature. A drive is
my nature, distinguishing itself from the rest of nature (SL 4, 113). A drive is
“a real, inner explanatory ground of an actual self-activity” (SL 4, 40). In the
first instance, it is my organic nature manifesting itself in terms of its needs –
its striving or conatus for self-preservation (SL 4, 121– 123). The necessary mani-
festation of a drive in consciousness is not an objective cognition but a purely
subjective state: feeling (GWL 1, 292, SL 4, 106). A drive operates necessarily,
when the conditions are present (SL 4, 29). At the same time, a drive is always
an activity, and therefore cannot be explained by or reduced to natural causal
necessities (SL 4, 111). A free, rational agent is never necessitated by a drive; it
can always resist any drive and act against it (SL 4, 135).
Given along with the drive is an end, the condition of the drive’s satisfaction
(SL 4, 108). When this condition is reflected upon, and the object of the drive be-
comes determinate, the longing or feeling of dissatisfaction acquires a determi-
nate object or end, and the drive becomes a desiring (Begehren) (SL 4, 126 – 127).
Our drives thus relate the whole of our organic nature to the multiplicity of ob-
jects external to us. In this way, we are considered as living and natural beings, a
whole composed of a multiplicity of drives, relating us to our world. Some of our
natural drives remain unconscious – for example, those that operate at the level
of digestion (SL 4, 126), while other natural drives become conscious. Both kinds
of natural drives constitute what Fichte, following both Kant and the pre-Kantian
tradition, called the “lower faculty of desire” (SL 4, 127).

The I as willing.
Thus far we have considered only one kind of drive – the natural drive, which
arises from the I’s material nature as an embodied and organic being. But of
course even more fundamentally the I is a free being. The freedom of the I is
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 83

what Fichte calls its existence as “pure spirit” (VBG 6, 294, SL 4, 135). But here
we must keep in mind that the I is a unity, necessarily embodied, so that the
“natural” and “spiritual” sides or aspects of the I can never be anything but
merely two ways of looking at the same self-identical free, but natural and em-
bodied, agent.
In fact, Fichte devotes the entire First Part of his System of Ethics to a deduc-
tion of the moral principle from the concept of free will. This deduction cannot
be our theme here.³ But we should consider it from the standpoint of what it re-
veals about the nature of volition and the relation of free volition to the entire
system of drives pertaining to the I.
Fichte considers all volition free in its very concept – “an unfree will is an
absurdity” (SL 4, 159; cf. Hegel 1991, § 4). In Fichte’s most frequent formulation,
volition is “an absolutely free transition from indeterminacy to determinacy, ac-
companied by consciousness of the transition” (SL 4, 159). This means that all
volition is a self-determination. Self-determination, however, must be contrasted
not only with a determination caused by something external but also with a de-
termination that is thought of as purely contingent, accidental or the outcome of
“blind chance” (SL 4, 33 – 34). Here we must also keep in mind that the I is not
any sort of thing or substance, but only a free acting. So self-determination can-
not mean (what it means in Spinoza, for instance) the determination of a thing by
its own nature. As an act, rather than a thing, the I must, in Fichte’s paradoxical
phrase (reminiscent of the same thought as it appears later in Sartre) “be before
it is” or “exist in advance of its nature” (SL 4, 34– 35). At the same time, it must
be determined by itself, and not left undetermined, still less be determined by
mere contingency or chance. What determines the I must, in other words, be
an aspect of its own free act, in relation to which the I as subject nevertheless
remains free.
Fichte’s solution to this perplexity is to insist that the free act of the I must
involve the subject-object structure belonging to all consciousness. The free act
of the I, as subject, must stand in relation to something that counts for it as ob-
jective or real, also placing a limit or restriction on it – since the real restricting
the I’s activity is the nature of objectivity in general. But we would mistake the
problem if we thought of this objectivity as any aspect of the not-I or the material
world. Instead, the subject-object structure we are looking for must be entirely
internal to the free or self-determining act which is the I itself. The object or re-
ality in question, Fichte infers, must instead have the character of a norm or a
law. Yet it can be no law or norm imposed on the I from without, since it must

 For a discussion of it, see Wood 2016, Chapter 4.


84 Allen Wood

characterize solely the I’s absolutely free self-determination. Fichte describes


this norm or law as simply that of the I’s “independence” (Unabhängigkeit) or
“self-sufficiency” (Selbständigkeit) (SL 4, 32, 38, 142). It is a norm of autonomy –
self-given by the free act of the I – and at the same time real or objective – since
it is merely the objective side of the I’s own absolutely free acting. It is not, Fichte
argues, a law distinct from our freedom, but perhaps standing in a relation of
reciprocal implication with it, as Kant thought (KpV 5, 29 – 31). Instead, this nor-
mative law is simply the very same thought as freedom, or the way we must think
our freedom itself (SL 4, 52– 59). Unlike Kant’s formulation of the moral law,
moreover, this normative law has no determinate content. It is simply the
thought that every one of our actions is subject to a categorical imperative.
Even the applicability of this law to our actions, Fichte argues, must be deduced
separately (SL 4, 63 – 65). And then the actual application must be deduced as
well. These deductions occupy Fichte in Parts Two and Three of his System of
Ethics.

The pure drive.


The above sketch of the three parts of the System of Ethics presents, in all too
brief summary, Fichte’s deduction and application of the moral law. But our in-
terest in these matters here is their relation to his concept of free volition. More
specifically, what we need to understand is the way that the thought of volition
as free self-determination becomes conscious in us as ordinary agents who take
the everyday standpoint on ourselves. Fichte’s claim, namely, is that it does so in
the form of a distinctive drive – the “drive toward the whole I” (SL 4, 40). This
drive is like natural drives, in that it is “a real, inner ground of an actual self-ac-
tivity.” But it is also unique, in that it is “posited as the essence of the I” (SL 4,
40). This drive is the way we experience our absolute freedom, simply as such –
our capacity to be wholly self-determining. This is Fichte’s transcendental ac-
count of what he describes as “the moral or ethical nature of human beings
as such,” in which “the human mind finds itself to be absolutely compelled to
do certain things entirely apart from extrinsic ends, simply for the sake of
doing them, and to refrain from doing other things, equally independently of ex-
trinsic ends, purely and simply for the sake of leaving them undone” (SL 4, 13).
Some philosophers find such a notion – in effect, the Kantian notion of a
categorical imperative – perplexing or even unintelligible. They claim that the
only reason we could ever have for doing anything is a desire for some state
of affairs to which the action is supposed to serve as a means. At the same
time, these same philosophers often admit that the notion of a categorical imper-
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 85

ative, for better or worse, plays a role in everyday moral thinking. Some think
this is a necessarily irrational or an unhealthy role, while others may admit
that even in instrumental terms, the thought of a categorical obligation may
prove useful to us as individuals or to a social order, by guaranteeing our fidelity
to certain norms in cases where we might otherwise imprudently, or to the detri-
ment of social order, be tempted to violate them.⁴ Fichte’s reply to all these phi-
losophers is that there is nothing puzzling or irrational about the concept of cat-
egorical obligation once we accept the principle of absolute freedom or self-
determination, and follow out its consequences clearly and rigorously. It can ap-
pear puzzling and irrational only to those tempted by the dogmatic thought that
we are doomed to be determined by external causes, passive to our desires, and
consequently can conceive of practical reason only as condemned to slavery,
doing menial service for the passions.
Fichte therefore distinguishes this drive for absolute independence from all
empirical drives, calling it the “pure drive” (SL 4, 141). Like all drives it is felt, but
Fichte denies that it gives rise to a feeling (for instance a feeling of need, longing,
or desiring), as natural or bodily drives always do. Instead, the pure drive gives
rise only to a thought: namely, the thought of the moral law or the categorical
imperative (SL 4, 43 – 45).

Reflection: formal and material freedom.


Natural or empirical drives present themselves as desires on which to act. The
pure drive, by contrast, presents itself as our consciousness of our spiritual na-
ture, our human dignity, which summons our self-respect (SL 4, 146). The I al-
ways has the capacity to reflect on its drives. If it does so, it becomes aware of
them as non-determining – I can give in to a drive or I can resist it. The con-
sciousness of the I then wavers or hovers (schwebt) between different possibili-
ties of action or inaction which it may adopt (SL 4, 137). This awareness is what
Fichte calls “formal freedom” (SL 4, 135). Reflection on drives, however, can take
a variety of forms. Fichte sometimes refers to different levels or stages of reflec-
tion ‒ without, however, suggesting that they constitute a well-defined set or hi-
erarchy of any kind.⁵ But one way of dealing with one’s formal freedom is simply
to obscure one’s consciousness of it, and passively give in to whatever natural or

 See Campbell 2014.


 For discussion of Fichte’s concept of formal freedom and the stages of moral reflection, see
Kosch 2011, Goh 2012, Ware 2015, and Wood 2016, Chapters 2 and 5.
86 Allen Wood

empirical drive seems to present itself at the moment as the most appealing.
When we do this, we are in one sense free – formally free – but in another
sense not free – we lack material freedom. This, in Fichte’s view, is the attitude
of most people most of the time – especially the attitude of what he refers to
(contemptuously) as “the so-called ‘better classes’” (GA III/2, No. 70a, EW,
pp. 160 – 161). This is the attitude rationalized philosophically by dogmatism,
which takes the consciousness of formal freedom to be a merely subjective illu-
sion.
A deficiently reflective person has adopted what Fichte calls a “maxim of in-
capacity” (untaugliche Maxime): “In this situation, with this way of thinking and
with this character, this human being could simply not have acted differently”;
at the same time, however, “he absolutely ought to have raised himself to a high-
er level of reflection and he also could have done this” (SL 4, 181). The deficiently
reflective person is therefore to blame for remaining in such a condition, and
“once I have attained [a higher reflective] standpoint, I will no longer excuse my-
self for not having done what I ought to have done much sooner” (SL 4, 182). But
Fichte seems reluctant to say that others (perhaps more reflective) are in a posi-
tion to blame someone who is thus incapable of acting otherwise. Our duty, he
says, is to encourage the deficiently reflective person to reflect and summon him
to exercise his freedom, chiefly by presenting him with a good example in our
own person of someone who has done this (SL 4, 317). Blaming and shaming
are attitudes more likely to cause the morally lax person to withdraw into his un-
reflective state and even to despair of the possibility of reforming (SL 4, 318‒322).
This stance on Fichte’s part is noteworthy, because it shows that his philo-
sophical defense of freedom of the will is certainly not chiefly (perhaps not at
all), a defense of the idea that we must believe people have freedom if we are
to hold others responsible for what they do. Fichte’s account of legal responsibil-
ity, as presented in his theory of right, does not depend on freedom of the will at
all. It consists solely of the conditions under which a person may be externally
coerced to act in such a way that the rights of others are protected. It could
equally well be offered by someone who wholly denies freedom of the will
and views threats of punishment simply as a way of causally coercing rightful
behavior (NR 3, 260‒285). Rather, Fichte’s concern with the issue of freedom
has to do solely with our own consciousness of agency, and the agency of others
insofar as we communicate rationally with them (as distinct from coercing them
or punishing them).
The commitment of morality to freedom is a commitment to the reality of
concepts like “ought” and “duty”. Any sense of accountability involved in it is
entirely a voluntarily accepted accountability to oneself when one freely ac-
knowledges the objective moral norm that is presupposed in all volition and free-
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 87

ly chooses to act in conformity to it. This choice constitutes what Fichte calls
“material freedom”; it is the choice to respond to “the drive for freedom, simply
for freedom’s sake” (SL 4, 139). As Fichte understands it, only a person who acts
with material freedom is fully or truly free. This is part of the reason that Fichte
thinks freedom of the will cannot be demonstrated to someone (for example, a
dogmatist philosopher) who is trapped (by self-inflicted incapacity) on a lower
stage of reflection and who passively gives in to the most convenient natural
drive, perhaps rationalizing this condition using philosophical arguments that
deny freedom of the will (EE 1, 429 – 35, ZE 1, 508 – 15, SL 4, 25 – 6).
Look at it this way: it would be pointless to try to convince someone they
have some property when they don’t in fact have it. It would be pointless to
try to convince a sitting Socrates that he is standing. This is still pointless
even if Socrates could stand if he chose to stand, and even if he rationalized
to himself his refusal to make this choice by self-deceptively denying that
such a choice is possible for him, remaining caught in the circle of illusion by
which he denies his capacity to stand. For Fichte, the dogmatist’s denial of
human freedom is like that, and so is the lack of freedom exhibited by a person
who has formal freedom but who does not act with material freedom.
To act with material freedom is to act in conformity to the moral law. It is to
do what one ought, simply because one ought, and solely for the sake of the free-
dom one exercises in so acting. In Part Two and the beginning of Part Three of
Fichte’s System of Ethics, he seeks to demonstrate the applicability of the moral
law to our actions by explaining and justifying our awareness of conscience and
the acquisition of moral convictions about what we ought to do (SL 4, 153‒177). It
would take us too far away from our theme here to follow Fichte’s arguments on
this topic. What is needed instead is that we explore in greater detail his account
of the relation between the empirical drive and the pure drive, in order to see
how material freedom expresses and realizes the “drive for the entire I” which
Fichte has argued is the essence of free volition.

The original or fundamental drive (Urtrieb,


Grundtrieb) – and the ethical drive.
If we interpret Fichte’s distinction between the natural or empirical drive and the
pure drive while thinking of him as a follower of Kant, and if our picture of
Kant’s moral psychology is one obtained from the abstractions provided in his
foundational works such as the Groundwork and the second Critique, then we
will think that the natural drive is something bad, or at least morally valueless,
88 Allen Wood

while moral conduct consists in satisfying only the pure drive – which we will
identify with Kant’s “reason a priori that is practical of itself” (KpV 5, 31).
If we make these assumptions and then read Fichte’s own remarks on the
subject, we are in for a big shock. Fichte does want us not to remain passive
to our natural drives, and does value the pure drive. But he does not think
that ethical conduct, or our moral vocation, involves choosing the pure drive
over the natural or empirical drive. The reason is first, that both are manifesta-
tions of our freedom, and second, that the striving of the I is always for unity and
harmony, not for the domination of any part of ourselves over any other part, any
more than the rational society would involve the domination of one person over
another. The drive that characterizes the I is, namely, a single fundamental one:

Are my drive as a natural being and my tendency as a pure spirit two different drives? No,
from the transcendental point of view the two are one and the same original drive (Urtrieb),
which constitutes my being, simply viewed from two different sides […]. All phenomena of
the I rest solely upon the reciprocal interaction of these two drives, which is, properly
speaking, only the reciprocal interaction of one and the same drive with itself […]. The
two are in fact one, but I-hood in its entirety rests on the fact that they appear to be differ-
ent. The boundary separating them is reflection. (SL 4, 130)

The original drive is also called the “fundamental drive” (Grundtrieb) (SL 4, 143).
But, we might wonder, isn’t it only the pure drive that expresses my absolute
freedom, while my natural drives all relate me to nature? Why then should I not
satisfy the pure drive alone? The principal reason, Fichte argues, is that the pure
drive by itself cannot produce materially free actions. On behalf of absolute self-
sufficiency, it could result only in abstention, or denial. At most, it can produce a
feeling either of approval or of contempt for actions that have already been per-
formed (SL 4, 145‒148). The natural drive is experienced as longing, which aims at
satisfaction ‒ even at satisfaction for its own sake, or enjoyment. By contrast, the
pure drive is experienced as an absolute demanding (Fordern) (SL 4, 145). This
drive, as we have seen, is felt, but it appears in our consciousness not as a feeling
but as a thought ‒ the thought of a categorical imperative commanding us to an
action or omission purely for its own sake. Since the I is formally free, it deter-
mines itself independently of both the longing of the natural drive and the de-
manding of the pure drive. Either it will act in conformity to the demand
made by the pure drive, or else it will act contrary to it. In the latter case, the
contrary action will be moved by some determinate natural drive or desire, aim-
ing only at the enjoyment afforded by its satisfaction.

Let us now set the I into action. It will, of course, determine itself through itself, independ-
ent both of the natural impulse and of the demand [of the moral law], since it is formally
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 89

free. What will ensue will either be a determination of the sort that was supposed to ensue
in accordance with the demand or else the opposite will ensue. In the first case, the subject
of the drive and the one who acts will be in harmony, and then there will arise a feeling of
approval ‒ things are right, and what happened was what was supposed to happen. In the
second case, what will arise is a feeling of disapproval connected with contempt. (SL 4, 145)

These feelings of approval and disapproval are the way ordinary consciousness
experiences the pure drive in relation to our own actions – after they have occur-
red. In relation to actions that have already been performed, the pure drive is
then experienced only as a negation of the natural drive. That is, we approve
of actions in harmony with the pure drive, and disapprove of every satisfaction
of the natural drive that conflicts with those actions. “Nothing could ensue from
the pure drive but some abstention”, “the pure drive [is] a drive directed toward a
mere negation” (SL 4, 147, 152). In order to be positively motivated to perform an
action, therefore, we cannot depend on the pure drive alone but must somehow
also engage our natural drives. “Every possible concept of an end is directed to-
ward the satisfaction of a natural drive. (All actual willing is empirical.)” (SL 4,
148).
Fichte does, however, think it is possible for action to come about solely in
response to the pure drive. But this would not be ethical action, morally good
action or materially free action. It would instead be a particular odious form
of evil action. For then the pure drive alone would appear as “a blind drive,”
not one governed by law, but only by “the maxim of unrestricted and lawless do-
minion over everything outside us” (SL 4, 185, 186). The pure drive would then
appear as a kind of boundless self-conceit, regarding every moral self-sacrifice
as an injustice to me and every moral deed of mine as supererogation: “No mat-
ter how we act, we can never be wrong” (SL 4, 189). Fichte thinks this is the drive
that leads to wars of conquest and religious wars, to those species of evil actions
whose enormity could never be accounted for by the (relatively innocent, if con-
temptible) passive giving in to our natural drives and desires. Fichte thinks this is
a less common form of evil than the contemptible laxity that gives in to natural
drives. But it is more reprehensible, and also harder to correct. As Fichte puts it,
in terms drawn from Christian scripture: “The publican and sinner may indeed
have no greater value than the Pharisee who believes himself to be just […],
but the former are easier to improve than the latter” (SL 4, 191).
The natural drive and the pure drive are merely two sides of the same drive,
which appear to ordinary consciousness as different owing to the separation ef-
fected by reflection. We reflect on our natural drives, separating ourselves from
them, becoming aware of our formal freedom in relation to them, and thereby
also of our higher faculty of desire or our spiritual nature, which places the
90 Allen Wood

moral law before us and makes us aware of the possibility of the material free-
dom that is given to us along with our formal freedom. But we cannot achieve
material freedom as long as this separation persists. It is our moral vocation
to make ourselves whole again. The ethical drive must, then, be a third drive,
synthesizing the pure and the natural drives, the two sides of our freedom:

The ethical drive is a mixed drive. It obtains its material, toward which it is directed, from
the natural drive […]. The natural drive that is synthetically united and fused with the eth-
ical drive aims at the same action at which the ethical drive aims, at least in part. All that
the ethical drive obtains from the pure drive is its form. (SL 4, 152)

Moral conviction, then, selects part of the natural drive which unites with the
pure drive; in this way, “I act freely in order to become free” (SL 4, 153). That
is, I act with formal freedom in order to choose the materially free action
made available to me by my situation. I do this when I “act with consciousness
of my absolute self-determination, with thoughtful self-awareness (Besonnenheit)
and reflection” (SL 4, 154). To do this is to grasp a particular action as a duty.
We fundamentally misunderstand Fichte’s ethics if we take it to be about the
superiority or dominance of the rational over the natural, or the pure over the
empirical. No; it is fundamentally about harmony, unity, or wholeness. The es-
sence of the I, its striving for freedom for the sake of freedom, is a tendency
to the whole I (SL 4, 44). Our human vocation is, through reason, to reunite
the pure and the empirical drives. The ethical drive drives me to form a catego-
rical imperative (SL 4, 155). Then my conscience takes the form of a conviction
that it applies to this action: it is my duty. The “principle of an applicable ethics”
is therefore: “Always act in accordance with your best conviction concerning your
duty, or Act according to your conscience” (SL 4, 156).
Fichte puts the same point a little differently in his 1794 Lectures on the
Scholar’s Vocation. There he distinguishes the pure I – the I that legislates the
moral law to itself – from the empirical I, which is free either to obey or disobey
this law. The form of the law is unity with oneself, which is found in the pure I.
The empirical I can either actualize this unity by following the law, or it can fail
to do so, and fall into disharmony with itself. Fichte presents the situation in a
way that enables him to portray this self-agreement as the basis of both the Kant-
ian formulas of humanity as end in itself and of universal legislation:

The human being is always supposed to be at one with himself: he should never contradict
himself. Now the pure I cannot contradict itself, since it contains no diversity but is instead
always one and the same. However, the empirical I, which is determined and determinable
by external things, can contradict itself. And if the empirical I contradicts itself, this is a
sure sign that it is not determined in accordance with the form of the pure I, and thus
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 91

not determined by itself but by external things. But this should not be, because the human
being is his own end […]. The empirical I ought to be determined in a manner in which it
could be eternally determined. Therefore, I could [also] express the principle of morality
[thus]: “Act so that you could consider the maxims of your volition to be eternal laws
for yourself.” (VBG 6, 296‒297)

Volition, desire and value.


One set of issues about feeling, desire and volition that goes back to ancient phi-
losophy, but also engages the twentieth-century subfield of ‘metaethics’, is the
extent to which these are cognitive – especially the extent to which they involve
judgments (correct or erroneous) of value, and cognitions of good and bad. I will
end this essay by reflecting on Fichte’s position regarding these issues.
Fichte’s first publication, Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (1792) (VKO)
appeared about two years after his sudden conversion to Kantianism, which cen-
tered on Kant’s defense of a morality based on freedom of the will. We know very
little about Fichte’s philosophical views prior to that conversion, but when it oc-
curred he was nearing 30 years old and already had what he himself described
as a philosophical “system.” The indications are that Fichte was among those
German philosophers who were adherents of Spinoza, and were emboldened
to admit as much after the famous “pantheism” controversy over Lessing’s al-
leged Spinozism between F.H. Jacobi and Moses Mendelssohn in 1785.⁶
Fichte’s conversion to Kant involved above all a rejection of Spinoza’s neces-
sitarianism and denial of freedom of the will. But Fichte’s attitude toward Spino-
za throughout his life was always one of respect and admiration. A student of
Fichte’s philosophy can easily perceive Spinoza’s continuing influence on
many aspects of it. Fichte always remained at least as much a Spinozist as he
ever became a Kantian.
Spinoza’s position on the topics of good and bad, and their relation to
human striving (conatus), as well as to human emotions and reason, are bold
and forthright. Spinoza is an anti-realist and a subjectivist about value:

We do not strive, will, seek after or desire because we judge a thing to be good. On the con-
trary, we judge a thing to be good because we strive, will, seek after or desire it. (Ethics III,
P9, S)

 For a brief and unique text offering us an intriguing look at Fichte’s views before his conver-
sion to Kantianism, see ARD.
92 Allen Wood

As for the terms ‘good’ and ‘bad’, they are nothing positive in things considered in them-
selves, but are merely modes of thinking, or notions we form when comparing things with
one another. For one and the same thing can be good and bad and also indifferent. For ex-
ample, music is good for one who is melancholy, bad for one in mourning, and neither
good nor bad for one who is deaf. (Ethics IV, Pr)

Spinoza nevertheless continues to use the terms “good” and “bad” by explicitly
adopting conventions for their use based on what we strive after when our striv-
ings are informed by reason:

For since we desire to form the idea of a man which we may look to as a model of human
nature, we shall find it useful to keep these terms […]:
By good I mean that which we certainly know to be useful to us.
By bad I understand that which we certainly know to be an obstacle to our attainment of
some good. (Ethics IV, Pr, D1– 2)

We can see clearly the influence of these Spinozist doctrines in Fichte’s theory of
our natural drives and desires:

The drive originates entirely from my own nature, through which what is supposed to exist
for me is already determined in advance […]. It is and must be, however, as a consequence
of the completion of nature in itself and because nature is itself an organized, real whole. –
I do not feel hunger because there is food for me; instead, something becomes food for me
because I am hungry. The situation is no different in the case of any of the organized prod-
ucts of nature […]. As certainly as I am, my striving and desiring originate not from the ob-
ject but from myself. If one ignores this remark at this point, then one will not be able to
grasp it later, at a more crucial point, viz. in conjunction with our explication of the moral
law. (SL 4, 124)

Like Spinoza, Fichte holds that striving and desiring come first. They are what
posit or project (entwerfen) an end (Zweck), which is a concept (Begriff) to
which we strive that the world should conform (SL 4, pp. 2, 6, 9, 66‒71, 131).
As we can also see from the above quotation, Fichte means to apply this doctrine
not only to our natural drives, but also to the ethical drive. There is no object or
property – good, or the good – which we first cognize and which then furnishes
us with grounds to strive after it. On the contrary, it is our striving that projects
ends, which we then call “good” because we have projected them and strive after
them.
Both Spinoza and Fichte also distinguish between strivings according to the
common order of nature and strivings guided by reason. The former involve pas-
sivity, the latter activity, and it is these latter strivings through which we posit
what, as rational agents, we (advisedly) call “good”. If Fichte deviates from Spi-
noza at this point, then the deviation consists in this: for Spinoza we call ‘good’
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 93

that which reason knows to be useful to us in our striving, whereas for Fichte, our
striving projects an end by forming a concept of that end, and this end is what we
call good. For Spinoza, the end appears to be fixed by our nature, and good ac-
tion is what is conducive to the end. But for Fichte, we posit our ends freely.
It is these essentially Spinozist (metaethically anti-realist) doctrines that ac-
count for what we might call (though it is not Fichte’s term) Fichte’s strictly de-
ontological approach in ethics. The human moral or ethical nature, we should re-
call, consists in our regarding some actions as to be done and others as to be
omitted purely for their own sake, not for any extrinsic ends (SL 4, 13). Fichte’s
deduction of the moral law was aimed at vindicating moral common sense on
precisely this point. Actions are not to be done because we seek certain ends;
on the contrary, the ends we ought to seek are posited by those actions that
ought to be done, and done for their own sake:

I act as I do not because a certain end is to be attained, but the end becomes an end to me
because I am bound to act in the manner by which it may be attained […]. The end does not
determine the commandment; on the contrary, the immediately given purport of the com-
mandment determines the end. (BM 2, 264– 265)

When we look at this side of Fichte’s ethics, we might be tempted to consider him
the earliest of those ‘constructivist’ Kantians who reject any notion of an ‘objec-
tive’ good because they regard such notions as compromising the autonomy of
reason, by placing our self-legislation in thrall to some independent order of val-
ues. Kant, however, is no constructivist of this sort.⁷ It is not from Kant, there-
fore, but from Spinoza that Fichte gets these doctrines. They result from Spino-
za’s rejection of final causes, especially his rejection of the doctrine that God acts
for ends, which seems to Spinoza to “negate God’s perfection,” representing him
as lacking something that he must seek, and it thereby “subjects God to fate”
(Ethics I, Ap, P33, S2). For Fichte, our free agency must project any end we
ought to seek. The appearance of something valuable external to it is, for Fichte
as for Spinoza, a manifestation of our subjection to our passions, the moral lax-
ity that makes us passive to our natural drives. Nothing outside our absolute
freedom could ever ground our rational choices or valuations.
There is, however, an important Fichtean doctrine that stands in contrast to
all this, and separates him from Spinoza. It arises, of course, from Fichte’s insist-
ence on absolute freedom of the will. This is his conception of the moral law it-
self, which, although autonomous and given by us, is at the same time the
“real,” “objective”, and “self-constraining” aspect of our absolutely free action

 See Wood 2008, Chapter 6.


94 Allen Wood

itself. The moral law is autonomous or self-given, but it is at the same time ob-
jective (SL 4, 48). This is a reality or objectivity not external to our free action, but
instead it is only the objective aspect of its own self-determination. After all,
then, Fichte is a metaethical realist of sorts, and not a “constructivist.” Or rather,
he combines the anti-realist thought that valuation must come from us with the
realist thought that it must be something real or objective. And this also involves
a kind of cognitivism, at least regarding the moral law, since Fichte regards cog-
nition as any relation in which the concept must agree with the object (SL 4,
1– 2). Here, however, the object with which the concept must agree is itself a nor-
mative concept (the concept of the moral law), to which objects (especially our
actions) must be brought into agreement. But the moral law, according to Fichte,
is purely formal. The content of duty, as we have seen, must be deduced sepa-
rately. (Fichte thus recognizes no “CI-Procedure” according to which moral
truth could be “constructed.”) Fichte treats our judgments about what we
ought to do – in which action material freedom consists – as falling under the
theoretical faculty of reason. They are known, not created by practical proce-
dures. “The moral drive manifests itself as a drive toward a determinate cogni-
tion” – the cognition of what I ought to do (SL 4, 166).
Ethical truth, for Fichte, consists in what human beings would unanimously
agree upon if free rational communication between them were carried on long
enough and successfully enough.⁸ Moral truth is therefore a work in progress,
and at the same time something presupposed by our free, rational communica-
tive actions that seek to determine its content. Fichte’s theory of conscience and
moral conviction is meant to solve the practical problem posed by the fact that
we must act, and act resolutely, in the face of the fact that theoretical inquiry
into what we ought to do must always proceed freely, seeking only truth accord-
ing to evidence, and can never reach a certain conclusion as long as humanity is
engaged in the (for Fichte, endless) process of attempting to reach unanimous
rational agreement. But the transcendentally necessary presupposition of ethics,
projected by the ethical drive itself, is that there is an objective truth to be cog-
nized: the objectivity of the moral law, and the objective truth about what I ought
to do here and now.
Fichte’s position, therefore, is hard to categorize in terms of the options of-
fered us by twentieth century metaethics. As I have elsewhere argued, Fichte’s
transcendental approach seems to reject the entire twentieth century project of
metaethics itself.⁹ For metaethics seems to rest on a kind of dogmatism: it is

 See Wood 2016, Chapter 6, §§ 7‒9.


 Wood 2016, Chapter 4, § 8.
Drive, Desire and Volition in Fichte 95

an attempt to explain values in terms of things in themselves and their proper-


ties, whether these are conceived as natural things (including a “naturalized”
version of our psychology) or non-natural things and properties. One party
tries to explain valuation (or explain it away) purely in terms of our psychology –
as a mere, self-deceptive projection of desires, and attitudes (something like Spi-
noza’s position). Other parties see it as the cognition of ethical “facts in them-
selves” whether natural facts, or non-natural facts, or supernatural facts (as in
some metaphysical or theistic versions of moral realism). Transcendental philos-
ophy, however, begins from the thought that we can never get outside our own
activity and offer any such purely external explanations of it. All we can do is
explore from within our human standpoint the presuppositions of conscious-
ness, cognition and action, expounding the concepts necessary to comprehend
them, and justifying these concepts as transcendentally necessary conditions
of their possibility.

References
Fichte’s writings are cited according to the following abbreviations:
GA | J. G. Fichte-Gesamtausgabe. Lauth, Reinhard; Gliwitzky, Hans (eds.). Stuttgart-Bad
Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog Verlag 1962 – 2012. [Cited by part/volume and page
number or in the case of letters in III, by letter number.]
SW | Fichtes Sämmtliche Werke. Fichte, I. H. (ed.). Berlin: W. de Gruyter 1970. [Cited by
volume and page number.]
EW | Fichte: Early Writings. Breazeale, Daniel (ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1988.
[Cited by page number.]
IW | Introductions to the Wissenschaftslehre and other writings. Breazeale, Daniel (ed. and
tr.). Indianapolis: Hackett 1994.
ARD | Aphorisms on Religion and Deism (1790). [SW 5.] Stine, R. W. (tr.). In: Stine, R. W.
(ed.): The Doctrine of God in the Philosophy of Fichte. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press 1945.
BM | The Vocation of Man (1800). [SW 2.] Chisholm, Roderick (tr.). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill
1958.
EE | Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre (1797), Erste Einleitung. [SW 1,
IW, also GWL.]
ZE | Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre (1797), Zweite Einleitung. [SW 1,
IW, also GWL.]
K1 | Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre (1797), Kapitel 1. [SW 1, Chapter
One, IW.]
GEW | Outline of the distinctive character of the Wissenschaftslehre (1795). [SW 1, EW.]
GWL | The Science of Knowledge (1794). [SW 1.] Heath, Peter; Lachs, John (trs.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press 1982.
96 Allen Wood

NR | Foundations of Natural Right (1796). [SW 3.] Baur, Michael (tr.); Neuhouser, F. (ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2000.
SL | System of Ethics (1798). [SW 4.] Breazeale, D.; Zöller, G. (trs.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press 2006.
VKO | Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (1792/1793). [SW 5.] Green, Garrett (tr.); Wood,
Allen (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2010.

Kant’s writings are cited according to the Akademie Ausgabe and the Cambridge Edition:
Ak. | Kant’s gesammelte Schriften. Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (ed.).
Berlin: W. de Gruyter 1900–. [Cited by volume and page number.]
Ca | Cambridge Edition of the Writings of Immanuel Kant. New York: Cambridge University
Press 1992 – 2016. [This edition provides marginal Ak. volume and page citations.]
Anth | Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. [Ak. 7, Ca: Writings on Anthropology,
History and Education.]
KpV | Critique of Practical Reason. [Ak. 5, Ca: Writings on Practical Philosophy.]

Spinoza’s writings are cited according to the following edition and English translation:
Spinoza: Opera. Edited by Carl Gebhardt. Heidelberg: C. Winter 1925.
Spinoza: Ethics, Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect and Selected Letters. Translated
by Samuel Shirley. Edited and introduced by Seymour Feldman. [Ethics cited by Part,
Proposition (P), Preface (Pr), Corollary (C), Scholium (S), Appendix (Ap).]

Further References:
Buchenau, Stefanie (2002): “Trieb, Antrieb, Triebfeder dans la philosophie morale pré
kantienne.” In: Revue germanique internationale 18 [Online]. Online since 26 September
2011. http://rgi.revues.org/903, visited on 12 June 2016.
Campbell, Eric (2014): “The Breakdown of Moral Judgment”. In: Ethics 124, pp. 157 – 180.
Goh, Kienhow (2012): “Between Determinism and Indeterminism: The Freedom of Choice in
Fichte’s System der Sittenlehre”. In: European Journal of Philosophy 20. Published
online 5 June 2012. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468 – 0378.2012.00544.x
Hegel, G. W. F. (1991): Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Wood, A. (ed.); Nisbet, H. B. (tr.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cited by paragraph number.
Kosch, Michelle (2011): “Formal Freedom in Fichte’s System of Ethics”. In: Internationales
Jahrbuch des deutschen Idealismus/International Yearbook of German Idealism 9,
pp. 150 – 168.
Ware, Owen (2015): “Agency and Evil in Fichte’s Ethics”. In: Philosopher’s Imprint 15, No. 11,
pp. 1 – 21.
Wood, Allen (2008): Kantian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wood, Allen (2016): Fichte’s Ethical Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Christoph Halbig
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“
(RPh § 124)
Überlegungen zur Bedeutung der affektiven und konativen
Dimension des Menschen für Hegels Normativitätstheorie und
Ethik

Abstract. Der vorliegende Beitrag geht der Frage nach, ob es Hegel gelingt, in seiner
Theorie praktischer Normativität im Allgemeinen und moralischer Normativität im
Besonderen eine angemessene Integration der nicht-kognitiven, affektiven und ko-
nativen Dimensionen des Menschen in den Prozess der Realisierung des freien
Willens als eines solchen, der die eigene Freiheit und deren Bedingungen zum Ge-
genstand hat, zu ermöglichen. Es wird sich zeigen, dass Hegels System, insbeson-
dere die Philosophie des subjektiven Geistes und die Willenslehre der Rechtsphilo-
sophie, dazu strukturell geeignete argumentative Ressourcen bereitstellt –
Ressourcen jedoch, die Hegel an systematisch entscheidenden Stellen (insbesondere
in seiner ganz unnötig verarmten und reduktionistischen Tugendlehre) gerade nicht
ausschöpft.

The present paper addresses a key question regarding Hegel’s theory of practical
normativity in general and his theory of moral normativity in particular: Can he in-
tegrate in an adequate way the non-cognitive, affective and conative dimensions of
human beings into the process of the realization of the free will which has as its
object its own freedom and its own presuppositions? It will be shown that Hegel’s
system, in particular his philosophy of the subjective spirit and his doctrine of the
will in the Philosophy of Right, provides argumentative resources which are struc-
turally suited to fulfill this task. It will also be shown that Hegel fails, however, to
make use of those resources at systematically central points in his argument (es-
pecially in his unnecessarily impoverished and reductionistic doctrine of virtue).

0. Zu den einflussreichsten Argumenten Hegels gehört ohne Zweifel der von ihm
gegen die Kantische Ethik erhobene Vorwurf des Rigorismus: Dass einer Hand-
lung nur dann moralischer Wert zukommen kann, wenn sie nicht nur den For-
derungen der Pflicht genügt, sondern auch nur unter diesem Gesichtspunkt in-
tendiert wurde, hält Hegel für inakzeptabel. Schon in der Phänomenologie des
Geistes vertritt er demgegenüber die These, dass auch das „moralische Bewußt-
sein […] nicht auf die Glückseligkeit Verzicht tun [kann]“ (PhG, S. 326) – und zwar

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-006
98 Christoph Halbig

keineswegs aus kontingenten Gründen, sondern mit begrifflicher Notwendigkeit


(vgl. ebd.: „es liegt im Begriff der Moralität selbst“). Den „Trieben und Leiden-
schaften […] die Pflicht um der Pflicht willen der Moralität entgegen[zusetzen]“
(Enz. § 475) führt Hegel zufolge nicht nur zu einer Deformation der affektiven
Dimensionen des Menschen, sondern auch zu einer Deformation moralischer
Normativität selbst.
Welches Kant-Verständnis Hegels Rigorismus-Vorwurf voraussetzt, ob dieses
Verständnis zutrifft und ob und wie Kant gegen diesen Vorwurf verteidigt werden
kann, sind Fragen, die außerhalb dieses Beitrags bleiben müssen.¹ Im Folgenden
soll vielmehr geprüft werden, ob es Hegel gelingt, in seiner eigenen Theorie
praktischer Normativität im Allgemeinen und moralischer Normativität im Be-
sonderen sowie in seiner Philosophie des Mentalen und seiner Handlungstheorie
eine Konzeption auszuarbeiten, die ihrerseits geeignet ist, dem Rigorismus-Vor-
wurf standzuhalten, insofern sie eine angemessene Integration auch der nicht-
kognitiven, affektiven und konativen Dimensionen des Menschen in den Prozess
der Realisierung des freien Willens als eines solchen, der die eigene Freiheit und
deren Bedingungen zum Gegenstand hat, ermöglicht.² Es wird sich zeigen, dass
Hegels System, insbesondere die Philosophie des subjektiven Geistes und die
Willenslehre der Rechtsphilosophie, dazu strukturell geeignete argumentative
Ressourcen bereitstellt – Ressourcen jedoch, die Hegel an systematisch ent-
scheidenden Stellen gerade nicht ausschöpft. Hegels Rigorismus-Vorwurf lässt
sich daher, so das Ergebnis der folgenden Überlegungen, – wenn auch in ganz
anderer Weise als mit Blick auf Kant – gegen ihn selbst zurückwenden.
Nachdem in einem ersten Schritt einige vorbereitende terminologische und
systematische Klärungen getroffen worden sind (1), wird in den beiden folgenden
Abschnitten je einer Fragestellung nachzugehen sein, die es erlaubt, die über-
greifende Frage nach der Integration der affektiven und konativen Dimension des
Menschen in Hegels Normativitätstheorie zu konkretisieren (2). Erstens ist zu

 Für eine Diskussion der von Hegel und Schiller erhobenen Rigorismus-Einwände gegen Kant
und deren Prüfung im Lichte neo-kantischer Verteidigungsstrategien gegen diese Einwände vgl.
insbesondere Pippin 2001. Eine adäquate Rekonstruktion des Rigorismus-Vorwurfs Hegels müsste
zudem der ausdrücklichen Anerkennung Rechnung tragen, die Hegel „de[m] hohen Standpunkt
der Kantischen Philosophie im Praktischen [zollt, C.H.], diese Bedeutung der Pflicht hervorge-
hoben zu haben“ (RPh § 133 Z.).
 Im Zusammenhang seiner Diskussion des Rigorismus-Einwands, wie Hegel ihn gegen Kant
erhebt, ordnet etwa Walsh 1969, S. 38 Hegel sogar explizit in eine anti-rationalistische Traditi-
onslinie ein: „That solution [i. e. die Überwindung der Kluft zwischen Sein und Sollen durch die
Forderung, dass moralische Normativität „internal rather than foreign to the persons it embraced“
sein müsse] clearly owed something to Aristotle and perhaps even to Hume; if we asked if it was,
broadly, on rationalist or anti-rationalist lines, we should have to say the latter.“
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 99

prüfen, ob Hegel eine internalistische Bedingung für praktische Gründe insge-


samt akzeptiert, der zufolge gilt:

Ein Akteur A hat einen Grund zu Φ dann und nur dann, wenn A entweder einen Zweck, zu
dessen Verwirklichung Φ beiträgt, hat oder einen solchen Zweck als Ergebnis eines Pro-
zesses prozedural rationalen praktischen Überlegens haben würde.³

Zweitens ist zu prüfen, ob Hegel einen motivationalen Internalismus akzeptiert,


dem zufolge gilt:

Ein Akteur A hat einen Grund zu Φ dann und nur dann, wenn A entweder zu Φ motiviert ist
oder zu Φ als Ergebnis eines Prozesses prozedural rationalen praktischen Überlegens mo-
tiviert sein würde.⁴

Während diese ersten beiden Fragen die Ebene normativer Gründe insgesamt
betreffen, betrifft die dritte spezifisch die Ebene moralischer Normativität. Hier
wird anhand einer exemplarischen Diskussion von Hegels Tugendlehre zu erör-
tern sein, inwiefern affektive und konative Gesichtspunkte eine konstitutive Rolle
für eine moralisch gute Verfassung des menschlichen Charakters spielen (wie dies
etwa in der aristotelischen Tugendlehre der Fall ist) (3). Als Ergebnis dieser Prü-
fung wird sich zeigen, dass Hegel, auch wenn er mit Blick auf die beiden gerade
unterschiedenen Formen des Internalismus jeweils eine externalistische Gegen-
position in Bezug auf Gründe sowie einen motivationalen Externalismus vertritt,
dennoch über die normativitätstheoretischen Ressourcen verfügt, die es erlauben,
sowohl den berechtigten normativen Ansprüchen der affektiven und konativen
Zustände eines Akteurs selbst Rechnung zu tragen wie auch deren Bedeutung
nicht nur für die charakterliche Aneignung von moralischen bzw. sittlichen Nor-
men, sondern sogar in bestimmten Fällen für die Konstitution dieser Normen
selbst. Gleichwohl muss konstatiert werden, dass Hegel auf der Grundlage einer
solchen Normativitätstheorie, die eine strukturelle und inhaltliche Affinität zu
einer im weiten Sinne aristotelischen Tugendlehre aufweist, de facto eine extrem
reduktionistische Tugendlehre vertritt, die die Potentiale, die die Kategorie der
Tugend für eine Integration affektiver und konativer Gesichtspunkte in eine
Theorie der Moral bereithält, bewusst ungenutzt lässt. Umso dringlicher wird sich

 Diese Definition folgt Markovits 2011, S. 258.


 Für Argumente, die dagegen sprechen, den Internalismus in Bezug auf Gründe insgesamt von
der Annahme abhängig zu machen, dass moralische Wertungen entweder notwendig motivieren
oder es zumindest möglich sein muss, dass sie motivational wirksam werden (und damit die
beiden hier unterschiedenen Formen des Internalismus ineinander fallen zu lassen) vgl. Mar-
kovits 2010.
100 Christoph Halbig

daher in Form eines abschließenden Ausblicks die Frage stellen, aus welchen
Gründen sich Hegel selbst zumindest in dieser Hinsicht für seinen eigenen Ri-
gorismus-Einwand in dieser Weise angreifbar macht – warum er also dem von ihm
selbst formulierten „Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) (= RB) mit
Blick auf die Bedeutung des Charakters eines Akteurs für dessen Handeln nur
unzureichend Rechnung trägt (4).
1. Jede Klärung der Frage, welche Rolle der affektiven und konativen Di-
mension des Menschen in Hegels Theorie praktischer Rationalität zukommt,
muss von der Tatsache ausgehen, dass Hegel die Oppositionen, die die gegen-
wärtigen Debatten in diesem Bereich strukturieren, vollständig zurückweist. Dies
gilt insbesondere für die Ebene des Verhältnisses von Denken und Wollen. Anstatt
beide etwa durch unterschiedliche Richtungen des Passens (directions of fit) zu
individuieren – das Denken hat sich seinen Gegenständen in der Wirklichkeit
anzupassen, umgekehrt gilt es, die Wirklichkeit gemäß den Inhalten des Wollens
umzugestalten – lehnt Hegel die Trennung zwischen beiden und die Zuschrei-
bung an distinkte mentale Vermögen von vornherein ab:

Diejenigen, welche das Denken als ein besonderes, eigentümliches Vermögen getrennt vom
Willen, als einem gleichfalls eigentümlichen Vermögen, betrachten und weiter gar das
Denken als dem Willen, besonders dem guten Willen, für nachteilig halten, zeigen sogleich
von vornherein, daß sie gar nichts von der Natur des Willens wissen […]. (RPh § 5 A.)

‒ und, so darf man hinzusetzen, von der Natur des Denkens ebenso wenig. Einer
solchen vermögenspsychologischen Dichotomie von Denken und Wollen setzt
Hegel in der Philosophie des subjektiven Geistes eine überaus komplexe Analyse
der Struktur des subjektiven Geistes entgegen, die dann auch die Grundlage der
die Rechtsphilosophie strukturierenden Willenstheorie bildet. Auf deren Struktur
kann hier freilich nicht im Einzelnen eingegangen werden.⁵ Der Hinweis muss
genügen, dass Hegel durchgängig das Ziel verfolgt, die Trennung zwischen nie-
derem und höherem Begehrungsvermögen zu überwinden⁶, die der Wolff’schen

 Für eine Rekonstruktion der „Vielzahl von Stufen der Normativität, durch die die natürlichen
Normen des Organismus in der Naturphilosophie mit denen des subjektiven, objektiven und
absoluten Geistes verbunden sind“ vgl. insbesondere Merker 2004. Zur Einheit des theoretischen
und praktischen Geistes in Hegels Theorie des freien Willens vgl. a. Houlgate 1995, der zu Recht die
zentrale Bedeutung der theoretischen Dimension auch für Hegels Willenslehre hervorhebt.
 Darin kann sich Hegel freilich auf den strukturell verwandten Versuch Fichtes stützen, statt von
distinkten Begehrungsvermögen lediglich von unterschiedlichen Aspekten eines explizit „einzi-
ge[n] Trieb[es]“ zu sprechen, der je nach Betrachtungsweise als „Naturtrieb“ bzw. als „rein
geistige[r] Trieb“ erscheint. Vgl. Fichte, GA I/5, S. 130.
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 101

Psychologie und dann auch noch der Kantischen Metaphysik der Sitten und seiner
Anthropologie zugrunde liegt – wobei bei Letzterem das Kriterium für die Unter-
scheidung beider Vermögen nicht länger in mehr oder weniger klaren Vorstel-
lungen von ihren Objekten liegt, sondern in der Unterscheidung von heteronomer
Motivation durch die Sinnlichkeit einerseits, der Möglichkeit rationaler Selbst-
bestimmung andererseits. Hegel versucht demgegenüber in der Philosophie des
subjektiven Geistes nachzuweisen, dass dessen affektive und konative Dimen-
sionen nicht wie bei Kant den bloßen – und potentiell widerständigen – Gegen-
stands- bzw. Anwendungsbereich vernünftiger Selbstbestimmung bilden⁷, son-
dern für diese Selbstbestimmung ihrerseits von konstitutiver Bedeutung sind: Die
Anthropologie zeigt etwa, dass dieser Prozess der Selbstbestimmung bis hin zu
elementaren Leistungen der Leiblichkeit reicht; die Phänomenologie untersucht
die impliziten Theorien ihrer Gegenstände, wie sie praktischen Einstellungen
zugrunde liegen; die Psychologie schließlich stellt einen Neuansatz dar, der die
Ergebnisse der Anthropologie und Phänomenologie aufnimmt und anhand der
Frage auswertet, inwiefern alle dort untersuchten Phänomene sich als Teil der
Selbstbestimmung des freien Willens verstehen lassen. Eine negative Konnotie-
rung erfolgt bei Hegel grundsätzlich nur insofern, als affektive oder konative
Elemente sich verselbständigen, ‚verhärten‘ und sich so dieser Bewegung der
Selbstbestimmung entziehen – wie dies etwa bei krankhaften Fixierungen o. Ä.
der Fall ist. Das Telos dieser Bewegung der Selbstbestimmung bildet die Selbst-
erkenntnis und -bejahung des freien Willens als solchen:

Die absolute Bestimmung, oder, wenn man will, der absolute Trieb des freien Geistes (§ 21)
[ist], daß ihm seine Freiheit Gegenstand sei. (RPh § 27)

Methodisch warnt Hegel nicht nur an der oben zitierten Stelle aus der Rechts-
philosophie, sondern in gleicher Absicht auch im subjektiven Geist vor der Tendenz
des Verstandes, solche fragwürdigen Verselbständigungen auf der theoretischen
Ebene durch die Postulierung getrennter Vermögen zu verdoppeln und gerade so
ihr Potential für eine kritische Infragestellung solcher Verselbständigungen auf
objektstufiger Ebene einzubüßen:

Die Schwierigkeit besteht für den Verstand darin, sich von der Trennung, die er sich einmal
zwischen den Seelenvermögen, dem Gefühle, dem denkenden Geiste willkürlich gemacht
hat, loszumachen und zu der Vorstellung zu kommen, daß im Menschen nur eine Vernunft
im Gefühl, Wollen und Denken ist. (Enz. § 471 A.)

 Explizit negativ konnotiert werden von Kant freilich nur Leidenschaften und Affekte als
„Krankheiten des Gemüts“ (Kant, AA VII, S. 251), nicht aber die Begierden und Neigungen (als
habitualisierte Begierden) selbst.
102 Christoph Halbig

„Gefühl, Wollen und Denken“ bilden mithin keine material distinkten natürlichen
Arten innerhalb des mentalen Haushalts, sondern unterschiedliche Formen, in
denen ein und derselbe materiale Gehalt erscheinen kann.
Eine Durchsicht der komplexen Struktur des subjektiven Geistes zeigt, dass
Hegel die affektive und konative Dimension mit Hilfe der folgenden, grundle-
genden Kategorien expliziert. Hier ist zunächst zwischen Formen des Triebes zu
unterscheiden:

Begierde (Enz. § 426 – 429): Form des Triebs, die ausdrücklich nicht durch Denken vermittelt
ist⁸ und als solche in der Phänomenologie, nicht in der Psychologie thematisiert wird,
nämlich insofern sie eine für ihr Objekt zerstörerische Gegenstandsauffassung impliziert:
Das Objekt der Begierde wird etwa im Verzehr eines Nahrungsmittels in der Aneignung
vernichtet. Die erreichte Befriedigung führt damit nicht zu einem stabilen Zustand, sondern
erzeugt erneut Begierde; dies wiederum führt zu einem „Progreß ins Unendliche“. (Enz.
§ 428 Z.)

Trieb als „Form der wollenden Intelligenz“ (Enz. § 473): Form des Triebs, der insofern durch
Denken vermittelt ist, als er auf ein „Ganzes, Allgemeines“ (Enz. § 473 Z.) geht – also etwa
darauf, ein Grundbedürfnis wie das nach Nahrung (im Gegensatz zur Begierde nach einem
bestimmten Lebensmittel) zu befriedigen. Diese Form des Triebs artikuliert sich nicht wie bei
der Begierde in einer Abfolge von Begierde/Befriedigungs-Paaren, sondern einer „Reihe von
Befriedigungen“ (ebd.), die sich als Verwirklichung des allgemeinen Objekts des Triebs
verstehen lassen und damit ihren Zusammenhang gewinnen (z. B. als unterschiedliche
Weisen, das Bedürfnis nach Nahrung zu befriedigen).

Leidenschaft: Leidenschaften bezeichnen für Hegel keine eigene mentale Spezies wie etwa
Triebe, sondern eine Gegebenheitsweise des Triebes, die sich dadurch auszeichnet, dass sich
der praktische Geist einzig mit ihm identifiziert und sie ihn damit gleichsam ‚monopoli-
siert‘.⁹ Gerade aufgrund dieser rein formalen Bestimmung der Leidenschaft hält Hegel es für
sinnlos, Leidenschaften als solche, sei es negativ, sei es positiv, zu bewerten.¹⁰ Die Mono-
polisierung kann durchaus dann gerechtfertigt sein, wenn ein Inhalt, der es verdient
handlungswirksam zu werden, durch diese Fokussierung des gesamten praktischen Geistes
die nötige motivationale Durchschlagskraft erhält.¹¹

 Vgl. Enz. § 426 Z.: „Die Begierde hat hier, im zweiten Hauptteil der Lehre vom subjektiven Geist,
noch keine weitere Bestimmung als die des Triebes, insofern derselbe, ohne durch das Denken
bestimmt zu sein, auf ein äußerliches Objekt gerichtet ist, in welchem er sich zu befriedigen
sucht.“
 Vgl. Enz. § 473.
 Vgl. Enz. § 474: „Um dieses Formellen willen aber ist die Leidenschaft weder gut noch böse.“
 Vor diesem Hintergrund konstatiert Hegel mit Blick auf die „Form der Leidenschaft“: „Es ist
nichts Großes ohne Leidenschaft vollbracht worden, noch kann es ohne solche vollbracht wer-
den. Es ist nur eine tote, ja zu oft heuchlerische Moralität, welche gegen die Form der Leidenschaft
als solche loszieht“ (Enz. § 474 A.).
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 103

Den Willen, der sich mit den eigenen Trieben identifiziert, bezeichnet Hegel als
den natürlichen Willen (vgl. Enz. § 473). Der natürliche Wille stößt allerdings
schon dadurch an seine Grenzen, dass sich nicht alle Triebe gemeinsam befrie-
digen lassen – viele Triebe stellten miteinander unvereinbare Anforderungen, die
wiederum die Frage nach einer begründeten Auswahl und Identifikationen mit
nur einigen von ihnen auf Kosten anderer unausweichlich werden lassen (auch
die willkürliche Identifikation mit nur einem Trieb in Form der Leidenschaft löst
dieses Problem offensichtlich nicht bzw. bringt es nur vorübergehend zum Ver-
schwinden) (vgl. Enz. § 474 A.). Um diese Aufgabe zu bewältigen, kann der Wille
nicht länger bloß natürlich bleiben, sondern muss „reflektierender Wille“ (Enz.
§ 476) werden, also in reflexive Distanz zu (statt bloßer Identifikation mit) den
eigenen Trieben treten.
Die Ausübung dieser reflektierenden Wahl wiederum betrachtet Hegel als
Aufgabe der Willkür (Enz. § 477). Das Kriterium dieser Wahl, insofern es be-
schränkt bleibt auf den motivationalen Haushalt des einzelnen Individuums,
stellt dessen Glückseligkeit dar (Enz. § 478): Anhand der Frage nach ihrem Beitrag
zur Glückseligkeit können die Triebe einerseits in ein hierarchisches Verhältnis im
Rahmen praktischer Pläne gebracht werden (die Befriedigung eines Triebs kann
so z. B. zugleich als Beitrag zur Erfüllung eines übergeordneten Triebs verstanden
werden), andererseits können einzelne Triebe aufgrund der Unvereinbarkeit ihrer
Befriedigung mit der Verwirklichung solcher Pläne von vornherein ausgeschlos-
sen werden. Auch der reflektierende Wille, selbst wenn er in der Lage ist, das
Ausgangsproblem einer begründeten Wahl unter inkompatiblen Trieben zu lösen,
bleibt freilich für Hegel in entscheidender Hinsicht defizient – der reflektierende
Wille ist in der Ausübung der Willkür „nur als subjektiver und zufälliger Wille
wirklich“ (Enz. § 478). Der Grund dafür liegt darin, dass das Kriterium der reflek-
tierten Wahl hier ein internes bleibt:

[D]a die Glückseligkeit den affirmativen Inhalt allein in den Trieben hat, liegt in ihnen die
Entscheidung, und es ist das subjektive Gefühl und Belieben, welches den Ausschlag geben
muß, worin es die Glückseligkeit setze. (Enz. § 479)

Hegels Konzeption der Glückseligkeit ist also im Gegensatz etwa zu den antiken
Konzeptionen von Eudaimonie eine explizit subjektivistische: Was die Glückse-
ligkeit ausmacht, ergibt sich nicht etwa (wie z. B. bei Aristoteles) aus der Erfüllung
einer durch die Natur des Menschen festgelegten und für diesen spezifische
Funktion, sondern hängt von der Setzung jedes einzelnen Individuums ab. „Ge-
fühl und Belieben“ sind also nur innerhalb der prozeduralen Rationalität der
Willkür überwunden, die Triebe in übergreifende Pläne einordnet; sie bleiben
aber insofern auch noch auf dieser Ebene des Willens leitend, als sie die Kriterien
104 Christoph Halbig

dieser prozeduralen Rationalität von außen vorgeben – und dies ihrerseits ohne
rationale Begründung. Damit aber genügt der reflektierende Wille ganz offen-
sichtlich nicht dem grundlegenden methodischen Kriterium, das Hegel in der
Rechtsphilosophie als Erfolgsbedingung für das Programm einer „Reinigung der
Triebe“ formuliert:

In der Forderung der Reinigung der Triebe liegt die allgemeine Vorstellung, daß sie von der
Form ihrer unmittelbaren Naturbestimmtheit und von dem Subjektiven und Zufälligen des
Inhalts befreit und auf ihr substantielles Wesen zurückgeführt werden. Das Wahrhafte dieser
unbestimmten Forderung ist, daß die Triebe als das vernünftige System der Willensbe-
stimmung seien; sie so aus dem Begriffe zu fassen, ist der Inhalt der Wissenschaft des
Rechts. (RPh § 19)

Welche Konsequenzen sich aus diesen strukturellen Grenzen einer allein auf in-
terne Kriterien gestützten, durch eine subjektivistische Konzeption von Glückse-
ligkeit geleiteten Reflexion für Hegels Theorie praktischer Rationalität ergeben,
wird im nächsten Abschnitt zu prüfen sein. Im Rahmen der hier zu treffenden
begrifflichen Kriterien bleibt eine letzte Hegelsche Kategorie zu erläutern, die
wiederum quer zu den bereits diskutierten steht, nämlich die des Interesses. Beim
Interesse in Hegels Sinne nämlich handelt es sich wiederum nicht um eine weitere
mentale Spezies neben den Trieben, die auf ihr Verhältnis zu diesen zu befragen
wäre, sondern um eine allgemeine handlungstheoretische Kategorie:

Das Subjekt ist die Tätigkeit der Befriedigung der Triebe, der formellen Vernünftigkeit,
nämlich der Übersetzung aus der Subjektivität des Inhalts, der insofern Zweck ist, in die
Objektivität, in welcher es sich mit sich selbst zusammenschließt. Daß, insofern der Inhalt
des Triebes als Sache von dieser seiner Tätigkeit unterschieden wird, die Sache, welche
zustande gekommen ist, das Moment der subjektiven Einzelheit und deren Tätigkeit enthält,
ist das Interesse. Es kommt daher nichts ohne Interesse zustande. (Enz. § 475)

Rekonstruiert wird hier zunächst das Wesen praktischer Einstellungen überhaupt,


insofern sie einen Zweck beinhalten, der vorgibt, wie die „Objektivität“ so um-
gestaltet werden soll, dass sie dem Inhalt dieses Zwecks entspricht. Von diesem
Prozess der Realisierung eines Zwecks unterscheidet Hegel nun dessen Resultat,
insofern es nicht einen bloßen äußeren Sachverhalt darstellt, sondern „das Mo-
ment der subjektiven Einzelheit und deren Tätigkeit enthält“, also als Verwirkli-
chung eines subjektiven Zwecks aufgefasst wird. Den verwirklichten Zweck als
Manifestation einer subjektiven Zwecksetzung bezeichnet Hegel als Interesse. Die
Befriedigung eines Triebs, selbst etwas so Elementares wie der gestillte Durst,
bildet also insofern in Hegels Terminologie selbst ein Interesse (und nicht etwa
den Gegenstand eines solchen), als sich der erreichte Zustand eines körperlichen
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 105

Gleichgewichts verstehen lässt als das, was mit der Befriedigung des Triebs durch
das Subjekt intendiert wurde.
2. Bereits aus den gerade angestellten Überlegungen geht hervor, dass Hegels
These, dass „nichts ohne Interesse zustande [kommt]“ (Enz. § 475), keinesfalls im
Sinne einer humeanischen Rationalitätstheorie verstanden werden darf: Hegel
artikuliert mit ihr nämlich eine allgemeine handlungstheoretische Auffassung
darüber, was analytisch aus dem Begriff der erfolgreichen Handlung als Reali-
sierung der in der Handlungsintention enthaltenen Zwecksetzung¹² folgt. Diese
Auffassung ist aber mit jeder Rationalitätstheorie vereinbar, insofern sie die Frage
gar nicht adressiert, wo denn die Quelle für die Gründe zu suchen ist, an denen
sich das Subjekt in Intention und Handeln orientiert. Hegel lässt daran keinerlei
Zweifel, wenn er ausdrücklich hervorhebt:

Eine Handlung ist ein Zweck des Subjekts, und ebenso ist sie seine Tätigkeit, welche diesen
Zweck ausführt; nur durch dies, daß das Subjekt auf diese Weise [auch] in der uneigen-
nützigsten Handlung ist, d. h. durch sein Interesse, ist ein Handeln überhaupt. (Enz. § 475 A.)

Selbst die „uneigennützigste Handlung“, also etwa ein rein altruistisch moti-
viertes Selbstopfer zugunsten einer ganz fremden Person, ist in Hegels Sinne
(nämlich mit Blick auf die Struktur von „Handeln überhaupt“) als nicht weniger
interessiert zu charakterisieren als die Erfüllung eines selbstbezogenen Wunsches
wie etwa der nach einem kühlen Erfrischungsgetränk.¹³
Erst mit der Frage nach der Quelle von guten Gründen ist hingegen die Ebene
der Rationalitätstheorie erreicht. Und auf diese Frage gibt die humeanische Ra-
tionalitätstheorie eine spezifische Antwort, die nämlich, dass sich Gründe aus
den faktisch vorhandenen (oder in geeigneter Weise idealisierten) konativen Zu-
ständen des Subjekts ergeben, die dann mit dem Titel ‚Wünsche‘ oder eben auch
‚Interessen‘ (im nicht-hegelschen Sinne des Begriffs) belegt werden können. Wie
nun steht Hegel zu dieser humeanischen Rationalitätstheorie selbst? Hegel zu-
folge lässt sich jede Handlung, wie gezeigt, als interessiert und als gewollt cha-

 Vor diesem Hintergrund erscheint es als zumindest missverständlich, wenn Ostritsch 2014,
S. 103 Fn. 108 davon spricht, dass in dem Begriff des Interesses bei Hegel „alle […] Strebensmodi
(sc. Begierden, Gefühle, Neigungen, Triebe und Leidenschaften) […] zusammengefasst“ seien: Das
Interesse bildet bei Hegel in dem erläuterten Sinn eine handlungstheoretische Kategorie, nicht die
Bezeichnung eines Genus mentaler Entitäten, zu deren Spezies die Triebe etc. gehören (auch
Leidenschaften bilden überdies Hegel zufolge keine eigene Spezies):
 Vgl. a. Hegels ausdrückliche Warnung vor einer Verwechslung von Interesse mit Selbstsucht.
„Dasselbe [sc. das Interesse] darf mit der Selbstsucht nicht verwechselt werden, denn diese zieht
ihren besonderen Inhalt dem objektiven Inhalt vor“ (Enz. § 475 Z.).
106 Christoph Halbig

rakterisieren – letzteres jedoch bezeichnet er ausdrücklich als zwar legitim, aber


„wohlfeil“:

Will man statt dieser Form der empirischen Psychologie vornehmer Weise eine philoso-
phische Gestalt haben, so ist diese nach dem, was, wie vorhin bemerkt worden, in neuerer
Zeit für Philosophie gegolten hat und noch gilt, wohlfeil damit zu bekommen, daß man sagt,
der Mensch finde als Tatsache seines Bewußtseins in sich, daß er das Recht, Eigentum, den
Staat usf. wolle. (RPh § 19 A.)

Wohlfeil ist diese Charakterisierung deshalb, weil es ein Implikat des Handelns
überhaupt darstellt, gewollt bzw. interessiert zu sein. Irreführend wird sie jedoch
dann, wenn sie suggeriert, einen zusätzlichen, substantiellen Beitrag zu leisten,
nämlich die Frage zu beantworten, was eigentlich für eine solche Handlung
spricht. Dass diese Frage durch Verweis auf einen Wunsch oder ein Interesse, den
sie zu erfüllen verspricht, beantwortet wird, ist nun in der Tat die humeanische
Auffassung, nicht aber die Hegels. Bei Hegel findet sich mithin eben jene Diffe-
renzierung, die in der gegenwärtigen Diskussion zwischen Wünschen in einem
schwachen Sinne als Implikat von Handeln überhaupt einerseits, Wünschen in
einem starken Sinne als „attachments not required by reason“ getroffen wird
andererseits¹⁴. Im schwachen Sinne des Begriffs ist jede Handlung gewünscht, im
starken Sinne gilt dies hingegen keineswegs: Die rechtliche Institution des Ei-
gentums etwa liefert gute Gründe, sie zu respektieren, auch dann, wenn eine
solche Achtung vor dem Eigentum nicht Gegenstand eines individuellen Inter-
esses im Sinne des Vorliegens eines entsprechenden Triebes oder gar einer Lei-
denschaft ist. Der humeanischen These, dass solche motivationalen Zustände die
Quelle von praktischer Normativität insgesamt darstellen, tritt Hegel indes mit
allem Nachdruck entgegen, wenn er sich etwa gegen die

seit Rousseau vornehmlich verbreitete Ansicht [wendet, C.H.], nach welcher der Wille, nicht
als an und für sich seyender, vernünftiger, der Geist nicht als wahrer Geist, sondern als
besonderes Individuum, als Wille des Einzelnen in seiner eigenthümlichen Willkür, die
substantielle Grundlage und das Erste sein soll. (RPh § 29 A.)

Dies gilt gleichermaßen für die faktische konative Verfassung eines Subjekts mit
dessen in vielerlei Hinsicht konfligierenden oder zumindest unverbunden ko-
existierenden Trieben und Leidenschaften wie für die idealisierte konative Ver-
fassung, die sich aus der Tätigkeit des reflektierenden Willens orientiert am Ideal
der Glückseligkeit als einer konfliktfreien, hierarchisch in Lebensplänen struktu-
rierten Ordnung dieser Triebe und Leidenschaften ergibt. Die Herstellung dieser

 Raz 1999, S. 109; vgl. a. zu dieser Unterscheidung Scanlon 1998, S. 37; Schueler 1995, S. 29 ff.
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 107

Ordnung ändert nichts an der Tatsache, dass der „Wille[n] des Einzelnen in seiner
eigenthümlichen Willkür“ für Hegel keinen geeigneten Kandidaten für die Rolle
der Quelle guter praktischer Gründe darstellt:

„Glückseligkeit – es ist eine eigene Langeweile in diesen Worten Wohl und Glückseligkeit –
weil so unbestimmte, hohle Reflexion.“ (RPh § 125 A.)

Die Reflexion bleibt deshalb hohl, weil aus der bloßen Herstellung einer kon-
fliktfreien Ordnung von ihrerseits normativ neutralen motivationalen Zuständen
kein geeignetes Fundament für praktische Normativität gewonnen werden kann.¹⁵
Vor dem Hintergrund dieser klaren Zurückweisung einer humeanischen Ra-
tionalitätskonzeption stellt sich freilich die entscheidende Frage, wie es Hegel
dennoch gelingt, dem „Recht [sc. des einzelnen Willens] […], sich befriedigt zu
finden“ (RPh § 124), Genüge zu tun. Dass er dieses Recht ausdrücklich anerkennt,
duldet nämlich keinerlei Zweifel – seine Anerkennung bildet vielmehr für Hegel
die Bedingung dafür, einen Rückfall in eine rigoristische Konzeption der Moral im
Besonderen und praktischer Normativität im Allgemeinen zu vermeiden. Erst aus
der Abgrenzung nach beiden Seiten, sowohl zu einer humeanischen wie zu einer
kantisch-rigoristischen Konzeption ergeben sich für Hegel die Adäquatheitskri-
terien für seine eigene Theorie praktischer Rationalität:

Indem auch die subjektive Befriedigung des Individuums selbst (darunter die Anerkennung
seiner in Ehre und Ruhm) in der Ausführung an und für sich geltender Zwecke enthalten ist,
so ist beides, die Forderung, daß nur ein solcher als gewollt und erreicht erscheine, wie die
Ansicht, als ob die objektiven und die subjektiven Zwecke einander im Wollen ausschließen,
eine leere Behauptung des abstrakten Verstandes. Ja sie wird zu etwas Schlechtem, wenn sie
darein übergeht, die subjektive Befriedigung, weil solche (wie immer in einem vollbrachten
Werke) vorhanden, als die wesentliche Absicht des Handelnden und den objektiven Zweck:
als ein solches zu behaupten, das ihm nur ein Mittel zu jener gewesen sei. (RPh § 124)

Letzteres bezeichnet exakt die Hermeneutik des „psychologischen Kammerdie-


ner[s]“¹⁶, wie Hegel sie bereits in der Phänomenologie des Geistes rekonstruiert
hatte. Ihr liegt die Unterstellung zugrunde, dass der folgende Zusammenhang gilt:

 Siep 1992, S. 123 hebt daher zu Recht hervor, dass der freie Wille eine kritische Distanzierung
nicht nur der eigenen Affekte, sondern auch des eigenen Glückskalküls voraussetzt: „Der frei
Wollende verhält sich sowohl den affektiven Regungen wie dem vernünftigen Glückskalkül des
Menschen gegenüber ‚distanziert‘, wie die Seele zu den Empfindungen des Leibes: Einerseits
erfüllt und relativiert er sie durch Befriedigung und ‚Harmonisierung‘, andererseits ordnet er sie
den Bedingungen der Freiheit unter (vgl. Enz. § 478 ff.).“
 Vgl. PhG, S. 358.
108 Christoph Halbig

[W]eil große Handlungen und die Wirksamkeit, die in einer Reihe solcher Handlungen be-
stand, Großes in der Welt hervorgebracht und für das handelnde Individuum die Folge der
Macht, der Ehre und des Ruhms gehabt, so gehöre nicht jenes Große, sondern nur dies
Besondere und Äußerliche, das davon auf das Individuum fiel, diesem an; weil dies Be-
sondere Folge, so sei es darum auch als Zweck, und zwar selbst als einziger Zweck gewesen.
(RPh § 124)

Gegen diese von Hegel auch in der Rechtsphilosophie ausdrücklich als „schlecht“
abgewiesene Hermeneutik möchte er mithin an der Möglichkeit festhalten, dass
große Handlungen eben auch ausschließlich im Lichte großer Zwecke (also etwa
politischer, religiöser etc.) intendiert und realisiert wurden – und zwar vollständig
unabhängig von der Frage nach ihren Implikationen für die ‚besonderen und
äußerlichen‘ Wünsche, Ziele und Projekte des handelnden Subjekts. Umgekehrt
lehnt es Hegel aber gleichermaßen ab, im Sinne einer rigoristischen Position diese
ausdrücklich von ihm eingeräumte handlungstheoretische Möglichkeit zur Be-
dingung für den moralischen Wert von Handlungen überhaupt zu machen: Wer
meint, dass einer Handlung nur dann moralischer Wert zukommt, wenn sie
ausschließlich um der Pflicht willen intendiert wird, bekennt sich gerade zu der
von Hegel an der zuvor zitierten Stelle ausdrücklich zurückgewiesenen „Ansicht,
als ob die objektiven und die subjektiven Zwecke einander im Wollen ausschlie-
ßen“ (RPh § 124).
Doch wie gelingt es Hegel, in seiner eigenen Rationalitätstheorie diesem
Modell einer notwendigen Konkurrenz von objektiven und subjektiven Zwecken
einen positiven Entwurf entgegenzusetzen? Hegel adressiert eben dieses Problem
unter dem Titel des „Recht[s] der Besonderheit des Subjekts, sich befriedigt zu
finden“ (RPh § 124 A.), ein Recht, das er ausdrücklich mit dem „Recht der sub-
jektiven Freiheit“ (ebd.) identifiziert („was dasselbe ist“). Zugleich lässt er keinen
Zweifel daran, dass es sich bei diesem Recht nicht um ein marginales Problem der
Normativitätstheorie, sondern um nicht weniger als das „Prinzip einer neuen
Form der Welt“ (ebd.) handelt, das den entscheidenden welthistorischen Unter-
schied zwischen der normativen Ordnung der Antike einerseits, der auf der
christlichen Annahme der unvertretbaren Würde jedes einzelnen Subjekts als
Gottes Ebenbild beruhenden normativen Ordnung „der modernen Zeit“ (ebd.)
andererseits ausmacht. Im Folgenden kann weder auf die geschichtsphilosophi-
schen Implikationen dieser These noch auf die Frage nach der adäquaten insti-
tutionellen Implementierung dieses Rechts näher eingegangen werden; es muss
genügen, auf der Grundlage der bisher angestellten Überlegungen seinen ratio-
nalitätstheoretischen Kern herauszuarbeiten.
Dem von Hegel bezeichneten Recht eignet nun zum einen eine kognitive, zum
anderen eine motivational-affektive Dimension. Zur Bezeichnung der kognitiven
Dimension verwendet Hegel in der Regel die zweite der oben als extensional
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 109

äquivalent bezeichneten Formulierungen, nämlich die des Rechts des subjektiven


Willens:

Das Recht des subjektiven Willens ist, daß das, was er als gültig anerkennen soll, von ihm als
gut eingesehen werde […]. (RPh § 132)

Es handelt sich bei diesem Recht mithin um einen kognitiven constraint, der das
Bestehen guter praktischer Gründe an die Möglichkeit bindet, dass die entspre-
chenden Gesichtspunkte einem Akteur als gut einsichtig werden können:

Ein Akteur A hat einen Grund zu Φ nur dann, wenn A es als gut einsehen kann, zu Φ.

Was dieser constraint genau beinhaltet und welche normativen Konsequenzen


sich aus ihm ergeben, habe ich an anderer Stelle zu erläutern versucht.¹⁷ Im
Folgenden wird darüber hinaus die Frage zu klären sein, ob es analog zu diesem
kognitiven auch einen konativ/affektiven constraint gibt. Dass es ihn gibt, legt
Hegels Formulierung von einem „Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh
§ 124 A.) zumindest nahe.
Dieses Recht auf Befriedigung wurde in der jüngeren Hegel-Forschung in dem
Sinne verstanden, dass Hegel eine internalistische Bedingung für das Bestehen
von praktischen Gründen vertritt. Angesichts der Vielzahl von Internalismen, die
in den gegenwärtigen systematischen Debatten diskutiert werden¹⁸, möchte ich
zunächst zwei distinkte Formen einer solchen internalistischen Bedingung von-
einander unterscheiden. Der ersteren zufolge würde Hegel einen motivationalen
Internalismus vertreten, dem zufolge gilt:

Ein Akteur A hat einen Grund zu Φ dann und nur dann, wenn A entweder zu Φ motiviert ist
oder zu Φ als Ergebnis eines Prozesses prozedural rationalen praktischen Überlegens mo-
tiviert sein würde.¹⁹

 Vgl. Halbig 2009.


 Zur Unterscheidung von fünf grundlegenden Bedeutungen der Internalismus-Externalismus-
Debatte und ihrem Verhältnis zueinander vgl. Halbig 2007, S. 18 ff.
 Für eine Deutung von Hegel als Internalist im Williams’schen Sinne hat sich insbesondere
Robert Pippin in dem für das Verständnis von Hegels Theorie praktischer Rationalität bahnbre-
chenden Aufsatz „Hegel’s Ethical Rationalism“ (Pippin 1997) ausgesprochen; vgl. a. Pippin 2000,
bes. Fn. 20 sowie Pippin 2004, bes. S. 296 ff. Pippin zufolge vertritt Hegel eine „strong internalism
requirement“ (Pippin 1997, S. 448); ihre Pointe fasst Pippin in den Worten von Bernard Williams
wie folgt zusammen: „The whole point of external reasons statements is that they can be true
independently of the agent’s motivations“ (Williams 1981, S. 107, zitiert bei Pippin 1997, S. 432
Fn. 34). Dem Internalisten zufolge kann eben dies nicht der Fall sein. Vor diesem Hintergrund
schlägt Pippin selbst den folgenden „constraint on the possibility of a norm“ vor: „For some fact,
110 Christoph Halbig

Der zweiten zufolge sind – unabhängig von der Frage nach ihrer motivationalen
Wirksamkeit – Gründe gebunden an die Zwecke, über die ein Akteur aktual ver-
fügt oder aber unter Bedingungen prozeduraler Rationalität verfügen würde:

Ein Akteur A hat einen Grund zu Φ dann und nur dann, wenn A entweder einen Zweck, zu
dessen Verwirklichung Φ beiträgt, hat oder einen solchen Zweck als Ergebnis eines Pro-
zesses prozedural rationalen praktischen Überlegens haben würde.

Beide Formen des Internalismus binden praktische Gründe mithin nicht lediglich
an aktuale Motive bzw. Zwecke (dies zu tun, hieße den normativen Anspruch
dieser Gründe aufzuheben und sie in faktischen Motiven und Zwecken kollabie-
ren zu lassen). Gleichzeitig verläuft die Idealisierung entlang einer im prozedu-
ralen Sinn rationalen Route praktischen Überlegens, die etwa unzureichende
Informationen, Irrtümer oder logische Inkonsistenzen beseitigt. Neben prozedu-

or state, or consideration to be able to count as a reason for S to do A, S’s acceptance of, or having
of, such a consideration must be able to motivate him to do A“ (Pippin 1997, S. 438). Doch in
welchem Sinne ist diese internalistische Anforderung dann als ‚stark‘ zu qualifizieren? Pippin
selbst konzediert, dass es kaum plausible Kandidaten für eine „completely externalist view of
norms“ (Pippin 1997, S. 438) gebe; allenfalls eigne sich eine Theorie moralischer Verpflichtung im
Sinne eines theologischen Voluntarismus (moralisch gefordert ist etwas, insofern es von Gott
gewollt bzw. befohlen wird) und einer pessimistischen Anthropologie, der zufolge der göttliche
Wille bzw. Befehl nie angesichts der gefallenen Natur des Menschen handlungswirksam werden
könne. Damit fallen indes alle Positionen, die kein solches vollständiges Auseinanderfallen von
normativem Anspruch und motivationaler Wirksamkeit beinhalten, unter das Label Internalis-
mus, einschließlich solcher, die etwa eine Motivation durch Einsicht oder auch durch Konversion
(beides ganz unabhängig von der vorliegenden motivationalen Menge) vorsehen und in der ge-
genwärtigen Debatte als externalistisch gelten. Die Rede von einem starken Internalismus könnte
also meinen, dass Hegel Pippin zufolge eben solche Möglichkeiten nicht zulässt. Demgegenüber
räumt Pippin aber erstaunlicherweise ein, dass Hegel solche motivated desires (motiviert nämlich
z. B. durch schlichte Einsicht) durchaus zulasse: „Hegel is not denying that rational considera-
tions can be motivating on their own (can count for an agent as reasons), or that any positions that
maintains this is positivistic or rigoristic“ (Pippin 1997, S. 436). Dazu passt auch Pippins Ab-
grenzung von Hegels Variante des Internalismus einerseits von der humeanischen andererseits:
„In moderner Terminologie gesprochen, ist Hegel ein ‚Internalist‘ hinsichtlich praktischer
Gründe, obwohl er den Gehalt und die motivationale Kraft praktischer Gründe an eine gemein-
schaftliche Form der Sittlichkeit – und nicht an die psychologische Motivation eines Individu-
ums – bindet. Er akzeptiert die Annahme nicht, dass der wahre Ursprung aller Motivation immer
wunsch-basiert ist“ (Pippin 2004, S. 296). Für den motivationalen Internalismus bleibt dann aber
kaum mehr Gehalt übrig als die These, dass ein Gesichtspunkt dann nicht als normativ für mich
gelten kann, „if it could be shown that I could never act on such a reason“ (Pippin 1997, S. 437).
Unabhängig von der Frage nach der modalen Kraft dieses ‚könnte‘ ist dann aber nicht mehr zu
sehen, was an einer solchen denkbar schwachen Konzeption von Internalismus noch ‚stark‘ sein
soll.
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 111

raler auch substantielle Rationalität im Sinne einer Einsicht in das, was objektiv
für A zu tun gut wäre, zuzulassen, würde hingegen den Internalismus soweit
überdehnen, dass sich externalistische Positionen als Gegenpositionen zum In-
ternalismus nicht einmal mehr formulieren ließen.
Hegels Normativitätstheorie als Theorie des Willens beruht nun in der Tat auf
einem Prozess, den Hegel selbst als „immanente Reflexion“ bezeichnet:

Es ist aber die immanente Reflexion des Geistes selbst, über ihre Besonderheit wie über ihre
natürliche Unmittelbarkeit hinauszugehen und ihrem Inhalte Vernünftigkeit und Objektivität
zu geben, worin sie als notwendige Verhältnisse, Rechte und Pflichten sind. (Enz. § 474 A.)

Diese immanente Reflexion steht aber in klarem Gegensatz zur nur prozeduralen,
„formelle[n] Vernünftigkeit“ (ebd.), wie sie der Rationalitätskonzeption der in-
ternalistischen Bedingung zugrunde liegt und auf die sich etwa, wie oben gezeigt,
der Wille stützt, der anhand des Kriteriums der Glückseligkeit zu einer reflektie-
renden Distanzierung von den eigenen konativen und affektiven Zuständen ge-
langt und auf dieser Grundlage eine begründete Wahl zwischen ihnen trifft.
Solche Zustände besitzen bei Hegel gerade kein normatives Primat wie dies in
humeanischen Konzeptionen der Fall ist – ein Primat, das durch prozedurale
Rationalität ja nicht in Frage gestellt, sondern durch Bereinigung logischer Fehler
oder faktischer Irrtümer verteidigt wird. Es gilt Hegel zufolge vielmehr das genaue
Gegenteil:

Welches also die guten, vernünftigen Neigungen und deren Unterordnung sei, verwandelt
sich in die Darstellung, welche Verhältnisse der Geist hervorbringt, indem er als objektiver
Geist sich entwickelt; ‒ eine Entwicklung, in welcher der Inhalt der Selbstbestimmung die
Zufälligkeit oder Willkür verliert. Die Abhandlung der Triebe, Neigungen und Leidenschaften
nach ihrem wahrhaften Gehalte ist daher wesentlich die Lehre von den rechtlichen, mora-
lischen und sittlichen Pflichten. (Enz. § 474 A.)

Nicht zufällig beruft sich Hegel in diesem Paragraphen ausdrücklich auf die
methodologische Kernannahme Platons, dass sich die Bedeutung der Gerechtig-
keit in Bezug auf die Seele des Einzelnen erst aus der Perspektive einer gerechten
Ordnung der Polis erschließen lässt. Die Frage nach der Vernünftigkeit der Nei-
gungen lässt sich mithin gerade nicht auf der Grundlage der faktisch vorhandenen
Neigungen unter Bedingungen einer Prüfung durch prozedurale Rationalität be-
antworten. Die „immanente Reflexion“ bezeichnet vielmehr eine Reflexion, die
explizit über die Ebene des subjektiven Geistes hinaus den objektiven Geist und
damit die Ebene der Intersubjektivität und deren institutionelle Ordnung mit-
einbezieht – und damit eben paradigmatisch substantiellen Kriterien genügen
muss. Diese substantiellen Kriterien ergeben sich freilich ihrerseits – in einer hier
112 Christoph Halbig

nicht weiter zu erörternden – Weise aus der Verwirklichung des Willens, dessen
Telos darin besteht, „daß das, was er will, sein Inhalt, identisch mit ihm sei, daß
also die Freiheit die Freiheit wolle“ (RPh § 21 Z.).
Auch im motivationalen Sinne erscheint es als irreführend, Hegel als Inter-
nalisten zu bezeichnen – und zwar nicht etwa (und darin liegt das partielle Recht,
Hegel für den motivationalen Internalismus in Anspruch zu nehmen) weil Hegel
an einer Apologie praktischer Gründe, die für einen Akteur bestehen, aber nie
handlungswirksam werden können, gelegen wäre. Diese Möglichkeit scheidet
schon deshalb aus, weil die Realisierung des freien Willens als Hegels Kandidaten
für die Quelle praktischer Normativität ja keine dem einzelnen Akteur äußerlich
vorgegebene, metaphysische Ordnung darstellt, sondern ihn selbst als Subjekt
konstituiert (in dem Sinne kann Hegel dann auch durchaus mit Recht von einer
„immanente[n, meine Hervorhebung, C.H.] Reflexion“ sprechen). Dennoch bleibt
es irreführend, allein auf dieser Grundlage Hegel zum Vertreter eines motivati-
onstheoretischen Internalismus zu erklären. Die humeanische Motivationstheo-
rie, der zufolge ein Gesichtspunkt nur dann handlungswirksam werden kann,
wenn er in der aktualen motivationalen Menge des Akteurs verankert ist oder über
eine geeignete prozedurale Route praktischen Überlegens aus ihr abgeleitet
werden kann, und die im Hintergrund der meisten Formen des motivations-
theoretischen Internalismus steht, teilt Hegel gerade nicht. Ganz im Gegenteil
definiert er an prominenter Stelle der Einleitung in die Rechtsphilosophie den
Willen insgesamt als „eine besondere Weise des Denkens: das Denken, als sich
übersetzend ins Dasein, als Trieb, sich Dasein zu geben“ (RPh § 4 Z.). Rationale
Einsicht in eine normative Forderung, die als berechtigt erkannt wird, stellt für
Hegel mithin nicht nur eine (im Sinne etwa von motivated desires) legitime al-
ternative Form der Handlungsmotivation zusätzlich zu der durch bloße Triebe,
Neigungen etc. dar (im Sinne von motivating desires ²⁰); vielmehr gilt es für Hegel,
den motivationalen Haushalt jedes einzelnen Akteurs so zu strukturieren, dass
„der Inhalt der Selbstbestimmung die Zufälligkeit oder Willkür verliert“ (Enz.
§ 474 A.), die Triebe und Neigungen also nur insofern motivational wirksam
werden, als sie sich in die Gesamtordnung des freien Willens einpassen. Wenn
aber Einsicht in die Bedingungen und Implikate der Selbstverwirklichung des
freien Willens selbst handlungswirksam werden kann und für Hegel auch soll,
läuft ein Internalismus als motivationale Bedingung für das Bestehen guter
praktischer Gründe leer.

 Die Unterscheidung von motivierten und motivierenden Wünschen geht zurück auf Nagel
1970, S. 29; zur Diskussion der handlungstheoretischen Implikationen dieser Unterscheidung vgl.
Halbig 2007, S. 54– 62.
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 113

Was bleibt dann aber noch für das Recht, sich befriedigt zu finden, übrig,
wenn Hegel es aus den genannten Gründen nicht im Sinne der beiden interna-
listischen Bedingungen verstanden wissen möchte?
Insofern erstens der freie Wille des Menschen notwendig der eines endlichen,
leiblich verfassten Wesens ist, spricht Hegel ihm ausdrücklich „ein Recht, sich
solche unfreie Zwecke zu setzen, die allein darauf beruhen, dass das Subjekt ein
Lebendiges ist“ (RPh § 123 Z.), zu. Neigungen, die sich etwa aus körperlichen
Grundbedürfnissen ergeben, bilden damit zwar nicht das Fundament praktischer
Rationalität, sie liefern aber schon als solche gute Gründe – die Rechtfertigung
einer Handlung etwa als Stillen von Durst ist damit für Hegel in keiner Weise
notwendig elliptisch (auch wenn es natürlich durchaus defeaters geben kann, z. B.
dann, wenn die Erfüllung eines solchen Bedürfnisses mit den Pflichten etwa als
Soldat unvereinbar sein sollte).
Zweitens aber kommt das RB vor allem dann zum Tragen, wenn ein Subjekt
sich gerade nicht bloß um die Erfüllung elementarer Bedürfnisse sorgt, sondern
sich im Gegenteil in der normativen Ordnung des objektiven Geistes bewegt. Die
Befriedigung, die etwa darin liegt, den Pflichten des eigenen Standes in ausge-
zeichneter Weise zu genügen, bildet zwar, wie gezeigt, weder die Quelle des
normativen Anspruchs dieser Pflichten, noch liefert sie einen zusätzlichen nor-
mativen oder motivationalen Input. Was Hegels Position jedoch von der rigoris-
tischen Forderung „mit Abscheu zu tun, was die Pflicht gebeut“ (RPh § 124 A.)
unterscheidet, ist der Umstand, dass eine Orientierung etwa an den Standes-
pflichten dann defizient bleibt, wenn sie nicht angemessen auch in den konativen
und affektiven Haushalt eines Subjekts integriert ist; „ein feindseliger Kampf
gegen die eigene Befriedigung“ (ebd.) als dauerhafter Zustand stellt gerade ein
normatives Krisensymptom dar, nicht eine Bedingung moralischen Werts der
selbst-beherrschten Handlung, auch wenn sie diesen Kampf erfolgreich bestehen
mag.
Dies gilt in einem allgemeinen Sinne für alle Pflichten, die etwa durch Ge-
wohnheit habitualisiert werden und insofern gerade keine Überwindung bei ihrer
Erfüllung kosten sollten.²¹ In einem spezifischen Sinne gilt es für Pflichten wie die
gerade erwähnte der Wahrung etwa der „Standesehre“, die Hegel in § 207 der RPh
in einem Atemzug mit eben der Rechtschaffenheit als Konkretisierung der „sitt-
liche[n] Gesinnung“ benennt. Bei der Wahl des Standes liegt Hegel zufolge die
„wesentliche Bestimmung […] in der subjektiven Meinung und der besonderen
Willkür“ (RPh § 206) – und dies zu Recht: Die Zuordnung zu einem Stande darf

 Zu Hegels Theorie der Gewohnheit insbesondere mit Blick auf ihre Bedeutung für dessen
politische Anthropologie vgl. Siep 1992, S. 117– 119.
114 Christoph Halbig

weder anderen Individuen – wie in Platons Staat den Regenten (vgl. RPh
§ 206 A.) – noch den Zufällen der Geburt – wie im indischen Kastenwesen (vgl.
ebd.) – vorbehalten sein, sondern muß der individuellen Wahl überlassen blei-
ben. Diese Wahl erfolgt innerhalb von Rahmenbedingungen wie etwa „Naturell,
Geburt und Umstände“ (RPh § 206), die rationale Abwägungen und sogar Kritik
durch Dritte ermöglichen: Ein Hasenfuß mag für den Krieger-Stand objektiv un-
geeignet sein, auch wenn ihm selbst dies nicht klar ist. Dennoch hält Hegel daran
fest, dass jede einzelne Person ihren Stand selbst wählen und dass die Wahl
durch die „Willkür [sc. dieser Person] vermittelt“ (ebd.) sein muss, sich also nicht
ausschließlich auf den Rat Dritter oder die Anerkennung objektiver Umstände
stützen darf. In der Vermittlung einer objektiv und mit philosophischen Mitteln
gerechtfertigten ständischen Ordnung durch die affektiven und motivationalen
Vorgaben der konkreten Person, die vor der Aufgabe steht, ihren Ort in dieser
Ordnung zu bestimmen, sieht Hegel nicht weniger als eine Kernannahme des
common-sense-Verständnisses von Freiheit, und zwar eines Verständnisses, dem
Hegel selbst ausdrücklich philosophisch Rechnung zu tragen versucht:

Von der objektiven Ordnung aber, in Angemessenheit mit ihr und zugleich in ihrem Recht
erhalten, wird die subjektive Besonderheit zum Prinzip aller Belebung der bürgerlichen
Gesellschaft, der Entwicklung der denkenden Tätigkeit, des Verdiensts und der Ehre. Die
Anerkennung und das Recht, daß, was in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft und im Staate durch
die Vernunft notwendig ist, zugleich durch die Willkür vermittelt geschehe, ist die nähere
Bestimmung dessen, was vornehmlich in der allgemeinen Vorstellung Freiheit heißt (§ 121).
(RPh § 206 A.)

In Fällen wie denen der Wahl des Standes bestimmt das RB also das Kriterium
dafür, die Pflichten welchen Standes überhaupt für einen Akteur normativ ver-
bindlich werden, und fungiert somit als normativer Filter für die normativen
Gründe, die für eine konkrete Person gelten.
Auch ohne dass sich Hegel einer Deutung des RB im Sinne der beiden Formen
des Internalismus zu eigen machen würde, spielt das RB im Gesamtzusammen-
hang seiner eigenen Theorie praktischer Normativität mithin eine keineswegs
bloß marginale Rolle. Die Frage nach den normativ-ethischen Implikationen einer
solchen rationalitätstheoretischen Position bleibt damit freilich noch offen. He-
gels Tugendlehre bildet nun einen Testfall, an dem deutlich wird, was es bedeutet,
wenn Hegel die „Abhandlung der Triebe, Neigungen und Leidenschaften nach
ihrem wahrhaften Gehalt“ (Enz. § 474 A.) mit einer objektiven Pflichtenlehre
schlicht identifiziert.
3. Die Theorie der Tugenden eignet sich exemplarisch für die Prüfung der
Frage, ob der affektiven und konativen Dimensionen des Menschen eine konsti-
tutive Rolle, wenn nicht für Normativität überhaupt, so doch für moralische
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 115

Normativität, zukommt: Geht man von einem aristotelischen Verständnis der


Tugenden aus, dann zeichnet sich der Tugendhafte eben nicht nur durch die
rechte Einsicht in das, was zu tun moralisch richtig ist, aus – Tugend reduziert sich
nicht (wie etwa in sokratischer oder stoischer Tradition) auf Wissen – sondern
zusätzlich dadurch, dass er

(i) verlässlich motiviert ist, das Richtige zu tun, und zwar in einer Weise, die es ihm – im
Unterschied zum Selbstbeherrschten – ermöglicht, das Richtige nicht gegen innere Wider-
stände durchsetzen zu müssen, sondern es selbstverständlich und mit Leichtigkeit in die Tat
umzusetzen, und

(ii) seine Handlungen bzw. Einstellungen mit der angemessenen affektiven Tönung begleitet,
also etwa Freude daran hat, das Richtige zu tun, oder umgekehrt falsches Handeln, etwa das
Zufügen einer schreienden Ungerechtigkeit, nicht nur zutreffend beurteilt, sondern darauf
eben auch mit emotionaler Empörung reagiert.

Beide Bedingungen sind nach aristotelischer Auffassung der Tugend nicht äu-
ßerlich und auch nicht bloß deren instrumentelle Bedingungen, sondern deren
konstitutive Bestandteile: Wer nur gegen innere Widerstände und ohne rechte
Freude daran zu richtigem Handeln in der Lage ist, verdient eben nicht, als tu-
gendhaft qualifiziert zu werden – auch wenn es auf der Ebene beobachtbaren
Tuns keinerlei Unterschiede zu dem Verhalten des genuin Tugendhaften geben
mag.
Dass Hegel die aristotelische Auffassung als Paradigma einer Tugendlehre klar
vor Augen steht, belegen seine Vorlesungen zur Geschichte der Philosophie. Als ihr
grundlegendes Merkmal bestimmt Hegel zutreffend das folgende:

[E]rst in der Einheit der vernünftigen mit der unvernünftigen Seite besteht die Tugend. […]
Das Prinzip der Tugend ist nicht an sich, rein, wie viele meinen, die Vernunft, sondern
vielmehr die Leidenschaft (Neigung). Er [sc. Aristoteles] tadelt den Sokrates, weil er Tugend
nur in die Einsicht setzt. Es muß zum Guten ein unvernünftiger Trieb vorhanden sein, die
Vernunft kommt aber als den Trieb beurteilend und bestimmend hinzu. […] Diese Einheit,
worin das Vernünftige das Herrschende ist, ist die Tugend; dies ist die richtige Bestimmung.
Einerseits ist es Unterdrückung der Leidenschaften, andererseits geht es gegen solche Ideale,
wonach man sich von Jugend auf bestimmt, und auch gegen die Ansicht, daß die Neigungen
gut an sich seien. Beide Extreme der Vorstellung sind in neuerer Zeit häufig vorgekommen.
(Hegel, TW 19, S. 221 f.)

Hegel erkennt mithin mit Blick auf die „neuere Zeit“ also ganz ausdrücklich an,
dass die aristotelische Tugendlehre eine attraktive dritte Option darstellt, die
gleichermaßen die Einseitigkeiten eines humeanischen wie eines kantischen
Modells moralischer Normativität zu vermeiden erlaubt: Anders als letztere ver-
meidet sie es, „die besonderen Seiten“ (Hegel, TW 19, S. 223), nämlich eben die
116 Christoph Halbig

konative und affektive Verfassung des Subjekts als bloßen Anwendungsbereich


der rechten Einsicht verstehen zu müssen; anders als erstere vermeidet sie es, den
Neigungen selbst ganz unabhängig von der Frage nach ihrer Übereinstimmung
mit dieser Einsicht normatives Gewicht als Quelle von Gründen („gut an sich“,
ebd., S. 221) zuschreiben zu müssen. Nimmt man die strukturelle Affinität von
Hegels teleologischer Theorie des subjektiven Geistes einerseits, der aristoteli-
schen Seelenlehre andererseits, hinzu, erscheint es als fast zwingend, dass Hegel
der Tugendlehre gleichfalls eine prominente Stelle in seiner eigenen Theorie der
Moralität bzw. der Sittlichkeit zuweist. Diese systematisch gut begründete Er-
wartung wird indes so vollständig enttäuscht, dass die Frage nach den Gründen
dafür unabweisbar wird. Zunächst aber zur Problemdiagnose:
Erstens nämlich vertritt Hegel eine reduktionistische Theorie der Tugenden,
die die für Aristoteles fundamentale Pluralität der Tugenden (die freilich ein-
hergeht mit der These der Reziprozität dieser Pluralität untereinander in dem
Sinne, dass nur der über eine einzige Tugend verfügen kann, der auch über alle
anderen verfügt) aufgibt zugunsten einer Reduktion auf unterschiedliche Aspekte
(Hegel selbst spricht von „verschiedenen Seiten“, RPh § 150 A.) einer einzigen
Tugend, nämlich der der Rechtschaffenheit. Damit ergibt sich strukturell dasselbe
Bild wie bei Kant, der gleichfalls die Pluralität der Tugenden reduziert auf un-
terschiedliche Aspekte einer einzigen Tugend: Während es sich bei Kant hier um
den Mut handelt – die Tugend wird definiert als „moralische Stärke des Willens
eines Menschen in Befolgung seiner Pflicht“²² –, übernimmt diese Funktion bei
Hegel allerdings die Rechtschaffenheit:

Das Sittliche, insofern es sich an dem individuellen durch die Natur bestimmten Charakter
als solchem reflektiert, ist die Tugend, die, insofern sie nichts zeigt als die einfache Ange-
messenheit des Individuums an die Pflichten der Verhältnisse, denen es angehört, Recht-
schaffenheit ist. (RPh § 150 A.)

In beiden Fällen liegt auf der Hand, dass der Tugend keine konstitutive Funktion
für die Moral zukommen kann: Bei Kant hat die Tugend als Mut die Aufgabe, die
ganz unabhängig von ihr bereits feststehenden Forderungen der Pflicht gegen die
potentiell widerstrebenden Neigungen zu exekutieren – wobei es vorzuziehen
wäre, wenn eine solche Aufgabe sich gar nicht erst, wie im Fall des heiligen
Willen, stellen würde. Bei Hegel geht die Marginalisierung der Tugend jedoch
noch einen Schritt weiter:
Zweitens nämlich handelt es sich bei der Rechtschaffenheit nicht einmal, wie
bei Kant, um eine exekutive Tugend wie eben der Mut (also immerhin noch um

 Kant, AA VI, S. 405.


„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 117

eine aretaische Kategorie), sondern direkt um eine deontische Kategorie – ein


Umstand, den sie sogar im Namen trägt: Rechtschaffenheit. Vor diesem Hinter-
grund ließe sich mit guten Gründen fragen, ob Hegel überhaupt über eine Tu-
gendlehre verfügt oder sich lediglich den Begriff der Tugend in irreführender
Weise aneignet, ohne jedoch die Sache selbst überhaupt zu adressieren.
Eine inhaltliche Analyse der Rechtschaffenheit bei Hegel bestärkt diese Ver-
mutung zusätzlich. Rechtschaffenheit nämlich definiert Hegel als das „Allge-
meine, was […] teils rechtlich, teils sittlich gefordert werden kann“ (RPh § 150 A.) –
sie umfasst mithin zum einen Rechtsnormen, zum anderen Normen der Sittlich-
keit²³, moralische Normen bleiben bemerkenswerterweise ausgespart, sind aber
wohl als „aufgehoben“ in denen der Sittlichkeit zu denken und damit der Sache
nach durchaus präsent. Zwar weist Hegel selbst ausdrücklich auf die Tendenz zu
einer aus seiner Sicht fragwürdigen Abwertung der Rechtschaffenheit und damit
der Tugend gerade aus der Perspektive der Moral hin:

Sie erscheint aber für den moralischen Standpunkt leicht als etwas Untergeordneteres, über
das man an sich und andere noch mehr fordern müsse; denn die Sucht, etwas Besonderes zu
sein, genügt sich nicht mit dem, was das Anundfürsichseiende und Allgemeine ist; sie findet
erst in einer Ausnahme das Bewußtsein der Eigentümlichkeit. (RPh 150 A.)

Aus Sicht des moralischen Standpunkts zeichnet sich das tugendhafte Handeln
mithin gerade durch die Dimension des Supererogatorischen aus – jemand leistet
mehr, als es die Pflicht eines jeden in einer entsprechenden Situation wäre, und er
zeichnet sich durch diese Übererfüllung der Pflicht vor anderen aus und hebt sich
von ihnen ab. Mit seiner Theorie der Tugend als Rechtschaffenheit will Hegel nun
gerade einem solchen Verständnis von Tugend, dem zufolge diese zur „sittliche[n]
Virtuosität“ (RPh § 150 Z.) wird, entgegentreten. Dies freilich um den Preis, dass
die Tugend in der Befolgung der situativ vorliegenden Pflichten aufgeht, die ih-
rerseits die einzige inhaltliche Bestimmung der Tugend bilden. Für die aristote-
lische Forderung, dass motivationale und affektive Einstellungen konstitutiv in
die Tugend eingehen, bleibt hier kein Raum. Im Gegenteil: Wenn Hegel von der
„einfache[n] Angemessenheit des Individuums an die Pflichten der Verhältnisse“
(RPh § 150) spricht, dann lehnt er eine komplexe und vor allem wechselseitige

 In dem Versuch, umgekehrt die „subjektive Tugend“ zum leitenden Prinzip politischen
Handelns und zum Substitut für eine rechtliche und institutionelle Ordnung zu machen, sieht
Hegel gerade das Signum der Schreckensherrschaft Robespierres, in die die Französische Revo-
lution eingemündet war: „Es herrschen jetzt die Tugend und der Schrecken; denn die subjektive
Tugend, die bloß von der Gesinnung aus regiert, bringt die fürchterlichste Tyrannei mit sich“
(Hegel, TW 12, S. 533).
118 Christoph Halbig

Beziehung zwischen den beiden Relata, dem Individuum einerseits, den Pflichten
andererseits, ausdrücklich ab. Eben eine solche Beziehung unterstellt aber die
aristotelische Tugendlehre: Dass jemand die Pflichten der Verhältnisse erfüllt,
reicht ihr zufolge ja nicht, um eine Zuschreibung von Tugend zu rechtfertigen.
Dazu bedarf es einer Prüfung der Frage, ob er die entsprechende Handlung gegen
innere Widerstände durchsetzen musste und ob er sie in der angemessenen af-
fektiven Verfassung vollzogen hat.
Die Perspektive für eine nicht einfache, sondern komplexe Theorie der Tu-
gend kommt bei Hegel indes durchaus in den Blick, allerdings nicht als para-
digmatisch für ein adäquates Verständnis der Tugend, sondern ganz im Gegenteil
unter der doppelten, kritischen Perspektive einer sei es historisch, sei es syste-
matisch defizitären Konstellation:
Historisch bildet die Kategorie der Tugend Hegel zufolge nur im „ungebildeten
Zustande der Gesellschaft und des Gemeinwesens“ (RPh § 150 A.) zu Recht eine
zentrale normative Kategorie: Insofern die Pflichten in einem solchen Zustande
erstens noch nicht adäquat artikuliert sind in Form eines „freien System[s] einer
selbständigen Entwicklung und Objektivität“ (ebd.) und zweitens keine ausrei-
chenden institutionellen Rahmenbedingungen bestehen, die ihre verlässliche
Implementierung absichern, bleibt es dem Individuum überlassen, durch eine
besondere Kultivierung seines Charakters moralische Leistungen zu erbringen,
die – ohne diese Leistungen selbst infrage zu stellen – es aber abheben von seinen
Mitbürgern und die Tugendhaftigkeit damit zu etwas Exzeptionellem machen; die
Tugend wird wiederum zur Virtuosität mit Herkules als ihrer paradigmatischen
Verkörperung. Ein moderner Rechtsstaat mit einer umfassend artikulierten und
institutionalisierten normativen Ordnung jedoch lässt für Hegel solch überhöhte
Ansprüche an individuelle Selbstkultivierung schlicht überflüssig werden.²⁴ Die

 Zu diesem Ergebnis kommt auch Peperzak 1997, S. 179: „Wenn die sittlichen Verhältnisse
vollständig entwickelt sind – also im Zustand eines wohlgeordneten und sicheren Staates – ist die
besondere Art der Tugend, die Hegel hier ‚die eigentliche Tugend‘ nennt, fast überflüssig.“ Woods
These, dass es sich bei der Rechtschaffenheit um Hegels Begriff für „this modern, less spectacular
kind of virtue“ (Wood 1990, S. 216) handele, erscheint vor diesem Hintergrund als question-
begging, insofern sie die berechtigte Frage, ob es sich hier überhaupt noch um eine „kind of
virtue“ handelt, als positiv beantwortet voraussetzt. Es kann daher auch nicht verwundern, dass
etwa Andrew Buchwalters umfassende Diskussion von „Hegel’s Concept of Virtue“ (so der Titel
von Buchwalter 1992) sich ganz überwiegend auf „Hegel’s concept of civic or political virtue“
(Buchwalter 1992, S. 549) bezieht. Mit Blick auf Hegels Konzeption der Rechtschaffenheit kommt
Buchwalter zu dem ernüchternden Resultat, dass diese „first and foremonst an ethic of external
obligation“ (Buchwalter 1992, S. 559) darstelle, die überdies Gefahr laufe, bloßer Heuchelei Vor-
schub zu leisten. Buchwalter bemüht sich demgegenüber, bei Hegel eine genuin republikanische
Tugend von Bürgerlichkeit als Alternative zur Rechtschaffenheit herauszuarbeiten, die aber in den
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 119

Marginalisierung der Tugend bildet also für Hegel gerade eine genuine Errun-
genschaft einer reifen normativen Ordnung der Moderne; damit vertritt er be-
zeichnenderweise die exakte Gegenthese zu tugendethischen Verfallsdiagnosen,
die in dem „Verlust der Tugend“ (A. MacIntyre) gerade das Signum eines Pro-
zesses des Niedergangs sehen, der die normative Ordnung der Moderne nur noch
als Ort nuklearer Verwüstung erscheinen lässt.
Systematisch wiederum lässt Hegel zumindest einen Kontext erkennen, in
dem der Tugend auch unter den Bedingungen von reifer Sittlichkeit eine legitime
und unverzichtbare Aufgabe zukommt, nämlich „in außerordentlichen Umstän-
den und Kollisionen“ (RPh § 150 A.) – Kollisionen von Pflichten, die eine Erfüllung
aller relevanten Pflichten zugleich unmöglich machen. Hier steht das Individuum
vor der Aufgabe, zu einem begründeten Urteil darüber zu gelangen, was es all
things considered tun sollte. Hegel lässt leider vollständig im Dunkeln, inwiefern
die Tugend hier eine Orientierung zu bieten vermag. Klar ist nur erstens, dass
Hegels eigener Tugendbegriff diese Orientierung gerade nicht bieten kann, hatte
er Tugenden doch definiert als „einfache Angemessenheit des Individuums an die
Pflichten“ (RPh § 150); im Fall von Pflichtenkollisionen jedoch genügt eine solche
einfache Angemessenheit qua Voraussetzung gerade nicht mehr. Der Grund dafür,
warum Hegel diesen von ihm selbst identifizierten Ansatzpunkt für eine zwingend
notwendige Weiterentwicklung seiner Tugendlehre nicht weiter verfolgt hat, wird
indes zweitens sichtbar, wenn Hegel sogleich die Warnung anschließt, dass Tu-
gend nur „in wahrhaften Kollisionen“ (RPh § 150 A.) gefordert sei; gerade die
moralische Reflexion jedoch neige dazu, Kollisionen auch dort zu unterstellen, wo
tatsächlich gar keine vorliegen – und zwar deshalb, weil sie Gelegenheit zur
Ausübung von Tugenden und damit zur individuellen moralischen Auszeichnung
geben. Wiederum lässt Hegel deutlich erkennen, dass er es für ein Signum reifer
Sittlichkeit hält, ‚wahrhafte‘ Kollisionen gar nicht erst entstehen zu lassen; das-
selbe gilt dann auch für den philosophischen Reflexionsbedarf mit Blick auf die
Frage, wie diese Kollisionen denn zu bewältigen sind.
Wie wenig Hegel zu einer produktiven Weiterentwicklung der aristotelischen
Tugendlehre bereit war, zeigt im Übrigen der Umstand, dass einzig genau der Teil
dieser Tugendlehre von Hegel eine philosophische Begründung erhält, der der
großen Mehrheit der gegenwärtigen Verteidiger dieser Lehre mit guten Gründen
als Ärgernis erscheint, noch dazu als unnötiges Ärgernis, das keinen integralen
Teil dieser Lehre bildet – die Auffassung von Tugend als etwas Mittlerem zwischen
zwei Extremen nämlich. Diese sog. Mesotes-Lehre nun erscheint sowohl als ex-

Kontext der politischen Philosophie gehört und ganz andere Fragen adressiert als etwa die ari-
stotelische Tugendlehre.
120 Christoph Halbig

tensional inadäquat wie als explanatorisch unbefriedigend: Während eine Tu-


gend wie die des Mutes sich vielleicht als Mitte zwischen zwei Lastern, hier denen
der Feigheit und des Draufgängertums, verstehen lässt, legen andere Tugenden
wie die der Gerechtigkeit eher eine Deutung als Extreme dar, die einem anderen
Extrem, hier der Ungerechtigkeit, entgegengesetzt sind. Selbst wenn sich aber alle
Tugenden in dieser Weise als Mitte zwischen zwei Extremen verstehen ließen,
bliebe unklar, wieso und in welcher Weise sich ihr Status als Tugend durch diesen
Umstand erklären ließe. Hegel nun entwickelt eine philosophische Rechtfertigung
der Mesotes-Lehre auf der Grundlage seiner eigenen Theorie der Sittlichkeit, die
jedoch die Marginalisierung der Tugend zusätzlich verschärft:

Indem die Tugenden das Sittliche in der Anwendung auf das Besondere und nach dieser
subjektiven Seite ein Unbestimmtes sind, so tritt für ihre Bestimmung das Quantitative des
Mehr und Weniger ein; ihre Betrachtung führt daher die gegenüberstehenden Mängel oder
Laster herbei, wie bei Aristoteles, der die besondere Tugend daher seinem richtigen Sinne
nach als die Mitte zwischen einem Zuviel und einem Zuwenig bestimmte. (RPh § 150 A.)

Die Bildung des Charakters erscheint Hegel mithin als bloßes Anwendungspro-
blem: Die Tugenden spielen keinerlei konstitutive Rolle im Bereich sittlicher
Normativität, sondern bilden lediglich eine Anwendungsebene. Ob etwa eine
eklatante Verletzung einer Forderung der Gerechtigkeit mit einer affektiven Tö-
nung der Empörung erlebt oder bloß sachlich zur Kenntnis genommen wird, hält
Hegel für eine psychologische Frage, der keinerlei moralische Relevanz zu-
kommt – im Gegensatz zur aristotelischen Auffassung, die eine affektive Reaktion
wie die der Empörung in einem solchen Fall von einem tugendhaften Akteur
verlangen würde:

Es ist auch durchaus nicht absolut notwendig, daß ich bei der Beziehung meiner Handlung
auf die Pflicht in die Unruhe und Hitze des Gefühls gerate; ich kann vielmehr jene Beziehung
auch im vorstellenden Bewußtsein abmachen und somit bei der ruhigen Betrachtung die
Sache bewenden lassen. (Enz. § 472 A.)²⁵

Mehr noch: Die ‚Unbestimmtheit‘ der „subjektiven Seite“ (RPh § 150 A.) als Titel
für die konative und affektive Verfassung des einzelnen Subjekts lässt Hegel zu-
folge lediglich quantitative Bestimmungen zu, aus denen in Form eines Zuviel und
eines Zuwenig die beiden Extreme hervorgehen, aus welchen sich dann ihrerseits
die Bestimmung der Tugend als deren Mitte ableitet. Dass nur quantitative Kri-

 Hegel sieht es vielmehr selbst als Zeichen eines „große[n] Charakter[s]“, Glück wie Unglück
gleichermaßen ohne jede affektive Regung hinzunehmen, vgl. Enz. § 472 A., – eine Fähigkeit, die
Hegel ironischerweise selbst der Tugend der Besonnenheit zuschreibt.
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 121

terien ungeeignet sind als Grundlage normativer Differenzierungen, bildet eine


Auffassung, die Hegel mit den modernen Kritikern der Mesotes-Lehre teilt. Anders
als diese setzt Hegel aber schlicht voraus, dass es auf der „subjektiven Seite“
keinerlei Ressourcen für reichhaltigere, nicht bloß quantitative Bestimmung gibt.
Damit fällt Hegel noch hinter den bei Aristoteles selbst erreichten Diskussions-
stand zurück; hatte dieser doch etwa mit der Kategorie der natürlichen Tugenden
ein deutliches Bewusstsein dafür gezeigt, dass die Kultivierung der ethischen
Tugenden eben nicht auf der Grundlage eines bloß ‚Unbestimmten‘ erfolgt. Dass
die Bedeutung einer solchen, auf äußerlich-quantitative Gesichtspunkte zu ihrer
Individuierung angewiesenen Kategorie wie der Tugend im Gesamtzusammen-
hang von Hegels Theorie der Sittlichkeit eine marginale bleiben muss, kann vor
diesem Hintergrund nicht verwundern.
4. Hegels Theorie praktischer Normativität verfügt mithin, so das Ergebnis der
hier angestellten Überlegungen, über die Ressourcen, dem „Recht […], sich be-
friedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) als Signum der Moderne zu genügen. Dies bedeutet
freilich nicht, dass Hegel sich für eine internalistische Konzeption praktischer
Rationalität in Anspruch nehmen ließe. Die Unverzichtbarkeit einer bloß proze-
duralen Rationalität wird von Hegel vielmehr anhand seiner Diskussion der
Glückseligkeit zwar anerkannt, zugleich aber in ihrer nur regionalen Rolle ver-
ständlich gemacht. Sie eignet sich keineswegs als allgemeines Kriterium für das
Vorliegen praktischer Gründe insgesamt. Ebenso sieht Hegel aufgrund seiner
impliziten Ablehnung einer humeanischen Motivationstheorie auch keinen An-
lass, im Sinne eines motivationstheoretischen Internalismus Gründe an die fak-
tisch gegebene oder über prozedurale Rationalität idealisierte motivationale
Menge des Subjekts zu binden. Vor dem Hintergrund von Hegels eigener Hand-
lungstheorie ist eine solche Bindung in keiner Weise notwendig, um den auch von
Hegel anerkannten Zusammenhang von normativem Anspruch und motivatio-
naler Wirksamkeit verständlich zu machen.
Hegel trägt dem RB vielmehr auf ganz unterschiedlichen Ebenen Rechnung –
und zwar nicht bloß auf der kognitiven Ebene als Recht, durch nichts gebunden
zu sein, was sich nicht rational einsichtig machen lässt, sondern auch auf ko-
nativer und affektiver Ebene: Auch die reine Befriedigung körperlicher Bedürf-
nisse bleibt für ein wesentlich leiblich verfasstes Wesen wie den Menschen eine
legitime Quelle von Handlungsgründen. Zudem kommt der kontingenten kona-
tiven und affektiven Verfassung des Individuums, wie sich am Beispiel der Wahl
des eigenen Standes gezeigt hat, eine wichtige Funktion auch als ‚Filter‘ zu, der
darüber mitentscheidet, welche Rollenpflichten auf ihn Anwendung finden
können. Schließlich gilt es, Normen von Moralität und Sittlichkeit nicht nur ko-
gnitiv zur Kenntnis zu nehmen und ihren Gehalt angemessen zu verstehen,
sondern auch, sie über Prozesse der Gewöhnung zu einem integralen Teil der
122 Christoph Halbig

eigenen Persönlichkeit zu machen. Hier freilich zeigen sich die Grenzen von He-
gels Bestimmung des RB: Dass die Befolgung solcher Normen affektiv wie konativ
so verankert ist, dass ein müheloser Einklang von Kognitivem und Konativem
hergestellt und durch eine angemessene affektive Tönung begleitet wird, be-
trachtet Hegel weder als instrumentell notwendig (wenn auch durchaus als
wünschenswert für eine verlässliche Befolgung) noch gar als konstitutiv für den
Wert einer solchen Befolgung selbst. Von der Option, solchen Erwägungen im
Rahmen einer aristotelisch inspirierten Tugendlehre Rechnung zu tragen, obwohl
sie ihm inhaltlich klar vor Augen und im Einklang mit seiner eigenen Norma-
tivitätstheorie wie seiner Philosophie des Mentalen stehen würde, macht Hegel
ganz bewusst keinen Gebrauch. Die Tugendlehre wird auf bloße Rechtschaffen-
heit in der Befolgung von Pflichten reduziert oder sogar – insofern der Tugend als
aretaischer Kategorie keinerlei eigenes Recht zukommt – eliminiert. Zumindest in
dieser Hinsicht würde ein Rigorismus-Vorwurf sich also auch mit einigem Recht
gegen Hegel selbst wenden lassen, und dies nicht aufgrund Hegel-externer Prä-
missen, sondern auf der Grundlage der Potentiale von Hegels eigenem System.
Gerade weil Hegel aber, wie man unterstellen muss, die Möglichkeit der
Entwicklung einer genuinen Tugendlehre in aristotelischer Tradition bewusst
ausschlägt, stellt sich die Frage nach den Gründen dafür. Sie sind vermutlich in
der Gesamtarchitektur von Hegels Theorie des praktischen Geistes als Prozess,
innerhalb dessen der Geist sich zunehmend über die Implikationen der eigenen
Freiheit klar und damit zu dem wird, was er seinem Wesen nach sein soll, nämlich
frei, zu suchen – eine Aufgabe, die freilich weit über die Grenzen dieses Beitrags
hinausweist. Eben dieser Prozess bleibt indes bei Hegel m. E. insgesamt durch
eine Orientierung am Modell von Einsicht bzw. Erkenntnis orientiert und damit im
Kern theoretisch.²⁶ Dass dem Prozess der rationalen Klärung der affektiven und

 Für eine ähnliche Einschätzung vgl. a. Houlgate 1995, S. 879: „[E]thical will is defined as
ethical by its theoretical understanding of what freedom actually is, and by allowing its activity to
be guided by that understanding“. Vgl. a. Houlgate 1995, S. 868: „What becomes apparent in
Hegel’s account is that the will or practical spirit develops and gains in freedom as it is educated
into being fully theoretical, that is, as it comes to understand better what freedom entails. The
process whereby the will is fully liberated is thus, in Hegels view, ‘theoretical in nature’“
(Houlgate 1995, S. 868). Houlgate zitiert hier aus den Vorlesungen über die Philosophie des Rechts
(ed. Ilting), Bd. 4, S. 108: „[D]iese Befreiung ist theoretischer Natur“. Die Einschätzung Quantes:
„Doch bei näherem Hinsehen zeigt sich, dass Hegel keine am Paradigma der theoretischen Ver-
nunft ausgerichtete Konzeption vertreten hat. Die Wirklichkeit des Evaluativen und des Norma-
tiven sind unsere Praxen mit den darin wirksamen Anerkennungsprozessen und Zuschreibungen.
Zwar steckt auch im Anerkennen ein Erkennen (und damit Einsicht und Wissen), sodass die
Möglichkeit von Kritik und Rechtfertigung mit Gründen gegeben ist. Die grundlegenden Gestalten
des objektiven Geistes sind aber Willensverhältnisse und damit volitionaler Natur“ (Quante 2011,
„Das Recht […], sich befriedigt zu finden“ (RPh § 124) 123

konativen Vorgaben durch ein immer expliziteres Denken im teleologischen


Fortgang der praktischen Intelligenz eben doch kein gleichberechtigter Prozess in
umgekehrter Richtung korrespondiert, bei dem das als verbindlich Erkannte
selbst als vollständig ‚Durchdachtes‘ noch so lange auch normativ betrachtet
defizient bleibt, wie es nicht in den konativen und affektiven Haushalt des Sub-
jekts angemessen integriert ist, lässt gerade die ausgefallene Tugendlehre Hegels
augenfällig werden.

Bibliographie
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S. 224), berücksichtigt m. E. nicht ausreichend, inwiefern für Hegel die rechte Ordnung des
Wollens zwingend kognitive Leistungen voraussetzt. Hegel ruft nicht zufällig zu Beginn der
Rechtsphilosophie die folgende, zentrale Prämisse in Erinnerung, dass nämlich der Wille selbst
sich insgesamt nur als Intelligenz bzw. als Prozess von deren Realisierung verstehen lässt: „Die
Grundzüge dieser Prämisse – daß der Geist zunächst Intelligenz und daß die Bestimmungen,
durch welche sie in ihrer Entwicklung fortgeht, vom Gefühl durch Vorstellen zum Denken der Weg
sind, sich als Wille hervorzubringen, welcher, als der praktische Geist überhaupt, die nächste
Wahrheit der Intelligenz ist – habe ich in meiner Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften
(Heidelberg 1817) § 363 – 399 dargestellt“ (RPh § 4 A.).
124 Christoph Halbig

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Ulrich Pothast
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View
of Human Life¹
Abstract. Schopenhauer’s metaphysical framework awards desire (and, in general,
willing) an important and probably unparalleled function as the basic constituent
of all consciousness. Still, his claim that desiring always has to be suffering is dis-
putable. However, his thesis that desires may be and often are unconscious is well
founded and may be taken as one reason for his “modernity”. Assuming that per-
sistent desires are destructive, Schopenhauer comes to see aesthetic contemplation
and self-negation of the will as the cardinal ways with which to free oneself. None-
theless, at least one important question remains open.

Schopenhauers metaphysisches Rahmenwerk sieht Begehren (und Wollen allge-


mein) als konstituierende Basisfunktion von Bewusstsein an – eine Meinung, die
sich so wohl kaum woanders findet. Allerdings erweist sich seine These, Begehren
müsse immer Leiden sein, als fragwürdig. Immerhin hat seine Annahme, dass Be-
gehren unbewusst sein kann und oft auch ist, gute Argumente für sich und kann als
ein Grund für seine „Modernität“ betrachtet werden. Wenn man annimmt, dass sich
unablässig wiederholendes Begehren destruktiv ist, kann man verstehen, wie der
Autor dazu kommt, ästhetische Kontemplation und Selbstverneinung des Willens als
die Hauptwege zur individuellen Befreiung zu sehen. Trotzdem bleibt mindestens
eine wichtige Frage offen.

I The General Framework


We remember the basic framework of Schopenhauer’s idea of life and world: He
starts from the observation that there is a tight correspondence between the in-
tended movements of his body and his awareness of some kind of willing which
he assumes set them in motion. A more general version of this observation leads
him to claim that any movement, action, reaction, in fact any state of a person’s
body, corresponds to some “inner”, i. e. conscious, experience that in the last
analysis can be taken as some form of striving or willing. From that, Schopen-
hauer proceeds to the thesis that a person’s body as a whole is an expression

 I am much indebted to Sally Sedgwick for important objections and pieces of advice as well as
helpful suggestions concerning my English.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-007
128 Ulrich Pothast

of his or her will. More technically, he claims that a person’s body objectifies or
presents in the general form of an outward object what in that person’s self-
awareness is experienced as willing. Hence Schopenhauer calls a person’s
body the “objecthood”² of his or her will. He says the following about this start-
ing point of his further thinking:

I would therefore like to distinguish this truth above all others, and call it philosophical
truth par excellence [kat’exochen]. This can be expressed in different ways, and we can
say: my body and my will are one; or: what (as intuitive representation) I call my body, I
call my will to the extent that I am aware of it in an entirely different and utterly incompa-
rable manner […].³

The truly daring philosophical move which forms the ultimate foundation of
Schopenhauer’s whole system, however, is the next step after stating that
“truth par excellence”: The philosopher concludes, by analogy, that just as my
will may be considered the kernel of my entire bodily appearance, each thing
or living being in this world, which we perceive in space and time, must be
taken as the appearance of an underlying entity that, equally, must be called
“will”. The nature of that will which, so to speak, is the ultimate ground or sub-
stance of every being, must be conceived as some kind of striving, in a way sim-
ilar to what we call “willing” in our individual experience.
In the brief course of this reasoning, Schopenhauer proceeds from observing
a correspondence between (i) the outward experience of our body and our inner
experience of a related striving to (ii) a thesis of vast metaphysical scope: anal-
ogous to the relationship between bodily movement (or other utterance) and cor-
responding inner awareness of striving, there is a relationship between the
whole world as perceived or perceivable by us and the inner nature of this
world, which – according to this philosopher – must be will.
The “will” thus assumed is obviously no datum of self-awareness anymore,
as was the striving and willing from which Schopenhauer started. It is, instead, a
metaphysical entity of the greatest possible power and importance: it is the un-
derlying, ultimate, most basic reality of the whole universe. Schopenhauer
claims it is the thing-in-itself which Kant had assumed to exist, but to be forever
unknowable. To avoid misunderstanding, I shall henceforth distinguish that
transcendent entity as “metaphysical will” from the appearances of willing in in-
dividual consciousness, of which I shall speak as “individual will”. The term “in-

 WWR I, 127, 133. “Objecthood” does not seem to be a current English word. I assume it was
created as a technical term by the translators who joined to bring forth the new Cambridge Ed-
ition of the Works of Schopenhauer for the purpose to render Schopenhauer’s “Objektität”.
 WWR I, 127.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 129

dividual will,” which refers to the sensation of willing in individual self-experi-


ence, is Schopenhauer’s himself ⁴. He is well aware of the difference between the
phenomenon of will in individual life and the – never experienced and, there-
fore, never immediately known – metaphysical will as the ultimate ground of
the world.⁵ Of course, the metaphysical will, having an existence outside the
sphere of phenomena, cannot be thought of in its properties as a perfect ana-
logue of the will as we experience it in individual consciousness. It must be
thought of as something that is to a certain extent similar to the will as phenom-
enon, but also, in other respects, as vastly different from it.⁶ Also, of course,
Schopenhauer is aware of the quite disputable status of his reasoning by analogy
which led him from observing the correspondence between bodily movements
and individual experiences of willing (or, for that matter, desiring) to his claim
that the world, in the last metaphysical analysis, is will⁷. Basically during all
his later lifetime, therefore, Schopenhauer was on the lookout for empirical evi-
dence of a “willing” force in the nature of living beings, knowing quite well that
this could never directly prove his daring metaphysical thesis about the world,
but hoping that there might spring some indirect corroboration from the expect-
ed empirical findings.⁸
To understand the role of desire in individual life we still have to mention
some peculiarities of Schopenhauer’s system. First of all, our experience of the
external world as well as our experience of ourselves just have the status of phe-
nomena, that is, of mere appearances, not of entities which may exist in them-
selves. For Schopenhauer, the basic forms which are the hard and fast frame in
which all phenomena have to appear are space, time and causality. He derives
this assumption from a simplification (in his eyes: a more stringent and more el-
egant version) of Kant’s forms of all sensual perception (space and time) and his
table of categories. Within this framework, it is space and time which provide the
principium individuationis, the principle that allows us to identify individuals
and distinguish them from others. Since the metaphysical will is not subject to
the conditions of phenomenal existence, it follows, that being outside space
and time, it cannot be thought of as an individual. However, in Schopenhauer’s
eyes, this does not affect its nature as derived from the “philosophical truth par
excellence”. This nature is that of striving, i. e. willing forever without end. The
will as the ultimate ground of all being in Schopenhauer’s philosophy, since

 E. g. WWR II (Payne), 201.


 See WWR II (Payne), 196 – 198.
 On this point see also Janaway 1999a.
 See his reasoning in WWR I, 129 – 130.
 Cf. his On Will in Nature , FFR, 323 – 445, and numerous remarks in PP.
130 Ulrich Pothast

not an individual, has no self-awareness, no consciousness as we know it. In-


stead it is permanent striving that, due to its lack of self-awareness and its exis-
tence outside the forms of all individuality, cannot form individual aims.
Schopenhauer describes the metaphysical will as “blind” striving that can
never be fulfilled. Since there is eternal lack of fulfilment, there is also eternal
lack of satisfaction – which in Schopenhauer’s eyes implies the everlasting pro-
longation of a painful state of want. Willing without any chance of fulfilment,
therefore, is eternal suffering, in that philosopher’s eyes.⁹
This gives us a preliminary idea how to understand Schopenhauer’s famous
phrases for the nature of all life in this universe: “There is never a goal, never a
final satisfaction, never a resting place”¹⁰; “our condition is so miserable that
complete non-being would be decidedly preferable”¹¹; “life as a rule is nothing
more than a series of dashed hopes, thwarted plans and errors recognized too
late, […] something that should not be.”¹² And, like some kind of résumé, Scho-
penhauer’s summary about all life, of animals as well as humans:

Willing and striving constitute their entire essence, fully comparable to an unquenchable
thirst. But the basis of all willing is need, lack, and thus pain, which is its primordial des-
tiny by virtue of its essence. If on the other hand it lacks objects to will, its former objects
having been quickly dispelled as too easily achieved, it is seized with a terrible emptiness
and boredom: i. e. its essence and its being itself become an intolerable burden to it. Thus,
its life swings back and forth like a pendulum between pain and boredom; in fact, these are
the ingredients out of which it is ultimately composed.¹³

“Desire”, the main subject of this essay, is mostly used in existing English trans-
lations for Schopenhauer’s “Begehren”. However, as § 18 of the Second Volume
of The World as Will and Representation shows, “Begehren” is just one term
among others standing for an utterance of willing in self-awareness. Other
such terms are, “Wünschen”, “Streben”, “Sehnen”, “Hoffen”, “Verlangen”, “Gelüs-
ten”, “Lechzen” and so forth. For Schopenhauer’s reflections on the different
roles, functions and achievements of “Begehren”, we can safely assume that “Be-
gehren” qua “desire” or “desiring” are, in his view, near synonyms for forms in
which the will, i. e. the metaphysical ground of the world and all existence,
makes itself felt in human self-awareness. Trivially, as desiring qua Begehren,
in Schopenhauer, is always a species of willing, all general properties of willing

 For a broader account of Schopenhauer’s philosophy of suffering see Bobko 2001.


 WWR I, 335.
 WWR I, 350.
 PP II, 289.
 WWR I, 338.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 131

apply to Begehren, i. e. desiring, as well. Furthermore, because Schopenhauer


makes little effort to carefully differentiate between the above-mentioned
terms for manifestations of the metaphysical will in animal awareness, I shall
assume that most achievements, roles and functions which he ascribes to
such manifestations can also be attributed to what is meant by the narrower “Be-
gehren” or “desire”.

II Basic function of desiring in all consciousness


and primacy over the intellect
Schopenhauer takes experiences like desiring to be the primary content of con-
sciousness. It seems fair to say that, for him, manifestations of willing in one Ge-
stalt or other even provide the elementary stuff of all conscious sensation.
“Therefore what is always to be found in every animal consciousness, even the
most imperfect and feeblest, in fact what is always its foundation, is the imme-
diate awareness of a longing (Verlangen), and of its alternate satisfaction and
non-satisfaction in very different degrees. To a certain extent we know this a pri-
ori.”¹⁴ And later on: “On the other hand, longing, craving (Begehren), willing, or
aversion, shunning, and not-willing, are peculiar to every consciousness; man
has them in common with the polyp. Accordingly, this is the essential and the
basis of every consciousness.”¹⁵
The reader will realize the rareness, probably even uniqueness of this thesis
in the history of philosophy. There are numerous philosophers who consider
some striving force or conatus to belong to every kind of consciousness. Different
philosophers ascribe different kinds of function to this. But there seem to be
none before Schopenhauer who would go as far as to consider some kind of striv-
ing as “the essential and the basis of every consciousness”. Neither perception
nor sensation, let alone representation or thinking, is in Schopenhauer’s eyes
the fundamental element of consciousness: it is striving. Since desiring or Begeh-
ren as mentioned here by Schopenhauer may be seen as a species of striving (not
distinguished with care from other such species), we may also reckon desiring
(Begehren) as belonging to the very elementary constituents of consciousness
qua consciousness on which higher achievements rest or from which they may
be derived.

 WWR II (Payne), 204.


 WWR II (Payne), 204.
132 Ulrich Pothast

Schopenhauer seems not to be aware of the strange and rare position in the
history of philosophy, or, for that matter, the philosophy of mind, on which this
part of his theory places him. However, from the elementary role of willing as-
serted in the given quotations flows a further (and better known) consequence
of which the philosopher is aware, indeed, even quite proud: the primacy of
striving over the intellect or of will over thinking. He sees quite clearly that vir-
tually all his major contemporaries and many of his predecessors consider think-
ing or, in a wide sense, rationality to be the discerning property of humankind
over other, lower forms of life. From his early writings up to his very last ones
he takes a firm stand against that assumed leadership of rationality in humans
and against praising reason as the highest achievement in the universe of living
beings. So, immediately following the just-quoted passages, he writes: “This con-
sideration makes it clear that in all animal beings the will is the primary and sub-
stantial thing, the intellect, on the other hand, is something secondary and addi-
tional, in fact a mere tool in the service of the will […].”¹⁶ The predominance of
man over animals does not rest on an assumed leadership of thinking in man,
but on the more or less permanent presence of thoughts and ideas in human
consciousness which made philosophers suppose that it is thinking which
plays the dominant part, not willing or desiring.

Thus, whereas in the case of the animal the immediate awareness of its satisfied or unsa-
tisfied desire [Begehren] constitutes by far the principal part of its consciousness, […] with
man the opposite is the case. Intense as his desires [Begehrungen] may be, more intense
even than those of any animal and rising to the level of passions, his consciousness never-
theless remains continuously and predominantly concerned and engrossed with represen-
tations and ideas. Undoubtedly this is mainly what has given rise to that fundamental error
of all philosophers, by virtue of which they make thinking the essential and primary ele-
ment of the so-called soul, in other words, of man’s inner or spiritual life, always putting
it first, but regard willing as a mere product of thinking, and as something secondary, addi-
tional, and subsequent.¹⁷

Knowing that his thesis on the secondary role of the intellect must be less than
popular among philosophers, especially of his time, Schopenhauer provides
many supporting considerations for this thesis, and even fanciful metaphors,
as early as 1818 in the First Volume of his Hauptwerk. ¹⁸ Most often he speaks

 WWR II (Payne), 204– 205.


 WWR II (Payne), 205 – 206.
 See e. g. the simile of will and intellect, the former strong but blind, and carrying the latter
who is weak, lame but sighted, guiding the strange couple through the vicissitudes of life. WWR
II (Payne), 209.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 133

of the intellect as the servant, the will as the master in that twosome. That this
special servant in the vicissitudes of human life indeed has an important role in
helping the master to make the right decisions and protect himself against the
many dangers of the world is something Schopenhauer admits openly. So, the
ontologically dependent intellect, by way of distinguishing important from un-
important events, recognizing dangerous situations and helpful means to escape
them, in short: leading the way to avoid disaster and fulfil the basic needs of hu-
mans as living beings, becomes an efficient servant guide to its master, the will.
Maybe one of the most important functions of the basically just serving in-
tellect comes into play when we remember another basic thesis of Schopenha-
uer’s system: that the metaphysical will, the essence of the world as a whole,
has, in its tendency to objectify itself, also the tendency to turn against itself.
Its forms of objecthood, with fiercely opposed desires, fiercely fight against
each other for their place in space and time and their share of the means to
live. Schopenhauer calls this the “schism”¹⁹ of the will, its “inner conflict”²⁰,
or its “self-dichotomy”²¹ [Selbstentzweiung] in all its forms of objecthood. In
this never ending fight for life or death between forms of the will’s objecthood,
the otherwise weak and dependent intellect is absolutely indispensable for in-
forming, guiding, and warning the relevant Gestalt of the will’s phenomenon
to the last purpose of fulfilling its desires and preserving its life.

III Desiring as suffering, even if unconscious


If we want to know about the reasons for Schopenhauer’s extremely gloomy view
of life and world, we have to ask: why is it that willing, the basic character of all
being, does not have a chance to come to an end and find satisfaction? Like the
characters in Beckett’s Endgame, Schopenhauerian persons, even living beings
of any kind whatsoever, may want to come to an end of an existence of suffering
but, of their own accord, do not achieve that end.²² Or, we may put our question
differently: since Schopenhauer admits that, in rare moments, there is the pos-
sibility of fulfilling a desire and finding at least brief satisfaction, why do per-
sons, other living beings and any earthly entities whatsoever, not calm down
at this moment and cross over to another form of existence? The answer, as

 WWR I, 283.
 WWR I, 186.
 WWR I, 412.
 For this reading of Beckett’s Endgame as a thoroughly Schopenhauerian drama see Pothast
2008, pp. 213 – 220.
134 Ulrich Pothast

far as Schopenhauer’s texts are concerned, must rest on his unique ontology. The
basic element and, in fact, the only element of fundamental function in this on-
tology, is willing, or, for that matter, desiring. If being always means willing, and
if there is otherwise no independent element of its own right, there can, in a
world of that sort, only be kinds of existence that have the character of willing
or forms that are dependent either on willing or disguised forms of willing.
The second question we have to ask is: why is willing always suffering?
Aren’t there forms of willing which are full of relish or at least glee? I find it
hard to determine why Schopenhauer does not consider that these ways of will-
ing existence might occur at least from time to time. The only reason I can see is
that he assumes the basic character of existence to be not just willing, but will-
ing with a negative note, somehow willing in the form of ever unfulfilled desir-
ing. His elementary ontological assumption thus leads to a world that in its fun-
damental sphere is joyless willing, unpleasant willing, painful willing. The far-
reaching ontology which claims that all being is willing and all that willing is
always suffering cannot be justified from a mere phenomenology of willing,
but transcends the phenomenal field by a determinate metaphysical thesis: no
genuine glee or relish or other positive sensation is to be discovered in the
very basic willing, but just painful striving, unfulfilled. There is no justification
for this far reaching assumption from the phenomena with which Schopenhauer
starts; it is just his decidedly unique worldview.
It is also that view which justifies us in calling Schopenhauer’s idealism, in
brief, “black idealism”. He justifies characterizing his system as a system of ide-
alism by reminding his reader that all immediate, not derivative, knowledge, all
immediate certainty, rests on a subject’s consciousness:

Accordingly, true philosophy must at all costs be idealistic; indeed, it must be so merely to
be honest. For nothing is more certain than that no one ever came out of himself in order to
identify himself immediately with things different from him; but everything of which he has
certain, sure, and hence immediate knowledge, lies within his consciousness. Beyond this
consciousness, therefore, there can be no immediate certainty; but the first principles of a
science must have such a certainty.²³

From this reasoning we obviously have to conclude that all of Schopenhauer’s


claims that go beyond evidence in the form of conscious experience are not jus-
tified by the immediate knowledge on which he wants to base his system. Those
parts of Schopenhauer’s Weltbild may be indirectly supported by analogy (as
mentioned) or other secondary, but never logically conclusive evidence. The

 WWR II (Payne), 4.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 135

“black” in my term “black idealism”, for Schopenhauer’s worldview, comes from


this epistemic situation. Especially the claims which deliberately go beyond the
sphere of “immediate certainty” originate from his very own unique personality.
Nevertheless, Schopenhauer would by no means agree, were we to call his met-
aphysical system “subjective”. There are points where he explicitly reflects on
highly personal worldviews in general. He claims those views are to be taken se-
riously when arising from “intuitive and objective apprehension of nature trans-
lated into concepts”. A view of that sort, when logically carried out, “can be in-
complete and one-sided, in which case it requires a supplement, not a
refutation.”²⁴ Among the examples Schopenhauer presents for worldviews of
this kind is his own: “Likewise it is true when I, in the manner of Anacreon,
place the highest happiness on the enjoyment of the present, but it is true at
the same time when I recognize the wholesomeness of suffering and the nullify-
ing, indeed pernicious nature of all pleasure and conceive of death as the goal of
my existence.”²⁵ Here Schopenhauer seems to admit an element of personal bias
in his own worldview, a bias that he does not consider to be an instance of con-
futation since he obviously assumes his thoughts to be “logically carried out”²⁶.
The third question which arises in the course of our assessment of Schopen-
hauer’s bleak metaphysics is: why do desiring, willing, wanting, i. e. suffering,
when having come to brief satisfaction, transform into languor, empty longing
for a new object of desire, so as to justify in Schopenhauer’s eyes his claim
that life is a “pendulum between pain and boredom”? It seems this question
has to be answered on the basis of our answers to the first and second questions:
As the substance of the world is willing and absolutely nothing else, and as will-
ing according to the philosopher’s metaphysical bias can only be suffering (no
joy, no pleasure, no delight, no lust), there remains only some kind of suffering
when desiring/willing briefly has come to an end – and that suffering takes the
form of gnawing boredom.
We can now come to a point of Schopenhauer’s philosophy that, in addition
to his pessimism, also contributes to his popularity in 20th century social science,
literature and the arts. This point largely contributes to what we may call his
“modernity”. It is the fact that desiring, longing, wanting (in short, any willing
whatsoever) need by no means always be part of a person’s consciousness,
but can well be unconscious, even remain so for years.

 PP II, 16.
 PP II, 16.
 PP II, 16.
136 Ulrich Pothast

We often do not know what we desire or fear. For years we can have a desire without ad-
mitting it to ourselves or even letting it come to clear consciousness, because the intellect is
not to know anything about it, since the good opinion we have of ourselves would inevita-
bly suffer thereby. But if the wish is fulfilled, we get to know from our joy, not without a
feeling of shame that this is what we desired; for example, the death of a near relation
whose heir we are. Sometimes we do not know what we really fear, because we lack the
courage to bring it to clear consciousness. In fact, we are often entirely mistaken as to
the real motive from which we do or omit to do something […].²⁷

This passage refers to desires that can be reckoned as manifestations of the in-
dividual will. By means of this kind of assertion of which there are many instan-
ces in his oeuvre, Schopenhauer proves himself to be one of the rare thinkers of
his time who admits the existence of unconscious desires and, for that matter, an
unconscious mental life.²⁸ It is well known, that Sigmund Freud was at least in-
formed about Schopenhauer and read about his ideas of the unconscious before
or in the process of forming his own theory. Freud’s information about Schopen-
hauer’s ideas of unconscious mental life largely stem from Eduard von Hart-
mann’s Philosophie des Unbewussten, if not directly from Schopenhauer’s own
writings.²⁹ That book, first published in 1869, was one of the most widely read
philosophical works of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and achieved a
total of twelve editions until 1923. It borrows heavily from Schopenhauer’s
ideas about unconscious desires and also from his theory of the ever blind meta-
physical will. Although it might be assuming too much to take Schopenhauer as
Freud’s immediate forerunner, we are certainly justified in considering him an
important source from which Freud, directly or indirectly, benefitted in the pro-
cess of forming his extremely influential view of the human psyche.
The idea of unconscious desires demands that we clear up another point in
Schopenhauer’s overall view of life and world: what can it mean that uncon-
scious desires are instances of suffering, and that the metaphysical will which
remains forever unconscious, suffers as well and even without possible end?
One way to find at least a weakly plausible answer to those questions seems
to be this: let’s assume that there is genuine unconscious suffering, at least in
human persons. This could mean that unconscious desires may work under-
ground in the affected person’s life and – by means of unconscious suffering –

 WW II (Payne), 209 – 210. Another point which may have contributed to Schopenhauer’s
enormous popularity in the half-century following his death is his firm denial of free will in
the empirical world. See TPE, 31– 112.
 For more information on Schopenhauer and the unconscious see Baum/Koßler 2005. See
also Gardner 1999.
 See Magee 21997, p. 306 – 309.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 137

build up pressure that drives the individual in the direction in which those de-
sires point. Finally, that drive may influence the person to act in the desired
way, not knowing where his or her apparent wish to do so originated. This design
is not Freud’s model of unconscious powers working in human persons, but with
some alterations it might be made at least compatible with Freud’s view. Howev-
er, the question about the nature of unconscious suffering still remains, since the
assumed suffering can hardly be the sensation of suffering as we know it from
our phenomenal experience. A way out here might be to postulate unconscious
mental sensations as – at least in human individuals – a second phenomenal
consciousness with typical phenomenal experiences, just strictly separated
from what we know and remember as our conscious life. This second mind
might play a powerful role in our life “across the border”, as it were. At least
this would help us understand unconscious suffering in humans, albeit at the
price of a decisively speculative element in our view. Still, as we know from
our dreams, there are phenomenal experiences, even quite powerful ones, that
do not belong to our waking consciousness. In normal persons they are kept sep-
arate quite well from everyday normality. They need not enter our daily con-
scious life even after we wake up.
However, we still do not have an understandable notion of how the meta-
physical will, the ultimate substance of every being, existing outside all forms
of the phenomenal world, can be thought of as suffering in a way which is at
least remotely similar to the suffering we experience from our own sensations.
There seems to be virtually no plausibility in assuming that this will, uncon-
sciously, has the types of desire, hope, fear, pain similar to those we know
from our own lives. After all, we think of desires, fears and so forth as instances
of an intentional consciousness, always directed towards some conceived aim
or against some conceived evil. To attribute something analogous to the meta-
physical will would be to view that will in a most anthropomorphic way. Such a
view would mold that essence into some superperson, having infinite powers
but basically being just an inflated copy of ourselves. This certainly will not
do. But Schopenhauer’s remarks on how he wishes us to see that ultimate ker-
nel of the world may help us proceed a bit further. We remember that in the
very beginning of his train of thought he characterized the metaphysical will
as an unconscious drive or force that strives to gain an objective Gestalt
which he calls its “objecthood” (Objektität).

Only the will is thing in itself: as such, the will is by no means a representation, it is quite
different in kind from representation; all representations, all objects are the appearance,
the visible manifestation, the objecthood of the will. The will is the innermost, the kernel
of every individual thing and likewise of the whole: it appears in every blind operation
138 Ulrich Pothast

of a force of nature: it also appears in deliberative human action; these differ from each
other only in the grade of their appearing, not in the essence of what appears.³⁰

Schopenhauer stresses at many points that the metaphysical will is not to be im-
agined as a near analogue to any kind of consciousness, but rather can be seen
as a blind force that strives to gain objecthood in the phenomenal world, without
itself becoming anything similar to a phenomenon. A closer description of the
will’s elementary drive comes later in the development of Schopenhauer’s sys-
tem: it is at the beginning of the Fourth Book of The World as Will and Represen-
tation, when he tries to forge a path to the most far reaching claims of his phi-
losophy, that he provides a more concrete idea of what the will indeed wills.
It is objecthood in the form of life:

That is why we called the appearing world the mirror of the will, its objecthood: and since
what the will wills is always life, precisely because life is nothing but the presentation of
that willing for representation, it is a mere pleonasm and amounts to the same thing if, in-
stead of simply saying ‘the will’, we say ‘the will to life’.³¹

If we keep asking how we can imagine the metaphysical will to be suffering, we


might now have a clue: the will strives to objectify itself in phenomenal form, not
consciously, but in the way we have to imagine natural forces to “strive”. So, ac-
cording to Schopenhauer, gravitation is such a force, inertia may be seen that
way, electricity as well. They “strive” for some effect, meaning that, if not ob-
structed, they tend to realize that effect. The unconscious striving for objecthood
which Schopenhauer ascribes to the metaphysical will (and which, in fact, jus-
tifies his talk about ‘will’ here at all) is the striving of the ultimate force of nature
to gain appearance as the world of phenomena. There is no need to assume any
consciousness here, let alone any decision or the like; the will to life ‘strives’ for
life in phenomenal form just like the force of gravitation ‘strives’ for the effect
that the gravitating masses finally clash. As we noted at the beginning of this
essay: Schopenhauer’s term “Wille”, i. e. “will”, for this world’s ultimate reality
to which he ascribes “striving” similar to typical forces of nature, has extremely
little in common with what we know as willing in the phenomenal world and in

 WWR I, 135.
 WWR I, 301. German original: “Wille zum Leben”. The traditional English translation (Hal-
dane & Kemp as well as Payne) is “will to live”. The German term “Wille zum Leben” is hard
to translate indeed. The recent Cambridge Edition of the Works of Schopenhauer has “will to
life”. As most Schopenhauer quotes in this paper are from that edition, for reasons of consisten-
cy I shall stick to the latter translation.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 139

our own lives. Schopenhauer forces us to think of the metaphysical will as un-
conscious striving. We can do so if we manage to keep our idea of that entity
quite free from any traces of the experience of willing (or desiring) which we nor-
mally refer to with the word ‘will’ in our everyday life.

IV The destructive role of desire: The bond that


keeps human persons in the realm of
deceptive hopes, futile expectations, and the
basic struggle among individuals
The vast majority of persons, according to Schopenhauer, remain for their entire
lives in the “circular path made of red-hot coals where we are forced to keep
going around and around the circle” that is running our painful course in the
persistent repetition of desire, brief satisfaction if any, and new desire.³² Why
do people not see that this is the ever-recurring rhythm of their existence until
their brief lifetime is over and they fall victim to a dreary death? From Schopen-
hauer’s remarks on the extremely few persons who manage to step out of that
circle, if just temporarily, we may conclude that in the majority of cases, the
will (manifesting itself in ever-recurring desires) is too strong for the intellect
to free itself from its servant role and see what really is the case. It is worth not-
ing that our subject matter, desire, in the many forms it can take, plays a very
dominant role in that game. The intellect, which is the only power a human pos-
sesses to possibly free itself, is too weak for that purpose. It is the subservient
intellect with its power of imagination that even helps finding ever more false
pretenses to deceive those individuals “entrapped in delusion”³³ into continue
running in that circular path and virtually never stop to think.
One of the reasons human persons mostly do not reflect on the delusory
character of their desires, according to Schopenhauer, is that they also are
caught in the conflicts that arise from the “schism” of the metaphysical will or
its “self-dichotomy”. Among the individuals in space and time there is and
has to be permanent struggle for the means of life. It is space and matter
(such as food and shelter) for which almost all animals cannot help but fight;
it is higher pleasures and subtler (erroneously expected) satisfactions which
keep humans in constant and often fierce opposition to each other. That oppo-

 WWR I, 406.
 WWR I, 406.
140 Ulrich Pothast

sition more often than not leads to ferocious struggles by the end of which the
victors experience the typical staleness of a now achieved object of former desire
and longing for a new one.

[…] we are lucky enough when there is still something left to desire and strive after, to carry
on the game of constantly passing from desire to satisfaction and from this to a new desire,
a game whose rapid course is called happiness and slow course is called suffering, so that
the game might not come to an end, showing itself to be a fearful, life-destroying boredom,
a wearied longing without a definite object, a deadening languor.³⁴

This “game” obviously is utterly destructive in its compulsive continuation,


where the person’s intellect only serves to guide the person’s actions in the direc-
tion of ever new desires or even serves to design hitherto unknown desirable
aims where the actual course of life does not provide them.
For one who suffers too heavily from an overwhelming experience of pain or
from an empty languor overshadowing his or her life, the nearest, almost self-
evident course of possible escape seems to be suicide. However gloomy Scho-
penhauer’s image of human life presents itself, it is one of the salient peculiar-
ities of his thinking that the most obvious means of getting away from that self-
perpetuating gloominess is just an opportunity for nothing more than new self-
delusion. We remember the important function of space and time in structuring
the objecthood of the metaphysical will: it is space and time that provide the
principium individuationis, the principle by means of which we distinguish, for
example, a human person as an individual from others. Individuals are only
to be found in the phenomenal world, in the world of space and time. Whatever
might exist outside those forms is not an individual entity. Platonic Ideas, to
which we will turn in a moment, obviously have a special kind of being outside
of the principium individuationis and, therefore, cannot be reckoned as individu-
als. The most important entity, however, which in Schopenhauer’s system has
timeless substantial reality (is not even an object for a subject), is the metaphys-
ical will. That will, due to its timelessness, is not subject to death. The metaphys-
ical will did not come into existence at a special point in time and does not cease
to exist at such a point; birth and death don’t have any meaning here, not even
in the figurative sense.
The consequence Schopenhauer draws from those premises is that death of
an individual in the phenomenal world has no significance in relation to the ul-
timate substance, the true essence, of that individual. Individual death is meta-
physically meaningless, the metaphysical will which is also will to life, the will to

 WWR I, 189.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 141

objectify itself in the form of life, remains untouched. Hence flow Schopenha-
uer’s phrases about the meaninglessness of suicide and the illusory character
of that attempt to escape:

We have already found that for the will to life, life is always a certainty, and suffering is
essential to life, so it follows that suicide, the wilful destruction of one single appearance
that leaves the thing in itself untouched, just as the rainbow remains stable however rap-
idly the drops that support it at any given moment might change, is a futile and foolish
act.³⁵

This argument also leads Schopenhauer to agree with those ethical and religious
systems in history which condemn suicide, although he does not agree with the
reasons they may give for this. Schopenhauer’s main argument against suicide is
not a typically ethical or moral argument but a largely metaphysical one. His
own position, however, reveals a weakness when we transfer the thesis that in-
dividual life is meaningless and death does not affect the deeper and truly sub-
stantial will to life, from suicide to murder. Schopenhauer indeed provides argu-
ments in favor of condemning the egoistic murderer for ethical reasons and
blaming the suicidal person primarily for foolishness. However, the military
commander who gives the order to start a great battle which, as he knows,
will lead to the death of thousands, is not blamed by the philosopher. Schopen-
hauer assumes that he does not give his commands for egoistic reasons and the
death of those thousands is, in the metaphysical analysis, without significance.³⁶
The uselessness of suicide and the unimportance of death in a world in
which persons die, but in which desires keep on torturing living individuals for-
ever, are recurring subjects in Schopenhauer’s thinking:

The earth turns from day into night; the individual dies: but the sun itself burns its eternal
noontime without pause. For the will to life, life is a certainty: the form of life is the endless
present; it does not matter how individuals, appearances of the Idea, come into existence in
time and pass away like fleeting dreams. – Even here, suicide already appears to us as a
futile and therefore foolish act: when we have gone further in our discussion, it will appear
in an even less favourable light.³⁷

Schopenhauer refers to individuals as “appearances of the Idea”. This expresses


his conviction that, in the relation between the world of phenomena and the
metaphysical will, there is a sphere of pure forms which the philosopher calls

 WWR I, 426.
 WWR I, 310.
 WWR I, 307.
142 Ulrich Pothast

“Platonic Ideas”. Not being part of the phenomenal world, these Ideas exist in
their special Seinsweise outside time, space and causality. Schopenhauer, like
Plato, assumes their timelessness to be analogous to that of mathematical enti-
ties. Apart from that parallel and some others, we also find quite a few differen-
ces between Plato’s Ideas and what Schopenhauer calls by that name. For our
present purposes, we need not enlarge on that point. More important is the func-
tion of “Platonic Ideas” in Schopenhauer’s ontology, his view of individual life
and his view of art: they are the eternal, timeless forms of the numerous species
of individual beings in which the metaphysical will objectifies itself. Unlike that
will, Platonic Ideas indeed have in principle the most general form of possible
objects for a subject, they can be objects of human thought. But they are time-
less, outside space and not subject to causality. In very rare moments of very rare
individual lives in the phenomenal world, a human person even occasionally
perceives an Idea. Since that Idea is not subject to the basic form of all phenom-
ena, the principle of sufficient reason, Schopenhauer claims that the person that
gains intuitive knowledge of an Idea must, for the time of that rare mental state,
forget about his or her normal phenomenal environment completely, even about
his or her empirical self, and be entirely immersed in the intuition of that time-
less form. Schopenhauer argues that this also implies that there is, temporarily,
in that person’s mind no perception of processes in time, no relations in space
and no attention to causal relations. Since space, time, and causality are the
basic forms in which the metaphysical will objectifies itself, Schopenhauer as-
sumes that the primary condition of that intuitive experience in the human indi-
vidual is absence of willing or will-lessness. Trivially, this means that, for the du-
ration of the rare intuitive experience of the Idea, the person is free from any
desire whatsoever. Freedom from any desire in turn means that, as long as
that rare mental state lasts, the individual has stepped out of the “circular
path made of red-hot coals”, and that it has achieved temporary relief from
the ever-burning sun of want and need which otherwise keeps it running all
the time after some desired aim or other. The state in which a person has pure
intuition of an Idea, for Schopenhauer, is also the necessary condition and the
ultimate source of art, the bringing forth of art as well as the adequate reception
of art.³⁸
Still talking about the destructive effects of desire in human life, we now see
that maybe the worst kind of destructive influence is that desires, if incessantly
recurring as usual, keep humans from achieving the very rare freedom to be ex-
perienced in the intuitive sight of the Idea, and miss the opportunity to have the

 WWR I, 191– 224. For the special status of music see WWR I, 282– 295 and Koßler 2011.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 143

visionary experience from which the artist starts his or her creative work. More-
over, the continuous pressure of desires also keeps ‘normal’ persons from having
an intuition of the Idea similar to that of the artist.
The above-mentioned states of freedom and ideal intuition do occur in very
few human lives, according to Schopenhauer, and in those quite rarely as well.
Seen from the distance of an impartial observer, our normal state, says the phi-
losopher, is that of characters in a universal piece of theatre, clumsily running
after illusory aims and hopes, without adequate self-knowledge and without a
chance of the dignity that might come from the insight into the tragic nature
of all that:

Viewed overall and in a general manner, and extracting only the most significant features,
the life of every individual is in fact always a tragedy, but worked through in detail, it has
the character of a comedy. The urges and the nuisances of the day, the restless taunts of the
minute, the hopes and fears of the week, the accidents of every hour, all of which are
brought about by chance playing practical jokes – these are true comic scenes. But the un-
fulfilled desires, the thwarted striving, the hopes that have been mercilessly crushed by
fate, the fatal errors of the whole of life, with increased suffering and then death at the
end, this always makes for tragedy.³⁹

V Freedom from the pressure of our desires:


Will-lessness in artistic states of mind and
negation of the will by the ascetic
Contrary to many impressive, especially metaphorical, propositions in Schopen-
hauer’s work which imply the permanence of ever-renewed desires in human ex-
istence, there are two ways for human beings to achieve freedom from that pain-
ful state: aesthetic contemplation and negation of the will to life. Of these,
aesthetic contemplation, that is, self-oblivious immersion of the mind in the in-
tuition of an Idea, is just temporary, whereas the negation of the will to life may,
at least in principle, be permanent. For both cases Schopenhauer insinuates that
there are just very few individuals for whom those states are accessible.
The reader may be familiar with the main traits of aesthetic contemplation
already. To sink into that state of mind and forget about all individual desires,
in fact any demands of the individual will, becomes possible when a person ef-
fortlessly and without a premeditated plan concentrates with all his or her men-

 WWR I, 348.
144 Ulrich Pothast

tal powers on any object or living being in their environment up to the point of
self-oblivion (Selbstvergessenheit). When the individual does not experience his
or her person as individual anymore so that the mind is just filled by the intu-
ition of a Platonic Idea and nothing else, this individual gains experience outside
the forms of the phenomenal world, outside the principium individuationis and
achieves a much purer cognition than was possible before. That pure cognition,
since will-less, since free from the pain of ever renewed desires, comes not only
with a higher degree of cognitive precision (the object now is the timeless form
itself, not some secondary effigy) but also with a deep feeling of joy. This is due
to the freedom from the excruciating “pendulum between pain and boredom” in
the realm of ever-resurgent desires. Schopenhauer employs all his powers of lan-
guage and metaphor to capture the rare experiences of peace, delight and calm
which come about when the person in that contemplative-meditative state feels
free from any desire whatsoever.

But when some occasion from the outside or a disposition from within suddenly lifts us out
of the endless stream of willing, tearing cognition from its slavery to the will, […], then sud-
denly the peace that we always sought on the first path of willing but that always eluded us
comes of its own accord, and all is well with us. It is the painless state that Epicurus prized
as the highest good and the state of the gods: for that moment we are freed from the terrible
pressure of the will, we celebrate the Sabbath of the penal servitude of willing, the wheel of
Ixion stands still.⁴⁰

It is not known from unambiguous sources whether Schopenhauer consistently


practiced some technique of meditation himself, although his aesthetics highly
praises the meditative state of being immersed in the intuition of an Idea. Obvi-
ously, the philosopher did not consider this to be a readily available experience.
However, it belongs to the blessings of art according to Schopenhauer’s aesthet-
ics, that, in principle, it allows us to sink into pure contemplation as well and be
granted the intuition of the Idea that is depicted or otherwise transported by the
work of the artist. It is strange that the philosopher generalizes his observations
quite lavishly when it comes to describing everybody’s life as a copy of hell
where persistent agony is inflicted on the individuals by self-reproducing desires,
but that he tends to forget about those generalizations when it comes to mention
the rare, but existent, cases of individuals who manage to escape from that hell,
at least temporarily. Schopenhauer expresses both aspects, the general as well as
the individual, sometimes in one and the same paragraph: “Every human life
flows between willing and attaining. The nature of every desire is pain […].

 WWR I, 220.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 145

Apart from this, what we might call the best part of life and the purest joy it af-
fords, is pure cognition to which all willing is foreign: pleasure in beauty, a true
delight in art; this experience lifts us out of real existence and changes us into
disinterested spectators.”⁴¹
The decisive factor that enables some persons to submerge into aesthetic
contemplation and gain experience of the Idea, according to Schopenhauer is
that in those individuals the intellect has come free from its role as servant to
the will and its desires; instead, it manages to concentrate solely on the intuitive
experience of another, ideal, reality.
There are passages where the philosopher briefly reflects on the advantages
and disadvantages of that disposition. The person in whom the intellect has
come to an extraordinary degree of strength so that it can free itself from the
scourge of individual desires and afford the said “pure cognition” which may
be the origin of an artistic work as well as the “true delight in art”, has to pay
a price for that rare intellectual disposition. The price is greater susceptibility
to suffering (when having returned to daily life from the experience of meditative
contemplation) and a distinct state of loneliness among fellow persons of which
he or she is markedly different: “this offsets their advantage.”
The other and even much rarer way to free oneself from the power of one’s
ever-revived desires is the self-negation of the will. Schopenhauer claims that in
rare individuals the person’s nature as a willing being turns against itself. It does
so to the effect that the person no longer fulfils any of his or her desires but sup-
presses them intentionally, and decidedly acts contrary to what those – other-
wise natural – desires would aim at. Schopenhauer sees real cases of that
self-negation of the will in the history of asceticism, especially as practiced in
Asian religions, and selfless, ascetic holiness as reported about many Christian
saints. Also, Schopenhauer claims that the heroes of traditional tragedy, when
having fulfilled their direful lot at the end of many a fight, come to see the
true, thoroughly painful nature of human existence and arrive at an attitude
of negating their will to life and freely give it up. At least in the cases of the as-
cetic and the holy person who, of their own accord and insight, arrive at their
negation of all natural desires, Schopenhauer’s description seems to betray an
awareness of paradox. This impression of paradox comes about through the as-
sumption that in those cases, the will (as the ultimate source and sustaining
power of all life) freely has turned against itself to the extent of suppressing,
even deadening the individual’s desires:

 WWR I, 340.
146 Ulrich Pothast

Asceticism […] should serve as a constant mortification of the will, so that no satisfaction of
wishes, the sweets of life, can excite the will loathed by self-knowledge. Anyone who has
reached this point will continue to sense a tendency for all sorts of willing, since he is still
an animated body and concrete appearance of the will: but he intentionally suppresses this
by compelling himself not to do anything he really wants to do, and instead doing every-
thing he does not want to, even when this serves no further purpose other than to mortify
the will. Since he himself negates the will that appears in his own person, he will not resist
it when someone else does the same to him, that is, does him wrong; that is why he wel-
comes every bit of suffering that comes to him from the outside […].⁴²

Just as Schopenhauer did not claim to be an artist himself, he did not claim to be
an ascetic or a person to whom one might ascribe Christian holiness. In his dis-
cussions of holiness, he refers to the life of several Christian persons who,
through horrendously daunting experiences, arrived at an attitude of self-nega-
tion of the will. Among those is Abbé Rancé, the reformer and, virtually, second
founder of the La Trappe, a monastic order with extremely strict and indeed self-
mortifying rules. Nietzsche reports in his Schopenhauer as Educator that this phi-
losopher, beholding the portrait of Rancé, is to have turned away saying: “That is
a matter of grace.”⁴³ It is not easy to tell from where, in Schopenhauer’s eyes, the
grace must come that is supposed to be required for arriving at true self-negation
of the will, not just for the moment of dying as in heroes of fictional tragedies but
for a way to live, day by day.
The doctrine of self-negation of the will is one of the darkest in Schopenha-
uer’s oeuvre. It seems to imply a contradiction: from where should living beings,
whose ultimate substance and ultimate source of life energy is the will to life,
find plausible motives and, above all, the effective driving force for a thoroughly
different kind of attitude, hostile to any of their own desires, in fact hostile to any
form of worldly existence? One solution that seems to offer itself interprets the
self-negation of the will on an analogy with the will’s self-dichotomy or schism
we mentioned above. But this seems far-fetched. Those elements of the philoso-
pher’s theory serve perfectly different purposes, namely to explain why we see
everywhere in the phenomenal world the persistent fighting of living beings
for the means of life and the space to live. And above all, the self-dichotomy
of the will in all its phenomenal instances is an example of forceful willing
and fierce desiring on the side of the parties involved. This is hardly what
Schopenhauer had in mind when talking about becoming free from the will’s

 WWR I, 408.
 Nietzsche, Untimely Meditations, ed. Hollingdale, p. 143.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 147

rule completely, from the pressure of ever-dogged desires, from the “pendulum
between pain and boredom”.
Another solution might refer to the “intelligible character” of those rare per-
sons who manage to achieve self-negation of the will. Again this may be disput-
able, although there are several passages in Schopenhauer that certainly point in
that direction.⁴⁴ A person’s intelligible character, in Schopenhauer’s system, be-
longs to what Kant would have called “intelligible Welt” and what, for Schopen-
hauer, is the ever-transcendent sphere of the metaphysical will. In that sphere,
not subject to space, time and causality, according to Schopenhauer lies the
source of every person’s unchangeable, unique, timeless, in short: intelligible,
character. (This character is to be distinguished from a person’s “empirical char-
acter” to which we attribute that person’s deeds in the empirical world. Our em-
pirical character may well change in the course of life.) A person’s intelligible
character is never known perfectly by that person since not belonging to the
world of phenomena where we have to exist as empirical human beings. Howev-
er, our intelligible character is the ultimate source of what we do in our empirical
lives, just as the metaphysical will is the ultimate source of all worldly things,
events etc. Albeit unknowable to us, our intelligible character, since not subject
to causality, enjoys freedom of will – not freedom of the individual will but of the
metaphysical will by which it was created.⁴⁵ However, as empirical persons we
cannot (and never could) influence the “action” of that will. Returning to the
question from where, in truly ascetic and holy persons, the self-negation of
the will originates, we can now understand Schopenhauer’s repeated assurance
that this is due to “grace”: which intelligible character we have may well be
called a “matter of grace” since, as empirical persons, we have no influence con-
cerning that character’s creation. And the extraordinary force of the intellect that
enables those rare persons to turn against their willing nature and negate their
will, in the last analysis is due to their intelligible character. This they did not
bring forth themselves but were given through “grace”.
Of course, this sketch of Schopenhauer’s – just sketchily executed – theory
of the self-negation of the will does not really elucidate things but, possibly, even
contributes to deepen their darkness. Maybe it is not perfectly inadequate con-
sidering the entire nature of Schopenhauer’s system, that in the very end,
when it comes to rationally analyzing the highest form of life which humans
may achieve in rare cases, our powers of rational reconstruction find their
limit as well.

 See, e. g., WWR I, 327– 331, 429 – 436, esp. 432.


 See also TPE, 103 – 109 along with WWR I, 429 – 436.
148 Ulrich Pothast

References
A) Schopenhauer
Schopenhauer, Arthur (41988): Sämtliche Werke. Hübscher, Arthur (ed.). 7 vols. Mannheim:
Brockhaus.
Schopenhauer, Arthur (2009–): The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Schopenhauer.
Janaway, Chr. (ed.). In the process of appearing. 5 vols. since 2009. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
The volumes of that edition are not consecutively numbered. Therefore, I quote them
individually. The important second volume of The World as Will and Representation is,
by the time of this paper (2017), not yet included in this edition. Quotes from that
volume follow the older translation by E. F. J. Payne. See below.
TPE | Schopenhauer, Arthur (2009): The Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics. Janaway, Chr.
(ed., tr.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
WWR I | Schopenhauer, Arthur (2010): The World as Will and Representation, vol. I. Norman,
J.; Welchman, A.; Janaway, Chr. (eds., trs.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
FFR | Schopenhauer, Arthur (2012): On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason;
On Vision; On Will in Nature. Cartwright, D. E.; Erdmann, E. E.; Janaway, Chr. (eds., trs.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PP I | Schopenhauer, Arthur (2014): Parerga and Paralipomena, Short Philosophical Essays,
vol. I. Roehr, S.; Janaway, Chr. (eds., trs.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
PPI II | Schopenhauer, Arthur (2015): Parerga and Paralipomena, Short Philosophical Essays,
vol. II. del Caro, A.; Janaway, Chr. (eds., trs.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
WWR II (Payne) | Schopenhauer, Arthur (21966): The World as Will and Representation, vol. II.
Payne, E. F. J. (ed., tr.). New York: Dover.
To alert the reader that different principles of translation might be of influence here, all
references to that translation also have the translator’s name: (Payne).

B) Other Authors
Baum, Günther; Koßler, Matthias (eds.) (2005): Die Entdeckung des Unbewußten: Die
Bedeutung Schopenhauers für das moderne Bild des Menschen. Würzburg:
Königshausen & Neumann.
Bobko, Alexander (2001): Schopenhauers Philosophie des Leidens. Würzburg: Königshausen
& Neumann.
Dienstag, Joshua Joa (2006): Pessimism: philosophy, ethics, spirit. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
Gardner, Sebastian (1999): Schopenhauer, Will, and the Unconscious. In: Janaway (1999),
pp. 374 – 421.
Janaway, Christopher (ed.) (1999): The Cambridge Companion to Schopenhauer. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Janaway, Christopher (1999a): “Will and Nature”. In: Janaway 1999, pp. 138 – 170.
The Role of Desire in Schopenhauer’s View of Human Life 149

Koßler, Matthias (ed.) (2011): Musik als Wille und Welt: Schopenhauers Philosophie der
Musik. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann.
Nietzsche, Friedrich (1983): Untimely Meditations. Hollingdale, J. J. (ed., tr.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Pothast, Ulrich (2008): The Metaphysical Vision: Arthur Schopenhauer’s Philosophy of Art
and Life and Samuel Beckett’s Own Way to Make Use of it. New York: Lang.
Judith Norman
The Question of Romantic Desire
Abstract. A conventional view of early German romanticism (and indeed romanti-
cism in general) sees the basic tendency of the movement as a sort of restless and
dynamic discontent with the fractured, partial, alienated and finite present in one
guise or another. Accordingly, romantic desire is thought to be characterized by a
longing for some past, future, transcendent, or even immanent figure of unification.
In my essay, I argue against this picture of romantic desire. First, I look at key ro-
mantic writings to show that these figures of unification were never really objects of
romantic desire. But if the romantics did not really desire the objects that people
have claimed they desired, what is the status of romantic desire as such? I do not
respond to this question by locating a different goal or end to romantic desire.
Rather, I develop an alternative conception of romantic desire, one which is not
characterized by longing and is not goal-oriented, but is instead productive, exper-
imental, revolutionary, and progressive.

Eine konventionelle Sicht auf die deutsche Romantik (oder eigentlich die Romantik
insgesamt) sieht die basale Tendenz dieser Bewegung in einer Art ruheloser und
dynamischer Unzufriedenheit mit der fragmentierten, zerteilten, entfremdeten und
endlichen Gegenwart. Dementsprechend wird das romantische Begehren als eine
Sehnsucht nach einer vergangenen, zukünftigen, jenseitigen oder sogar immanenten
Art von Einheit charakterisiert. In diesem Beitrag wird gegen eine solche Auffassung
argumentiert. Zunächst werden die Schlüsseltexte der Romantik untersucht, um zu
zeigen, dass diese Arten von Einheit nie Objekt des romantischen Begehrens ge-
wesen sind. Daraus ergibt sich die Frage, was dann das Ziel des romantischen
Begehrens war. Auf diese Frage wird nicht durch die Angabe eines anderen Ziels des
Begehrens geantwortet. Es wird vielmehr ein alternativer Begriff von romantischem
Begehren entwickelt. Danach ist Begehren nicht durch Sehnsucht charakterisiert
und nicht zielorientiert, sondern es ist stattdessen produktiv, experimentell, revo-
lutionär und fortschrittlich.

1 The question of romantic desire


A conventional view of early German romanticism (and indeed romanticism in
general) sees the basic tendency of the movement as a sort of restless and dy-
namic discontent with the sublunary in one guise or another. On the one
hand, romanticism nourishes a nostalgia for a lost past that somehow enabled

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-008
152 Judith Norman

human thriving and wholeness before being lost in a disenchanting process of


modernization. On the other hand, it anticipates, perhaps asymptotically, a rein-
tegrated future in which alienation is overcome and the fractured shards of the
human experience are reunited in a renewed project of human wholeness and
thriving.
The early German (Jena) romantics did not have a theory of desire, or even a
sustained discussion of the notion. This was not one of the themes or ideas with
which their texts were explicitly concerned. However, commentators typically in-
voke the concept to describe this tendency of romanticism, a nostalgic regret for
the passing away of classical antiquity and longing for a unification that might
(or might not) be realized in the future. In an essay on desire in early German
romanticism, Jochen Schulte-Sasse writes: “the Romantics constantly and persis-
tently speak of a desire for the infinite.”¹ A. W. Schlegel put the point as follows
in his 1803 Lectures on Dramatic Art: “modern poetry is a poetry of desire and
longing (Sehnsucht), hovering between the idealizations of a remote past and
an unknown future.”² As Hay explains in her commentary on this passage: “in
Schlegel’s view, to understand modern and especially Romantic literature
means to understand art as the eternal longing for the reconciliation of this fis-
sure between the subject and the universe, the finite and the infinite or the di-
vine. Both the realization of the insurmountable fissure as well as the longing
for its reconciliation are part of a particular way of experiencing nature, the
self and the infinite.”³
Although I will distinguish the terms later, I will initially follow A. W. Schle-
gel in failing to distinguish systematically between the concepts of desire (Begeh-
ren) and longing (Sehnsucht), and consider both to be equivalent descriptions of
the attitude that romanticism is said to feel towards the closure or reconciliation
that characterized the past and/or future, their attitude towards the achievement
of the Absolute or infinite.
Scholarly consensus by and large is in favor of this view of romanticism, al-
though the desired unity is not always located in the past or future, as the passag-
es cited above would have it, but in (for instance) an aesthetic ideal of beauty or
poetry, or in a philosophical ground or absolute. Beiser writes (approvingly) that
“a striving toward wholeness, a longing for completion, and the idea of organic
totality have often been said to be characteristic of Romantik.”⁴ It is generally

 Schulte-Sasse 1997, p. 22.


 A. W. Schlegel 1973, p. 9.
 Hay 2010, section 3, paragraph 6.
 Beiser 2003, p. 33.
The Question of Romantic Desire 153

stipulated that this desire can never be fulfilled or satisfied. Schulte-Sasse charac-
terizes the view typical of romantic aesthetics as being riven by a tension between
“a desire for selfsameness or identity and the acceptance of the ‘impossibility’ of
such a desire.”⁵ De Mul writes that romantic thought is characterized by

a passionate desire for the infinite and the absolute […]. Romantic Sehnsucht in relation to
the absolute is actually emphatically associated with the consciousness that such desire is,
fundamentally, not susceptible of realization […]. Although the German Romantics felt
themselves closely allied to the Idealist metaphysicians in their striving toward the abso-
lute, the Romantic project distinguishes itself in a fundamental manner […] by virtue of
an awareness of the fundamental unachievability of this ambition.⁶

Peter Szondi describes the romantic as one who “longs for unity and infinity”
which, as Critchley puts it, results only in a “longing for an absent reconcilia-
tion.”⁷
In this paper, however, I wish to call into question the conventional view out-
lined above, of romantic desire as characterized by discontent and longing for
some past, future, transcendent, or even immanent figure of unification. I
think that this picture is incorrect on several counts. First, I believe that a careful
examination of romantic writings reveals that these putative goals were never
really objects of romantic desire. In the first part of the paper I will undertake
such an examination. But if this is the case, if the romantics did not really desire
the objects that people have claimed they desired, what is the status of romantic
desire as such? I will not respond to this question by locating a different goal or
end to romantic desire. Rather, I will develop an alternative conception of roman-
tic desire, one which is not characterized by longing and is not goal or end ori-
ented, but is instead productive, experimental, revolutionary, and progressive.
Before I start, I need to address a preliminary question that bedevils any
study of romanticism, that of delimiting the historical object of inquiry: what
is romanticism? Stating that I will concern myself only with early German roman-
ticism constrains the problem but does not solve it. Early German romanticism is
a fluid movement, and there is no scholarly consensus as to its boundaries. The
figures often cited as most central to this movement include Friedrich and Au-
gust Wilhelm Schlegel, Novalis, Schelling, Schleiermacher and Tieck. But my
strategy will be to privilege the movement over the figures, and focus on the pe-
riod of collective and collaborative production during which they published their

 Schulte-Sasse 1997, p. 2.
 De Mul 1999, p. 9.
 Critchley 1997, p. 131. I have also promoted this view in the past – see Norman 2000.
154 Judith Norman

writings. I am not concerned about what Schlegel or Novalis thought, but what
they put forward as part of their collective enterprise, the primary focus of which
was the Athenaeum journal, which had a brief but brilliant publication run from
1798 to 1800.

2 Objects of desire
I will begin, as I said, by examining in turn some of the putative objects of the
conventional account of romantic desire; I will attempt to show that none of
them is in fact an object of romantic desire. There are three main goals that
are generally proposed: the past/future (as temporal points of reconciliation);
beauty/poetry (as artistic points of reconciliation); and the infinite/Absolute
(as a philosophical point of reconciliation).

2.1 Reconciliation in time

As several of the passages cited above indicate, an object frequently attributed to


romantic desire is the reconciliation supposedly realized in the past and/or fu-
ture. To recall A. W. Schlegel’s remark: “modern poetry is a poetry of desire
and longing (Sehnsucht), hovering between the idealizations of a remote past
and an unknown future.” This is a common image of romanticism in the secon-
dary literature; as one scholar writes: the “secularized and poeticized version of
a familiar Christian figure, the lost and future paradise, dominates Romantic
thinking on the historical role of the poet.”⁸
I will first consider whether the “lost paradise” of the past was an object of
romantic desire and focus of nostalgic longing. Although it was certainly the
case that both prior to the Athenaeum journal and after it ended, before the in-
tellectual consolidation and self-understanding of the romantic movement prop-
er and after its dissolution, the writings of its principle theorists (most of all F.
Schlegel but also A. W., as in the passage from his lectures cited above) exhibited
this sort of nostalgia and sentimentalism, these tendencies are entirely absent
from the Athenaeum writings themselves. The same F. Schlegel who, in 1795
wrote: “the modern poet […] should approximate the perfect style of the golden
age, the genuineness and purity of the Greek poetic forms,”⁹ changed his tune by

 Saul 2000, p. 227.


 F. Schlegel 2001, p. 84.
The Question of Romantic Desire 155

1797, writing in the Athenaeum that: “all the classical poetical genres have now
become ridiculous in their rigid purity” and “[w]e should never invoke the spirit
of antiquity as our authority.”¹⁰ Indeed, A. W. Schlegel himself, writing in the
Athenaeum (in 1798, five years before the lectures cited above), was dismissively
ironic about the idea of a golden age, writing:

The mirage of a former golden age is one of the greatest obstacles to approximating the
golden age that still lies in the future. If there was once a golden age, then it wasn’t really
golden. Gold cannot rust or decompose: it emerges victoriously genuine from all attempts to
alloy or decompose it. If the golden age won’t last always and forever, then it might as well
never begin, since it will only be good for composing elegies about its loss.¹¹

The chemical metaphor here is significant, and I will discuss it further below. For
now, I want to examine Schlegel’s peculiar argument: the golden age didn’t exist
and therefore shouldn’t exist. This can be seen as an ironic flaunting of Kant’s
proscription against deriving an ‘ought’ from an ‘is,’ a proscription, significantly,
that is located in a discussion of the usefulness of Plato’s Republic as an example
of “visionary perfection.”¹² Kant argues for the philosophical use of the idea of a
golden age, where Schlegel argues for its poetic use (for composing elegies), al-
beit exclusively in the service of the sort of reactionary poetics the group dis-
tained.
There are a number of key ideas at work here. One is the relation between
reactionary poetics and reactionary politics, and I will examine it more closely
in the final section. Another is the distinction between the regulative function
of a Kantian philosophical idea and the poetic function of a romantic literary
idea, and I will examine that more closely below. For now, we can simply note
the obvious fact that A. W. Schlegel is clearly not taking the notion of a golden
age in the past at all seriously. Whether the idea of a golden age might play a role
in determining objects of desire (and poetry) in the future remains to be seen. It
is fairly clear, however, from passages like the one above, that the Athenaeum
had no use for a notion of the golden age as an object of desire in the past. In-
deed, in his study of romantic philosophy of history, Nivala shows that F. Schle-
gel abandoned the notion of a past golden age after studying with Heyne at the
University of Göttingen and becoming convinced of the intellectual superiority of
cultural pluralism (as opposed to the normativity of any specific age). Schlegel
wrote

 F. Schlegel 1971, Critical Fragments (CF) 60 and 44. (The fragments are cited according to
their number.) For a discussion of this s. Nivala 2013, p. 58.
 F. Schlegel 1971, Athenaeum Fragments (AF) 243.
 Kant 1965, A 316/B 372 – A 319/B 373.
156 Judith Norman

[…] what else is the Golden Age than an embellished image of the carefree freedom of sav-
ages, who the earth still nurtured comfortably? Urban and agricultural man […] sighs al-
ways yearningly back towards it, and lends to it all bliss that he wished in vain and all mor-
ality that he believes to be lost. […] Lucretius’ [brutal] description of the state of savages
before the beginning of human inventions and arts is much more reliable.¹³

But F. Schlegel is ultimately not concerned with a quasi-anthropological project


of replacing a false image of the past with an accurate one; as Nivala shows,
Schlegel was interested in understanding present tendencies, not past institu-
tions: “Schlegel’s Romantic notion of literature was not about a romanticized
past, rather it amounted to a reflective theory about why humankind in general
tends to idealize history.”¹⁴ In other words, his interests were historicist rather
than historical, focusing at this point on how the past can be seen as a construct
that reveals more about the present.
In fact, and more generally, the notion of a unified origin (and, as we will
see, the ideal of a unified goal) is predicated on a naïve conception of temporal-
ity that we find roundly criticized in the writings of the Athenaeum period. No-
valis writes that “the beginning is already a later concept.”¹⁵ Although he made
this strikingly lucid statement with respect to the transcendental construction of
subjectivity, it is not hard to find the same insight generalized into a theory of
history, the notion that the past is a construct of the present. This generalization
is facilitated by the fact that the historical structure of a unified origin succeeded
by division and alienation represents a chronologization of a transcendental
structure, as is seen most clearly in Hegel. There are Kantian grounds for treating
temporality as a construct, but literary grounds as well, as we saw in A. W. Schle-
gel’s suggestion that it is a product of elegiac fantasies.
Following this general argument, and in spite of A. W. Schlegel’s remark that
the “mirage of a former golden age” obscures “the golden age that still lies in the
future,” there are grounds for doubting whether the future could be any more an
object of romantic longing than the past. Karl Ameriks presents a forceful argu-
ment that the romantics have a non-teleological view of history, which is to say a
view that does not tend intentionally towards a reconciling goal. He cites the ro-
mantic “insistence on an open and unclear future” as a precondition for under-
standing the value they give to “humanity’s absolutely free capacity for creating
highly imaginative initiatives.”¹⁶ “Each generation can introduce new layers of

 KFSA I, pp. 415 – 416; cited in Nivala 2013, p. 60.


 Nivala 2013, p. 61.
 Novalis 2012, p. 12.
 Ameriks 2014, p. 53.
The Question of Romantic Desire 157

deep genuine meaning, and […] this meaning is part of a significant successive
structure in human existence as a whole, albeit a whole that has not a determi-
nable final phase or even a guarantee of ‘approximation’”.¹⁷ Another commenta-
tor argues that the desire for historical closure is an object of positive political
critique, for F. Schlegel:

Schlegel […] is convinced that a philosophy of history nurturing desires for coincidence by
positing a harmonious end point […], a teleological and totalizing notion of history encour-
ages equally totalizing gestures of violence toward dissidents: the self that longs for a pure
coincidence of subject and object as an actual experience of life tends to view difference as
an obstacle that must be forcefully subdued.¹⁸

This attributes more political bite to Schlegel’s position than is expressed in the
largely ironic Athenaeum writings. But it is in line with the critical perspective
there, which rejects not simply system, closure, and totality, but the very desire
might make these the goals or even asymptotic ideals of romantic longing.
Indeed, we find claims in the Athenaeum that contest, mock and undermine
(rather than naively express) any desire for closure and totality, and instead priv-
ilege open-endedness. The value given to chaos, for instance, complicates the
conventional picture of romantic desire: Schlegel writes that “[…] the course of
metaphysics should proceed through several cycles […]. Once the end has
been reached, it should always start again from the beginning, alternating be-
tween chaos and system, preparing chaos for the system, then a new chaos.
(This course very philosophical.)”¹⁹ Time and again, chaos and incomprehensi-
bility are presented (in his essay dedicated to this latter concept) not as a way to
attenuate or delay closure, but as an alternative and complement to closure, and
an ineliminable feature of the text. It is hard to see closure as an ideal when it is
repeatedly posed as one of two terms in this opposed dyad: “it is equally fatal for
the mind to have a system and to have none. It will simply have to decide to com-
bine the two.”²⁰ The very ideal of closure is foreclosed. It is not an object of ro-
mantic desire.
The most sustained discussion of the future in the Athenaeum writings is
found in “On Incomprehensibility” (written in 1799). There, F. Schlegel takes
stock of the coming 19th century. The picture he paints of this future as a source
of reconciliation and resolution is wildly unserious:

 Ameriks 2014, p. 53.


 Schulte-Sasse 1997, p. 27.
 KFSA XVIII, p. 283. My own translation.
 Schlegel 1971, AF 53.
158 Judith Norman

Then the nineteenth century will indeed make a beginning of it and then the little riddle of
the incomprehensibility of the Athenaeum [which ended in 1800] will be solved […]. In the
nineteenth century every human being, every reader will find Lucinde [Schlegel’s porno-
graphic novel] innocent, Genoveva [Tieck’s Catholic play] Protestant, and A. W. Schlegel’s
didactic Elegies almost too simple and transparent.²¹

Later in the essay, Schlegel parodies utopian fantasies by considering whether in


the nineteenth century people will be able to create gold. There is nothing sin-
cere in Schlegel’s sketch of the future in this essay that clearly prefers to perform
rather than resolve the problem of incomprehensibility. Again, as with the past,
we find the notion of reconciliation treated with irony rather than desire. (In sec-
tion 2.2 I will look at the more sophisticated claim that irony can be construed as
itself a form of desire.) The notion of a unifying future here is as much an ironic
creation as was the notion we saw earlier of a golden past; they are rhetorical
constructs rather than philosophical ideals. It is important to be clear about
the nature of this contrast: a philosophical ideal is a construct too, but a rational
rather than imaginative one. It is a fiction, but one that plays a normative role in
regulating desire towards rationally authorized and prescribed ends. The fiction-
al past and future laid out in the Athenaeum, as we have seen, have no such nor-
mative function. They are not real in the sense that that they compel belief (the
Golden Age was always a myth), nor ideal in the sense that they direct desire (to
strive to instantiate them to the maximal extent possible). They belong instead to
literature and the imagination, which seem to have carved a third path between
the ‘is’ and the ‘ought.’ I will examine the implications of this alternative route
for desire in section 3 below.

2.2 Reconciliation in art

The previous discussion suggests that perhaps the ‘is’ and the ‘ought’ are what
stand in need of reconciliation – and that it is the prerogative of poetry to do so.
This is in fact a familiar line of thought, and describes (very) programmatically
the weight Kant gives to the third Critique in reconciling the apparent opposition
of the first two Critiques. In the third Critique, Kant positioned art and beauty as
reconciling elements for some of the more troublesome dichotomies that had
arisen in the course of his critical writings (particular and universal, freedom
and determinism, etc.), and he located in the aesthetic sphere a space for imag-
ining the operation of intentional desire in nature.

 Schlegel 1971, p. 269.


The Question of Romantic Desire 159

Many commentators situate romantic desire at this point, as responding


within a Kantian framework to the suggestion that beauty might play just such
a philosophically significant reconciling function (particularly if the epistemo-
logical obstacles Kant places in the way of a full-throated affirmation of this sol-
ution are conveniently overlooked). Simon Critchley, for instance, defines early
German romanticism as a “desire for unification”²² – specifically of poetry and
philosophy, but of other things as well, a desire (not necessarily linked to a his-
torical program) to use literature to reconcile the alienation of a disenchanted
world or of a culture marked and marred by a “dissociation of sensibility,” as
T. S. Eliot described it.²³ Lacoue-Labarthe and Nancy also argue that romanticism
was determined by this Kantian program; they argue that Hegel, Schelling and
Hölderlin’s 1797 “Earliest System Programme of German Idealism”, with its
claim that “truth and goodness are brothers only in beauty,”²⁴ provided romanti-
cism with a philosophical lodestone, a desideratum that the Athenaeum journal
then pursued.²⁵
Bernhard Lypp refers to this program as aesthetic absolutism,²⁶ and it cer-
tainly outlines an agenda that Schelling went on to pursue, at least during the
stage of his diverse philosophical career when he was the most closely identified
with the romantic movement. Accordingly, he develops both a notion of an aes-
thetic intuition as a form of intellectual intuition (a manner in which empirical
phenomena can be reconciled with an absolute ground), and various schemes
for reconciliation in which aesthetics plays a privileged role. But although an ar-
gument can be made that beauty, and specifically the beauty of a work of art,
was the goal of Schellingian desire, no similar case can be made for this
being a romantic goal. The Athenaeum writings show little sympathy for the rec-
onciling role that Kant gave to beauty.²⁷ And in almost explicit opposition to the
claim just quoted from the Oldest System Fragment, that “truth and goodness
only become sister in beauty,” Schlegel writes: “a philosophy of poetry as
such would begin with the independence of beauty, with the proposition that
beauty is and should be distinct from truth and morality […].”²⁸

 Critchley 1997, p. 85.


 Eliot 1921.
 Quoted in Bowie 2003, p. 334.
 Lacoue-Labarthe/Nancy 1988, p. 28.
 Lypp 1972, p. 13, cited in Bowie 2003.
 As Frederick Beiser writes, “[t]he romantics were never fervent admirers of Kant’s Kritik der
Urteilskraft [Critique of Judgment].” (Beiser 2014, p. 41)
 Schlegel 1971, AF 252.
160 Judith Norman

Indeed (and in spite of Schlegel’s suggestion above) the conception of beau-


ty plays a fairly minor role in Athenaeum conceptions of literature. At the incep-
tion of romanticism, when he abandoned the normativity of classical art, F.
Schlegel also abandoned the primacy of the conception of beauty, preferring
to conceive of contemporary art as “interesting” rather than beautiful, concerned
with aesthetic goals other than harmony. In his analysis of romantic art criticism,
Walter Benjamin writes: “In the final analysis, the concept of beauty has to re-
treat from the Romantic philosophy of art altogether […].”²⁹ Romanticism (as
many critics have pointed out) anticipated some of the terms of a later modern-
ism and showed little interest in a traditional conception of taste³⁰ and a disin-
clination to appeal to an aesthetics of beauty when producing or critiquing
works of art.
However, although beauty did not play the synthesizing function in roman-
ticism that it played in some strands of idealist philosophy, Critchley’s notion of
artistic reconciliation can be salvaged by transferring the goal of romantic recon-
ciliation from beauty to the artwork itself, which need not be beautiful. Roman-
ticism might not have had an aesthetics, but it certainly had a theory of litera-
ture, and the most famous self-explanation of the aims of romantic literature,
in Schlegel’s Athenaeum Fragment 116, suggests a role for poetry as just such
a reconciling medium:

Romantic poetry is a progressive, universal poetry. Its aim isn’t merely to reunite all the sep-
arate species of poetry and put poetry in touch with philosophy and rhetoric. It tries to and
should mix and fuse poetry and prose, inspiration and criticism, the poetry of art and the
poetry of nature […]. The romantic kind of poetry is still in the state of becoming; that, in
fact, is its real essence: that it should forever be becoming and never be perfected […]. [I]n a
certain sense all poetry is or should be romantic.³¹

Although this passage seems at first glance to confirm an image of romanticism


as characterized by an infinite longing for reconciliation (with sort of poetic Ge-
samtkunstwerk as the goal of literary reconciliation), a more careful look sug-
gests that it proposes a different relationship between poetry and desire. Specif-
ically, poetry seems to be the medium rather than goal of desire – it is what is
striving eternally in pursuit of the romantic project; the desire is specifically lit-
erary. This reading of the romantic text, as the site rather than object of desire,
gives a different perspective to the discussion, but does not necessarily reinforce

 Benjamin 1996, p. 177.


 Norman 2017.
 Schlegel 1971, AF 116.
The Question of Romantic Desire 161

the position I am concerned to argue. Indeed, it is orthogonal to my argument:


locating desire within the text does not necessarily mean that the (textual) desire
fails to be a longing for reconciliation of the sort I want to distance romanticism
from.
In fact, many interpreters see various romantic poetic devises as literary ex-
pressions of desire for unity, closure, or the absolute. Peter Szondi was a leading
proponent of this position, arguing that the emblematic romantic literary device
of irony embodies a romantic longing for wholeness, a desire for presence that
can never be fully realized (and therefore is present only obliquely, in irony).
Manfred Frank agrees, writing “ironic speech keeps open the un-representable
location of the infinite by permanently discrediting the finite as that which is
not intended,”³² or “irony is that which refers ‘allegorically’ to the infinite, ex-
posing its provisionality and incompleteness.”³³ Nor is irony the only device
by means of which romantic literature is thought to express literary desire.
The fragment form is frequently cited as an expression of “the realization of
the fundamental unachievability of romantic desire.”³⁴ Gasché speaks of frag-
ments “longing for a higher unity.”³⁵ The argument here is similar to the argu-
ment given for irony as desire – by self-consciously indicating the partiality
and paradox of the finite present, the romantic fragment manifests a dissatisfac-
tion that indicates a desire for the infinite beyond in which present finitude is
redeemed.³⁶
Szondi stakes out his position as follows: The romantic ironic literary subject

longs for unity and infinity; the world appears to him riven and finite […]. Through ever
more intense reflection he seeks to reach a standpoint outside himself and to eliminate,
on the level of appearance, the cleft between his ego and the world […]. [B]y anticipating
the future unity in which he believes, he declares this negativity to be temporary […].³⁷

Although Szondi has relocated the agent of desire within the text itself, and em-
bodied in the literary mechanism of irony, his description of desire is clearly in
affinity with the view of romantic desire I have already been examining, longing
for future unity, a “desire for closure” as Schulte-Sasse puts it.³⁸

 Frank 2014, p. 24.


 Frank 2004, p. 181.
 De Mul 1999, p. 11; this is also in Lacoue-Labarthe/Nancy.
 Gasché 1991, p. xliii.
 Behler 1993.
 Szondi 1986, p. 68.
 Schulte-Sasse 1997, p. 6.
162 Judith Norman

Paul De Man, however, raises important skeptical concerns about Szondi’s


position (which can be extended to the other theorists, such as Frank and de
Mul, who conceive of romantic desire as a longing for wholeness on the level
of literature). While accepting much of Szondi’s description of the non-coinci-
dence staked out in irony, he rejects the implied nostalgia – the movement of
longing (for coincidence) that might result. In other words, fracture, opposition,
contradiction, non-coincidence are all expressed in irony, but in the mode of af-
firmation, not in the mode of complaint. Contra Szondi (but in his own terms),
irony is neither “negativity” nor is it “temporary.” Rather, de Man points out,
“irony is not temporary but repetitive, the recurrence of a self-escalating act of
consciousness. Schlegel at times speaks of this endless process in exhilarating
terms […].”³⁹ We can recall Schlegel’s “very philosophical” proposal for a meta-
physics alternating between chaos and system. Again, as I have indicated before,
closure isn’t foreclosed as an impossible goal – it isn’t a goal at all.
De Man compares irony to allegory in this regard: allegory also affirms non-
coincidence, in this case between the sign and the signified. It keeps represen-
tation and reality in separate rhetorical spaces and does not aim to overcome
the difference between the two, as is the case with symbol (de Man argues
against a faulty understanding of romanticism that sees the movement as valu-
ing symbolism). He writes:

[…] allegory designates primarily a distance in relation to its own origin, and, renouncing
the nostalgia and the desire to coincide, it establishes its language in the void of this tem-
poral difference. In so doing it prevents the self from an illusory identification with the non-
self.⁴⁰

This reading of allegory blocks Frank’s attempt to make allegory a negative pre-
sentation of the absolute (“irony refers ‘allegorically’ to the infinite” – cited
above). For Frank, irony and allegory are essentially two sides of the same proj-
ect, the via negativa and via positiva to the absolute. De Man, by contrast, shows
that allegory and irony are not figures of longing for the absolute. They assert
division without aiming at reconciliation and thus renounce the very desire
that would make the absolute a goal.
Allegory, as de Man indicates in the passage above, does not serve the pur-
pose of a heightened realism, it does not disrupt illusion but rather serves to in-
tensify it by emphasizing the gap between representation and reality. Similarly,
irony

 De Man 1983, p. 220.


 De Man 1983, p. 207.
The Question of Romantic Desire 163

serves to prevent the all too readily mystified reader from confusing fact and fiction […]. The
problem is familiar […] in the distinction […] between the persona of the author and the
persona of the fictional narrator. The moment when this difference is asserted is precisely
the moment when the author does not return to the world. He asserts instead the ironic ne-
cessity of not becoming the dupe of his own irony and discovers that there is no way back
from his fictional self to his actual self.⁴¹

Rather than an urge to synthesis, irony is the stubborn insistence on the non-co-
incidence of the fictional and non-fictional registers. The refusal (of even the de-
sire) to think of the self as identifying with non-self has clearly philosophical
overtones as well – a refusal of the idealist program of speculative identity.

2.3 Reconciliation in the Infinite

I have argued above against readings that see irony, allegory, and the fragment
as expressions of romantic desire for the absolute. However, even if these literary
figures are not expressions of romantic desire, it does not follow that the abso-
lute is not an object of romantic desire. The emblematic claim from Athenaeum
Fragment 116 cited above, that romantic poetry “should forever be becoming and
never be perfected” seems clearly to suggest infinite longing, as does the follow-
ing canonical statement from F. Schlegel’s Dialogue on Poetry: “every poem
should be genuinely romantic, and every [poem] should be didactic in that
broader sense of the word that designates the tendency toward a deep, infinite
meaning.”⁴² These passages certainly suggest that poetry has a linear rather than
a cyclical destiny, longing for some infinite goal rather than playing with non-co-
incidental fragments.⁴³ They hint at the interpretation, suggested in Frank’s re-
mark above, that the movement thematized a “longing for the infinite” or the ab-
solute. De Mul too, in his book on Romantic Desire, characterized romanticism as
driven by “a passionate desire for the infinite and the absolute.”⁴⁴
A lot rests, I believe, on the curious term “tendency” mentioned in the pas-
sage from the Dialogue, and it is notable that Schlegel seems to prefer the term to
the more conventionally romantic “longing”. The word “longing” is rarely used
(and never thematized) in the Athenaeum, unlike “tendency” about which Schle-

 De Man 1983, p. 219.


 KFSA II, p. 323. The translation is my own.
 Hughes writes about AF 116: poetry “must bring together the universal, the infinite, the ab-
solute and the approximations and contradictions of the world […]. It must comprehend the two
poles of infinite abundance in infinite unity” (1979, p. 53).
 De Mul 1999, p. 9; also Hughes 1979.
164 Judith Norman

gel has a great deal to say. In a famous fragment he had remarked that “the
French Revolution, Fichte’s Theory of Knowledge, and Goethe’s Wilhelm Meister
are the three greatest tendencies of the age.” Reflecting on the fragment in gen-
eral and the notion of a tendency in particular, he claimed, in “On Incomprehen-
sibility” that “everything now is only a tendency, that the age is the Age of Ten-
dencies.” Indeed, he complains that nobody seems to have noticed that this is a
key term for the Athenaeum and that it ought to disconcert people more:

For this word can be understood to mean that I consider the Theory of Knowledge, for ex-
ample, to be merely a tendency, a temporary venture like Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason
which I myself might perhaps have a mind to continue (or rather better) and then bring
to completion; or else that I wish to use the jargon that is most usual and appropriate to
this kind of conception, to place myself on Fichte’s shoulders, just as he placed himself
on Reinhold’s shoulders, Reinhold on Kant’s shoulders, Kant on Leibniz’s and so on infin-
itely back to the prime shoulder.⁴⁵

This certainly elides the notion of “tendency” with that of incompletion, and pla-
ces it in the neighborhood of desire, or at least within the context of philosoph-
ical striving for closure. But despite the association, I don’t think that Schlegel’s
conception of “tendency” can be made to do the work of desire or striving. We
can note that the passage just cited plays with an unresolved (and unresolvable)
contradiction between the notion of an infinite regress and an original founda-
tion or “prime shoulder.” The passage is patently and explicitly ironic, con-
cerned to generate incomprehensibility rather than resolve it. The question of
resolution is of no interest to Schlegel:

As to whether or not I am of the opinion that all these tendencies are going to be corrected
and resolved by me, or maybe by my brother or by Tieck, or by someone else from our
group, or only some son of ours, or grandson, great-grandson, grandson twenty-seven
times removed, or only at the last judgment, or never: that I leave to the wisdom of the read-
er, to whom this question really belongs.⁴⁶

There is deferral (possibly to infinity) but no longing; the thought of closure with
no particular desire to effect it. The reference to the wisdom of the reader is an-
other patent irony: earlier in the essay Schlegel had declared his frustration with
his current set of readers and threatened to deduce a new one. The proposal to
deduce a reader is a fairly remarkable one, and brings Schlegel into proximity

 F. Schlegel 1971, pp. 263 – 264.


 F. Schlegel 1971, p. 264.
The Question of Romantic Desire 165

with Nietzsche, who, with less irony, also felt the need to create a readership; I
will explore this relation in section 3.
It is worth noting that Schlegel’s text (“On Incomprehensibility”) is the most
sustained expression of a romantic desire to be found in the Athenaeum: a de-
sire, namely, to be comprehended, expressed, as should be clear by now, in un-
remittingly ironic terms (although irony, he explicitly says, is precisely what
blocks comprehension). What is remarkable about Schlegel’s playful answer/
non-answer is the extent to which he puts the burden of comprehension on
the reader. The Athenaeum, he suggests, is a series of “experiments to test the
possibility or impossibility” of communication in which writers and the readers
serve as scientific collaborators. Comprehension (and perhaps even the reader) is
something that is created, which is to say worked out laboriously, experimental-
ly, and collaboratively. Schlegel then concludes the essay (Versuch) with (1) a
declaration that comprehensibility isn’t even a desideratum; (2) a prediction
that it will be resolved in the 19th century (which we have already examined);
and finally (3) a (horrible) poem, presented with the wish that someone would
set it to music – in other words, an uncomplete poetic text that needs to be
“mixed” with other genres and therefore in true romantic fashion appears to
be “forever becoming” and “never perfected.”
In section 4, I will explore the implications of the model of desire evinced in
this text, but I first want to return to the image of the “deduced” successful read-
er. The romantics conceived various mechanisms of resolution as fictions to be
played with rather than ideals to be strived after. There is plenty of textual evi-
dence to suggest that they considered the absolute as something fictional or con-
structed. Schlegel wrote: “is then the infinite itself not a fiction? Is it not an error,
illusion, or a misunderstanding? To this we answer as follows: Yes, it is a fiction.
But an absolutely necessary one.” As Frank writes, “the highest principle must
not at all be something given, but something freely produced, something fabri-
cated, devised, in order to lay down the foundations for a general metaphy-
sics.”⁴⁷ Novalis too thought that we needed to assume an inventive attitude to-
wards the absolute, treating it not just as heuristic but as fictional, to be
invented rather than discovered.⁴⁸ This notion of a fictional absolute suggests
a different function for art than that introduced by theorists such as Szondi,
who saw poetry as a form of desire for an absolute which, strictly, belonged to
an extra-literary realm. Literature here can be enlisted to construct a goal for de-

 Frank 2014, p. 23.


 Frank 2004, pp. 51, 174.
166 Judith Norman

sire, rather than simply regret the absence of such a goal.⁴⁹ This accords with the
suggestion that arose in the course of my discussion of the past and future as
objects of romantic longing, namely that these temporal epochs appeared in ro-
mantic literature as rhetorical constructs, not ideals for which desire longs.

***
The past, the future, beauty, poetry, infinitude, the absolute – none of these have
proved to be objects of a supposed romantic longing for reconciliation. So what
do the romantics want? We can find a clue in one of F. Schlegel’s fragments,
which reads: “In the ancients we see the perfected letter of all poetry; in the
moderns we see its growing spirit.”⁵⁰ There is no longing here, no nostalgia. Writ-
ing about this fragment, Tilottama Rajan claims that Schlegel explicitly distin-
guishes the positive, progressive literature he champions from a negative, elegiac
literary ideal (such as might be found in Schiller): F. Schlegel, Rajan claims,
“often speaks in consequence of three and not two kinds of literature: the
naive, the sentimental and the ‘progressive’ (Notebooks, p. 32), elaborated in
the concept of ‘a progressive universal poetry’ […] Romanticism is progressive
rather than sentimental, characterized by expanding horizons and not melan-
cholic longing.”⁵¹ This is an intriguing suggestion, and in agreement with the
pattern I have been concerned to demonstrate. But it puts the concept of desire
in an awkward positon. Does romantic progressivity, so understood, preclude a
role for the concept of desire? Rajan writes: “Friedrich [Schlegel] associates long-
ing with excess rather than lack.”⁵² But what does it mean to associate longing
with excess? What would desire look like, if not grounded in lack? I will try to
answer these questions by turning first to an examination of the concept of de-
sire.

3 The structure of desire


The classical definition of desire centrally involves the conception of lack: Plato’s
notion of eros as the product of poverty and plenty, always longing to actually
possess that which it already possesses only virtually. Most analyses of romantic
desire implicitly appeal to this model, which Frank makes explicit: “the early ro-

 This accords with the picture of the romantic philosophy of history developed by Ameriks
2014.
 F. Schlegel 1971, CF 93.
 Rajan 2000, p. 234.
 Rajan 2000, p. 234.
The Question of Romantic Desire 167

mantic definition of philosophy as ‘yearning for infinity’ emphasizes the non-


possession, the lack, of a principle.”⁵³ In my discussion I have not distinguished
between positions that characterize romantic desire as striving to attain an ach-
ievable goal, and positions that characterize it as striving to attain an unachiev-
able goal (by way of asymptotic approximation). I do not believe that the ques-
tion of whether possession of the desideratum was realistic or impossible
(Schulte-Sasse speaks of impossible longing) is of much consequence here –
in both cases, desire is defined by lack, regardless of whether the object is ob-
tainable.
We can see this Platonic notion reproduced in modified form in Kant’s for-
mulation from the second Critique: desire is “a being’s faculty to be by means
of its representations the cause of the reality of the objects of these representa-
tions.”⁵⁴ The Platonic negativity is reflected in the absence of reality in the ob-
jects that desire entertains in the form of a representation. We can distinguish
the representations of cognitive perception from those of desire: in cognition,
the representation is a copy of the actual object, or better the correlate of an ob-
ject whose template is grounded in the passive reception of an intuition in sen-
sibility. In desire, on the other hand, the representation is the template for the
object. In a degraded, delirious cognition, according to Kant, the representations
produce the object directly (hallucination), but when rationally mediated
through the will they dictate an action that aims to produce the object in actual-
ity. In the Metaphysics of Morals he writes that “a desire, as a striving to be a
cause by means of one’s representations, is still always causality.”⁵⁵ Desire in
the form of will, then, is for Kant a causal process in which mere representations,
produced in the absence of the object, provide an occasion for the will to try to
produce their real correlate.
This Platonic-Kantian account might have been the classical model of desire
but it was not the only one, and alternatives can be found that might serve as
models for a project (which I am arguing is the romantic project) of “associ-
ate[ing] longing with excess” – rather than deficiency or need. One hopeful ap-
proach is to reject the role representation plays in Kant’s model of desire, while
maintaining his notion of desire as causally efficacious. By rejecting the role of
representation as a virtual goal, we can start to conceive of the causality of desire

 Frank 2014, p. 23. Note that Frank is making generalizations about romanticism that do not
effectively distinguish, in this matter at least, between the period of the Athenaeum (which is the
subject of this paper) and the post-Athenaeum writings (which, as I have said, often lend them-
selves more readily to Frank’s claim).
 Kant 1997, p. 8.
 Kant 1996, p. 125.
168 Judith Norman

in terms of the production of a novel object rather than the reproduction of an


imagined one. This would be one way of developing in an intransitive concept
of desire, which is not responsive to a motive or dictated by some anterior
goal. Such a concept would lack both the negativity and the conservative nature
of transitive desire, which aims to repair a lack by reproducing an idea in reality;
instead, it would open up a horizon for a conception of desire that is character-
ized by excess and productive of novelty. It would be experimental rather than
teleological, playing with the creation of new forms rather than being constrain-
ed by the prior orthodoxy of a goal.
Variants of this counter-canonical conception of desire are visible in numer-
ous figures in the history of philosophy. One early source for a productive con-
ception of desire is the early German mystical theosophist, Jakob Boehme,
whose writing exercised a considerable (but undertheorized) influence on ro-
mantic thought – God’s desire to create the world, for instance, cannot be attrib-
uted to any lack, need, or emptiness on his part (such as a feeling of incomplete-
ness in the absence of a created world), since this would mean that God was
deficient in some respect, which is theologically unacceptable.⁵⁶ Spinoza is an-
other figure cited in this regard, as his conception of the conatus involves an im-
minent, anti-teleological conception of will, not determined by an external ob-
ject, and his conception of natura naturans suggests a notion of divine will as
excessive. Later in the 19th century, Nietzsche’s will to power is the first detailed
development of this idea: Nietzsche explicitly contrasts a notion of the will that
is driven by over-fullness with one predicated on lack and deficiency.⁵⁷ His no-
tion of will to power is an active and experimental expression of power and cre-
ation of value, as opposed to a teleological pursuit of power, which would be re-
active to a goal posited as valuable earlier and elsewhere.⁵⁸
In sum, the fact that romanticism does not seem to be occupied with longing
for anterior objects does not mean that the concept of desire is useless for an un-
derstanding of the movement. Desire can be conceived in terms of production
rather than lack. I will now return to early German romanticism to see if this al-
ternative conception of desire can yield a different view of the movement, one

 McGrath 2012.
 Even Schopenhauer, by removing representation from the field of will, can be plausibly cited
as developing an intransitive conception of will (Welchman 2015). This conception was of
course, most famously developed by Nietzsche, whose will to power is the inspiration for Dele-
uze’s conception of desiring production.
 The idea of a productive conception of desire was formulated explicitly as a counter-concep-
tion to the notion of desire as lack in Anti-Oedipus by Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari.
The Question of Romantic Desire 169

that can accommodate what I have shown to be the romantic attitude towards
the goals typically imputed to it.

4 Romantic desire
The romantics, as I have said, never discussed the concept of desire in a unified
or even sustained manner. It is, however, a term they used, and as such it opens
a perspective into a set of presuppositions at work in their texts. Schlegel’s char-
acteristically gnomic pronouncement on romantic desire for the infinite is to re-
mark that, “[w]hoever desires the infinite doesn’t know what he desires. But one
can’t turn this sentence around.”⁵⁹ Without putting too much theoretic weight on
this ironic remark, we can note that this is a notion of desire that is not dictated
by a representation (the desire for the infinite is not directed by a clear idea of
what is desired), but is structured in some other manner; and I would like to in-
vestigate what this alternative structure might be. One clue to this alternative
structure lies in a related fragment that claims that “whoever has a sense for
the infinite and knows what he wants to do with it […] conceives of his ideals
at least as being chemical […].”⁶⁰ This suggests that the alternative structure
might somehow involve chemistry, an intriguing suggestion that I will follow
up shortly.
The romantics never developed a system, or even an anti-system, in the way
that Spinoza or Nietzsche did. However, the Athenaeum writings indicate a con-
nected (if not systematic) constellation of ideas, pronouncements, and literary
and philosophical assumptions. Readers are left with the project of connecting
the dots so as to identify the picture of thought and writings that the romantics
have left us. As I have noted, it has long been assumed that a guiding theme in
the romantic writing was a conception of desire as striving to satisfy some defi-
ciency or discontent, generally with the partial, finite, fragmented, or alienated
state of the present. The resulting picture of romanticism aligned the movement
with an idealist philosophical project of articulating and attempting somehow to
achieve the perspective of an absolute ground of knowledge and action. I want,
on the contrary, to argue that this conception is not applicable to romanticism,
and the attempt to fit it into this framework prevents us from recognizing some of
the more philosophically heterodox and novel aspects of the romantic texts.

 F. Schlegel 1971, CF 47.


 F. Schlegel 1971, AF 412.
170 Judith Norman

The previous discussion of desire can help in this regard – it enables us to


recognize the ideas and philosophical commitments associated with desire as
lack and contrast them to the ideas and philosophical possibilities associated
with a productive concept of desire. I want to use this map to make visible
some of the lesser-recognized features of romanticism that arise from what I
have shown to be their orientation in a productive conception of desire. The con-
cepts I want to highlight are progressivity, experimentation, and revolution, and
I will now look at each of these concepts in turn, to see how my proposed con-
ception of romantic desire puts them to use.

4.1 Progressive poetry

I have cited the canonical statement of romanticism’s self-understanding, that it


is involved in the project of creating “progressive universal poetry.” I previously
discussed and worried a bit about the notion of progressivity, whether this has
connotations of striving after some goal; with a new conception of desire in
hand, I would like to address this issue further. In light of my argument, progres-
sivity should not be construed teleologically but rather as an open-ended proc-
ess of development. I have already argued that this is the correct interpretation of
the term “tendency.” The infinite progressivity of romanticism should not be
taken as a yearning for a transcendent goal; it is much more like the constant
extension of knowledge in the allowable use of reason (à la Kant) than its tran-
scendent transgression. Development proceeds not so much for the sake of ach-
ieving a goal, but rather to see what happens next.
One reason to think that romantic progressivity is open-ended in a way that
a teleological conception of desire is not, is by looking at the paradox of desire
(as lack). Desire, construed as lack, famously aims at its own extinction – its sat-
isfaction is its destruction. We see Novalis playing with this notion: “to what ex-
tent do we never reach the ideal? To the extent that it would itself be destroyed
[…] consequently the I can never be elevated to the absolute – because then its
efficacy, its pleasure, i. e. its victory – in short, the I itself – would cease to
exist.”⁶¹ It is for this reason, one scholar writes, that “Hardenberg [Novalis]
does not consider the attainment of the idea as a desideratum, not even, as
with Kant, Lessing, Herder, Schiller, or Fichte, as a prescriptive or regulatory

 Novalis 1960, vol. II, p. 170, no. 508 – also quoted in Kuzniar 1987, p. 81.
The Question of Romantic Desire 171

idea. Instead, the telos is charged with negative connotations of cessation and
annihilation.”⁶²
Another reason to think that romantic progressivity should not be viewed in
terms of a conception of desire as lack can be seen in the following fragment:

A project is the subjective embryo of a developing object […]. The feeling for projects –
which one might call fragments of the future – is distinguishable from the feeling for frag-
ments of the past only by its direction: progressive in the former, regressive in the latter.
What is essential is to be able to idealize and realize objects immediately and simultane-
ously: to complete them and in part carry them out within oneself […].⁶³

Schlegel here stresses the extent to which real and ideal necessarily coincide –
the ideal does not proceed and provide a blueprint for the development of the
real (as in the Kantian model of desire), rather, the real and ideal develop in tan-
dem. As we saw earlier, the future is conceived as a project of the present. The
developmental capacity of fragments is suggested in terms of organic growth
rather than intentional action – a common romantic trope (Novalis conceives
of his aphorisms as pollen). The organic metaphor captures the sense of poten-
tial and growth nascent in the idea of progressivity, but can be misleading if con-
strued as encouraging a teleological framework. One scholar argues that the ro-
mantic trope of the seed in fact contests teleology since seeds, precisely because
most of them will fail, can be seen more as experiments in, rather than promises
of, futurity.⁶⁴
Indeed, drawing on an earlier clue, Schlegel generally prefers chemistry to
biology as a source of metaphors:

The age is […] a chemical one. Revolutions are universal, chemical, not organic movements
[…]. That the novel, criticism, wit, sociability, the most recent rhetoric, and all previous his-
tory have a chemical make-up is self-evident.⁶⁵

We see in Schlegel’s use of chemical imagery a will to distance the conceptions


of progressivity and development from organic/teleological terms, the lack of any
goal that might direct or constrain development. In a study of chemical meta-
phors in Schlegel, Nivala argues that the description of the present as chemical
serves specifically to suggest that the future is open-ended, and not subject to

 Kuziar 1987, p. 81.


 F. Schlegel 1971, AF 22.
 Nivala 2011, p. 96.
 F. Schlegel 1971, AF 426.
172 Judith Norman

organic teleology.⁶⁶ “Chemical ideals”, as Schlegel suggested above, are an ap-


propriate way to approach the problem of infinity – and the notion of infinity
it suggests is not a notion of an Absolute ground, but the infinity of innumerable
possibilities.
Chemistry was associated in Schlegel with unpredictable outcomes and ele-
ments that are “constitutively open to expansion.”⁶⁷ It is about the production of
novelty, not the reproduction of the same. As such, it is instructive to view the
romantic project of a “progressive universal poetry” as a chemical one.⁶⁸ When
Schlegel writes in Athenaeum Fragment 116 (cited above) that romantic poetry
“tries to and should mix and fuse poetry and prose, inspiration and criticism,
the poetry of art and the poetry of nature,” we can view this mixture in terms
of a chemical experiment rather than a longing for absolute unification. In his
study of chemical vocabulary in Schlegel, Michel Chaouli documents the way
in which Schlegel’s description of the mixtures produced by romantic poetry re-
flects the chemical language of the day.⁶⁹ The novel, which belongs among
Schlegel’s chemical forms, is also described as a “mixture”; Lucinde might
well be a prime (though unsuccessful) example of romantic poetry. Irony too,
in De Man’s sense, can be seen as chemical – it is “chemical ingeniousness,”⁷⁰
as Schlegel writes, a “universal experiment (like love),”⁷¹ although in separation,
rather than combination.
In short, viewing progressivity in chemical terms helps further distance the
notion of romantic desire from the teleology inherent in the model of longing for
an absent goal. This also introduces the second aspect of a productive image of
desire that I wished to discuss, namely experimentation.

4.2 Witty experiments

A productive conception of desire enables us to treat desire as experimenting


with novel literary forms rather than as longing for an absent metaphysico-po-
etic goal of completion. Indeed, as we saw, Schlegel refers to the Athenaeum

 Nivala 2011, p. 95.


 Chaouli 2002, p. 97.
 Chaouli argues this – p. 4 – he also argues that chemistry is operative on the level of word
construction, ch. 1.
 Chaouli 2002, p. 90.
 KFSA XVIII, p. 232, no. 465. My translation.
 KFSA XVIII, p. 217, no. 279. My translation.
The Question of Romantic Desire 173

journal as “a variety of experiments.”⁷² One novel experiment undertaken in the


journal, according to Schlegel, is the fragment; Schlegel highlights the novelty of
the fragment form as a radical break from traditional literature: “the fragment is
an entirely new genre.”⁷³ Indeed, an innovation of the Athenaeum in general can
be seen to be the valorization of novelty itself, as opposed to tradition, in the
production of literary texts⁷⁴ (necessitating the deduction of an entirely new
reader – the text is not the only thing produced by romantic desire). And the
Athenaeum even posits a chemical agent in the form of wit, a specifically literary
synthesis: “wit,” Schlegel says, is “chemical spirit.”⁷⁵ We see wit is an experi-
ment, a combinatory, chemical synthesis that produces novel meaning. Frag-
ments are products of chemical wit: Schlegel describes Witz as “fragmentary
genius.”⁷⁶ “Wit is creative,” Novalis writes, “it draws comparisons.”⁷⁷ What is im-
portant here is the nature of witty creativity – wit does not reproduce a known
comparison (that would be a stale wit) – it generates a novel linkage, as the
flash points of wit lead to innovation.⁷⁸
It is clear that the Athenaeum did not position the literary fragment as a
missing piece that will ultimately function in the recreation of a lost or fractured
whole. And yet fragments only exist in the plural – they are meant to be an en-
semble and exist in community. Critchley suggests that the mode of (non-organ-
ic) organization of the fragments should be seen politically, as a form of repub-
licanism: “the very form of an ensemble of fragments constitutes a field
irreducible to unity, where the latter is continually referred back to the chaotic
singularities that make it possible—republican speech, republican space.”⁷⁹ “Po-
etry is republican speech,” Schlegel writes in a fragment.⁸⁰ A fragment is, again,
not a figure for longing, an indication of absence, but an invitation to the messy
open-endedness of republican community.

 F. Schlegel 1971, p. 259.


 The accuracy of this dubious claim is not my immediate concern.
 Chaouli 2002, p. 59.
 F. Schlegel 1971, AF 366.
 F. Schlegel 1971, CF 9.
 Novalis 2012, p. 135, no. 732.
 Schlegel 1971, CF 34.
 Critchley 1997, p. 108.
 Schlegel 1971, CF 65.
174 Judith Norman

4.3 Revolutionary poetics

Indeed, the emphasis that productive desire gives to innovation and novelty pro-
duction can enable us to understand the nature of the revolutionary poetics of
the Athenaeum, and by extension the revolutionary politics. Schlegel’s (repeated)
reference to the French revolution as “chemical” (as well as a “tendency”) is sig-
nificant in this regard. (Schlegel even claims that France is a laboratory for ex-
periments in moral chemistry on a grand scale,⁸¹ and states that “experimenta-
tion is very much in the spirit of revolutionary practice.”⁸²) Reinhart Koselleck
has claimed in his classic study of history and utopia that the conception of rev-
olution was significantly altered by the French Revolution, and came to suggest
an open horizon of historical possibility and an unknown future rather than a
return to given conditions.⁸³ A productive concept of desire is potentially revolu-
tionary in that it eschews the conservatism of Platonic desire, which is constrain-
ed to reproduce a given idea.
Romanticism is often accused of an allegiance with reactionary politics – a
particularist retreat from the space of publicity thought to be characteristic of the
Enlightenment. Schulte-Sasse, moreover, accuses the romantics of reactionary
politics in that they rejected the “historico-philosophical tension between a neg-
ative present and a better future that intrinsically structured the literature of the
Enlightenment.”⁸⁴ For Schulte-Sasse, in other words, romantic literature became
reactionary by refusing the Enlightenment project of creating utopian images to
direct political desire. Indeed, this anti-utopian argument is abetted by the snide
refusal to take seriously the idea of a golden age – A. W. Schlegel’s notion that if
there was a golden age it wasn’t really golden. Yet the image I have sketched of
romantic desire shows how this refusal can itself in fact be revolutionary; it sug-
gests a radical conception of literature as active in the world rather than relegat-
ed to the “esoteric realm of theory” that Schulte-Sasse complains of. By refusing
a ready-made utopia as an object of (conventional) desire, revolutionary desire is
free to experiment with the production of novel political forms and open itself
out onto the singularity of revolutionary historical change.
In his essay “On Incomprehensibility” Schlegel writes that the greatest
source of incomprehensibility was the conjunction he theorized between Goethe,
Fichte, and the French revolution – poetry, idealism and revolutionary politics –
the “greatest tendencies of the age.” But his heresy isn’t the privilege he gives to

 Schlegel 1971, AF 426.


 KFSA XVII, p. 342, no. 246.
 Koselleck 1985, p. 46.
 Schulte-Sasse 1988, p. 139.
The Question of Romantic Desire 175

these factors as historical agents, rather it is the witty way in which he mixes
them together, a mixture he defends later in the essay. “All the greatest truths
of every sort are completely trivial and hence nothing is more important than
to express them forever in a new way, and wherever possible, forever more para-
doxically […].” The elements are all here – experimentation, progressivity, nov-
elty, the unholy (or ironic) mixing of theory and practice, poetry and philosophy.
There is no sense of lack or longing, but instead a project of playful interest and
engagement. It is an image of romantic desire.

***
To conclude, the productivity of the new conception of romantic desire that I
have been developing helps us understand why the putative goals of romantic
desire (viewed as lack) are not what they seem. We can understand better how
and why the past and the future are not pre-given goals of longing, but rather
rhetorical constructs posited by literature in an experimental mode. The past
and future appear in the Athenaeum not as alternative dimensions of time but
rather as projects of the present. Indeed, the notion of a golden age appears
not simply as a chemical but indeed as a specifically alchemical project, in
Schlegel’s ironic remark that in the coming, glorious 19th century people will
be able to manufacture their own gold. We can understand as well how and
why the notions of the Absolute are explicitly posited as fictional, the product
of creative endeavor rather than the goal of transcending desire.
This, I believe, is a fairly significant conclusion; if we continue to conceive of
romantic desire along the conventional lines, as founded on lack and longing,
we will not understand the truly innovative significance of the romantic literary
project. The desire for a reconciling closure belongs, properly, to the idealist proj-
ect in philosophy, which had its own intense theoretical engagement with the na-
ture of this desire, the nature of this absolute, and the mechanism by which it
can be attained. This is a fascinating chapter of philosophy, but we do not do
justice to romanticism by including it in this chapter and assimilating its longing
to the idealist project. Despite its manifold philosophical interest and signifi-
cance, romanticism did not posit a literary means to a philosophical end:
what it wanted – the romantic desire – was to see what literature could do.
176 Judith Norman

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Thomas Khurana
The Self-Determination of Force:
Desire and Practical Self-Consciousness in Kant and Hegel

Abstract. In a broadly Kantian context, it is often assumed that practical self-con-


sciousness and rational self-determination can only be understood in opposition to
pleasure and desire. I argue instead that, for Kant, rational self-determination is
itself a determination of our faculty of desire. Drawing on resources from Kant
and Hegel, the paper shows that sensible desire can be understood as a self-deter-
mination of our vital forces which is connected to a sensible awareness of our prac-
tical existence. In order to constitute what Kant calls a higher faculty of desire, we
need to develop a practical self-consciousness of this sensible desire. As Hegel de-
velops this idea, such self-consciousness involves grasp of the very form of desire
that is occluded in its sensible form, as well as a reflexive redoubling of desire
whereby desire becomes its own object.

In einem kantischen Kontext wird häufig unterstellt, dass praktisches Selbstbe-


wusstsein und vernünftige Selbstbestimmung allein durch ihren Gegensatz zu Lust
und Begierde zu bestimmen sind. Dieser Beitrag zeigt hingegen, dass schon bei Kant
vernünftige Selbstbestimmung selbst als eine Bestimmung unseres Begehrungsver-
mögens zu begreifen ist. Im Rückgriff auf Kant und Hegel lässt sich zeigen, dass
sinnliche Begierde als eine Selbstbestimmung unserer lebendigen Kräfte zu verste-
hen ist, die mit einem sinnlichen Bewusstsein unserer praktischen Existenz einher-
geht. Um das zu konstituieren, was man mit Kant ein höheres Begehrungsvermögen
nennen kann, bedürfen wir eines praktischen Selbstbewusstseins der sinnlichen
Begierde. Nach Hegels Auffassung beinhaltet dies ein Erfassen der eigentlichen
Form der Begierde, die in ihrer sinnlichen Gestalt verstellt bleibt, und eine reflexive
Verdopplung der Begierde: ein Begehren, das sich selbst zum Gegenstand hat.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-009
180 Thomas Khurana

“We know no other internal principle in a


substance for changing its state except
desiring.”
Kant, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural
Science

“Self-consciousness is desire itself.”


Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit

If one thinks about the significance of desire in the context of a broadly Kantian
picture of practical reason, the role in which it will most likely enter the stage is
as the villain of the play. Habitual desire, or “inclination” as Kant also calls it,
determines us to act heteronomously. In pursuing our sensible desires, we are
driven to act, but we do not ourselves act. Any properly rational form of self-de-
termination thus depends on our ability to abstract from our inclinations and to
determine ourselves independently of our sensible desires. What distinguishes
human beings from other animals is thus a form of practical self-consciousness
that can oppose itself to or abstract from our given natural desires, and that al-
lows us to act on reasons instead, endorsed under the guidance of rational, self-
conscious principles.
In the context of such a picture, the claim that self-consciousness is “desire
itself” (Begierde überhaupt) (PhG § 167, TWA 3, 139) must certainly seem strange.
This Hegelian thesis sounds even more striking if we take into account the con-
notations of the German term Begierde, which is less neutral than the English
desire or the French désir. The German term has a distinctly animal and excessive
ring to it. If self-consciousness is what distinguishes humans from other animals,
it initially seems puzzling that this self-consciousness is itself a form or expres-
sion of desire. We might assume that in making such a claim Hegel is contradict-
ing Kant’s picture of practical self-consciousness. But even if it is true that Hegel
deviates from Kant in developing his thesis, his conception owes more to the
Kantian account than is apparent at first sight.
In order to elaborate Hegel’s thesis, I will first articulate the way Kant de-
fines the faculty of desire (Begehrungsvermögen), before turning to the way in
which Hegel reinforces the link between desire and self-consciousness. As we
will see, Kant’s conception of desire is not restricted to the sensible desires
that his practical philosophy seems to disqualify. Instead, he describes a more
general concept that allows for different species of this very faculty, sensible
and rational, lower and higher. Hegel works to rearticulate and develop this
Kantian conception dialectically, in such a way that a rational form of desire aris-
es out of the practical self-consciousness of sensible desire. While I am mainly
The Self-Determination of Force: 181

interested in understanding the specific character of this Hegelian re-articula-


tion, it will help to first establish its Kantian background.

I Kant on the Faculty of Desire


Contrary to the picture with which I started, Kant’s actual account accords a dif-
ferent, much more fundamental role to the faculty of desire. This faculty is not
just the source of all the sensible desires to be constrained or opposed by prac-
tical reason. The faculty of desire is actually the general capacity that defines us
as practical beings as such. It is, in Kant’s words, the “faculty to be, by means of
one’s representations, the cause of the objects of these representations” (MS
Ak. 6, 211; cf. KpV Ak. 5, 9n). To have the capacity to cause objects by means
of representing them is what defines a being as alive: “The faculty of a being
to act in accordance with its representations is called life” (MS Ak. 6, 211).¹
Against this background, practical reason cannot be conceived as opposed to
life and desire, but is rather to be understood as a particular form of life, a certain
type of determination and actualization of the faculty of desire.²
Kant’s rhetoric makes it easy to miss this point. He tends to speak of sensible
desires elliptically as “desires”, and never explicitly speaks of “rational desires”,
which would seem to suggest that the faculty of desire is exhausted by sensible
desires.³ But Kant’s definition of the faculty of desire in the Critique of Practical

 Cf. KpV Ak. 5, 9n: “Life is the faculty of a being to act in accordance with laws of the faculty of
desire.” In the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant also makes the related claim that the faculty of
desire is the manifestation or expression of “vital force” (Lebenskraft) (KpV Ak. 5, 23). Cf. also the
Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science: “Life is the faculty of a substance to determine it-
self to act from an internal principle, of a finite substance to change, and of a material substance
[to determine itself] to motion or rest, as change of its state. Now we know no other internal
principle in a substance for changing its state except desiring, and no other internal activity
at all, except thinking, together with that which depends on it, the feeling of pleasure or displeas-
ure, and desire or willing” (MAN Ak. 4, 544).
 Kant’s name for this rational actualization of the faculty of desire is the “will” (GMS Ak. 4, 412;
KpV Ak. 5, 55).
 Kant in fact explicitly equates “desire in the narrow sense” with “sensible desire” (MS Ak. 6,
212). For some passages where Kant opposes the will to our desires in a way that makes it hard to
see that the will is itself a mode of actualizing our faculty of desire, see e. g. GMS Ak. 4, 462 and
GMS Ak. 4, 459 where he characterizes the will as “distinct from desires” and as “a faculty dis-
tinct from a mere faculty of desire”. See also GMS Ak. 4, 457 (emphasis added): “So it is that the
human being claims for himself a will which lets nothing be put to his account that belongs merely
to his desires and inclinations, and on the contrary thinks as possible by means of it – indeed as
necessary – actions that can be done only by disregarding all desires and sensible incitements.”
182 Thomas Khurana

Reason and the Metaphysics of Morals makes it clear that the will is not a faculty
apart from our faculty of desire, but rather a determination and specification of
the faculty of desire, a “higher faculty of desire” (KpV Ak. 5, 22 ff.; KU Ak. 5, 190),
as Kant also calls it.
Kant’s conception of the faculty of desire is thus more inclusive and its char-
acterization more challenging than one might expect. It is inclusive in that it al-
lows for a specification in terms of a lower and a higher form, one determined by
pleasure and displeasure, the other determined by our capacity for practical rea-
son. It is challenging in that it characterizes desire in general not as a blind and
passive propensity, but as a faculty involving representation and causality,⁴
which means that even our sensible desires have both a cognitive and a practical
character. Thus, being desirous means that we are precisely not operating blind-
ly, but rather essentially consciously. In desiring an object, we are aware of that
desired object in a specific way. It is precisely by “representing” the object in this
way that we become the cause of its continued or repeated presence and consti-
tute ourselves as practical beings. To desire means to practically represent an ob-
ject in such a way that we strive towards making this object present and in this
sense “cause” its existence. Kant defines the faculty of desire so as to make room
for a higher determination of the faculty of desire, which constitutes the expres-
sion of our free and conscious self-determination; but this definition also ex-
tends to the lower forms of sensible desire.⁵
Therefore, it is already in sensible desire that practical self-determination
and self-consciousness begins. In his Anthropology, Kant defines desire accord-
ingly as the “self-determination of the subject’s force through the representation
of something in the future as an effect of this representation” (ANTH Ak. 7, 251,
transl. modified, emphasis added). In desiring, the subject determines its own
powers by means of a representation that, by activating and directing the pow-
ers, maintains the presence or brings forth the represented object. Desire is thus
a mode of subjective self-determination, and to the extent that desire involves a

The key to understanding these passages properly is to see that Kant here uses “desires” as a
shorthand for “sensible desires”. His claims thus do not exclude the possibility that the will,
in disregarding sensible desires, is itself actualizing the faculty of desire in a different way.
 Cf. Engstrom 2010, p. 35 ff.
 On Kant’s account, it even extends to the case of animal desire that we understand in analogy
with our own desire. Cf. KU Ak. 5, 464n: “From the comparison of the similar mode of operation
in the animals (the ground for which we cannot immediately perceive) to that of humans (of
which we are immediately aware) we can quite properly infer in accordance with the analogy
that the animals also act in accordance with representations (and are not, as Descartes would
have it, machines), and that in spite of their specific difference, they are still of the same
genus as human beings (as living beings).”
The Self-Determination of Force: 183

conscious representational state, it includes a form of practical self-awareness:


The subject experiences itself as the possible cause of what it represents and
this very self-relation activates its powers such that, if all goes well, it actually
becomes the cause of the actualization of the desired object.
Now, it is true that in the case of sensible desire, we actualize the self-deter-
mination of our forces in a way that is essentially passive and dependent. Ac-
cording to Kant, sensible desires are the result of a “determination of the faculty
of desire which is caused and therefore necessarily preceded by […] pleasure”
(MS Ak. 6, 212). In sensibly desiring an object, the subject still causes the exis-
tence of objects by representing them, but is in turn dependent on a certain ex-
perience of pleasure that determines the subject to desire the object in the first
place. The activation of the self-determination is therefore dependent on a given
and passive experience of the object. In desiring in this way, the subject becomes
aware of itself, not as the author of its desires, but as determined to desire this or
that object, due to its given nature and its contingent experiences. The subject is
still active and practical in that it sustains the sensible representation of the ob-
ject and causes its continued or repeated existence by representing it, but it is
not free in deciding what to represent in this desiderative way.⁶ In the most
basic cases of sensible desire that Kant envisions, even the remaining active
character is limited, as the desiring subject does not literally bring the object
into existence; it rather sustains its relation to an already present object. It
holds onto an agreeable object it has sensed.⁷
Yet even with regard to the most basic case, Kant qualifies the way in which
we experience ourselves as determined and passive in sensible desire in an in-
tricate way. In sensible desire, we depend on actual experiences of pleasure or
displeasure that make us desire or avoid certain objects; but these experiences
of pleasure and displeasure are themselves not wholly contingent, but rather re-
flect the very nature of our faculty of desire. Or so Kant claims in an important
footnote in the Critique of Practical Reason:

 This is precisely the reason why the higher faculty of desire emerges only by first opposing or
abstracting from the given sensible desires.
 It includes already one further element to think of a faculty of desire that determines itself to
seek or produce an object due to the expectation of sensible pleasure that will arise from its fu-
ture presence (cf. KpV Ak. 5, 116). If a subject lets itself be guided by its “interests”, it further-
more needs to determine itself not just through a simple anticipation of pleasure, but through
judgments about the connection of certain pleasures and its faculty of desire (MS Ak. 6, 212).
In both cases, the sensible experience of the desired object retains a determining role, but it
is already mediated through the faculty of imagination or the understanding.
184 Thomas Khurana

Pleasure is the representation of the agreement of an object or of an action with the sub-
jective conditions of life, i. e., with the faculty of the causality of a representation with re-
spect to the reality of its object (or with respect to the determination of the powers of the
subject to action in order to produce the object). (KpV Ak. 5, 9n)

As this passage suggests, pleasure is not just a random sensation, unconnected


to the subject’s faculty of desire; pleasure is reflective of the faculty of desire it-
self. To experience an object as pleasurable means that we represent it as being
in agreement with the subjective conditions of life: the object is felt as furthering
our living self-production. As the faculty of desire is itself the expression and
manifestation of our living powers (KpV Ak. 5, 23), to find something pleasurable
also means that we represent it as being in harmony with our capacity to be the
cause of what we represent. To find pleasure in an object therefore means to rep-
resent it as reinforcing our practical existence, our capacity to sustain or bring
forth what we represent as desired. Therefore, when I am determined by pleasure
to desire something, I am not determined by something completely foreign or
contingent, but am rather determined by a sensible consciousness of what is
conducive or beneficial to my faculty of desire. In the experience of pleasure,
my faculty of desire determines itself to pursue those objects the realization of
which reinforces this very faculty.
When an animal, for example, is determined by experiences of pleasure and
displeasure to eat objects that are agreeable to its living self-organization and
avoid objects that are detrimental, the animal is determined by a certain sensible
awareness of what preserves and strengthens its capacity to desire.⁸ That means
that there is a sense in which even sensible desire can be called a “self-determi-
nation of force”, if we understand pleasure not as a random affection, but as
“life’s consciousness of its own self-production”, to use Stephen Engstrom’s in-
structive expression.⁹ It is probably not controversial that pleasure is essentially
subject-relative in the sense that it reflects not some independent feature of the
object, but rather the relation of the subject to the represented object.¹⁰ What is
distinctive of Kant’s account is that pleasure is taken to be more specifically re-
flective of the practical powers of the subject. Pleasure represents a state of af-
fairs as agreeing with and reinforcing our capacity for desire: it makes us

 Obviously, this sensible consciousness is fallible and might present objects as beneficial to us
that in fact make us ill.
 Engstrom 2010, p. 39. Cf. also Newton 2017, p. 304.
 “[P]leasure or displeasure (in what is red or sweet) expresses nothing at all in the object but
simply a relation to the subject” (MS Ak. 6, 212), it is “the effect of a representation (that may be
either sensible or intellectual) upon a subject” (MS Ak. 6, 212n; emphasis added).
The Self-Determination of Force: 185

aware that the represented object satisfies our desire and that this state of affairs
reproduces our ability to further cause what we represent.
Kant stresses the inherent link of pleasure and desire through his further
claim that the successful execution of our faculty of desire is itself pleasurable.¹¹
Where a desire causes an object by representing it, the perception of the actual
object and thus the coincidence of the desiderative and the perceptual represen-
tations are experienced as pleasurable. This pleasurable experience might seem
only to reflect the pleasure we take in the existence of the object as such. But
Kant provides a more demanding view of the content of this pleasure: this pleas-
ure relates not only to the mere representation of the object, but to the “repre-
sented connection of the subject with the existence of the object” (KU Ak. 5,
209).¹² In pleasure, the subject is sensibly aware not just of a certain quality
of an object, but of the object in connection to its desire, as arousing or resulting
from the desiderative activity that brings forth or sustains the object.¹³ The pleas-
ure any sensible subject takes in the agreeable – the objects of its sensible de-
sire – and the pleasure a rational subject takes in the good – the object of its
rational desire – are thus not just pleasures in the object, but pleasures in the
agreeable and the good as objects the subject can or does bring forth. To the ex-
tent that the pleasure is related to my faculty of desire in this way, it thus has an
essentially self-reflective aspect to it: it is pleasure taken in the subject’s capacity
to bring forth a pleasurable experience.

 KU Ak. 5, 187: “The attainment of every aim is combined with the feeling of pleasure.”
 The original German text is ambiguous as to whether the cited qualification only refers to the
case of the good or whether Kant extends it to both the agreeable and the good insofar as they
are both a form of practical pleasure: “Das Angenehme und Gute haben beide eine Beziehung
auf das Begehrungsvermögen, und führen sofern, jenes ein pathologisch-bedingtes (durch An-
reize, stimulos), dieses ein reines praktisches Wohlgefallen bei sich, welches nicht bloß durch
die Vorstellung des Gegenstandes, sondern zugleich durch die vorgestellte Verknüpfung des
Subjekts mit der Existenz desselben bestimmt wird” (KU Ak. 5, 209). Contrary to most English
translations, I take it that the relative clause is not meant to bring out what distinguishes a
pure practical pleasure from a pathologically conditioned one, but rather to elucidate what char-
acterizes both the pathological and the pure practical pleasure in contrast to a contemplative
one. Any practical pleasure, whether pathological or pure, does not only concern the represen-
tation of the object, but rather the represented connection of the object’s existence with the sub-
ject. For the case of sensible pleasure cf. also KU Ak. 5, 207, emphasis added: “Through sensa-
tion [the object] excites a desire for objects of the same sort, hence the satisfaction presupposes
not the mere judgment about it but the relation of its existence to my state”.
 If we note that desire is “the causality of a representation” (KpV Ak. 5, 9n) and pleasure is the
“consciousness of the causality of a representation” (KU Ak. 5, 220), it becomes evident that
pleasure amounts to a sensible consciousness of our desire itself, a “subjective awareness of
such desire” (Zuckert 2007, p. 255).
186 Thomas Khurana

All of this means that in feeling pleasure or displeasure I am sensibly aware


of who I am as a practical being: I sense what furthers or diminishes my capacity
of desire and I sense my own success or failure in bringing forth what I desire.
Where I find pleasure in the fulfillment of my desires, I stand in fundamental
agreement not only with the object I produce, but also with myself. It is precisely
in this sense that Kant calls the pleasure I take in the agreeable and the good
practical pleasure. It is practical not only in the sense that this pleasure is some-
how causally related to our practical capacity (as cause or effect), but in that this
pleasure is inherently reflective of our practical capacity.¹⁴
If all of this is true, we may wonder why we cannot rely solely on pleasure
and displeasure to determine our practical activity and to equip ourselves with
practical self-awareness. Why is it that we need a capacity of pure practical rea-
son, which can determine our faculty of desire independently of any preceding
pleasure and first constitutes us as fully self-conscious practical beings? For
Kant, this has to do with a number of limitations inherent in sensible pleasure
and displeasure. Sensible pleasure orients us in a way that is merely subjective
and is not universally valid and communicable. When we desire sensibly, we are
therefore in a certain sense alone in our practical existence. Further, sensible
pleasure is immediate and does not allow us to differentiate between what is
good in itself and what is good instrumentally.¹⁵ Sensible pleasure by itself is
tied to the present and does not allow us to take into account the way in
which its satisfaction might harm our practical powers in the long run. Sensible
pleasure presents to us “what we ourselves do as something that we merely pas-
sively feel” (KpV Ak. 5, 116). And finally, sensible pleasure and desire stand
under the natural laws of the sensible world and therefore cannot explain a gen-

 The practical dimension of pleasure also becomes apparent in the causality that Kant attrib-
utes to pleasure itself. As he writes in the Critique of Judgment, we can define pleasure as the
“consciousness of the causality of a representation with respect to the state of the subject, for
maintaining it in that state” (KU Ak. 5, 220), “a state of the mind in which a representation is
in agreement with itself, as a ground, either merely for preserving this state itself […] or for pro-
ducing its object” (EE Ak. 20, 230 f.). Interestingly enough, this causal aspect of pleasure extends
even to what Kant calls contemplative pleasure, a pleasure that takes no interest in the existence
of a represented object, but “yet […] has a causality in itself, namely that of maintaining the state
of the representation of the mind and the occupation of the cognitive powers without a further
aim” (KU Ak. 5, 222).
 Cf. KU Ak. 5, 208: “In the case of the good there is always the question whether it is merely
mediately good or immediately good (whether it is useful or good in itself), while in contrast this
cannot be a question at all in the case of the agreeable, since the word always signifies some-
thing that pleases immediately.”
The Self-Determination of Force: 187

uinely free execution of our practical powers (GMS Ak. 4, 457; KpV Ak. 5, 59,
96 ff.).
All of this leads to Kant’s conclusion that, in order to be practical beings in
the full sense of the word, we need to be capable of a radically different kind of
desire and a different form of self-consciousness that stand in stark contrast to
our sensible desires and pleasures. This other kind of desire is marked by the fact
that it is not preceded and caused by pleasure, but is rather itself the source of a
distinctive kind of pleasure. This other form of practical self-consciousness arises
from a pure consciousness of the moral law that immediately involves conscious-
ness of our practical capacity. Where we follow this different determination of
our faculty of desire through the consciousness of a pure ought and can, we
are not oriented by our immediate sensible pleasure; instead we determine our-
selves to act in such a way that a distinct form of practical pleasure is the result,
not the cause, of the determination of our will.¹⁶ To be able to determine our-
selves in this way we need a faculty of choice that allows us to abstract from
our immediate pleasures and impulses. We need another positive source, distinct
from pleasure, for determining this faculty of choice, namely: the will. Finally,
we need a wider and more open faculty of pleasure that is not predetermined
and fixed by our given nature, but is responsive to our rational self-determina-
tion.¹⁷ I don’t want to pursue the way in which Kant describes the rational deter-
mination of the faculty of desire any further at this point.¹⁸ My aim here was only
to highlight the fact that our capacity for practical self-determination and our
practical self-awareness already arises, in a more basic form, in sensible desire
and pleasure. I now want to turn to Hegel to see how he develops this Kantian
position.

 Cf. KpV Ak. 5, 116: “Now, consciousness of a determination of the faculty of desire is always
the ground of a satisfaction [Wohlgefallen] in the action produced by it; but this pleasure, this
satisfaction with oneself, is not the determining ground of the action: instead the determination
of the will directly by reason alone is the ground of the feeling of pleasure, and this remains a
pure practical, not aesthetic, determination of the faculty of desire.”
 If we see pleasure as being reflective of our practical capacities and if we conceive of the
human being as perfectible with regard to its practical capacities as Kant, following Rousseau,
does, it is obvious that the human being is in need of a more plastic and open capacity for pleas-
ure and displeasure. As Sasha Newton rightly points out in her instructive reconstruction of
Kant’s theory of pleasure, “human pleasure is not the feeling of agreement of a representation
with a […] form of life that I find in myself; it is rather the feeling of agreement with the open and
indeterminate capacity to determine our own form of life through reason” (Newton 2017, p. 314,
my translation).
 For a critical account see Khurana 2017a.
188 Thomas Khurana

II Hegel on Desire and Self-consciousness


As we have seen, even in its lower sensible form, desire defines us as practical
beings: insofar as desire distinguishes between states that are to be produced or
maintained and states that are to be avoided, desire constitutes a felt evaluative
stance towards the world. It defines us as active and productive beings: as the
potential cause of the things we represent. And insofar as the faculty of desire
involves a representation of the desired object and is inherently connected to
pleasure, desire involves a sensible awareness of our own practical being.
If we now turn to Hegel, we will see that he is in fundamental agreement
with Kant regarding these three aspects: first, our practical feeling of the agree-
able and the disagreeable puts us in a primitive normative relationship with an
ought (ENZ III § 472). Second, we are defined as active and practical beings inso-
far as this practical feeling gives rise to a “drive” (Trieb) to bring forth a repre-
sented state of affairs and to become the cause of our own satisfaction (ENZ
III § 473Z). And third, this process gives rise to what Hegel calls a “self-feeling”
(Selbstgefühl), a distinctively sensible mode of practical self-awareness. Hegel
also adds a fourth aspect by highlighting the fact that sensible desire character-
izes us as beings that are defined by an inherent negativity. We can endure a
state of lack or want, and can put this negativity to work such that we reproduce
our capacity for future negativity: we reproduce and strengthen our faculty of de-
sire.
Compared to Kant, it is characteristic of Hegel’s account that he not only
wants to distinguish animal desire, sensible desire, and rational desire as differ-
ent species of the general faculty of desire; he also wants to delineate a way in
which the higher form of desire can be understood, in some sense, as emerging
out of the self-conscious grasping of its own lower forms. A rational and free
form of desire is thus attained in direct connection to the way in which our sen-
sible desire operates and can be conceived as a transformative self-conscious-
ness of desire itself. This implies that the rational and free form of practical
self-consciousness can only be understood properly by appreciating how exactly
it grasps the truth of sensible desire, overcomes the limitations of this desire,
and yet retains an essentially desiderative character. We can take Hegel’s famous
claim from the Phenomenology of Spirit that self-consciousness is “desire itself”
or “desire in general” (Begierde überhaupt) (PhG § 167, TWA 3, 139) as a con-
densed version of this thought.¹⁹ Hegel uses this formula to suggest both that

 Cf. also Hegel’s related qualification of spirit as having the character of a “drive” (ENZ III
The Self-Determination of Force: 189

self-consciousness begins in desire itself (PhG § 167, TWA 3, 140; ENZ III § 426Z)
and that it is in self-consciousness that the general form or very essence of desire
is fully grasped. In addition, he suggests that this self-conscious grasp has a
transformative character such that in grasping it we thereby supersede the
form of mere sensible desire. In the Phenomenology, Hegel makes two further
claims that concern the nature of this transformation: he argues, first, that
self-consciousness can only find its distinct form of satisfaction in another
self-consciousness and has to supersede the merely consumptive and “selfish”
form he attributes to animal desire. He points out, secondly, that in the struggle
to reach this satisfaction, self-consciousness at the same time comes to acknowl-
edge that “life is as essential to it as is pure self-consciousness” (PhG § 189, TWA
3, 150) and that it thus has to take its sensible desires into account and reconsti-
tute them in a transformed shape.
Since the relevant discussion in the Phenomenology is very intricate and
overdetermined,²⁰ I would like to elucidate the above claims not by means of
a close reading of the transition in the Phenomenology,²¹ but rather by looking
at some broader contextual material, namely Hegel’s account of animal desire
in the Philosophy of Nature and of the will in his Philosophy of Subjective Spirit
and the Philosophy of Right. These resources can help us understand the system-
atic steps through which Hegel develops the connection of desire and self-con-
sciousness: in the desiring structure of animal life (II.1), we already find a pre-
figuration of a practical self-relation. At the same time, animal desire harbors
an internal contradiction and is not for itself what it is as such. In a self-con-
scious being, this contradiction produces (II.2) the need to supersede mere de-
sire, not by means of an additional, separate faculty, but through a transforma-
tive practical self-consciousness of desire itself. This (II.3) transformative self-
consciousness involves a conscious exposition of the contradictory character
of desire and a reflexive redoubling of the will that makes the contradiction tract-
able. I will now try to trace these three steps in turn.

§443Z). For the Fichtean background of this way of talking cf. Fichte (1982, p. 253): “A self-pro-
ductive striving that is fixed, determinate and definite in character is known as a drive.”
 The discussion of the relation of desire and self-consciousness in this chapter has especially
informed the French reception of Hegel, starting with Kojèves influential reading (cf. Kojève
1969, p. 3ff.; for its aftermath see Butler 1999). Illuminating recent interpretations of the role
of desire in the Phenomenology that have informed my own reading include Neuhouser 1986;
Brandom 2007; Honneth 2008; Jenkins 2009; Pippin 2010.
 For a first attempt at such a reading, see Khurana 2017.
190 Thomas Khurana

II.1 Animal Desire

In the Phenomenology, Hegel makes the surprising claim that self-consciousness


arises out of a consciousness of life. At the point where consciousness under-
stands its object as alive, it begins to recognize itself in its very object and
thus constitutes itself as self-consciousness. To understand in what sense a living
process might indeed be structurally akin to self-consciousness, it is helpful to
turn to Hegel’s account of living beings, and animal life more specifically, in
his Philosophy of Nature. Although animal life falls short of a self-conscious
self-relation, on Hegel’s account we can already attribute to it a certain type of
“subjectivity” (ENZ II § 350) and a basic form of self-relation Hegel calls “self-
feeling” (Selbstgefühl) (ENZ III § 351Z). Not only do animal beings exist as indi-
viduals, they can further be said to exist as selves for themselves and to actively
make themselves into what they are.²² Hegel analyzes three processes by means
of which animal life produces itself: a process of shape (Gestaltungsprozess)
through which the individual being attains and sustains an organic, processual,
and subjective unity; a process of assimilation (Assimilationsprozess) through
which the animal relates to its inorganic other and turns it into a means of its
self-production; and a genus process (Gattungsprozess) by means of which living
beings are with themselves in the other such that they reproduce their genus.²³
Animal desire (tierische Begierde) plays an especially important role with regard
to the second process, the process of assimilation, in its practical execution.²⁴
In Hegel’s analysis, the process of assimilation begins with a feeling of lack
(Gefühl des Mangels) and the drive or urge (Trieb) to overcome this lack by appro-
priating and incorporating the environment.²⁵ If the urge is successful, the ap-

 The animal exists as a “self which is for the self” (ENZ III § 350Z; cf. § 351Z), a “duplication of
subjectivity” (ENZ III § 350Z), a “self-self” or “self-feeling” (ENZ III § 351Z). It only “is in making
itself what it is” (ENZ II § 352) and thus exists essentially as “its own product” (ENZ II § 352Z), as
an “end which produces itself” (ENZ II § 351Z).
 For a detailed analysis of this structural account of animal life, see Khurana 2017b, ch. 4.
 In Hegel’s own treatment in his Philosophy of Nature, “animal desire” does not attain termi-
nological status, although the term can be found repeatedly in the additions (ENZ II §§ 359Z;
363Z; 365Z; 366Z; 371Z; this use is very much in line with the talk of animal desire (tierische Be-
gierde, animalische Begierde) in Hegel’s Jena systems (JS I, 210; JS III, 152 ff.)). I use the term “de-
sire” above to highlight the deep connection between animal self-relation and the structure of
sensible desire that Hegel connects to the emergence of self-consciousness in his Philosophy
of Sprit.
 The concrete form that the feeling of lack takes is that of a “need” (Bedürfnis); the drive pres-
ents itself in the form of an “instinct” (Instinkt) (ENZ II § 360 ff.). The assimilation itself manifests
mainly in two forms: a formal assimilation in which the animal endows external objects with a
The Self-Determination of Force: 191

propriative activity is completed in a feeling of satisfaction. In this satisfaction,


the animal not only overcomes the lack, but proves its capacity to assimilate its
other: to be with itself in the other, to grasp and transform this other such that it
becomes a means or a matter of its own self-production.
According to Hegel’s description, the feeling of lack with which this process
begins is not a sign of weakness, but rather a badge of honor: it is a “privilege”
characteristic only “of higher natures” (ENZ II § 359Z), such as animal and spi-
ritual beings. In feeling lack, the living being proves that it can exist as a contra-
diction: it can contain within itself its own negation and sustain itself, not only
in spite of, but thanks to this very negation. Since the feeling of lack gives rise to
the drive or urge to sublate the lack and restore itself by means of its other, the
animal is positively with itself in the negative (ENZ II § 359Z). In this sense, the
animal is “the negativity of itself” (ENZ II § 353Z; cf. JS III, 138), and it is defined
by a “lasting unrest in its self-relation” (ENZ II § 363Z).
It is tempting to understand the movement of desire only from its result, that
is, from the moment of restoration in which the lack is overcome. But this is the
moment in which the desire dissolves and the animal being returns to a state in
which it is neither active nor practically aware of itself and thus fails to manifest
its self-relational character.²⁶ Hence, on Hegel’s account, it is important to focus
on the state of being in desire itself, on the animal’s capacity to bear its own neg-
ation and to exist as and sustain itself through its own defining contradiction.
This is highlighted by the way in which Hegel in his Jena system describes ani-
mal desire as containing an inherent inhibition. Normally we tend to attribute
inevitable needs and uninhibited drives to animals, while reserving the capacity
to inhibit one’s desires only for rational animals. But Hegel argues that desire as
such already involves a structural moment of inhibition: “The animal desire is an
animal consciousness in which the annihilation inhibits itself” (JS I, 210). Desire
is not itself the moment of assimilation or annihilation of the object, but is an
“annihilation that shall be” (ein sollendes Vernichtetwerden) (JS I, 210).²⁷ This

form fitting the animal’s needs; a real assimilation in which the animal dissolves and consumes
external objects.
 In one of his Jena lectures on the philosophy of nature, Hegel therefore equates the state of
satisfied desire with sleep: “The satisfied desire is [the animal’s] sleep, its being-in-itself; the
night that is the self” (JS III, 154).
 Cf. Derrida 1986, p. 120: “Desire holds in check the destruction of what it desires, that is, of
what it desires to consum(mat)e, destroy, annihilate. It wants to keep what it wants to lose.” This
description makes clear in what sense the process of labor that Hegel describes later in the Phe-
nomenology as an “inhibited desire” or “desire held in check” (gehemmte Begierde) (PhG § 195) is
not opposed to desire, but rather a higher form of its actualization. Work finds a way of giving
sustained and durable existence to the proper nature of desire as arrested annihilation.
192 Thomas Khurana

does not mean that animal desire already involves the capacity of the animal to
hold back and calmly contemplate its state of desire as such. But the way in
which Hegel describes desire as a negation inhibiting itself suggests that the re-
alization of the desired annihilation in a sense falls short of the desire itself. In
the moment of annihilation desire does not sustain itself as desire.
There is another tendency common to our understanding of animal desire
that Hegel wants to avoid: he resists defining desire in terms of the sensuous ob-
ject that elicits or satisfies the desire. To describe desire from this point of view
leads to a conception in which desire appears as externally determined in a dou-
ble sense: it is produced by an external cause and it realizes itself in an external
object. This is an appearance that indeed belongs to animal desire, but at the
same time it occludes an essential aspect of it. The fact that something might
elicit a desiderative reaction in the animal is dependent on the structure and
inner determinations of the animal itself. The objects that arouse an interest
or instinct in the living being do not simply exert causal influence upon some
random other object; they are able to stimulate a reaction in the living being
only because this living being endows these objects with significance and con-
stitutes them as stimulating external potencies (ENZ II 359 A).²⁸ Instinct is not
a causal effect but is a mode of practical behavior towards external objects
that depends upon an “inner excitement connected to the show of an external
stimulus” (innere Erregung mit dem Scheine einer äußerlichen Erregung verbun-
den) (ENZ II § 361, transl. modified, emphasis added). In order to understand
the animal’s behavior, we cannot start from external objects and their possible
effect; we must instead start with the inner activity of the animal (ENZ II
§ 360) which allows the objects to play this role in the first place.²⁹
Regarding the desired satisfaction of the process, again we cannot simply
identify it with the attainment of the targeted external object. As Jean Hyppolite
rightly points out, “the end point of desire is not, as one might think superficial-
ly, the sensuous object – that is only a means”; instead the end point of desire is

 One limitation that characterizes animal desire in comparison with human desire has to do
with the fact that the environment of the animal has only a very selective and fixed significance:
each animal “has only a restricted sphere for its non-organic nature, which exists for that animal
alone and which it must seek out by instinct from its complex environment.” The human being,
on the other hand, “as the universal thinking animal, has a much more extensive environment
and makes all objects his non-organic nature and objects for his knowing” (ENZ II § 361Z).
 On Hegel’s terms, this activity can be described as “purposive”. The instinct is defined ac-
cordingly as “purposive activity acting unconsciously” (ENZ § 360 A). Regarding the difference
between Hegel’s and Kant’s conception of natural purposiveness in this regard see Khurana
2017b, pp. 278 – 282.
The Self-Determination of Force: 193

the subject’s unity with itself (Hyppolite 1974, p. 160).³⁰ If that is true, then what
desire ultimately desires is not an object, but “its own desire” (Hyppolite 1974,
p. 160). Just as practical pleasure, on Kant’s account, does not simply reflect
the object, but the “represented connection of the subject with the existence
of the object” (KU Ak. 5, 209), the satisfaction described by Hegel is the satisfac-
tion taken in the subject’s ability to assimilate the object and reproduce itself by
means of it. On Hegel’s account, it is distinctive of animal desire, however, that
its appearance does not fully reflect this character: animal desire does not seem
to know that its objects and its fundamental aim, to use Freud’s terminology, do
not coincide.
Against this background, Hegel has a double interest in animal desire with
regard to understanding the desiderative character of self-conscious beings. On
the one hand, he wants to bring out that animal desire confronts us with a first
form of practical self-relation that already involves a certain normativity, practi-
cality, self-relatedness, and negativity. On the other hand, he aims to show that
animal desire realizes this practical self-relation in a limited and dissimulated
form. The truth of desire thus depends on a self-conscious grasp of it that
leads us beyond its animal form.³¹
The limitations of animal desire are multiple, but the most essential limita-
tion in our context is that such desire is badly infinite. Animal desire cannot at-
tain a general and sustained form of satisfaction, but only a particularized and
momentary one. The animal being quenches this thirst or satisfies that hunger,
but it does not really satisfy itself (or: its self)³² and finds no way of satisfying
itself in any general way. Departing from this or that particular feeling of lack
or need, it satisfies itself by means of a particular object it dissolves and con-
sumes, which then leads to a merely momentary satisfaction. But in its satisfac-
tion, the desire returns again. Hegel writes:

In this relationship, the animal comports itself as an immediate singular, and because it
can only overcome single determinations of the outer world in all their variety (this

 In the given quotation, Hyppolite is explaining the notion of desire from the Phenomenolo-
gy’s self-consciousness chapter, but the point he makes is generally true for the notion of desire
as Hegel understands it.
 With the Phenomenology, we can say that animal life exposes the structure of spirit “as such”
or “for us”, but not yet for itself. A life that knows itself and has this very structure for itself is
precisely what Hegel calls self-consciousness (PhG § 172, TWA 3, 143).
 The animal comes close to doing so in a third form of assimilation, the constructive instinct,
in which desire is at the same time satisfied and inhibited and the animal gains a sense of its
own self by means of “self-externalization” (Sich-selbst-sich-äußerlich-Machen) (ENZ III § 365Z).
194 Thomas Khurana

place, this time, etc.), its self-realization is not adequate to its Notion and the animal per-
petually returns from its satisfaction to a state of need. (ENZ II § 362)

In pursuing particular objects and in finding satisfaction in attaining them, an-


imal desire thus fails to fully satisfy and fully grasp itself. Due to the immediate
character of the satisfaction, the completion of the desire contains no awareness
of the fact that the feeling of lack and hence desire will necessarily return. The
appearance of desire is thus not adequate to its form: although it belongs to the
very structure of desire that there is a multiplicity of diverse desires, possibly in
conflict with each other, and that each satisfaction gives rise to the renewal of
need, each desire presents itself as the only one and envisions a final satisfac-
tion. And even though it belongs to the very functioning of desire that it ulti-
mately aims to sustain itself – it seeks objects that can sustain and further de-
sire – desire presents itself as a quest to end itself: it seeks to find a
satisfaction that would put it to rest.

II.2 Self-Consciousness of Desire and the Desire of


Self-Consciousness
Given this account of animal desire, it seems that a desiring being for Hegel is in
need of a different self-relation, wherein its true structure could be made explic-
it, not only to us, but to itself. Such a different self-relation requires not an ac-
companying theoretical consciousness of the general structure of desire, but
rather a practical consciousness of and stance towards it that transforms the
way it operates: a practical self-consciousness of desire. Such a practical self-
consciousness would need to involve the grasp of the true nature of desire in gen-
eral (and not the limited and particularized grasp of this or that desire). As ani-
mal or sensible desire appears in the guise of particular desires and fails to re-
alize its own structure for itself, such a practical self-consciousness would by
itself entail a transformation of the way in which desire operates. What we are
here envisioning is thus not an external consciousness of desire, but a self-con-
sciousness of desire: the conscious grasp of a desiring being that transforms the
desiring activity and has itself a desiderative character of a modified sort.³³
In his Philosophy of Spirit, Hegel develops this transformative view in three
steps. First, he tries to demonstrate that we can in fact reconstruct desire itself as

 On the sense in which Hegel has a “transformative” conception of self-consciousness, see


also Khurana 2017, pp. 353 – 361.
The Self-Determination of Force: 195

an immediate form of practical self-consciousness. Second, he describes in what


sense this practical self-consciousness can be conceived as unfolding the “truth
of desire”: a way of bringing out the very essence of desire. Third, he gives an
account of the transformed way in which a developed practical self-conscious-
ness remains desiderative. Hegel’s account thus progresses from desire as imme-
diate self-consciousness, through a self-consciousness of desire, to the desire of
self-consciousness itself.
Hegel starts unfolding the inherent link between desire and self-conscious-
ness by re-describing desire as a preliminary and undeveloped form of self-con-
sciousness, as “the form in which self-consciousness appears at the first stage of
its development” (ENZ III § 426Z). That Hegel characterizes animal desire as a
mode of self-production through which a being actualizes and sustains itself
and which results in a self-feeling, already suggests that desire can be under-
stood as structurally akin to self-consciousness. In his Encyclopedia Phenomen-
ology, Hegel makes this point explicit, by re-describing sensible desire as an “im-
mediate” form of self-consciousness. He starts from a subject that is marked by
an internal contradiction and an urge to sublate this contradiction by appropri-
ating and consuming an external object. This assimilative behavior implies that
the subject grasps the external object as containing the possibility of its own sat-
isfaction and as conforming to its desire (ENZ III § 427Z). As Hegel writes, “In the
object, the subject beholds its own lack, its own one-sidedness, sees in the ob-
ject something belonging to its own essence and yet missing from it” (ENZ III
§ 427Z). In its satisfaction, desire is again described as “destructive” (ENZ III
§ 428) and it again takes on an essentially particularized and transitory form:
“[S]ince the satisfaction has only happened in the individual case and this is
transitory, the desire reproduces itself again in the satisfaction” (ENZ III § 428).
For this process to count as a form of self-consciousness, however, Hegel
needs to describe the self-feeling resulting from this satisfaction slightly differ-
ently than in the case of mere animal desires. Hegel takes it that in the case
where desire can be understood as an immediate form of self-consciousness
the satisfaction gives rise to a self-feeling in which the self is grasped as the
very negation and supersession of the particularity of its external objects. In
its satisfaction, the desiring self thus exposes its general character: “the self-feel-
ing which the I gets in the satisfaction does not, on the inner side or in itself,
remain […] in its individuality; as the negation of immediacy and of individuality
the result involves the determination of universality and of the identity of self-
consciousness with its object” (ENZ III § 429). With this resulting feeling it be-
comes clear that desire here operates in the service of attaining the unity of
an I; it is not simply working to avoid this or that feeling of lack or to attain
this or that sensuous object. What a structural account of animal desire could
196 Thomas Khurana

already uncover as the truth of desire, is here present as the way in which desire
is experienced by the subject. It is not merely a fact that the satisfaction of any
particular desire gives rise to another one and that the true aim of desire lies be-
yond its objects. This fact enters the very experience of desire itself: it becomes
manifest in the satisfaction of this desire in which the subject appreciates and
enjoys itself as the true aim of its desire.
The different character of the desire becomes even clearer once we realize
the more complex internal structure that Hegel ascribes to the desiring subject
here. It is actually not just a desiring being related to an object. Hegel describes
the desiring subject as a being consciously related at one and the same time to
an external object and to itself. As a self-conscious subject, it has a double object
(PhG § 167, TWA 3, 139). But this means the emergence of self-consciousness is
therefore marked by the eruption of an internal rift, with the subject directed
both towards its other and towards itself. Thus, the desire specific to self-con-
sciousness is desire for the unity of pure self-consciousness and objective con-
sciousness. Yet insofar the objective consciousness takes the shape of desire,
which dissolves and appropriates its object, its object turns out to be a nullity
and thus consciousness turns out to have only one proper or true object: itself.
In its desiring movement, consciousness is thus revealed as pure self-conscious-
ness. In this sense, the objective desire directed towards the external object
works in the service of a higher and more fundamental desire which is the desire
to reach the unity of pure and objective self-consciousness.
Now, given that we can understand sensible desire as an immediate form of
practical self-consciousness, we might begin to ask whether it is truly satisfying
as a form of self-consciousness. The immediate form of self-consciousness, in
which self-consciousness produces itself through a consumptive objective desire,
does not seem to involve the right type of unity and satisfaction. And indeed, on
Hegel’s account, it is precisely in the subject’s becoming aware of its desire as
fundamentally unsatisfying, that it proceeds from desire as immediate self-con-
sciousness to a self-consciousness of desire. As we already saw with regard to
animal desire, the objective desire Hegel has in view is marked by a destructive
and a spuriously infinite character. Where the subject realizes its self-conscious-
ness through sensible desire, it is in need of an infinite series of particular ob-
jects to consume; in order to sustain itself and confirm its unity, it is thus fun-
damentally dependent on objects that its own activity reveals to be null.
Through this process, the self can only sustain itself as an abstract I, the nega-
tion of the various particular objects; it fails, however, to actualize itself as a pos-
itive and concrete universality. Instead of gaining objective reality, it proves itself
The Self-Determination of Force: 197

through the destruction of the particular objects of desire. It realizes itself as a


“fury of destruction” (RPh § 5 A).³⁴

II.3 The Self-Conscious Transformation of Desire

In what sense can we now say that practical self-consciousness is the truth of
desire? In its self-conscious form, both the true aim and the contradictory
form of desire become explicit for the desiring subject. As immediate self-con-
sciousness, desire is not just the desire for this or that object, but is the desire
to sustain oneself as desiring, by means of an object. Thus, the true aim of
the desire does not coincide with the attainment of its object. Nevertheless, de-
sire seems irreducibly tied to its specific object and therefore has a contradictory
form. While the ultimate aim of desire is desire itself, it cannot fully account for
and attain this aim as such, but presents and fulfills itself as the desire for a con-
crete object. Where the completion of desire is reached by way of the destruction
and consumption of its object, however, this object can satisfy the desire only
negatively. It is in this sense that Hegel calls desire “selfish” or “addicted to it-
self” (selbstsüchtig) (cf. ENZ III § 428, § 429Z, § 552). The shortcoming of desire
is therefore not only its fixation on particular objects that obscure its true aim
(desire itself), but also its merely reductive mode of operation. If desire aims
for desire, that is to say, for the reproduction of its capacity to be the negativity

 In the context of the Phenomenology this leads Hegel to a rather precipitous line of argu-
ment, encapsulated in the thesis that self-consciousness can find satisfaction only in another
self-consciousness. The right sense of its own selfhood and the right practical relation toward
it is not produced in the mode of a particularized consumptive desire in which the self demon-
strates its superiority over the particular dead objects of its environment (that it paradoxically
depends upon), it is rather gained by means of the recognition of another self-conscious
being it is recognized by. This turn to an intersubjective relation raises all kinds of questions
that I cannot pursue in the context of this paper. In the present context, it is especially important
to note that we cannot understand this turn in terms of the introduction of another particular
desire for yet another object: not a desire for food or water or shelter, but a desire for another
item called “recognition”. Although it is not wrong that the recognitive relation also produces
new needs and desires, characteristic new forms of striving and struggle, and a distinct form
of satisfaction, it does not enter the scene as the desire for yet another object, but as a different
mode of being and knowing oneself as a desiring being. The recognitive relation that the self-
conscious beings actively sustain through their operations thus transforms the relation of the
self-conscious beings to their particular desires. As the master-slave dialectic tries to develop,
it both includes a detachment from the immediate vital desires as well as a reattachment to
life as the “embodiment of freedom” (ENZ III § 432): the concrete and worldly existence of
self-consciousness.
198 Thomas Khurana

of itself, it falls short of itself when it operates in a merely consumptive manner


and finds no way of being positively in its other.
A being that becomes conscious of this very structure thus first becomes
aware of a contradictory form. Hegel describes the different ways in which a sub-
ject can elaborate this contradictory form of desire in his account of the will, the
higher faculty of desire characteristic of self-conscious beings. The will is defined
by Hegel as the “drive to give itself existence” (RPh § 4Z). The different shapes of
the will that Hegel delineates – the natural will, the arbitrary will, the will for
happiness, and, finally, the free will – can all be reconstructed as different
forms of exposing and negotiating the contradiction inherent in desire.³⁵
While all of these shapes of the will are ways of developing the truth of desire,
only the free will, however, fully unfolds this truth such that it really sublates –
supersedes and preserves – the tension inherent in desire and gains an adequate
desiderative form.
In the most basic form of the will, what Hegel calls “natural will”, we are
confronted with another version of the immediate self-consciousness we encoun-
tered in the shape of desire. In the natural will, the practical feeling of the agree-
able or the disagreeable is translated into the willing activity of a drive or incli-
nation. In this form, the content of the will is immediately given: it is defined by
the state in which the subject finds itself through its feeling. These contents are
“afflicted with contingency, and seem in their particularity to stand both to the
individual and to each other in an external relationship and this with an unfree
necessity” (ENZ III § 474). However, while it is contingent whether or not the sub-
ject finds itself in agreement or in conflict with its surroundings, the drive sug-
gests that the agreement or conflict is, at least potentially, the achievement of
the subject itself. The drive is thus the striving to overcome the contingency
and passivity of practical feeling. This is to say, the drive as such already implies
a striving for self-determination. Yet, this striving is realized here in a particular-
ized and dependent form that is in tension with its proper aim.
In order for the practical subject to live up to its own activity – to fully satisfy
the drive that is already present in the natural will – it thus needs to gain a dif-
ferent self-relation. The first step in attaining this other self-relation is the con-
stitution of an arbitrary will that Hegel describes as a “reflective will”. The fac-
ulty of choice is often understood as an additional capacity that allows us to
inhibit or license our given natural drives and that observes and controls

 For the will this negotiation takes the shape of relating three irreducible moments of the will
(cf. RPh §§ 5-7): its indeterminacy (the capacity to abstract from any determination in which it
finds itself or which it has posited), determinacy (its capacity to will a determinate content),
and its self-determinative character that integrates the first two moments.
The Self-Determination of Force: 199

these drives from outside. As Hegel describes it, however, the faculty of choice
should rather be understood as a further step in the self-explication of desire,
in which a certain feature of our desires masked by their immediate appearance
gains independent existence. The bad infinity of desires already reveals the par-
ticular instances of the desire as contingent and points to the fact that the desir-
ing subject has a reality over and above all particular desires. A subject that has
a faculty of choice realizes this position explicitly, as it finds itself capable of
choosing between desires. In its first emergence, this faculty is defined negative-
ly, as the indifference or indeterminacy with regard to the various contents it
finds itself pursuing. In this way, the faculty of choice uncovers and exposes
the contingency of the immediate determination of the will and makes this
very contingency the conscious principle of the will. The faculty of choice re-ap-
propriates the contingency of my felt determinations as my own arbitrary whim.
This faculty fails, however, to actualize the general character of the desiring sub-
ject in a positive way. The choosing subject itself is defined as indeterminate and
insofar as it chooses among given contents, it still depends on the given contents
of the drives and inclinations to attain any concrete actuality. The faculty of
choice does not produce its very own object of the will and an activity of willing
that realizes the self-determining will as such; it only liberates us from and re-
appropriates the uncomprehended shape of immediate desire. Thus, the faculty
of choice realizes the will as a known or explicit contradiction: “it actualizes itself
in a particularity which is at the same time a nullity for it, and has a satisfaction
in the particularity which it has at the same time left behind. As this contradic-
tion, it is initially the process of dispersion and of sublating one inclination or
pleasure by another […] to infinity” (ENZ III § 478).
In this sense, the faculty of choice embodies a negative self-consciousness of
desire. This opens up the possibility of developing a positive self-consciousness,
that is to say, to construct and pursue a general good that includes an ordered
totality of the various particular goods the subject is driven to pursue: “the
truth of particular satisfactions is the universal satisfaction which the thinking
will makes its purpose as happiness” (ENZ III § 478). It is an interesting feature
of Hegel’s account that this first attempt at developing a positive self-conscious-
ness of desire does not, however, contain the solution. The ideal of happiness
seems like a promising candidate insofar as it constitutes an object of the will
that takes up and includes the various particular objects and orders them
under a general totality. In this way, it arguably becomes possible to will all
kinds of particular goods and thereby to actually will a general and encompass-
ing good, my happiness. The general vantage point of the “whole of satisfaction”
(Ganzes der Befriedigung) (RPh § 20 A) also gives me reason to inhibit or modify
particular desires so as to include them in the whole of happiness. On the other
200 Thomas Khurana

hand, the ideal of happiness remains too indeterminate and abstract (RPh § 21)
on Hegel’s account to thoroughly inform the willing activity. Happiness is an ab-
stract idea in view of which we might “harmonize and organize empirical ends
given external to it”, but it is not a truly universal end “that generates from within
itself the particulars it systematizes”³⁶, as Allen Wood rightly points out. For its
affirmative content, happiness depends on the various given drives, so that the
actual decision remains with subjective feeling and taste. Happiness is just the
totality of satisfied desires, whatever those turn out to be, and is therefore
only “the represented, abstract universality of the content […] which only
ought to be” (ENZ III § 480), but remains without a determinate reality of its own.
The “truth” of the negative and the positive self-consciousness of desire (ENZ
III § 480), of choice and of happiness, is only attained by yet another form of
willing that Hegel calls the free will. The free will is not a will arbitrarily choosing
among given contents, nor a will maximizing its happiness. Where arbitrary
choice depends on given contents in which the will cannot truly find itself
(RPh § 15Z), the will for happiness gives itself over to the given satisfactions
and confines itself to an administration and purification of pre-existing inclina-
tions and tendencies. The free will, on the other hand, understands neither its
specific contents nor their value as given or found, but as constituted by itself.³⁷
In willing these objects, the free will therefore ultimately wills itself. It wills the
concrete objects as the product of the will’s activity and as enabling its contin-
ued actualization. As such, the free will includes both the capacity to abstract
from any given determination and the capacity to will something determinate,
but is exhausted by neither. The true object of the will is neither the given con-
tents among which it chooses arbitrarily nor a well-ordered system of such con-
tents that maximizes happiness, but rather the will itself. The will is thus only
fully realized where it takes on the reflexive form of a “free will which wills the
free will” (RPh § 27). This constitutes, as Hegel puts it, the “absolute drive of
the free spirit”, which is “to make its freedom into its object [Gegenstand] – to
make it objective both in the sense that it becomes the rational system of the spi-
rit itself, and in the sense that this system becomes immediate actuality” (RPh
§ 27).
That the will itself turns out to be the true aim of the will – as desire had
earlier already turned out to be the true aim of desire – does not mean that

 Wood 1990, p. 64.


 The paradigmatic model of the will’s activity therefore is no longer the consumption of
found objects or the choice between given options, but an operation that first brings forth
and constitutes the objects in which it realizes itself: acting, working, forming, claiming as
mine, and so on.
The Self-Determination of Force: 201

the will is just “selfish” and takes no interest in its actual objects. The formula of
the free will willing the free will (RPh § 21Z) is, on the contrary, supposed to de-
scribe a form of will that overcomes a desire that proves itself only by negating
its contents and that remains tied to a particular self to which everything is re-
duced. The free will that wills itself is supposed to will itself through concrete
and determinate objects and it is not confined to only willing its own natural
will, but it in fact wills the free will in general: my own just as much as yours.
It wants an action or object insofar as it manifests the free will and contributes
to the system of institutions that make a free will possible. To will the free will
means to will concrete actions and objects insofar they express and further our
capacity for rational self-determination. This will that wills the free will can thus
express itself in willing the satisfaction of a given natural desire just as much as
our ability to abstract from them, but neither of these exhausts this faculty. In
willing the free will – in willing an infinite negativity – the willing activity
and the satisfaction it grants is fundamentally open-ended. In its satisfaction,
the desire here returns or insists, not in the blind way in which a quenched an-
imal desire is haunted by a reappearing need, but as its own proper perpetua-
tion.
This figure of the will that wills itself can elucidate the two further claims
from the Phenomenology mentioned above: according to the first, self-conscious-
ness only finds satisfaction in another self-consciousness; according to the sec-
ond, self-consciousness must acknowledge itself as a living self-consciousness.
If the ultimate object of the will is the free will itself, there is a sense in which
it can never be satisfied by some random object, but only by an object insofar
as it is the expression or condition of a free self-determination. And if the free
will that wills itself has to do so by means of willing determinate contents
and giving the free will a concrete and living existence in the sensible world,
then it must take up and reconstitute its own natural needs and living desires.
As Hegel points out, “there is nothing degrading about being alive, and we do
not have the alternative of existing in a higher spirituality. It is only by raising
what is present and given to a self-creating process that the higher sphere of
the good is attained (although this distinction does not imply that the two as-
pects are incompatible)” (RPh § 123Z). Therefore, the human being has “a right
to make his needs his ends” (RPh § 123Z), but to do so requires that the
human being reconstitutes these needs in the context of a self-determined ethi-
cal life: as objects of a free will willing itself.
202 Thomas Khurana

III Conclusion: Willing the Will


In one of his lectures, Kant points out that what is distinctive about the will is
that it can become its own object, whereas the same is not true for inclination.
In inclination, we are moved by an object, but since this renders us passive and
dependent, we are not inclined toward inclination itself. As Kant writes, “we are
pleased by the thing we have an inclination to, but the inclination in itself does
not please us.” Therefore, “inclination is never its own object” (MRONG II Ak. 29,
610). In inclination, the content and the form of our desire do not coincide. We
are inclined to an object and are pleased by its actuality, but the particular de-
siderative way in which we are moved towards it and bring it forth is not pleas-
urable. We experience the object as furthering our practical capacity, but inclina-
tion actually functions to limit, and obscure, the real nature of our practical
capacity. The moral will, on the other hand, is its own object. What the moral
will wants in willing this or that action is the very form of the will willing this
action. It wants this or that object qua manifestation of rational self-determina-
tion.
We can conclude that Kant and Hegel not only agree that a practical self-re-
lation begins in sensible desire. They also seem to agree that the highest form of
our desire lies in the free will willing itself. While there are considerable disa-
greements between them as to how to understand the precise shape of such a
self-determining will and the conditions that need to be in place for such a struc-
ture to be possible, Kant and Hegel seem unified in thinking that our desiring
nature fully comes into its own where our willing takes a reflective turn and
where we establish a type of willing in which the will operates as its own object.
On both of their accounts, this reflective turn is not to be understood as a nar-
cissistic closure of the will; on the contrary, such a turn is in fact a radical open-
ing, desire made infinite. In this spirit, Kant claims that the free will that wills its
own freedom enjoys the widest or greatest life (REFL 567, Ak. 15, 246) and Hegel
describes such a will as truly infinite: “infinity as self-relating negativity”, the
“ultimate source of all activity, life, and consciousness” (RPh § 7 A).

References
Kant’s writings are quoted according to the pagination of the “Akademie-Ausgabe” of Kant’s
gesammelte Schriften (Ak.), Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften and its
successors (eds.). Reimer/De Gruyter (1900 ff.). I make use of the translations from the
Cambridge edition mentioned below.
The Self-Determination of Force: 203

ANTH | Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht. Ak. 7. Engl. transl.: Anthropology from a


Pragmatic Point of View. Louden, R. B. (tr., ed.); Kuehn, M. (introd.). Cambridge
University Press 2006.
EE | Erste Einleitung in die Kritik der Urteilskraft. Ak. 20. Engl. transl.: Critique of the Power of
Judgment. Guyer, P. (ed., trs.); Matthews, E. (trs.). Cambridge University Press 2000.
GMS | Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten. Ak. 4. Engl. transl.: Groundwork of the
Metaphysics of Morals. In: Practical Philosophy. Gregor, M. (tr., ed.); Wood, A. (introd.).
Cambridge University Press 1996.
KpV | Kritik der praktischen Vernunft. Ak. 5. Engl. transl.: Critique of Practical Reason. In:
Practical Philosophy. Gregor, M. (tr., ed.); Wood, A. (introd.). Cambridge University Press
1996.
KU | Kritik der Urteilskraft. Ak. 5. Engl. transl.: Critique of the Power of Judgment. Guyer, P.
(ed., trs.); Matthews, E. (trs.). Cambridge University Press 2000.
MAN | Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft. Ak. 4. Engl. transl.:
Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. Friedman, M. (ed., tr.). Cambridge
University Press, 2004.
MRONG II | Moral Mrongovius II. Ak. 29. Engl. transl.: Lectures on Ethics. Heath, P. (ed., tr.);
Schneewind, J. B. (ed.). Cambridge University Press 1997.
MS | Die Metaphysik der Sitten. Ak. 6. Engl. transl.: The Metaphysics of Morals. In: Practical
Philosophy. Gregor, M. (tr., ed.); Wood, A. (introd.). Cambridge University Press 1996.
REFL | Reflexionen zur Anthropologie. Ak. 15.

Hegel’s writings are mainly quoted according to the “Theorie-Werkausgabe” (TWA), edited by
Eva Moldenhauer and Karl Markus Michel, published with Suhrkamp Verlag. I make use
of various translations mentioned below.
ENZ II | Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse (1830): Zweiter Teil.
Die Naturphilosophie mit den mündlichen Zusätzen. TWA 9. Engl. transl.: Hegel’s
Philosophy of Nature. Part Two of the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1830).
Miller, A. V. (tr.); Findlay, J. N. (foreword). Oxford: Clarendon 1970.
ENZ III | Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse (1830): Dritter Teil.
Die Philosophie des Geistes mit den mündlichen Zusätzen. TWA 10. Engl. transl.: Hegel’s
Philosophy of Mind. Translated from the 1830 Edition, together with the Zusätze.
Wallace, W.; Miller, A. V. (trs.); Inwood, M. J. (revision). Oxford University Press 2007.
JS I | Jenaer Systementwürfe I. Das System der spekulativen Philosophie. Fragmente aus
Vorlesungsmanuskripten der Philosophie der Natur und des Geistes [1803/04]. Düsing,
K.; Kimmerle, H. (eds.). Hamburg: Meiner 1986.
JS III | Jenaer Systementwürfe III. Naturphilosophie und Philosophie des Geistes [1805/06].
Horstmann, R.-P. (ed.). Hamburg: Meiner 1987.
PhG | Phänomenologie des Geistes. TWA 3. Engl. transl.: Pinkard, T. 2013 Draft.
RPh | Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts oder Naturrecht und Staatswissenschaft im
Grundrisse. TWA 7. Engl. transl.: Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Wood, A. W. (ed.);
Nisbet, H. B. (tr.). Cambridge University Press 1991.

Butler, Judith (1999): Subjects of Desire: Hegelian Reflections in 20th-Century France. New
York: Columbia University Press.
204 Thomas Khurana

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Judgment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ludwig Siep
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit
Abstract. In der Tradition der praktischen Philosophie wird die immanente Gren-
zenlosigkeit des Begehrens als Gefährdung der individuellen Autonomie und der
sozialen Gerechtigkeit betrachtet. Nach einem Vorschlag der begrifflichen Ordnung
der verschiedenen Formen und Grade des Begehrens (I) gibt der Text einen Über-
blick über die grundsätzlichen Einschätzungen des Verhältnisses zwischen Begeh-
ren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit in der Philosophiegeschichte vor Kant (II). Kon-
zeptionen der Überwindung und Befreiung vom körpergebundenen Begehren in
Antike und Mittelalter stehen hedonistische Rechtfertigungen des Wertes des Be-
gehrens gegenüber. Die klassische deutsche Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel sieht
sich vor deterministischen und dualistischen Herausforderungen. Sie versucht, den
Gegensatz zwischen Autonomie und Begehren durch eine neue Theorie der Sub-
jektivität aufzulösen. Begehren ist selber eine Form der selbstbewussten Sponta-
neität, seinen Formen kann ein autonomes Subjekt die richtige Stelle im psychischen
‚Haushalt‘ und in den sozialen Anerkennungsprozessen einräumen. Notwendig
dafür sind rechtliche, ökonomische und sittliche Institutionen eines autonomen
Gemeinwillens (III). In den letzten beiden Abschnitten werden die Grenzen (IV) und
die Aktualität (V) dieser Lösung im Lichte der Erfahrungen und Probleme der Ge-
genwart diskutiert.

According to the tradition of ethics and political philosophy the inherent bound-
lessness of desire (Begehren) endangers individual autonomy and social justice.
To get a clear view of these tensions, the first section suggests an ordering of
forms and degrees of desiring along different categories and scales (I.). The second
section sketches an overview of philosophical positions demanding either the re-
pression or the liberation of desires in ancient, medieval Christian, and early mod-
ern philosophy (II.). ‘Classical’ German philosophy since Kant reacts to mechanis-
tic (Hobbes) and deterministic (Spinoza) as well as dualistic (Neoplatonism)
challenges. The self-conscious nature of desire is the key to the solution: a self-con-
scious subject is able to grant different forms of desire their place in a balanced
psychic ‘organism’ and in relations of mutual recognition. This, however, presup-
poses a set of particular social, economical and political institutions of an auton-
omous common will (III.) The last two sections discuss the limits (IV.) of this sol-
ution and its possible transformation under the changed conditions of modern
societies (V.).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-010
206 Ludwig Siep

I Begehren: das Begriffs- und Phänomenfeld


Der Begriff des Begehrens, die mit ihm verwandten Begriffe und die körperlichen,
psychischen und sozialen Phänomene, auf die er sich bezieht, sind auf vielen
Gebieten der Philosophie von Bedeutung. Sowohl der deutsche Begriff wie seine
Vorgänger (appetitus, orexis, epithymia usw.) gehören zu kontroversen Theorien
und Erzählungen in der Geschichte der Philosophie, aber auch der Religion und
der Literatur. Hier geht es mir nur um seine Bedeutung für die praktische Philo-
sophie.¹ Gleichwohl will ich mit einigen Bemerkungen zu den Bedeutungen des
Begriffs ‚Begehren‘ und seiner zugehörigen ‚Familie‘, den Begriffen ‚Begierde‘,
‚Wunsch‘, ‚Verlangen‘ etc. beginnen.² Vor allem mit Blick auf die philosophi-
schen Theorien und ihre Geschichte legt sich folgende provisorische Einteilung
nahe:
1. ‚Begehren‘ ist ein Klassifikationsbegriff, der eine Reihe unterschiedlicher
körperlicher und psychischer Antriebe und Zustände umfasst und abgrenzt. Die
Einteilung etwa der philosophischen Psychologie des 18. und frühen 19. Jahr-
hunderts in die niederen und höheren ‚Begehrungsvermögen‘³ differenziert und
ordnet verschiedene Formen dieser von anderen psycho-somatischen Zustän-
den – wie Empfindungen, Stimmungen, Wahrnehmungen – unterschiedenen
‚Strebungen‘, wie es manchmal in neutralerer, aber künstlicherer Übersetzung des
lateinischen ‚appetitus‘ heißt. Als Anlass oder Vorstufe des Handelns⁴ haben sie
es, wie schon Fichte hervorhebt, mit einer Anpassung der ‚Welt‘ (zu der die mit
dem eigenen Körper verbundenen Zustände gehören) an das Subjekt des Be-
gehrens zu tun. Heute spricht man von einer den theoretischen Einstellungen
gegenüber umgekehrten ‚direction of fit‘. Aber auch die andere Richtung spielt
beim Begehren oder Streben eine Rolle: sowohl beim Auslösen des Begehrens wie
bei seiner Erfüllung kann die Beschaffenheit der Dinge, Tatsachen oder Sach-
verhalte maßgebend sein. Das gilt etwa auch für die Neugier oder das Erkennt-
nisstreben.

 Im Wesentlichen für die normative praktische Philosophie. Die Fragen nach der Rolle von
„desire“ und ihrem Zusammenwirken mit Überzeugungen (belief) in der Handlungstheorie wer-
den hier nicht erörtert. Vgl. dazu Pettit 1998, S. 30 – 33, sowie die Mehrzahl der Beiträge in Marks
1986.
 Für die entsprechende Begriffs- und Phänomenfamilie von „desire“ vgl. Baier in Marks 1986,
S. 39 – 61, hier 39 – 40. Für eine umfassende empirisch-psychologische Erörterung vgl. Hofmann/
Nordgren 2015.
 Vgl. dazu Siep 2002, S. 105 – 119.
 Ein nicht auf das Handeln bezogenes Begehren ist nach der Einteilung Kants und seiner
Nachfolger bloßer Wunsch, vgl. AA VI, S. 213.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 207

Um die verschiedenen Formen des Begehrens zu unterscheiden, kann man sie


auf Skalen platzieren:
a) Sie liegen auf einer Skala von Passivität (Gefühl des Bedürfnisses, Mangels)
bis Aktivität (‚Aussein auf‘, Verlangen nach, Antrieb des Handelns). Passive For-
men des Begehrens scheinen von außen (auch der ‚inneren‘ körperlichen Natur)
bestimmt zu sein. Ob das Subjekt darin seine Autonomie erhalten kann, ist die
traditionelle Frage der philosophischen Ethik.
b) Eine weitere für die Ordnung der Begriffe und Phänomene des Begehrens
wichtige Skala ist die der Richtungen in den Zeitdimensionen: Formen des Be-
gehrens können auf die Erhaltung oder Wiederherstellung von Zuständen ge-
richtet sein, aber auch, und primär, auf ihre Veränderung. Als Handlungsziel
liegen die Zustände natürlich immer in der Zukunft, auch wenn es sich um das
Begehren nach Bleiben bzw. ‚Verweilen‘ handelt. Aber die Inhalte können in
verschiedenen Dimensionen liegen. Vor allem das eher passive Begehren in Form
der Sehnsucht kann auf vergangene Zustände gerichtet sein. Der Wunsch nach
Fortbestehen eines Zustandes richtet sich im Wesentlichen auf die Gegenwart. Ob
aber ein in der Gegenwart erfülltes Begehren noch als solches zu bezeichnen ist
oder anderen Phänomenen wie der Liebe zugehört, ist ein Problem der philoso-
phischen Psychologie zumindest seit Descartes.⁵
c) Eine genauere Differenzierung erlaubt auch die Skala von einer eher kör-
perlichen (‚unkontrollierbaren‘) Form des Begehrens zu den von rationalen
Überlegungen gesteuerten oder beeinflussten Formen. Im gewöhnlichen
Sprachgebrauch hat ‚Begehren‘ wohl immer einen körperlichen Anteil, in der
Philosophie gehört aber auch das Erkenntnisstreben oder das sittliche Streben zu
den (‚höheren‘) Begehrungsvermögen. Auch in der Dichtersprache ist von geisti-
gem Begehren bzw. geistiger Begierde die Rede, wie sie etwa Thomas Mann in
seiner Novelle „Das Gesetz“ dem Moses in Bezug auf die Formung und Reinigung
seines Volkes zuschreibt.⁶ Der Streit in der Ethik um den Wert des Begehrens und
seine Gefahren für Selbstbestimmung und Gerechtigkeit geht vor allem um For-
men mit einem ‚körperlichen Anteil‘. In Epochen religiös beeinflusster Ethik ist
aber auch der Wert des geistigen Strebens nach Erkenntnis oder Ruhm umstrit-
ten – als Neugier oder Hybris werden sie negativ bewertet.
d) Eine verwandte, aber doch zu anderen Einteilungen führende Skala ist die
der Reflexivität des Begehrens, vom bloßen Selbstgefühl bis zum klaren Be-

 Vgl. Baier 1986, S. 47– 50 („Cartesian Desires are always future-oriented“, S. 50).
 Mann 1963, S. 641, 650, 658.
208 Ludwig Siep

wusstsein.⁷ Erst dieses kann sich auf bestimmte Ziele richten, die ein Begehren
verfolgt oder zumindest befördert. ⁸
e) Eng damit zusammen hängt die Klassifikation von Begehren, Begehrungen
und Begierden auf der Skala vom Unbestimmten zum Bestimmten, vom beson-
deren Akt zur allgemeinen Einstellung. Ob es ‚das Begehren‘ überhaupt gibt, ist
ebenso umstritten wie die Existenz ‚des Willens‘. Phänomene des umfassenderen
und unbestimmteren Begehrens (z. B. nach Reichtum, Liebe und Macht etc.)
scheint es aber ebenso zu geben wie solche nach bestimmten Objekten (einem
Schatz, einem Gemälde, einem Auto etc.). Vor allem aber kann das begehrende
Subjekt, zumindest als bewusster Wille, von einzelnen Richtungen und Zielen
absehen, sich davon frei machen. Ob diese Freiheit oder innere Distanz in den
Akten des bestimmten Begehrens erhalten werden kann, ist eine für die klassische
Autonomie-Philosophie entscheidende Frage.
f) Schließlich liegen Formen und Fälle des Begehrens auf einer Skala der
Intensität vom schwachen (unbestimmten Sehnen) bis zum intensiven (‚bren-
nenden‘ Verlangen). Im deutschen Sprachgebrauch wird das Wort eher für die
intensiveren Formen benutzt.⁹
2. In den philosophischen Erörterungen des Begehrens kann man von den
klassifikatorischen (wie den Stufenlehren der traditionellen philosophischen
Psychologie) Überlegungen die eher qualitativ zu nennenden Analysen unter-
scheiden. Dabei ist mit qualitativ nicht nur eine Eigenschaft gemeint, sondern
auch das ‚wie es sich anfühlt‘ im Sinne der Qualia, von denen in der modernen
philosophy of mind die Rede ist. Dazu gehört der gefühlte Mangel, der das Be-
gehren seiner Überwindung auslöst, aber auch der zukunftsgerichtete Wunsch
nach einem Zustand des Ausgleichs oder der ‚Auffüllung‘ des Mangels bzw. einem
positiven Vorgefühl der Befriedigung. Letzterer kann entweder noch eine mehr
oder minder passive Vorstellung sein, oder bereits der Anfang der Betätigung zum
Erreichen des Begehrenszieles. Dass das Vorgefühl etwa der ‚süßen‘ Rache zu
handlungsleitenden Affekten wie dem Zorn gehört, hat schon Aristoteles her-

 Für Christian Wolff etwa werden alle niederen Begehrungsvermögen durch konfuse Vorstel-
lungen des Guten und Bösen aktiviert, die höheren durch distinkte (repraesentatio distincta). Vgl.
Wolff 1968 [1732].
 Insofern entspricht der philosophische und literarische Sprachgebrauch nicht dem der empi-
rischen Psychologie. Zu diesem vgl. Fröhlich 272010, S. 97: „Begehren (desire). Heute nur noch
selten gebrauchte Bezeichnung für einen Wunsch, der sich auf ein klar bewußtes bzw. erkenn-
bares Objekt bezieht; Syn.: Motiv, Handlungsziel. Der englische Begriff desire steht meist als Syn.
für appetitive Formen des Antriebs.“
 Das gilt sogar für die institutionellen Formen kollektiven Begehrens wie das ‚Bürgerbegehren‘,
das jedenfalls bei Erfolg einen dringenden Handlungsbedarf nach sich zieht. Im Folgenden wird
auf diese institutionellen Prozeduren nicht eingegangen.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 209

ausgestellt.¹⁰ Es gilt sicher auch für verschiedene Formen des Begehrens als Ha-
ben- oder Erobernwollens oder als Erhört- und Geliebtseinwollens. Auf der Skala
zum Körperlichen hin kann dann das Vorgefühl der ‚Wonnen‘ der Vereinigung mit
dem Begehrten liegen. Anstelle der positiven Gefühle und Vorgefühle des Be-
gehrten können auch die negativen der Furcht vor Scheitern, Misserfolg und
Frustration treten. Positive und negative Gefühle können sogar gemischt sein
(Catulls „odi et amo“) – und das alles auf der erwähnten Skala der Intensitäts-
grade.
3. Schließlich gehört zur Reflexion über das Begehren schon seit alters eine
evaluative und normative Dimension. Sie ist nicht auf die externe normative
Perspektive beschränkt (‚Du sollst nicht begehren…‘), sondern gilt auch imma-
nent für die Erfahrung des Begehrens selber. Begehren kann positiv als ent-
scheidende Bedingung des Glücks erfahren und bewertet werden, nicht nur des
Glücks der Erfüllung, sondern auch der lebensbedeutsamen Affekte und Stre-
bungen selber.¹¹ Es kann aber auch negativ als riskant für den ‚Seelenfrieden‘ bzw.
die innere Ausgeglichenheit bewertet werden, und damit für Selbstkontrolle und
Autonomie.
4. Unter diesem Aspekt ist der Ausgangspunkt für die ethischen Probleme
offenkundig. Aber nicht nur die Risiken für die innere Harmonie, sondern auch
die für die äußere soziale sind für die praktische Philosophie bedeutsam. Vor
allem durch die dem Begehren wie der Lust inhärente Tendenz zum ‚immer mehr‘
(pleonexia) sind die Grenzen dessen, was dem einen oder anderen zusteht, ge-
fährdet. Das gilt für das Haben-Wollen ebenso wie für das Begehren nach Be-
herrschung anderer. Offenkundig stehen hier die Bedingungen friedlichen Zu-
sammenlebens, des Rechts und der Gerechtigkeit auf dem Spiel. Daher richten
sich die Bemühungen zum Begreifen und Eindämmen des Begehrens in der po-
litischen Philosophie auf diese negativ-normative Dimension.
Beide Problemlagen sind in der Philosophie seit der Antike thematisch und
verschärfen sich in der frühen Neuzeit. Dazu tragen einerseits die mechanischen
Bewegungslehren bei, die das von Reizen oder Bedrohungen ausgehende Be-
gehren zum unvermeidlichen, aber berechenbaren Ausgang der sozialen Dyna-
mik machen. Andererseits auch die Rehabilitierung und Privatisierung des Ge-
nuss-, Gewinn- und Machtstrebens in der epikuräischen und damit ‚hedonischen‘
Wende der Renaissance und der Frühmoderne.¹² Systematisch am radikalsten
gefasst sind beide Konsequenzen bei Thomas Hobbes. Seine ‚Lösung‘ kollidiert

 Vgl. Rhetorik 1378b 1– 5.


 Vgl. Frankfurt 1998.
 Vgl. Greenblatt 2012, z. B. S. 82– 90, 111– 114, 251– 258.
210 Ludwig Siep

aber mit einem zentralen Prinzip dieser Rehabilitierung selber, der Autonomie des
Individuums und seiner Befreiung von moralischen Autoritäten. Für die ‚Aufhe-
bung‘ der Hobbesschen Lösung – auch im Sinne der Bewahrung ihres berech-
tigten Zieles – in den Autonomie- und Subjektivitätsphilosophien des 18. Jahr-
hunderts musste daher das Begehren eine zentrale Rolle spielen. Daher soll an
deren Vorgeschichte kurz erinnert werden (II). Mit welchen ontologischen, ethi-
schen und rechtsphilosophischen Mitteln Kant, Fichte und Hegel die Aufhebung
der Hobbesschen Lösung zu bewerkstelligen suchten, ist Gegenstand des dar-
auffolgenden Abschnittes (III). Im Anschluss daran geht es um die Mängel dieser
Aufhebung aus heutiger Sicht (IV). Kritisch betrachtet wird vor allem das Ver-
hältnis von individueller Aneignung und institutioneller ‚Sublimierung‘. Ob der
Zuwachs an Autonomie und Freigabe individueller Wünsche und Begehrungen in
den Institutionen moderner Gesellschaften die klassischen Probleme gelöst oder
verschärft haben, ist Gegenstand des Schlussabschnittes (V).

II Begehren und Autonomie vor Kant


Der Streit um die positive und negative Bewertung des Begehrens geht bis in die
Antike zurück. Für Platon, Aristoteles und die Stoa liegt im Begehren eine Ge-
fährdung der inneren Ausgeglichenheit und Unabhängigkeit sowie der sozialen
Harmonie (‚Freundschaft‘). Für hedonistische Gegenkonzeptionen wie den Ky-
nismus und den Epikuräismus setzen der Lebensgenuss und die Seelenruhe eine,
wenn auch – vor allem im Epikuräismus – gemäßigte, Befriedigung des körper-
lichen und seelischen Verlangens nach lustvollen Gütern und Zuständen voraus.
Das Ideal der individuellen und gemeinsamen Autarkie unterscheidet sich aber
von neuzeitlichen Autonomie-Vorstellungen, grob gesagt, dadurch, dass es in
erster Linie um Ausgeglichenheit (ataraxia) als innere und äußere Harmonie geht
statt um individuelle Selbstbestimmung im ‚äußeren‘ Handeln.
Die dem Begehren eher negativ gegenüberstehenden Einstellungen der As-
kese und der Vorbereitung auf eine ‚rein geistige‘ Existenz verstärken sich unter
dem Einfluss des Christentums und seiner frühen neuplatonischen Philosophie.
Nicht nur das körperliche Verlangen nach Genuss der Sinne (Nahrung, Sexualität,
Unterhaltung) und des Geistes (Neugier) steht unter überwiegend negativen re-
ligiösen und moralischen Vorzeichen. Auch die sozialen Arrangements einer
Ständemonarchie, einer disziplinierten Kirchenhierarchie und religiös-morali-
scher Regeln für alle Lebensbereiche schränken das Erwerbs- und Machtstreben
erheblich ein. Die asketische vita contemplativa gilt als höchste Lebensform und
Vorwegnahme der für alle anzustrebenden visio beatifica, der Anschauung des
immateriellen Gottes. Das schließt nicht aus, dass das Verlangen nach Vereini-
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 211

gung mit dem göttlichen Geist auch – etwa in der mittelalterlichen Mystik –
‚erotische‘ Züge haben kann. Seit dem Aristotelismus der Hochrenaissance, vor
allem bei Thomas, werden auch die inclinationes naturales positiv gewertet und
durch kluge Mäßigung sowie dem Naturrecht entsprechende soziale Institutionen
(Familie, Stände) kultiviert. Mit der Spätscholastik kommt der Figur der subjek-
tiven Rechte bereits eine wichtige Bedeutung zu.¹³ Sie wird zur Grundlage der
berechtigten Verfolgung eigener Interessen.
Dennoch kann man mit Blick auf die Renaissance und Frühe Neuzeit von
einer ‚Wende‘ auch in Bezug auf die Bewertung der verschiedenen Formen des
Begehrens sprechen. Das Verlangen und Streben nach Ehre, Macht und Besitz
wird nicht mehr unter dem Vorzeichen der lasterhaften ‚Sucht‘ gesehen. Dazu
trägt die Rehabilitierung der vita activa (Florentiner Renaissance), des Macht-
strebens (Machiavelli) und des epikuräischen Materialismus und Hedonismus
bei. Thomas Hobbes hat daraus unter Anlehnung an die beginnende mechanis-
tische Naturwissenschaft (Galilei, Harvey) eine systematische Philosophie des
‚Neoepikuräismus‘ entwickelt. Sie bleibt aber durchaus nicht dominierend für die
Frühe Neuzeit. Unter dem Einfluss der Reformation gibt es auch eine Renaissance
des stoischen Tugendideals, vor allem in seiner römischen (Cato bis Seneca)
Fassung. Sie ist auch an dessen politischer Form, dem Republikanismus, orien-
tiert – vor allem in den calvinistischen und puritanischen Denominationen etwa
der Schweiz und der amerikanischen Kolonien. Noch in der Französischen Re-
volution¹⁴ ist es ein Hauptmotiv der Kritik, dass ungezähmte Begehrungen, vor
allem nach Luxus, Privilegien und Machtanteilen, die Verdorbenheit der Monar-
chien ausmachen und mit Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit unvereinbar sind. Bei
Rousseau und Fichte wird diese Kritik zum Ausgangspunkt philosophischer
Entwürfe der Wirtschaftsformen autarker Republiken, die den Handel mit über-
seeischen Luxusgütern untersagen.¹⁵
Für die klassische deutsche Philosophie in der Periode von Kant bis Hegel
gilt, dass sich ihre Autonomiephilosophie vor allem an Hobbes’ Neoepikuräismus
‚abgearbeitet‘ hat. Dabei soll aber die Rehabilitierung des Begehrens, auch des
körperlichen, nicht rückgängig gemacht werden. Weder gehört es zur ‚sündigen‘
körperlichen Natur, noch sind seine Formen als mechanische Fremdbestimmung
zu verstehen. Dazu entwickeln sie eine gegen Hobbes’ Psychologie und Sozial-
philosophie gerichtete Konzeption des ‚autonomiegerechten‘ Begehrens. Man
muss diesen Widerpart zu ihrem Verständnis im Auge behalten.

 Vgl. Jansen 2013.


 Bis in die Massenpamphlete während der Französischen Revolution, vgl. Darnton 1995.
 In Rousseaus Korsika-Entwurf und Fichtes „Geschloßnem Handelsstaat“.Vgl. Rousseau 1964,
S. 901– 950; Fichte GA I/7.
212 Ludwig Siep

Für Hobbes’ auf der mechanistischen Naturphilosophie gründende Anthro-


pologie ist das Begehren (desire) nach immer größeren Gütern – materiellen, aber
auch Ehre und Macht – der Antrieb des individuellen und sozialen Lebens. Es
wird zwar von der Einbildung (imagination) wünschenswerter Ziele geleitet, aber
diese ist ihrerseits von den Objekten des Strebens verursacht.¹⁶ Ohne institutio-
nelle Bändigung des für sich grenzenlosen Begehrens durch eine allen privaten
Vereinigungen überlegene Macht wäre es zerstörerisch, für den Einzelnen wie für
die Gesellschaft. Ohne die bzw. ‚vor‘ den künstlichen Institutionen ist das Be-
gehren nach Steigerung in allen Gütern aber nicht unmoralisch oder unver-
nünftig. Es bleibt ja unter Menschen, die im Hinblick auf wechselseitige Gefähr-
dung hinreichend gleich und zudem grundsätzlich gleich motiviert sind, das
einzige Mittel der Selbsterhaltung. Die Selbsterhaltung des Einzelnen ist sowohl
eine natürliche Kraft – analog der Schwerkraft unbeseelter Körper – wie die
normative Quelle aller Rechtfertigung für die einschränkenden Regeln.
Diese Regeln ‚arbeiten‘ mit denselben Kräften, der soziale Mechanismus der
Sanktionen ersetzt den natürlichen: Furcht vor Sanktionen ist der Zement der
Gesellschaft. Notwendiges Mittel dazu sind die eindeutige letztinstanzliche Ent-
scheidung, am besten durch ein Individuum, und das Gewaltmonopol dieses
‚Souveräns‘. Der negative Druck ist auch die Voraussetzung positiver Anreize, der
Förderung des Erwerbs- und Genussstrebens, denn bei Gewaltfreiheit gedeiht die
arbeitsteilige Bedürfnisbefriedigung. Das Hobbessche System, samt seiner Fort-
schreibung in der spinozistischen Version eines universalen Determinismus,¹⁷
wird zum Gegenpol schon für die Dynamisierung der Natur und ihre ‚Spirituali-
sierung‘ bei Leibniz. Seit Kant wendet sich die Philosophie vor allem in
Deutschland gegen die ‚Antriebstheorien‘ von Hobbes bis Hume, die auf einem
körperlich gebundenen, nur unvollständig kontrollierbaren Begehren beruhen.
Sie setzt sowohl auf die handlungswirksame Kraft der Vernunft wie auf die An-
eignung der dem Begehren innewohnenden spontanen und reflexiven Struktur.

 Über den Handlungsbeginn, den conatus bzw. „endeavour“, sagt Hobbes im Leviathan: „This
Endeavour, when it is toward something which causes it, is called appetite or desire.“ Der Beginn
willentlicher Körperbewegungen ist zwar durch die Einbildung vermittelt (Kap. 6), aber diese ist
selber ein Nachbild vergangener Sinneswahrnehmungen (Kap. 2: „Imagination therefore is no-
thing but decaying sense“; Hobbes 2012 [1651], S. 78, 26).
 So wird Spinozas Ethik jedenfalls in der deutschen Rezeption von Leibniz bis Fichte ver-
standen.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 213

III Heteronomie und Autonomie des Begehrens


in der klassischen deutschen Philosophie
Kants bekannteste Schriften zur Ethik, die Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten
und die Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, haben ihm mit ihrem schroffen Gegensatz
zwischen Pflicht und Neigung, Autonomie und Heteronomie den Ruf eines pla-
tonischen Dualisten eingebracht. Gegen einen solchen Dualismus richten sich die
Versuche von Fichte, Schelling und Hegel. Kant scheint aber zumindest in den
späten Schriften, der Einleitung zur Metaphysik der Sitten und der Anthropologie in
pragmatischer Hinsicht, selber den Gegensatz zwischen Begehren und Selbstbe-
stimmung abzuschwächen. In der Einleitung, dem Text, der am ehesten der Tra-
dition der philosophischen Psychologie mit ihrer Einteilung der Vorstellungs- und
Begehrensvermögen nahesteht, wird das letztere bestimmt als „das Vermögen
durch seine Vorstellung Ursache der Gegenstände dieser Vorstellungen zu sein“
(AA VI, S. 211). Auch im dritten Buch der Anthropologie „Vom Begehrungsver-
mögen“ heißt es: „Die Begierde (appetitio) ist die Selbstbestimmung der Kraft des
Subjects durch die Vorstellung von etwas Künftigem als der Wirkung derselben.“
(AA VII, S. 251) Alle Formen des appetitus sind insofern selbstbestimmt, als sie
durch die Vorstellung ihrer intentionalen Objekte bewegt werden – nicht wie bei
Hobbes vom Nachklang eines Sinneseindrucks.
‚Begehren‘ und ‚Verabscheuen‘ als besondere Arten dieses Vermögens sind
mit einem Gefühl der Lust und Unlust verbunden. Nach der Einleitung können
positive Begehrungen auf verschiedene Art ausgelöst werden: durch die Emp-
findung der Lust bei der Vorstellung der Existenz des Gegenstandes (1), durch
„Wohlgefallen“ an der Vorstellung selbst (2), oder durch eine „vorhergehende
Bestimmung des Begehrungsvermögens“ durch den Intellekt (AA VI, S. 212) (3).
Das Lustgefühl an einer bloßen Vorstellung unabhängig von der Existenz des
Gegenstandes (2) ist das ästhetische Gefallen bzw. der „Geschmack“.¹⁸ Wenn
dagegen die „praktische Lust“ an der Vorstellung von der Existenz eines Gegen-
standes die „Ursache“ des Begehrens ist (1), haben wir es mit „Begierde“ zu tun.
Deren habituelle Form nennt Kant „Neigung“ und, wenn sie mit einem Verstan-
deskalkül verbunden ist, „Interesse“ (AA VI, S. 212). Das Begehren kann aber auch
von vernünftigen Vorstellungen (3) ausgelöst sein: „dagegen wenn die Lust nur
auf eine vorhergehende Bestimmung des Begehrungsvermögens folgen kann, so

 „Denn es kann eine Lust geben, welche mit gar keinem Begehren des Gegenstandes, sondern
von der bloßen Vorstellung, die man sich von einem Gegenstande macht (gleichgültig, ob das
Object derselben existire oder nicht), schon verknüpft ist.“ (AA VI, S. 211)
214 Ludwig Siep

wird sie eine intellectuelle Lust und das Interesse an dem Gegenstande ein Ver-
nunftinteresse genannt werden müssen“ (AA VI, S. 212). Man kann sie sogar
„Neigung“ (AA VI, S. 213) nennen und es gibt ein „habituelles Begehren aus rei-
nem Vernunftinteresse“ (AA VI, S. 213).
Begehren ist also eine Aktivität, die ihre intentionalen Objekte selber her-
vorbringt. Als Vermögen kann es sich auch von vernünftigen, von aller Sinnlich-
keit unabhängigen Prinzipien bestimmen lassen. Es liegt in der Hand des Men-
schen selber, sich sinnlichen ‚Anreizen‘ zu öffnen oder zu verschließen. Für die
Erhaltung der Autonomie kommt es daher für Kant darauf an, dem sinnlichen
Begehren nur insoweit Raum zu geben, als es vereinbar ist mit der Selbstbe-
stimmung nach Regeln, die für alle Vernunftwesen gelten. Für die Motive und
persönlichen Regeln (Maximen) des Handelns heißt das, sich aus Einsicht dem
Gesetz unterzuordnen, nach dem sich Vernunftwesen als Selbstzwecke betrach-
ten und behandeln. Das ist die moralische Autonomie als Selbstgesetzgebung.
Die Selbstständigkeit des Individuums beim Bemühen um die Vorherrschaft
des Sittengesetzes ist aber begrenzt. Man ist schon für die eigene Moralisierung
auf die Mitwirkung anderer in einer moralischen Gemeinschaft angewiesen.¹⁹
Darin liegt für Kant die Bedeutung und die Notwendigkeit von Religionsge-
meinschaften zur wechselseitigen Beförderung der Moralität. Sie sind in unvoll-
kommenen Stadien sogar auf ‚statuarische‘ Gesetze, das heißt auf Glaubens- und
Moralvorschriften rechtsanaloger Art (Gebotskanon, Kirchenrecht), angewiesen.
Außerdem kann man sich für die gerechte Abgrenzung der Sphären äußeren
Handelns nicht auf moralische Regeln verlassen. Zur wechselseitigen Moralisie-
rung durch freiwillig gewählte Handlungsregeln muss daher noch eine gemein-
same Festlegung erzwingbarer Handlungsregeln hinzutreten. Hier wird Autono-
mie zur Mitgesetzgebung im Bereich des staatlich sanktionierten Rechtes. In
diesem müssen die natürlichen Neigungen durch eine Regelung des Ge-
schlechtstriebes in der – bei Kant auch rechtlich patriarchalischen – Familie, des
Erwerbstriebes in einer Gesellschaft freier Privateigentümer und des Machttriebes
in einem republikanischen Staat ökonomisch selbstständiger Vollbürger „einge-
hegt“ werden.
Kant begegnet der Fremdbestimmung und der Tendenz zur Maßlosigkeit des
Begehrens auf verschiedenen Ebenen, auf der grundsätzlichen durch eine Deu-
tung menschlichen Strebens (appetitus) als selbstreflexive Aktivität. Gleichwohl
ist die Bereitschaft des Individuums, sich fremdbestimmen zu lassen und die
Erfüllung der eigenen Wünsche auf Kosten der Moral- und Rechtsgesetze zur

 Zu meiner Deutung der Kantischen und Hegelschen Religions- und Rechtsphilosophie vgl.
Siep 2015. Zu Kants Religionsphilosophie vgl. auch Hoesch 2014.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 215

Maxime zu machen, so stark, dass sie nur durch gemeinsame Moralisierungsbe-


mühungen und durch rechtliche Sanktionen in Schach gehalten werden kann.
Das ist die Ebene der Moralreligion und des Rechts. In deren Regeln muss aller-
dings dem selbstbestimmten Handeln, das nicht nur Fähigkeit, sondern auch
Bestimmung des Menschen ist, möglichst viel Raum gegeben werden.
Fichte hat diese Thesen Kants radikalisiert. Er will alle Rezeptivität und
Passivität des menschlichen Empfindens und Strebens aus einer selbstreflexiven
„Öffnung“ des Ich auf etwas ihm Fremdes ableiten. Da es keinen Bewusstseins-
inhalt gibt, den man sich nicht selber aneignen („setzen“) muss, und da die
spontane Wendung auf das eigene Selbst nicht von irgendetwas verursacht oder
ausgelöst wird, muss man umgekehrt alles Bewusstsein auf eine Tätigkeit zu-
rückführen, die sich auf sich selbst zurückwendet („Ich“). Als Tätigkeit geht sie
aber auch über sich selbst hinaus – zunächst nur mit der Forderung nach Ver-
wirklichung ihrer selbst. Das ist für Fichte der Ursprung des praktischen Be-
wusstseins bzw. des Gewissens: die Forderung, dass die Selbsttätigkeit „alle
Realität in sich fasse“, „die Unendlichkeit erfülle“, „alles mit dem Ich überein-
stimmen“ solle usw., wie Fichte in immer neuen Anläufen formuliert (GA I/2,
S. 409, 399).²⁰ Sie liegt – gemäß dem Primat des Praktischen – der theoretischen
Bestimmbarkeit durch Erkenntnisobjekte voraus. Die reflektierende Forderung,
dass alle Realität dem Ich entspreche, „öfnet“ es erst dem Einfluss eines
„fremdartige[n]“ (GA I/2, S. 409, 405). Darauf bezogen, versteht sich das Ich nicht
mehr als reine Tätigkeit mit unbegrenzter „Kausalität“, sondern als Streben. Er-
fasst es die Hemmung seiner Tätigkeit durch dieses Fremdartige – das Gegen-
streben eines Nicht-Ich – und zugleich die „Wiederherstellung“ seiner Tätigkeit
gegen diesen Widerstand, dann spricht Fichte von „Gefühl“. Die Versuche, sich
die Hemmungen und ihre Auslöser zum Bewusstsein zu bringen, sind für Fichte
der Schlüssel für das gesamte System der theoretischen Vorstellungs- und prak-
tischen Veränderungstätigkeiten.
Ausgehend von dieser selbstreflexiven Tätigkeit – „Kraft, der ein Auge ein-
gesezt ist“, nennt das der späte Fichte²¹ – versucht er nun, die körperlich-seeli-
schen Begehrungen und die moralischen und geistigen Strebungen als zwei
Perspektiven auf denselben „Urtrieb“ dazustellen. Man kann sich selber sowohl
als einen Körper unter anderen wie als Ursprung des eigenen aktiven Bewusst-
seins betrachten: „Erblicke ich mich, als durch die Gesetze der sinnlichen An-
schauung, und des discursiven Denkens vollkommen bestimmtes Object, so wird

 Ich beziehe mich im Folgenden auf die Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre von 1794
(GA I/2) und das System der Sittenlehre nach Principien der Wissenschaftslehre von 1798 (GA I/4).
 GA II/13, S. 317.
216 Ludwig Siep

das, was in der That mein einziger Trieb ist, mir zum Naturtriebe […]. Erblicke ich
mich als Subject, so wird er mir zum reinen geistigen Triebe; oder zum Gesetze der
Selbstständigkeit“ (GA I/5, S. 125).²² Das klingt nach einer ‚dual-aspect‘ oder
Kompatibilitätstheorie, aber zur Einheit des Ich im Handeln gehört nach Fichte
die „synthetische Vereinigung“ des höheren und niederen Begehrungsvermö-
gens. In dieser Vereinigung müsse „von dem höhern die Reinheit (Nicht-Be-
stimmtheit durch ein Object) der Thätigkeit, von dem niedern der Genuß als
Zweck aufgegeben werden […]; so daß als Resultat der Vereinigung sich finde
objective Thätigkeit, deren Endzweck absolute Freiheit, absolute Unabhängigkeit
von aller Natur ist: – ein unendlicher nie zu erreichender Zweck“ (GA I/5, S. 126).
Genuss darf also auch nicht der Zweck des „niederen“ Begehrens sein, das sich
ganz dem moralischen und rechtlichen Freiheitsstreben unterordnen muss. Die-
ses höhere Begehren muss sich aber auf Objekte einlassen und eine vernunftge-
mäße Freiheitsordnung für alle Lebensbereiche herbeizuführen suchen.
Selbst die gebotene Annäherung an die „absolute Freiheit“ ist aber dem
Einzelnen nicht allein zugänglich. Schon das Bewusstsein seiner selbst als eines
Individuums unter anderen bedarf der Aufforderung eines anderen selbstbe-
wussten Wesens zur Selbstbestimmung, Selbstbeschränkung und zur Anerken-
nung der Freiheit des Anderen. Die Unabhängigkeit von der Natur bedarf darüber
hinaus der gemeinsamen Naturbeherrschung durch Technik. Das setzt eine So-
zialordnung voraus, in der jeder durch seine eigene Tätigkeit sowohl seine
Grundbedürfnisse befriedigen wie seine persönliche Unabhängigkeit von privater
Willkür sichern kann. Fichte verneint daher die Freisetzung des privaten Er-
werbstrebens in den Grenzen des Eigentumsrechtes. Für das Recht, von eigener
Arbeit zu leben, ist eine staatliche Planwirtschaft erforderlich. Zudem muss der
Staat selber von den internationalen Märkten unabhängig, also ein Selbstver-
sorgerstaat mit nicht konvertierbarer Währung sein.²³
Der Autonomiegefährdung durch das Begehren will Fichte also schon auf
einer grundsätzlichen theoretischen Ebene begegnen. Er setzt der These der
mechanischen „Konditionierung“ der Menschen die Deutung des Begehrens als
aktives, spontanes und auf Selbstaneignung angelegtes Vermögen entgegen. Die
niederen Stufen des Begehrens sind nur vorreflexive und gehemmte Weisen au-
tonomer und selbsttransparenter Tätigkeiten. Schelling und Hegel werden dieses
Modell des graduellen Zusichkommens und Autonomiegewinns sogar auf die

 Vgl. dazu auch Cesa 2002, S. 121– 132, sowie de Pascale 1994, S. 229 – 251.
 Vgl. Fichte GA I/7. Eigentum ist primär das Recht, aufgrund eigener Arbeit erhalten zu werden.
Erst wenn die dafür notwendigen Bedingungen durch Abgaben an den Staat erfüllt sind, können
Gegenstände rein zur privaten Verfügung bleiben, vgl. GA I/4, S. 42– 43.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 217

Natur übertragen, deren Gesetze, Kräfte und Organisationen als Vorstufen des zu
sich kommenden Geistes verstehbar werden.
In Hegels Philosophie des praktischen Geistes, sowohl der Stufen des Be-
gehrungsvermögens wie der Institutionen des gemeinsamen Willens, kommt eine
neue, bei Fichte nur angedeutete Gedankenfigur ins Spiel: die eines Holismus der
Selbstdifferenzierung und der Integration in ein Ganzes. Sie wendet sich ent-
schieden gegen die Unterscheidung selbstständiger Vermögen im Sinne der tra-
ditionellen Psychologie und auch noch der kantischen Systematik. Zugleich will
sie den Formen menschlicher Strebungen, Neigungen und Interessen ein größeres
Maß an Entfaltung innerhalb der individuellen und kollektiven Autonomie zu-
gestehen. Hegel kann daher den Motiven der frühneuzeitlichen ‚großen Wende‘,
der Freisetzung und Entmoralisierung von Ehr-, Erwerbs- und Machtstreben,
weiter entgegenkommen als seine Vorgänger. Dadurch gewinnt auch die Einsicht
in die gemeinwohlfördernde Kraft der „privaten Laster“ (Mandeville, Smith) neue
Bedeutung für die Autonomie sowohl der Einzelnen wie des Gemeinwesens.
Wie kann eine solche Rehabilitierung des Begehrens den Gefahren entgehen,
das Individuum abhängig von unkontrollierbaren Affekten und die Gemeinschaft
zum Opfer von Vermögens- und Machtkonflikten zu machen?
Auch Hegel versteht die Formen des Begehrens von der Aneignung durch ein
zunehmend bewussteres und reflektierteres Subjekt her. Die Struktur dieses An-
eignens ist ein Artikulieren, Differenzieren und Integrieren – auf den verschie-
denen Stufen von den Gefühlen, die immer auch Selbstgefühl der psychosoma-
tischen Einheit sind (dargestellt in der „Anthropologie“), bis zu der Integration
der Neigungen und Interessen in einen individuellen Lebensplan (praktischer
Geist in der „Psychologie“).²⁴ Das Individuum wird seiner als besonderes erst über
die Artikulation seiner Neigungen und Interessen bewusst. Wenn es dabei in
keiner besonderen Neigung „aufgeht“, sondern sich von jeder distanzieren kann,
bleibt es zugleich frei von ihnen. Der Verlust von Autonomie droht, wenn sich
bestimmte Begehrungen isolieren und verabsolutieren. So wie Hegel somatische
und psychische Krankheiten als Verselbstständigung von Teilsystemen und Blo-
ckaden der Gesamtfunktion versteht, so kann auch in der Leidenschaft „die ganze
Subjectivität des Individuums versenkt“ in eine „Besonderheit der Willensbe-
stimmung“ (GW 20, § 474 Anm.) sein.Vermag sich das Individuum daraus nicht zu
lösen, kommt es zum Fanatismus, der das Individuum und – im politischen und
religiösen Fanatismus (GW 14,1, §§ 5, 270) – die sozialen Institutionen zerstört.

 Ich beziehe mich im Folgenden auf die Teile der Philosophie des subjektiven Geistes (An-
thropologie, Phänomenologie und Psychologie in der Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissen-
schaften im Grundrisse, 3. Aufl., 1830, GW 20) sowie die Phänomenologie des Geistes von 1807
(GW 9) und die Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (GW 14,1).
218 Ludwig Siep

Ohne ein leidenschaftliches Engagement gibt es aber für Hegel keine Seelengrö-
ße, keine Hingabe für eine Person oder Sache.²⁵ Sie kann die Autonomie beför-
dern, wenn sie aus einem Gesamtverständnis des eigenen Lebens und der Ge-
meinschaft her gute Gründe hat.
Anstelle des Begriffs der Autonomie verwendet Hegel in der Regel den der
Freiheit. Wie bei Kant besteht diese Freiheit aber darin, dass sich der vernünftige
Wille in den Neigungen und Interessen selbst zum Gegenstand hat. Dazu muss er
sich von ihnen allen zurückziehen und mit ihnen frei identifizieren können. Das
geschieht in einer ersten Form im Kalkül der „Glückseligkeit“, einem klugen Le-
bensplan, nach dem sich die besonderen Begehrungen („Triebe“) wechselseitig
relativieren, einschränken, ergänzen und befördern (GW 20, §§ 479 – 480).
Hegel stimmt der Kantischen Eudaimonismuskritik insofern zu, als auch bei
ihm die Glückseligkeit, wird sie zum höchsten Ziel gemacht, Autonomie verhin-
dert. Als bloße Gewichtung und Harmonisierung bleibt sie von den zufälligen
Neigungen und Dispositionen der Individuen abhängig. Hegel verteidigt in seinen
Vorlesungen aber die eudaimonia-Lehre des Platon und Aristoteles. Eudaimonia
bedeute, „daß es dem ganzen Menschen, dem Daimon des Menschen wohl gehe“
(GW 25,2, S. 911).²⁶ Dafür muss es eine Ordnung geben, in der jeder Mensch als
körperliches, emotionales und denkend-wollendes Wesen „befriedigt“ wird, d. h.
sinnvolle und sozial anerkannte Tätigkeiten vollzieht. In dieser Ordnung bleibt
der einzelne autonom, wenn er Rollen und Pflichten erfüllt, die seinerseits die
Selbstbestimmung aller zum Zweck haben. Dies in den historisch gewachsenen
Verfassungen zu erkennen und zu legitimieren, ist Aufgabe der Lehre vom „ob-
jektiven Geist“.
Hegel versteht solche Verfassungen als institutionelle Arrangements, in de-
nen die besonderen Interessen der Einzelnen und Gruppen mit denen eines nach
vernünftigen Regeln und Zwecken handlungsfähigen Gemeinwesens („Staat“)
verknüpft werden. In einem solchen „Organismus“, in dem jedes der Glieder die
anderen und das Ganze bewusst oder unbewusst fördert, kann den besonderen
Interessen und Begehrungen ein Spielraum gelassen werden, der über alle ra-
tionalistischen Vorbilder von Platon bis Fichte hinausgeht. Er ist auch nicht auf
religiöse oder moralische Disziplinierungen des Erwerbs- und Machtstrebens
angewiesen. Moderne Staaten können das „Prinzip der Subjectivität sich zum
selbständigen Extreme der persönlichen Besonderheit vollenden“ lassen (GW 14,1,

 Vgl. Hegels berühmte Formulierung: „Es ist nichts Großes ohne Leidenschaft vollbracht
worden, noch kann es ohne solche vollbracht werden. Es ist nur eine todte, ja zu oft heuchlerische
Moralität, welche gegen die Form der Leidenschaft als solche loszieht“ (GW 20, § 474 Anm.).
 Kritisch GW 25,2, S. 910: „Jetzt findet man die Glückseligkeit in keiner Moral mehr als Princip
aufgeführt“.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 219

§ 260), indem sie die private Selbstverwirklichung in Berufswahl, Gewerbefreiheit


und Marktprozessen freigeben.²⁷ Zum einen, weil darin invisible-hand-Prozesse
stattfinden, die den Privategoismus dem Gemeinwohl dienstbar machen. Zum
anderen, weil sie der sozialen Natur aller selbstbezogenen Begehrungen, ihrem
Bedürfnis nach Anerkennung, gerecht werden. Beide Argumente werden schon in
Hegels Jenaer Schriften entwickelt. Die ‚klassischen‘ Stellen aber sind für das
erstere die Rechtsphilosophie, für das letztere die Phänomenologie des Geistes.
Zunächst einige Bemerkungen zu dem berühmten Abschnitt über Begierde und
Kampf um Anerkennung in der Phänomenologie des Geistes.
Hegels Konzeption muss, wie seine Jenaer Entwürfe zeigen, vor dem Hinter-
grund der Auseinandersetzung mit der Konzeption der a-sozialen Begierden und
dem daraus folgenden Zustand der ständigen latenten Gewaltbereitschaft bei
Hobbes verstanden werden.²⁸ Hegel versucht demgegenüber zu zeigen, dass die
Begierde als selbstbewusste geradezu der Ursprung der Sozialität selbstbewusster
Wesen und letztlich der Rechtsverhältnisse ist. Dazu bedarf es allerdings einer
„Erfahrung“ oder Bewusstseinsumkehrung, die an die Stelle von Hobbes’ Über-
windung der Bereitschaft zur vorbeugenden Gewalt eines jeden im Staatsvertrag
tritt. Denn auch die Begierde als erste Gestalt des Selbstbewusstseins in der
Phänomenologie des Geistes verneint die Selbstständigkeit des Anderen. Die Welt
unter dem Gesichtspunkt des Mittels zur Aneignung und zum Genuss zu sehen –
gleichsam der Hedonismus als ‚Weltanschauung‘ –, heißt, ihr dem bewussten
Leben gegenüber keine ‚letzte‘ Selbstständigkeit einzuräumen. Deswegen ist in
der Phänomenologie des Geistes als Erfahrungsgeschichte der Gegenstands- und
Wahrheitsauffassungen, oder der impliziten Ontologien und Epistemologien, die
Begierde auch die unmittelbarste Form, die eigentliche Realität auf der ‚Sub-
jektseite‘ zur Geltung zu bringen.²⁹ Selbstbewussten Wesen oder ‚dem Bewusst-
sein‘ aber ist es nach Hegel wesentlich, sich des Erfolgs ihres Strebens zu verge-
wissern – auf allen Ebenen vom Handlungserfolg bis zur Bestätigung der
impliziten Wertungen und Annahmen über Wahrheit und Wirklichkeit. Bleibt ein
begehrendes Subjekt von den – immer wieder neu zu suchenden – Objekten
abhängig, ist weder die eigene Selbstständigkeit bestätigt noch die Struktur des
Selbstbewusstseins als eigentliche Wirklichkeit.³⁰ Eine umfassende Bestätigung
selbstbewussten Begehrens ist nur durch ein ‚antwortendes‘ Begehren möglich.

 Vgl. dazu Herzog 2013.


 Vgl. Siep 1974, S. 155 – 207.
 Zu dieser Interpretation der Methode der Phänomenologie vgl. Siep 2000, S. 75, 79, 100, 257
(engl. Ausgabe: S. 63 – 68, 86 – 90).
 Die Struktur eines selbstreflexiven Generierens und Integrierens (Aufhebens) von Unter-
schieden ist nach Hegel das Resultat des kritischen Verständnisses der frühneuzeitlichen Na-
220 Ludwig Siep

Darin liegt eine spezifische Wendung gegen Hobbes. Bei diesem ist das Be-
gehren nicht nur nach knappen Gütern, sondern auch nach Zustimmung bzw.
Ehre – oder auf Gefolgschaft beruhender Macht – die Quelle der A-sozialität des
status naturalis. ³¹ Es konserviert und steigert so lange die universale Gewaltbe-
reitschaft, wie es nicht durch einen Vertragsabschluss zur Überwindung der
Spirale von Misstrauen, Furcht und Prävention überwunden wird. Bei Hegel
hingegen kann der Versuch unterwerfender Selbstbestätigung selber zu einer
symmetrischen Anerkennung führen.³² Dazu muss aber die Unabhängigkeit des
Selbstbewusstseins von den Begierden nach leiblicher Selbsterhaltung und
Steigerung ‚erfahren‘ werden. Was Hegel später als die Wurzel der Freiheit des
vernünftigen Willens ansieht, die Fähigkeit nämlich, von sämtlichen „Bedürf-
nisse[n], Begierden und Triebe[n]“ (GW 14,1, § 5), aber auch von allen besonderen
Zwecksetzungen abstrahieren zu können – bis zum Verzicht auf das Weiterle-
ben –, schreibt er in der Phänomenologie schon dem ‚praktischen‘ Selbstbe-
wusstsein zu. Auf dieser Stufe kann das Individuum die Bestätigung seines freien
Selbstbewusstseins durch ein anderes Individuum auch dem eigenen Leben
überordnen. Wenn diese Freiheit zum Verzicht auf alles konkrete Begehren von
allen wechselseitig anerkannt wird, dann ist eine vernünftige Rechtsgemeinschaft
möglich.³³ Auf diese kann die Verteidigung und Bestätigung des freien Selbstbe-
wusstseins übertragen werden (vgl. GW 14,1, §§ 102– 103). Sie muss dann aber
auch als selbstständige Gestalt und Selbstzweck eines (kollektiven) Selbstbe-
wusstseins oder allgemeinen Willens aufgefasst und behandelt werden, nicht nur
als Mittel der Sicherung der Rechte jedes Individuums. Das ist der ‚starke Insti-
tutionalismus‘, der Hegels Philosophie der Sittlichkeit oder des objektiven Geistes
prägt. Am deutlichsten wird er im Staatskapitel der Rechtsphilosophie.

turphilosophie im Kapitel „Krafft und Verstand“. Das Verhältnis von Kräften und Gesetzen in den
Objekten der Naturerklärung ist „Unterscheiden des Ununterschiedenen, oder Selbstbewußtseyn.
Ich unterscheide mich von mir selbst, und es ist darin unmittelbar für mich, daß diß unterschiedene
nicht unterschieden ist“ (S. 101).
 Vgl. Hobbes 1983 [1642], I, 4 u. 5.
 Der Kampf um Anerkennung wird bei Hegel, das geht aus den einschlägigen Stellen von den
Jenaer Manuskripten bis zu den Berliner Vorlesungen hervor, unter verschiedenen Perspektiven
behandelt: als eine klassische Figur der Naturrechtstradition, als ein Typus der Staatsbildung (im
„Heroenzeitalter“), aber auch als eine Stufe in der Genese des Selbstbewusstseins in Auseinan-
dersetzung mit Fichtes Begriff der Anerkennung.
 Hegel verweist auf diesen Zusammenhang vor allem in der Enzyklopädie (1. Aufl.: GW 13, § 355;
3. Aufl.: GW 20, § 436) und in seinen Rückblicken auf den Kampf um Anerkennung in der
Rechtsphilosophie (GW 14,1, §§ 35, 57 u. 71). Er betont aber, dass das Recht nicht aus der Gewalt
des Kampfes hervorgeht, sondern die Überwindung des ‚natürlichen‘ Verhältnisses von Begierde
und Kampf voraussetzt (GW 13, § 355).
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 221

Inwiefern kann solch ein „sittliches“ oder Selbstzweck-Gemeinwesen nach


Hegel aber gerade die Freisetzung der ‚selbstsüchtigen‘ Begehrungen und Akti-
vitäten gewährleisten – wenn auch unter dem Vorbehalt, sie notfalls dem Ge-
meinwesen selber aufzuopfern (GW 14,1, §§ 258, 324)? Zum einen können in Hegels
Sinn „moderne“ Staaten den Mechanismus der Eigeninteressen der Förderung
des Gemeinwohls dienstbar machen – der Grundgedanke des Liberalismus oder
der klassischen Nationalökonomie. Hegel stellt diese Prozesse in seinem Kapitel
über die bürgerliche Gesellschaft dar, mit der er der Kritik der Markt- und Kon-
sumgesellschaft bei Rousseau und Fichte begegnet. Dass die besonderen Inter-
essen an Erwerb und Genuss so „durch sich selbst in das Interesse des Allge-
meinen theils übergehen“ (GW 14,1, § 260), ist aber nur ein Aspekt der bürgerlichen
Gesellschaft. Hegel bestreitet nicht ihre Tendenzen zur Konzentration des
Reichtums und der „Erzeugung des Pöbels“ (GW 14,1, § 244) aufgrund von
Marktkrisen und Gewinnsucht.³⁴
Daher muss es, zum anderen, auch bewusste Anstrengungen für den Primat
des Allgemeinwohls gegen die besonderen Interessen geben. Sie werden den
berufsständischen Organisationen und dem Staat übertragen.³⁵ Dazu gehört die
Vermittlung von Kompetenz und Ehrbarkeit im Beruf wie die Absicherung gegen
„Abhängigkeit und Noth“ (GW 14,1, § 243). Die Krisen werden dadurch aber nicht
prinzipiell und institutionell überwunden. Trotz ihrer Krisenanfälligkeit ist die
bürgerliche Gesellschaft für die Freisetzung der „persönlichen Besonderheit“
unerlässlich. Die „Entzweyung“ (§ 256 Anm.) einer Eigentumsmarktgesellschaft
muss daher auch in einer höheren Sittlichkeit aufgehoben werden, für die der
vernünftige Staat ein unbedingter „Endzweck“ ist. Die sittliche, nicht faktische
Überwindung der notwendigen Freigabe des Eigeninteresses ist erst die prinzi-
pielle Opferbereitschaft für den Staat als Selbstzweck (§§ 261, 324). Die Mitglied-
schaft in ihm, ja im Ernstfall³⁶ sogar die Aufopferung aller Interessen des „Ein-
zelnen“ und „Besonderen“ (Eigentum, private Rechte, Leben) für die
Manifestation und Ausübung („Daseyn“ und „Bewußtseyn“) der Souveränität des

 Offenbar ist es sowohl der Massenkonsum wie der Eigentumsverlust, durch die die Erzeugung
des Pöbels zugleich zur Ursache der „größere[n] Leichtigkeit“ wird, „unverhältnißmäßige
Reichthümer in wenige Hände zu concentriren“ (GW 14,1, § 244).
 Für Hegel ist die sittliche Funktion der Ehre des Mitgliedes eines Berufsstandes das Gegen-
gewicht zu „Luxus und Verschwendungssucht der gewerbetreibenden Klassen“ (GW 14,1, § 253).
Bei den standeslosen Armen muß der Erziehungs- und Sozialstaat („Polizei“) „die Stelle der
Familie“ übernehmen, nicht nur hinsichtlich sozialer Hilfe, sondern auch der Erziehung gegen
ihre „Gesinnung der Arbeitsscheu, Bösartigkeit, und der weitern Laster“, die aus ihrer Empörung
entspringen (GW 14,1, § 241).
 Der aber nicht auf den Verteidigungskrieg beschränkt ist, vgl. Siep 2015, S. 136 – 137.
222 Ludwig Siep

Gemeinwesens selber, ist höchste Pflicht des Einzelnen (vgl. § 258 u. Anm.,
§§ 323 – 324).
Grundsätzlich lässt sich festhalten: Selbstbewusstes Begehren ist nach den
behandelten Autoren angelegt auf Autonomie, weil es von vornherein ein Ver-
hältnis der möglichen Distanz zu jedem Akt und Objekt des Begehrens enthält.
Jeder kann sich auf seine Begehrungen ‚einlassen‘, ohne sich von ihnen gefangen
nehmen zu lassen – ‚Sklave‘ seiner Begierden ist man nicht von Natur, sondern
‚aus freien Stücken‘. Das lässt sich für Kant und Fichte durch moralische An-
strengungen und vernünftige rechtliche, soziale und ökonomische Einrichtungen
verhindern. Hegel sieht als deren immanente List gerade die Freilassung der
Begierden und ihre ‚Überführung‘ in ein teils unbewusstes, teils bewusstes
Handeln für einen selbstständigen und von allen besonderen Interessen unab-
hängigen „substantiellen Willen[s]“ (GW 14,1, § 258).

IV Die Mängel der ‚Versöhnung‘ von Begehren,


Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit
Die dargestellten Versuche, der Spontaneität und dem Glücksversprechen ver-
schiedener Formen des menschlichen Begehrens gerecht zu werden, ohne die
gleiche Autonomie aller zu gefährden, haben aus der Sicht der gegenwärtigen
Philosophie Mängel und Stärken. Die Mängel, auf die ich zunächst aufmerksam
machen will, haben es mit dem metaphysischen Erbe einer absoluten Vernunft
(bzw. Geist) ebenso wie mit zeitgebundenen Überhöhungen von Institutionen und
heroischen Tugenden zu tun. Das kann hier nicht im Grundsätzlichen ausgeführt
werden. Ich begnüge mich mit einigen Hinweisen auf die vornehmlich aus his-
torischen Erfahrungen sichtbar gewordenen Mängel und skizziere dann (V.), wie
man unter veränderten Bedingungen philosophisch dennoch an diese Versuche
anknüpfen kann.
Die zum Selbstzweck erhöhten moralischen, rechtlichen und sittlichen In-
stitutionen legen der Autonomie des Einzelnen in der Wahl seiner Interessenbe-
friedigung, Lebenspläne und Gemeinschaften von heute aus gesehen zu starke
Einschränkungen auf. In Kants Religionsschrift wird aus Gründen der Moralisie-
rung – und damit Disziplinierung des Begehrens – eine moralische (nicht er-
zwingbare) Pflicht zum Anschluss an eine ‚kirchenähnliche‘ Gemeinschaft pos-
tuliert. Auch für Fichte erfordert die Autonomie eine gemeinsame Überwindung
eigensüchtigen Begehrens. Hegel verzichtet zwar auf eine solche Pflicht zur mo-
ralischen Gemeinschaft, aber zugunsten eines Staates, der selber einen sittlichen
Lebenssinn enthält und darüber hinaus noch einer zu ihm passenden Religion als
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 223

Stützung bedarf. Der Atheist wird in der klassischen deutschen Philosophie


ebenso wenig vollständig anerkannt wie bei den meisten philosophischen Vor-
gängern der christlichen Ära.³⁷
Auch die Sublimierung³⁸ des Begehrens in den Institutionen der Familie, der
Erwerbsgesellschaft und der politischen Macht verlangt von heute aus gesehen
eine zu starke Repression natürlicher und ‚privater‘ Wünsche und Begehrungen.
Sie verpflichtete nämlich zur Identifizierung mit einem ‚Wir-Selbst‘, einer insti-
tutionalisierten Gruppe als Selbstzweck.³⁹ Schon die Familie, bei allen behan-
delten Philosophen eine patriarchalische, gründet auf einer Ehe, die trotz ‚pro-
testantischer‘ Scheidungsrechte als Institution einen Selbstzweck gegenüber den
Lebensplänen und emotionalen Bindungen darstellt. In der bürgerlichen Ge-
sellschaft wird zwar bei Kant und Hegel das private Erwerbsstreben freigesetzt.
Hegel erkennt dabei deutlicher als Kant, dass dies nicht nur gemeinwohlför-
dernde Folgen hat, sondern auch ‚zentrifugale‘ Kräfte auslöst und Klassenge-
gensätze aufreißt. Er versucht, solche Prozesse einzudämmen durch Berufsge-
nossenschaften und Staat, die sowohl disziplinierende wie ‚sinnstiftende‘
Funktionen haben. Vor allem der sittliche Staat ist eine sinnstiftende Institution,
die das Ertragen privaten Leids und das Opfer der Interessen ‚lohnt‘. Insoweit
übernimmt er die Funktion der Religion. Das ist mit dem Maße an Selbstzweck-
haftigkeit der Individuen in modernen Verfassungen nicht vereinbar. Die Unab-
hängigkeit des Einzelnen von jeder durch gemeinsame ‚Gesinnung‘ verbundenen
Gemeinschaft relativiert alle Korporationen einschließlich des Staates zu Mitteln
der Freiheit der Individuen und ihrer freiwillig entstandenen und wieder verlas-
senen Vereinigungen. An der Sicherung der Grundrechte – einschließlich der
Ansprüche an den Sozialstaat – hat er seinen Zweck und die Grenze seiner Sou-
veränität. Das Verlangen nach Sinn kann auch in privaten Lebensformen oder
überstaatlichen Vereinigungen (z. B. NGOs) erfüllt werden. „Absoluter unbeweg-
ter Selbstzweck“ (GW 14,1, § 258) ist der Staat nicht mehr – so viel Disziplinierung
und Sublimierung des Begehrens ist nicht als notwendig zu erweisen.

 Vgl. Siep 2015, S. 141– 168. In der Antike ist der Atheismus in der Philosophie stärker vertreten.
Vgl. das letzte Kapitel von Burkert 151977, S. 455 – 498.
 Der Begriff der Sublimierung ist kein Anachronismus. Verschiedene Aspekte etwa von Hegels
„Aufhebung“ entsprechen ihm ziemlich genau.
 Zum höchsten „Recht“ der Individuen gehört nicht nur bei Hegel die Teilnahme an ihn
überdauernden, seinem Leben Sinn und Unvergänglichkeit gewährenden Gruppen und Institu-
tionen. Von diesen zeitgeschichtlichen Horizonten (vgl. etwa Stollberg-Rilinger 2013, S. 67) sollte
bei der gegenwärtigen Aneignung der klassischen deutschen Philosophie nicht abgesehen wer-
den.
224 Ludwig Siep

Gegenüber den Konzeptionen von Moral, Recht und Sittlichkeit in der klas-
sischen deutschen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel kann man im Hinblick auf die
individuellen Wünsche und – als ihrer intensiven Form – Begehrungen von einer
erneuten Wende sprechen. Das gilt jedenfalls für Gesellschaften und Staaten, die
nicht theokratisch verfasst oder von asketischen Religionen dominiert sind. Der
Spielraum der individuellen Interessen, privater, aber auch ökonomischer und
politischer, ist in einer säkularen und liberalen Demokratie viel größer geworden.
Ihre Versöhnung mit vernünftiger Autonomie und sozialer Gerechtigkeit ist
gleichwohl keine bereits gelöste Aufgabe. Das soll abschließend angedeutet
werden – nicht mit Blick auf philosophische Theorien, sondern auf einige be-
obachtbare Phänomene der sozialen Wirklichkeit.

V Moderne Freisetzungen des Begehrens im


Konflikt mit Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit
Die Intensität des Begehrens nach Mangelbeseitigung, Genuss und Steigerung von
Macht und Ansehen soll durch viele moderne Einrichtungen in einer Weise ge-
dämpft werden, dass weder der Einzelne einer autonomie-gefährdenden Sucht
verfällt, noch die Gemeinschaft zum Spielball des Kampfes um diese Güter wird.
Dabei haben die technischen und medizinischen Möglichkeiten seit dem
19. Jahrhundert die Befriedigung vieler Formen des Begehrens erleichtert und
beschleunigt – vom Anheben des Niveaus der Gesundheit (Medizin und Hygiene)
über die Mühelosigkeit der Lebensbewältigung (technische Produktions-, Trans-
port- und Kommunikationserleichterungen) bis zum ‚folgenlosen‘ Genuss der
Sexualität. Entsprechend fällt es traditionellen Institutionen der Disziplinierung
und Askese, von der Familie über die Schule bis zur Religion, schwerer, dem In-
dividuum Verzichtleistungen aufzuerlegen. Die Sicherung seiner Autonomie und
der sozialen Verträglichkeit wird in der Tat mehr und mehr seiner eigenen Einsicht
und Übung überlassen. Allerdings sollen öffentliche Institutionen ihm Überfor-
derung durch Knappheit und Unsicherheit ersparen.
Dazu gehören die Institutionen des staatlich gesicherten Rechts, die ein Zu-
sammenleben ohne Angst vor Gewalt und ohne die Notwendigkeit privater Rache
(um Ehre und privater ‚Abschreckung‘ willen) garantieren sollen. Darin werden
dem Haben- und Genießenwollen ebenso Grenzen gezogen – bis zu den jüngsten
gesetzlichen Verboten sexueller Belästigung – wie dem Zustandekommen er-
presserischer Marktmacht (Kartellrecht). Vertragsfreiheit soll in diesen Grenzen
die Verfolgung privater Interessen erlauben. Aber soziale Leistungen müssen
zugleich ein Lebensniveau sichern, das die Einhaltung rechtlicher Grenzen für
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 225

den Einzelnen nicht zum ‚Heroismus‘ werden lässt (wie etwa in ‚Elendsvierteln‘
oder sozialen Ghettos).
Arbeitsteilung und Marktfreiheit sollen, wie schon bei Hegel, zur Diversifi-
zierung und damit Abschwächung der Bedürfnisse und zur gewaltfreien Befrie-
digung führen. Zugleich soll die Konkurrenz der Angebote und Fähigkeiten die
Gewinn- und Leistungsmotivation steigern und damit zu mehr Gesamteffizienz
führen. Der Arbeitsmarkt lässt die freie Berufswahl und damit ein wichtiges Ge-
biet der Präferenzerfüllung zu – jedenfalls solange er nur zu vorübergehenden
Knappheiten führt. Arbeitsrecht und Tarifrecht sollen Abhängigkeiten und Er-
pressbarkeit der Arbeitenden verhindern. Das zumindest teilweise staatliche oder
‚solidarische‘ Versicherungswesen soll den Einzelnen vor schicksalhafter Not
schützen.
Die modernsten Formen des ‚Kapitalismus‘, vor allem des durch Geldanlage
und Finanzmärkte ermöglichten bzw. erleichterten Marktes von Produkten, Ar-
beitsplätzen und Dienstleistungen, verstärken aber auch gegenläufige Tendenzen,
nämlich die Begierden nach Gütern und auf Besitz beruhendem Status. Der
Kampf um die Märkte (und ‚Nischen‘) ist im globalen Kapitalismus schärfer ge-
worden und bedient sich einer allumfassenden Werbung und entgrenzter Kauf-
möglichkeiten (durch den Internethandel sozusagen allerorts und ‚rund um die
Uhr‘). Werbung und Marketing scheinen auf eine durch ‚Sucht‘ gesteuerte Käu-
ferschaft zu zielen. Bestimmte Güter und Lebensstile ‚muss‘ man haben bzw. ‚sich
leisten können‘, um sich soziale Anerkennung zu sichern. ‚Verlockende‘ Kredite
und bargeldlose Zahlweisen (von der Kreditkarte zum Smartphone) erleichtern
das Konsum- und Gewinnstreben.
Es erscheint offen, ob der moderne Markt die Gier zähmt oder entgrenzt.
Zumindest die Werbung zielt auf das letztere (‚ich will Genuss sofort‘) – auch
durch Erzeugung der Angst, zu spät zu kommen (‚nur noch ein Exemplar‘, ‚noch
drei Personen schauen sich dieses Angebot an‘ etc.). Von den Märkten mit
Suchtmitteln im engeren körperlichen Sinne (‚Rauschgift‘) muss dabei nicht
einmal die Rede sein.Vielleicht ist der ‚mündige‘ Käufer diesem Druck gewachsen
und hat auch gelernt, durch Politisierung des Kaufverhaltens (Boykotte, nach-
haltiges Anlegen etc.) Gegendruck aufzubauen. Dass die Märkte ohne die Züge-
lung durch politische Institutionen zu einer ‚autonomiekonformen‘ Freisetzung
des Begehrens führen, scheint aber unwahrscheinlich. Wie tief solche Institutio-
nen in die Marktmechanismen eingreifen sollten, ohne deren Anreizstrukturen zu
entkräften oder die unsichtbare Hand durch erzwungene altruistische Gesin-
nungen zu ersetzen, bleibt aber auch nach den Theorien und Sozialexperimenten
der letzten 200 Jahre unklar. Die Kompetenz der Philosophie zur Beantwortung
dieser Frage scheint eher abzunehmen.
226 Ludwig Siep

Von der ‚idealistischen Synthese‘ – oder, um Kant einzubeziehen, der Syn-


these der klassischen deutschen Subjektivitätsphilosophie – kann man vor allem
in drei Hinsichten lernen: Erstens von der Vermeidung eines Dualismus, der
‚körperliches‘ Begehren zu einer dem Selbstbewusstsein äußerlichen, es deter-
minierenden Kraft macht. Die gegenwärtige Naturalisierung des Geistes und die
Pathologisierung ‚sozialschädlichen‘ Verhaltens⁴⁰ fallen dahinter zurück. Wün-
schen und Begehren, wie schon bei Fichte, als eine Kraft unter zwei Perspektiven
zu sehen, erleichtert ihre Aneignung und Integration in eine autonome Person
ohne innere Zwiespälte und Abstoßungen. Zu sozialer Integration ist nur ein ei-
nigermaßen ‚ausbalanciertes‘ Individuum fähig – das wusste grundsätzlich schon
die antike Affektenlehre. Worin eine solche unter den soziologischen und psy-
chologischen Bedingungen der Gegenwart besteht, ist aber nur gemeinsam mit
den empirischen Wissenschaften zu ermitteln.
Zweitens ist die Opposition gegen eine Hobbes’sche soziale Mechanik an-
schlussfähig. Der selbstbewusste Charakter des Begehrens macht dieses zu einem
Begehren nach Anerkennung, das seine Erfüllung durch Unterwerfung und Be-
herrschung als Irrweg erfahren oder von anderen erlernen kann. Die emotionale
Basis der Selbstbeschränkung muss daher nicht die Furcht sein, sondern das
Bedürfnis nach reziproker Anerkennung durch Respekt und Zustimmung zur
Selbstständigkeit und zum Anderssein des Anderen – in welchen Intensitäts-
graden auch immer. Die Grenze solcher Anschlussfähigkeit ist aber die These,
dass die Anerkennungsgemeinschaft selber als ein ‚Endzweck‘ in das rationale
und emotionale Sinnbedürfnis zu integrieren sei. Daraus folgte, zumindest bei
Hegel, eine Asymmetrie der Anerkennung⁴¹, die heute umzukehren ist: Der Staat
hat seinen Zweck – und seine Grenze – im Schutz der wechselseitigen Anerken-
nung der Individuen und der dazu erforderlichen Rechte und Bedingungen. Auch
in den Rechtsphilosophien Kants und Fichtes ist dem Abwehrcharakter der
Grundrechte und ihrem „alle staatliche Gewalt“⁴² begrenzenden Verfassungsrang
nicht genügend Rechnung getragen.⁴³
Drittens muss auch daran festgehalten werden, dass eine neutrale Vernunft
der Wissenschaft und der ‚säkularen‘ Administration die Aufgabe hat, den reli-
giösen und politischen Fanatismus einzudämmen. Bei aller Toleranz gegen reli-
giöse Überzeugungen und ihre öffentliche Artikulation, die mit Recht der Epoche

 Nicht nur in den Neurowissenschaften, sondern auch der daran orientierten Ethik. Vgl. etwa
Persson/Savulescu 2012.
 Vgl. Siep 2014, S. 269 – 281.
 Vgl. Grundgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (GG), Art. 1, Satz 1 u. 2. Dass sie nicht nur
Zweck, sondern auch Grenze ist, geht aus Art. 20,4 (Widerstandsrecht) hervor.
 Vgl. dazu Siep (voraussichtl. 2018).
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 227

des intoleranten Säkularismus folgen sollte, darf nicht ‚postsäkular‘ dem reli-
giösen Eifer nachgegeben werden, absolute, für alle verbindliche Wahrheiten zu
beanspruchen und zu verbreiten. Heute geht es dabei auch um Ansprüche der
alleingültigen Interpretation von Kernbegriffen pluralistischer Verfassungen wie
Menschenwürde, Personalität und Leben. Fanatismus und Dogmatismus ist al-
lerdings auch bei Wissenschaftlern an der Tagesordnung, die die Reichweite ihrer
Theorien überschätzen, vom genetischen oder neuronalen Determinismus bis zu
den ‚Imperativen‘ einer evolutionären Ethik. Sie werden der Pluralität der Per-
spektiven sowohl der Wissenschaften – Teilnehmer- und Beobachterperspektive,
deskriptive und normative etc. – wie der kulturellen Erfahrungshorizonte nicht
gerecht.
Die Einschränkung des Begehrens nach Sicherheit durch endgültige und al-
ternativlose Wahrheiten setzt allerdings auch einen anderen Vernunftbegriff
voraus als er in der klassischen deutschen Philosophie vorherrscht. Auf ‚abso-
lutes Wissen‘ in jeder Form muss ebenso verzichtet werden wie auf den Anspruch
geschlossener und alternativloser Systeme.⁴⁴ Nicht nur das Streben nach unmit-
telbarer Gewissheit, sondern auch nach vollkommener theoretischer Beglückung
in einem holistischen System, ist der Kritik ausgesetzt. Intellektuelle Gottesliebe
überschreitet die Grenzen der menschlichen Vernunft. Angesichts des in allen
Bereichen der Wissenschaft und des lebensweltlichen Wissens allein noch an-
zutreffenden reversiblen, korrigierbaren und selten alternativlosen Wissens muss
Vernunft prozeduraler, kritischer und ‚unsystematischer‘ verstanden werden als
vielfach in dieser Epoche. ‚Vernünftig‘ ist das Verfahren, jede Norm und jeden
Rechtsanspruch der Forderung argumentativer Rechtfertigung auszusetzen. Al-
lerdings enthält die Form der Argumentation selber – das ‚Gründe geben‘ – noch
kein Kriterium für den Gehalt guter Gründe. Im Bereich der Rechtfertigung von
Normen sind dafür auch kollektive Erfahrungen mit der Überwindung von Leid
und Entwürdigung notwendig. Oder Erfahrungen mit der Lösung von Problemen
in sozialen Lebensformen, deren Auftreten keiner geschichtsphilosophischen
Notwendigkeit unterworfen ist.⁴⁵ Selbst gut zu begründende Errungenschaften
wie Rechtsstaat und Gewaltenteilung gehen nicht aus einem Vernunftschluss
hervor⁴⁶ – und auch aus keiner Vernunft des Weltgeistes, die sich in der Ge-
schichte notwendig durchsetzt. Das widerspricht den historischen Erfahrungen,
vor allem der letzten 200 Jahre, ebenso wie der Pluralität von Traditionen und
Überzeugungen. Sie widersetzen sich einem detailliert inhaltlichen (‚starken‘)

 Vgl. zum Folgenden ausführlicher Siep 2010, S. 77– 91.


 Vgl. dazu Jaeggi 2014.
 Vgl. Kant, AA VI, S. 313 („praktischer Vernunftschluß“), 338 („die aus dem Begriff eines ge-
meinen Wesens überhaupt […] hervorgehen“).
228 Ludwig Siep

Vernunftbegriff der Systemphilosophien. Auch ein ‚überlappender Konsens‘ kann


vernünftig sein, der sich auf individuelle Freiheitsrechte, Gleichheit, ein gewisses
Maß an Solidarität und die genannten Prozeduren beschränkt. Die ‚Liebe zur
Weisheit‘ muss sich ebenso mit der Vorläufigkeit ihrer Erfüllung und der Nicht-
exklusivität ihrer Ergebnisse bescheiden wie andere Formen des Erkenntnisstre-
bens.
Ein solcher korrigierender Anschluss an die erörterte philosophische Syn-
these des Begehrens mit Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit wird auch durch die his-
torischen Erfahrungen mit der Entgrenzung von Staat und Markt in den letzten
beiden Jahrhunderten erleichtert. Der Umriss einer neuen Synthese – nicht mehr
im Sinne einer systematisch vereinigenden Theorie verstanden – könnte etwa
folgendermaßen aussehen: Grenzen des privaten Begehrens wie der staatlichen
Macht sind heute die Grund- und Menschenrechte, die sich historischen Erfah-
rungen verdanken, aber auch durch überzeugende Theorien der Personalität,
Empathie und rechtlichen Freiheitssicherung zu rechtfertigen sind. Zu diesen
Rechten zählen nicht nur Schutzrechte, sondern auch Mitwirkungs- und Sozial-
rechte, neuerdings auch Umweltrechte – sei es als Ansprüche auf gesunde Um-
welt oder auch auf wertvolle Natur, etwa im Sinne des Weltnaturerbes. Erst in
einer Welt, in der jeder ohne Angst und Not leben kann, ist ein hohes Maß an
Freisetzung des Begehrens mit Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit kompatibel. Die
rechtlichen und ökonomischen Bedingungen solcher Zustände herbeizuführen,
ist eine unabdingbare und ‚sinnstiftende‘ Aufgabe sowohl der Staaten⁴⁷ als auch
der Individuen und ihrer freien Vereinigungen. Wie weit sie zu erfüllen ist, bleibt
offen. Die dazu notwendigen kollektiven Anstrengungen und Leidenschaften er-
fordern aber sicher weiter eine Einschränkung des selbstbezogenen Begehrens
und ein distanziertes, ‚souveränes‘ Verhältnis zu den eigenen Wünschen. Reli-
gionen mögen ihren Gläubigen dafür ein erhebliches Maß an asketischem und
altruistischem Heroismus abverlangen, die Philosophie kann nur auf nüchterne
Einsicht und ein jedem zumutbares ‚Meta-Interesse‘ an Autonomie und Gerech-
tigkeit bauen.

 Vgl. GG Art 1, Satz 2: „als Grundlage jeder menschlichen Gemeinschaft, des Friedens und der
Gerechtigkeit in der Welt“. Hier ist zwar das „Volk“ das Subjekt der Aufgabe, aber in Verbindung
mit Satz 1 auch der Staat.
Begehren, Autonomie und Gerechtigkeit 229

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Sebastian Gardner
The Desire of the Whole in Classical
German Philosophy
Abstract. The notion that we are bound to desire the whole – i. e., that we rightfully
aspire to exist as complete and undivided entities, Totalitäten – is familiar from
Schiller’s Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen. My discussion aims to in-
dicate (i) the logical peculiarity of this desire, (ii) its internal relation to post-Kant-
ian concerns, (iii) the specific argument for its necessity given in Schiller’s Letters,
(iv) the arguable limitations of Schiller’s account, (v) the alternative versions of it
(and critical views of Schiller) found in Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, and (vi) the
platonistic-formalist dimension of this development.

Die Idee, dass wir dazu bestimmt sind, das Ganze zu begehren ‒ d. h., dass wir
rechtmäßig danach streben, als vollendete und ungeteilte Wesen oder „Totalitäten“
zu existieren ‒ ist uns aus Schillers Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen
vertraut. Das Ziel der Diskussion in diesem Beitrag ist, Folgendes zu erläutern: (i)
die logische Eigentümlichkeit dieses Begehrens, (ii) seine innere Beziehung zu den
Aufgaben der Nachkantianer, (iii) das in Schillers Briefen gelieferte Argument für die
Notwendigkeit des Begehrens, (iv) die möglichen Grenzen von Schillers Theorie, (v)
die alternativen Ausarbeitungen dieses Arguments (und kritischen Stellungnahmen
zu Schiller) bei Fichte, Schelling und Hegel, und (vi) die platonistisch-formalistische
Dimension dieser Entwicklung.

“All of his life he had this ability to imagine


himself completely. Everything always added up
to something whole. How could it not be when
he felt himself to add up, add up exactly to
one?” – Philip Roth, American Pastoral ¹

1 Introduction
It is plausible that there are certain desires with quasi-platonic objects which are
presuppositions of all rational mental life. Theoretical reflection aims at the

 Philip Roth: American Pastoral. London: Vintage 1998, pp. 190 – 191.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-011
234 Sebastian Gardner

True, and practical reflection at the Good; and in so far as the True and the Good
have determinate conditions, such as systematic form, desires for these objects
too may be ascribed to subjects simply in virtue of their rationality. What
makes these desires, or ways of describing them, platonic is the implication
that their ultimate objects are abstract universals, and that particular concrete
things, or states of affairs, are aimed at in so far as they are held to embody
those objects, that is, give them actuality or make them present.
The notion that we as individuals desire the whole in the sense of our own
wholeness – a desire to be or exist as a whole, to exemplify or realize Wholeness
as such – is of a different order. It is not clear that any such desire is a require-
ment of either theoretical or practical rationality, nor what it amounts to when
stated in such a bare form. What does ‘existing as a whole’ comprise? What
does it exclude? And how can wholeness as such be desired, positively and on
its own account, as opposed to, more simply, desiring freedom from internal con-
flict, or a feeling of inner harmony, or the fulfilment of one’s deepest desires?
If any text in the modern philosophical tradition promises to answer these
questions squarely, it is Schiller’s Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen
(1795). One of the central and well-known claims of this work (hereafter, Letters)
is that the desire of the whole – “totality of character”, “totality of being”, “total-
ity of our nature”, existence as “a whole complete in itself” without any “trace of
division”² – constitutes, on a priori grounds, a necessary end of desire in general.
My aim is to trace this axiological theme in classical German philosophy, which
has received relatively little attention in comparison with the role of concepts of
unity and totality in theoretical philosophy, yet forms a no less important part of
its legacy. As the platonic provenance of the phrase testifies, the individual’s de-
sire of the whole is not a discovery (or invention) of classical German philosophy,
but post-Kantian thinkers articulate it in distinctive terms that reveal its rational
significance for modern individuals, making it intelligible that an aspiration to
wholeness, intertwined with multifarious conceptions of the individual’s identity
as what matters most or ultimately to them, should have entrenched itself in the
discourse of the modern world. It is highly plausible, for reasons that will
emerge, that this would not have been possible but for Kant, on the one hand
in reaction against his austere account of self-identity, and on the other employ-
ing materials he had provided. In the main part of this paper I will try to show
how Schiller’s conception of individual wholeness as a comprehensive desider-

 LAE IV, 7; VI, 11 and VI, 15; XVII, 2; XVIII, 4. Quotations are from the Wilkinson & Willoughby
translation, On Aesthetic Education of Man in a Series of Letters (LAE, followed by letter and
paragraph number), with minor modifications.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 235

atum goes beyond the limited ambition of mediating Kant’s harsh ethical vision.³
Its fate thereafter is a complex matter which there is space to treat only selective-
ly, with a view to establishing that the issue remains high on the agenda in the
wake of Kant, and to indicating the different ways in which Fichte, Schelling,
and Hegel may be interpreted as critically reworking the Letters’ holistic
ideal.⁴ What follows has a schematic character but I hope that something will
be gained by singling out the theme and giving it a systematic outline.

2 Conceptual preliminaries
As already observed, the notion of a desire of the whole as such is not transpar-
ent, and before going further it will be helpful to say something about how it is
related to and distinguished from other concepts in its vicinity, in particular free-
dom and selfhood. What must the desire of the whole be, if it is not to be para-
phrasable without remainder in terms of neighbouring concepts such as these,
and if its role in our mental economy is not merely instrumental? The following
brief remarks are simply observations in conceptual analysis, designed to indi-
cate why elucidation of the concept may be expected to require post-Kantian
philosophical resources.
To desire wholeness is not, under that description, to desire autonomy. There
is a path to be plotted from existing-as-a-whole to the enjoyment of freedom con-
ceived as substantiality – subsistence by virtue of oneself alone⁵ – but the bare
concept of wholeness does not without further elaboration yield the idea of law
or law-giving. At a minimum it may be granted, following Leibniz, that, given the
type of non-aggregative thing that a person is, some “principle of unity” is in-
volved in its wholeness, but whether this principle qualifies as a law and if so
whether it is given from within or without, are further matters – as is also the
metaphysical distinctiveness of a person’s wholeness in comparison with that
of other things, hence also its candidacy for constituting freedom in an axiolog-
ically significant sense.
Of course, if an appropriately contentful sortal telling us what kind of whole-
ness is in question is introduced – our being essentially the creatures of a loving

 Schiller’s is not however the very first post-Kantian statement of the ideal: it had been set
forth in Wilhelm von Humboldt’s 1792 contribution to Schiller’s Neue Thalia.
 What the texts of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel offer by way of explicit commentary on the Let-
ters is limited, so my discussion here will be extrapolative. What happens to the ideal of whole-
ness in Frühromantik demands a separate treatment.
 See LAE XI, 4.
236 Sebastian Gardner

God, or members of a certain sort of community, or natural beings with such and
such needs – then everything changes, for the kind-term will then determine
what counts as wholeness, and the theory or world-view to which it belongs
will explain why wholeness-qua-K is desirable and how it can be achieved.
Once rendered determinate by a theological or other substantive teleological
context, it becomes misleading to talk of the desire for the whole as such,
with the implication that it is self-standing.
This highlights what is perhaps most logically peculiar in the notion that
wholeness as such can be desired. It is an implication of this specification
that the desire goes beyond any set of determinate contents: since the desire
is precisely that whatever items are collected under it should count as a
whole, the wholeness which they are required to collectively exemplify cannot
derive from or be definable in terms of them. But if wholeness functions inde-
pendently of sortals, and if it also, in the way just explained, transcends and de-
termines whatever contents might fall under it, then it represents a purely formal
condition – which, again, makes it is hard to see how, absent a neoplatonic
sheer identification of the Good with Unity or Oneness, it can merit or elicit de-
sire.
If there is a desire for wholeness, and if, to repeat, it does not arise from a
rational intuition – if it is not grounded on an apprehension of the Good, the
shape of which the subject seeks to emulate or reproduce within itself – then
it is natural to suppose – for want of any alternative, and because the desire
is for one’s own wholeness – that it arises, if not from our rational capacities,
narrowly conceived, then from some other dimension of selfhood. However,
the desire of the whole cannot be identified with a desire for selfhood simpliciter,
for two plain reasons: in order for the desire to be ascribed, a self to which it can
be ascribed is presupposed, and if wholeness is the object to be realized, then it
cannot already be actual. We are plenty familiar with talk of the self as some-
thing which is not given but which needs to be produced or achieved,⁶ but self-
hood qua life-achievement is a long way from the bare ‘I’ of theoretical and prac-
tical apperception, and it seems overwhelmingly likely that striving after
selfhood in the sense of an achievement, whatever it might comprise, presuppos-
es rather than explains the desire of the whole.

 The notion has acquired a strong Nietzschean association, though it can also be found in the
Mill of On Liberty. Characteristic of such later nineteenth-century individualism is (1) its accent
on uniqueness, qualitative difference from others, in contrast with the universalism of classical
German philosophy (though it too has some antecedents in the period, in Friedrich Schlegel and
Wilhelm von Humboldt); (2) abandonment of metaphysical grounding in favour of a purely a
posteriori view.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 237

Everything thus far suggests a puzzle in the concept of the desire of the
whole, which makes it appropriate to acknowledge the existence of alternatives
to taking the notion at face value. One such alternative is suggested by the Lock-
ean tradition, here taken to include analytic discussion of the problem of person-
al identity. This approach separates sharply the question of what constitutes
basic numerical sameness from all of the more axiologically invested issues sur-
rounding selfhood. These last, on the Lockean view, are properly expressed in
terms of a concern for psychological integration and other conditions pertaining
to the functional organization of mental states that go beyond what is needed to
secure the bare self-sameness of persons. Construing the desire of the whole in
this way – though of course it may be allowed to have psychological impor-
tance – allows it to be deflated into something philosophically manageable
and non-puzzling: stripped of platonism, it amounts to seeking the elimination
of structural causes of psychological conflict. Psychoanalytic theory offers itself
as a way of thinking about what this might involve.
The Lockean requirement that the self-sameness of persons be cashed out in
terms of determinate empirical states of affairs – facts of psychological causation
and continuity, and perhaps elements of bodily identity – has proved remarkably
hard to meet, but there is nothing straightforwardly incoherent in this general
approach and it is not easy to give reasons for dissatisfaction with it. It may
be observed however, that it forces on us a dissociation, which does not come
naturally to us, of questions of numerical identity from other ways of thinking
about the self which are no less fundamental. Thoughts of what I am or amount
to, of what I might make of my life, the sense in which I may or may not add up
to something, and equally of the way in which a certain decision may, Lord Jim
style, be thought to put one’s self as a whole at stake,⁷ do not seem at first glance
to concern a fundamentally different topic from Locke’s “forensic” question of
what makes a person the same over time. At any rate, ordinary self-reflection
does not cleanly separate the two questions in this manner. Of course, these
supra-Lockean ways of conceiving the self may be confused, and may be held
to reflect the legacy of now unsustainable Judaeo-Christian forms of thought,
as Nietzsche claims. But if so, then adjustments are needed, for on the face of
it we put such a strong conception of the self to work whenever we seek to char-
acterize and evaluate ourselves in toto, or confront the prospect of our own
death, or project ourselves comprehensively into the future.⁸ This suggests that

 If all this sounds too hazy to cut much ice, Kierkegaard’s Sickness Unto Death gives a focussed
idea of what it means to deploy the concept of the self in this way.
 Or when, on Kant’s account, our intelligible choice of radical evil fails to subordinate the prin-
ciple of self-love to the moral law.
238 Sebastian Gardner

in order for there to be entities of the sort that Lockean criteria of identity seek to
track, a non-Lockean conception of the self must first have been deployed by the
entities themselves in their own self-production: meaning that Lockean criteria
offer a third-personal, sideways-on, past-orientated representation of sameness,
which may be suited for purposes of public Verwaltung, and may pick out some-
thing necessary in the empirical substratum of selfhood, but which fails to cap-
ture the internal principle of unity of forward-living subjects.
For present purposes we do not need to dwell further on this question, for it
is enough to have indicated the revisionist tilt of the Lockean deflation and the
prima facie plausibility of the notion that we have a primitive conception of the
self which, for better or worse, is too strong, too nebulous, to be accommodated
by any empirical specification of the conditions of personal identity.⁹ And if that
is so, then the familiar Lockean schema does not offer a way of understanding
the desire for wholeness.¹⁰

3 Kant: the constitutive impossibility of


wholeness
It should be clear why the import of these reflections is broadly Kantian. It seems
to belong to the logic of the desire for the whole that it arises directly from the
self, whence its unconditional character. In addition, it is neither subsumable by
any determinate concept nor derivable from any set of contents; hence it quali-
fies as formal or “pure”. As such, it recalls Kant’s analyses of various items,
which it appears to superimpose on one another in a way characteristic of the
post-Kantian development: of the ‘I’ of apperception, which both determines
and is secured by the a priori formal unity of consciousness; of the moral law,
in so far as it moves the will directly by virtue of its form, of lawfulness; of
the objects of aesthetic reflective judgement, in so far as these hover between
sensible content and concepts of the understanding, as forms exhibiting a
pure purposiveness that commands a non-empirical interest; and of the Ideas

 These remarks draw on Wollheim 1982, Ch. 1. See also Wiggins 1998.
 Another way of deflating the desire of the whole, very distant from Locke, is found in Sartre’s
inverted Fichtean claim that selfhood – which does indeed on his view necessarily imply whole-
ness, and which belongs to the sphere of value rather than theoretical philosophy – is a species
of transcendental illusion: we as individuated instances of être pour-soi are necessitated to de-
sire a totalized, self-identical mode of being which self-consciousness precludes. This supplies
Sartre with an a priori basis for analysing desire in general as exclusively an expression of Free-
dom, in Part 4, Chapter 2 of Being and Nothingness (see esp. pp. 87– 88, 101– 102, 198 – 199).
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 239

of reason, in so far as these denote no object of their own but totalize the objects
of the understanding.
And yet we find in Kant himself no underwriting whatsoever of the kind of
concern present in the desire for wholeness postulated by Schiller. To the contra-
ry, the Kantian system seems intended to scotch the aspiration, in ways that I
will spell out. The vital question, in this light, is the following: If materials fur-
nished by Kant are employed by successors such as Schiller to vindicate the de-
sire of the whole and provide for its real possibility, does this amount to bringing
the Kantian system to its proper conclusion, by completing its stalled movement
towards coherence? Or does it instead evince a misunderstanding of the ele-
ments which Kant separates and holds in a carefully qualified architectonic
unity, spurred on by a schwärmerisch desire?
The issues here are of vast complexity, but one basic point concerns the ab-
sence from Kant of any account of how (to put matters in a tendentiously anti-
Kantian way) the several I’s which find themselves distributed across the various
sides of the Kantian divides – theoretical vs. practical, sensible vs. intellectual,
Nature vs. Freedom-&-Reason – grasp their identity with one another. In what
does our knowledge of the identity of the I of inner sense with the I of appercep-
tion, of the I of empirical practical reason with that of pure practical reason, and
of the I as bearer of intelligible character with the I of empirically instantiated
agency, consist?
The question is often advanced as a lethal objection to Kant’s practical phi-
losophy. Kant’s defender may argue, however, that a compelling explanation and
justification can be given of the alleged aporiae. Neither the structure of theoret-
ical cognition as the First Critique reveals it to us, nor moral consciousness as the
Second Critique analyses it, require any contentful grasp of or insight into the
hypothesized ‘ground of unity’ of the ‘multiple I’s’: indeed Kant’s transcendental
theory of knowledge and metaphysics of morals presuppose its unavailability
and incorporate arguments for why this is not a privation but a strict condition
for theoretical and practical necessity of the only sort that we are acquainted
with and that could make any sense to us. There is moreover no conceivable sit-
uation in which an epistemic question concerning the identity of the ‘multiple’
I’s with one another could arise, since none can present itself independently
of the possibility of the others: when each comes to figure in thought, it does
so as interlocked with the others. No skeptical threats need to be deflected,
therefore. For all of these reasons it is possible and necessary, the Kantian
may argue, for us to affirm and endorse, not only in theoretical cognition but
across the board, constitutive divisions in human personality, the elimination
of which (per impossibile) would destroy our identity as thinkers and agents.
240 Sebastian Gardner

4 Schiller’s Letters: the axiological necessity of


wholeness
The dualism objection to Kant exposited above, in its full generality, is at the
heart of Fichte’s enterprise (to which I will return later) and also, in a more lo-
calized version, the nub of Schiller’s dissatisfaction with Kant in the Letters.
Schiller’s relation to Kant has many aspects, but it is safe to say that the
chief point on which the Letters put pressure is the relation of Freedom and Na-
ture within the individual subject, which Kant may seem to have conceded, in
the Introduction to the Third Critique, requires a fuller principle of unity than
the Critical system had previously delivered. In this work Kant may be regarded
as picking up on the separation maintained in the Second Critique of the two
components of the highest good – complete virtue, and corresponding happi-
ness – the necessary systematic unity of which Kant affirms but defers to the af-
terlife: prompting the objection (not put as such by Schiller, but in the spirit of
the Letters) that the unity posited by Kant lies exclusively on the Freedom-&-Rea-
son side of the dichotomy and hence remains incomprehensible to Nature and
therefore of no value from its standpoint. At stake in the mediating efforts of
the Third Critique are, accordingly, the capacity of Kantian philosophy to ap-
pease the voice of our own nature which legitimately complains of the sacrifices
demanded by the moral law,¹¹ and to secure the meaningfulness of moral agency
in a natural world governed by empirical causality.¹²
It is clear by implication from the opening of the Letters, though not said in
so many words, that Schiller’s verdict on the Third Critique is negative. The spe-
cific point to be pursued here – separated out from other lines of thought inte-
gral to the overall argument of the Letters – is Schiller’s extraction of the desire
for the whole from the Freedom/Nature dichotomy, this being the respect in
which he goes beyond his earlier critical treatment of Kant in Über Anmut und
Würde (1793).
The terminology of the Letters, it is often observed, is highly diffuse: con-
trasts multiply exponentially as Schiller repeatedly recharacterizes the problem-
atic structural opposition within human personality,¹³ overlaying a good dozen
non-equivalent distinctions on top of one another before finally settling (in Let-
ters XII and XIII) on the newly theorized opposition of Formtrieb to Stofftrieb. But

 Kritik der praktischen Vernunft (1788), Ak. 5, p. 127.


 Kritik der Urteilskraft (1790), Ak. 5, pp. 451– 452.
 Helpfully collated by Wilkinson & Willoughby in their Appendix III.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 241

what may appear a lack of conceptual discipline, giving the work literary force
but obscuring its analytical import, has a philosophical rationale. The reason
Schiller takes this course is that to fix our disunity in a single definitive opposi-
tion would imply that the missing whole can be realized merely by resolving the
dissonance of those two specific terms – which is of course exactly Kant’s pro-
cedure in the Third Critique. Having acknowledged that there appears to be a
problematic Kluft between Freedom and Nature,¹⁴ Kant does not look for an over-
arching unity behind or above it, but instead attempts to throw a bridge across it
by extending and deepening our understanding of each of its sides. Thus we
learn in the Critiques of Aesthetic and Teleological Judgement that Nature af-
fords Ahnungen and seeming Darstellungen of Reason in general and more spe-
cifically of moral reason, and that our power of feeling is able to transpose Free-
dom into certain appearances of Nature. These affinities assure us that the
domains of Freedom and Nature have some degree of joint intelligibility –
enough for our purposes. Schiller’s counter-claim is that a stronger unity, one
which cannot be reduced to a relation of harmony between any set of relata –
wholeness or Totalität, as distinct from mere unity or Einheit – is axiologically
necessary. His strategy is accordingly to direct our attention to a non-relational
whole transcending any designation of its parts, and in order to bring into
view this supra-relational One – and get us to see that the problem goes deeper
than Kant thinks and calls for more than mere principles of “transition” from
Freedom to Nature¹⁵ – Schiller continually modulates his vocabulary; this rhet-
orical practice is an instrument of the philosophical formalism which is integral
to Schiller’s project in the Letters.
The textual and argumentative course of the work bears out this construal.
In the opening letters Schiller describes a de facto opposition of motive forces in
the populace as they appear from the standpoint of the legislator, for whom they
provide both materials for statecraft and obstacles to legislative programmes,
and who must accordingly calculate their strength and tendency. In the letters
that follow, this standpoint is exchanged for a variety of internal characteriza-
tions, which take up the perspective of each motivational element in turn and
articulate its defining aim. This analysis allows Schiller to model the relations
of conflicting elements in game-theoretic, state-of-nature terms: subjective life
is shown to pose a problem of collective rationality. The legislator’s moral-polit-
ical problem is converted into the psychological-metaphysical problem of each,¹⁶

 Kritik der Urteilskraft, Ak. 5, p. 195.


 Kritik der Urteilskraft, Ak. 5, p. 196.
 LAE IV, 5.
242 Sebastian Gardner

for it comes to be seen that, without the construction of a new party internal to
the subject capable of representing the adjudicative standpoint of the Staat-
skünstler, which requires in turn that it exhibit a ‘third character’,¹⁷ the deadlock
of competing drives cannot be broken.¹⁸ Accordingly Reason generates an Idea of
something that would occupy the position of sovereign or volonté générale with-
in the individual to facilitate the cooperation and flourishing of their drives. Crit-
ical philosophy instructs us that this Idea, though grounded a priori, has yet to
be equipped with an object. The requisite transition from the empty Idea of
something defined merely by its role, to a determinate concept of its occupant,
requires a turn towards experience and Wirklichkeit, not because anything actual
qua merely given could testify sufficiently to its objective reality, but simply as a
basis for forging the relevant concept.¹⁹
Had Schiller’s aim been more circumscribed – in the way that it is in Über
Anmut und Würde – the next step would have been to turn directly to the expe-
rience (and analysis) of beauty. Instead, when the speculative argument gets
underway in Letter XI, Schiller begins by laying down a fundamental, a priori
distinction between (i) Person or Persönlichkeit – the self-grounding, uncondi-
tioned, absolute, niemals wechselndes Ich – and (ii) their Zustand – the mutable,
contingent, temporal, conditioned determinations or “condition” of the I. Only
then does Schiller introduce, in Letter XII, the distinction of Formtrieb and Stoff-
trieb, and these are defined, crucially, in terms of their discrete roles in giving
concrete expression to respectively the Person and their Zustand. These Grund-
triebe are not perspectives, or agencies, in their own right but aspects and deriv-
atives of a single, non-aggregative, implicit whole.²⁰ Neither could exist without
the other, for if either completely fulfilled its aim, it would be destroyed.²¹ The
provisional standpoint of the opening letters, in which modern fragmentation
seemed to be taken at face value, is thereby overtaken – and so too is the
Third Critique, in so far as it told us that the weak harmony of Freedom and Na-
ture postulated by Kant suffices to encapsulate human individuality. If Schiller is
right, Kant’s conception of systematic unity reflects but does not remedy the di-
lemma that plagues modernity.

 LAE III, 5.
 The point is recapitulated at LAE XIII, 2n.
 LAE X, 7 and XVI, 1– 2.
 For this reason – and contrary to what is often claimed – the intention of Schiller’s drive
theory is opposed to that of Nietzsche, for whom Triebe provide a means of deconstructing
talk of the unitary self. The difference is clear from the account of will and choice as distinct
from drives in LAE XIX, 10.
 LAE XIII, 5.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 243

Schiller’s thesis of the primacy of the unitary self is essential for the argu-
ment of Letters XVIII–XXI, the philosophical foundation of the Letters. Having
argued that the aesthetic offers the unique means to wholeness, Schiller under-
lines in Letter XVIII the apparently contradictory character of the task which he
now faces, of showing the aesthetic to be possible: Materie and Form, though
fully distinct and directly opposed, must be united to a point where no trace
of separation remains.²² Schiller argues accordingly that a solution is thinkable
only on the supposition of an original state of “unlimited determinability”,
which, he says, we must understand as implicating a whole that predates the for-
mation and activation of the Grundtriebe, and out of which they are differentiat-
ed – in the same way that our intuition of infinite space precedes and makes pos-
sible, through limitation, its determinate instances.²³ Leaving aside the details of
Schiller’s complex defence of this supposition, the key point for present purpos-
es is that what ultimately validates Schiller’s claims for the real possibility of the
Spieltrieb and its actuality in the experience of artistic beauty, thereby supplying
the basis of our possible wholeness, is Geist’s being an “absolute unity” which is
(i) at least formally distinct from its drives, and (ii) primordially “neither matter
nor form, neither sense nor reason”.²⁴
The purpose of this highly abbreviated overview of the Letters is to show that
Schiller recovers the desire of the whole through critical reflection on the Free-
dom/Nature opposition bequeathed by Kant, by advancing from recognition of
the problem of our manifest internal dissociation, to the insight that wholeness
as such and in itself, transcending the mere harmony of Freedom and Nature, is
an unconditioned good, and by supplying in addition a theoretical account of its
intelligibility; from which it follows that the opposition within us of Freedom and
Nature need not and should not be accepted as the constitutive necessity claim-
ed by Kant.²⁵ And plausibly, as noted at the beginning, it is only against the
background of an account such as Kant’s, which is at once ground-clearing
and axiologically ambitious, that the desire for wholeness can emerge with
such distinctness: that is, in philosophical circumstances where (i) selfhood
has been analysed in strictly formal terms, liberated from both substantial (‘dog-
matic’) teleological metaphysics and empirical psychological analysis, and (ii) a

 LAE XVIII, 2 and XVIII, 4.


 LAE XIX, 5.
 LAE XIX, 9. LAE VI, 6, hints at a further metaphysical ambition, not pursued by Schiller him-
self but registered in Hegel’s acclaim of the Letters (HW 13, p. 91).
 LAE XXII, 5, gives an especially clear sense of the platonic character of Schiller’s thought –
explored in depth by Pugh 1996.
244 Sebastian Gardner

direct necessary connection has been drawn of bare selfhood with freedom and
value überhaupt.
Indirect confirmation for this thesis concerning the importance of Kantian
formalism can be found in Herder, who also reacted strongly to the Third Critique
and had campaigned for quite some time before its publication, and that of the
Letters, against the reason-supremacism of Aufklärung. The difference from Schil-
ler lies in Herder’s view that our alleged dividedness is fundamentally a philo-
sophical error – a misconstrual of the phenomena, not a feature of them. It is
corrected by countering the falsifications of analytical abstraction, avoiding reli-
ance on putative a priori truths, and, above all, exhibiting the continuity of hu-
manity’s variegated development from its natural origins, as Herder attempts in
his philosophy of history and as prescribed by his early metaphysical essay on
the sources of cognition.²⁶ It is true that Schiller posits an original unity in
Greek culture, but this he regards as having suffered a real destruction: for Schil-
ler the Kluft has full historical, social and psychological reality, which means
that the whole, though in one sense pre-existent, as we have seen, is also, in an-
other and compatible sense, something that needs to be brought into existence.
Herder’s programme of philosophical reform has by contrast the character of a
clarification of vision designed to expose the actual wholeness of human beings.
What Schiller regards as the defective incompleteness of modern individuals, re-
vealing a division so deep as to call for aprioristic analysis, is understood by
Herder simply as the determinacy of personality properly consequent upon
man’s cultural differentiation, and as reflecting modern man’s rightful aspiration
towards even greater self-realization. Herder can adopt this relatively sanguine
perspective because he rejects the Kantian formalism which Schiller takes as
his starting-point in favour of a single divinely informed Kraft manifest equally
in human beings and the rest of the natural order.²⁷ In the way noted earlier,
in such a context the desire for the whole need not be considered self-standing.

 Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784– 1791) and Vom Erkennen und
Empfinden der menschlichen Seele (1778). The latter makes plain the contrast with Schiller’s Let-
ters: the only real division in human personality following directly from our constitution, on
Herder’s account, results from the fact that Kraft in general, which is what unites our cognitive
powers, has two aspects, one intensive and the other extensive.
 Herder’s progressively critical view in the later 1790s of the Kantianized tendency represent-
ed by Schiller is discussed in Haym 1980, pp. 631– 697. Schiller reports in a letter to Körner, 7
November 1794: “Herder abhorriert sie [the Letters] als Kantische Sünden.” Herder’s full-throated
condemnation of the “durchaus-Formelle, mithin Höchst-Leere” generated by critical idealism is
in the Vorrede of Kalligone (1800), p. 649.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 245

5 The desire of the whole in Fichte, Schelling,


and Hegel
The German Idealists, viewed as critics of Schiller, accept the desideratum articu-
lated in the Letters, while disagreeing with Schiller on two fundamental points of
method: they reject (i) his isolation of the desire of the whole from all of the
other philosophical issues surrounding Kant’s legacy, and (ii) his claim that
the aesthetic provides a sufficient basis for forming an adequate conception of
individual wholeness. On Fichte’s more conservative alternative, when the impli-
cations of Kantianism are understood correctly, there is no problematic Kluft be-
tween Freedom and Nature. Schelling and Hegel by contrast depart from Kant by
(as it were) bringing into the picture Book V of Spinoza’s Ethics: no adequate
conception of individual wholeness, they maintain (on this point concurring
with Herder) can be formulated without reference to a greater Whole.
The upshot is a double criticism of the Letters. First, as promoting a concep-
tion of wholeness which is merely phenomenological and subjective: real whole-
ness must have deeper metaphysical roots, without which the experience of
unity cannot have the value claimed for it and remains a mere als ob. What sep-
arates Fichte from the absolute idealists is just his continuing conviction that
these roots can be found in the I. And, second, as remaining too close to
Kant: Schiller does not see that Kant’s failure to provide for individual wholeness
is connected to other limitations of his system. The two points are brought to-
gether in the charge that Schiller’s elevation of aesthetic unity burdens an
item which Kant had designed as essentially compensatory, as standing in for
and merely intimating a ground of unity not available to our cognition, with
the role of an absolute; even when Schiller’s innovations to Kant’s aesthetic
theory are taken into account, this amounts to asking what has the status of a
mere Symbol to serve as a metaphysical reality.²⁸
This criticism has the ring of truth,²⁹ but the question of its effectiveness is
complicated somewhat by the fact that a closely similar objection is formulated

 Thus when art returns to a position of philosophical indispensability in Part VI of Schelling’s


1800 System des transcendentalen Idealismus, it is on the basis not of a new aesthetic doctrine
but of a non-Kantian metaphysics.
 It is pressed in Henrich 1982 and Frank 1989, Vorlesung 7. Henrich asserts that the movement
of thought initiated by Schiller cannot be completed within the Kantian framework (pp. 253,
255); Frank imputes a contradiction concealed by Schiller’s indecision between Kantianism
and a more expansive idealism (p. 117). Both charge Schiller with failing to clarify the sensible
self-objectification of reason which he postulates. While this is of course true, it is not clear that
246 Sebastian Gardner

and answered by Schiller himself in the Letters. In a succinct passage expound-


ing transcendentalist modesty and metaphysical agnosticism in Letter XIX,³⁰
Schiller grants that he has explained neither (i) how two opposed drives in
the same being are possible, nor (ii) how beauty is possible, but then declares
the irrelevance of such ultimate issues to the task at hand. For our finite axiolog-
ical purposes, it does not matter if the wholeness treated in the Letters is ‘merely’
transcendental.³¹ The ‘Fourth Paralogism’ character of Schiller’s strategy be-
comes explicit when he talks, in the closing letters, of reclaiming “Schein von
dem Wesen”, of the “Welt des Scheines” as a “wesenloses Reich”, and of Schein
as “selbständig”.³² In order to show that Schiller is inadequate by his own lights,
it is necessary therefore to show that his strategy of retreating to transcendental
modesty cannot succeed. In the view of the German Idealists, who regard such
adulterated Kantianism as hopelessly compromised, this presents no obstacle.
As noted earlier, the ‘multiple I’ problem in Kant is addressed by Fichte at a
level not broached by Schiller. Fichte’s objection to Kant on this score can be put
(very summarily) by saying that it makes no sense to propose to merely interre-
late different I’s, each uncovered originally in a different context, on a basis of
systematic unity, since this unity of rational relations can have no other source
than the I itself – an entity which in any case, by its very nature, in order to exist
at all, must grasp itself as the ground of whatever manifold it encompasses. This
suffices to motivate the Jena Wissenschaftslehre – both its attempt at a funda-
mental unification of theoretical and practical reason, and the attempt to derive
Nature within the subject from the Freedom of the I.³³ It also shows why Schil-
ler’s and Fichte’s projects should intersect cleanly at one point yet diverge imme-
diately after, as reflected in their uneasy historical relationship. The Letters cite
approvingly Fichte’s Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten
(1794), which affirm that it is man’s vocation to be einig mit sich selbst, to achieve
vollkommene Uebereinstimmung mit sich selbst. ³⁴ But the meaning of this is for
Fichte complex and non-Schillerian. In one sense, for Fichte, the desire of the

it amounts to a strictly internal criticism of Schiller. A parallel assessment is reached by Pugh on


the basis of considering Schiller as instead a neoplatonist metaphysician, 1996, Ch. 9.
 LAE XIX, 9. Kant troubled to transcribe this passage: Opus Postumum, Convolut 1, Ak. XXI,
p. 76.
 Just as, Kant shows the identity of a substance is not required in order to be a thinker.
 LAE XXVI, 10 – 11; XXVI, 13; XXVI, 8.
 In the Grundlage des Naturrechts (1796 – 1797).
 LAE IV, 2n, and Fichte, Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten (1794), FW 6,
pp. 298, 299. Schiller also approves the Wissenschaftslehre’s concept of Wechselwirkung: LAE
XIII, 2n. Yet in 1795 Schiller refuses to publish Fichte’s own letters on aesthetic theory, which
postulate a unitary original drive. See Beiser 2005, pp. 144– 147.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 247

whole is unfulfillable – “completely unachievable”.³⁵ In another sense its object


is already secured: transcendental philosophy proves it to be so, in so far as the
Wissenschaftslehre shows that the opposition of Freedom and Nature within the
subject, manifest in ordinary consciousness, is downstream from an irrevocable
unity which it reexpresses and to the reality of which it testifies.³⁶ The metaphys-
ical problem that worries Schiller is therefore already solved, for our conscious-
ness of the necessity of striving manifests our wholeness, and to seek the unity of
Freedom and Nature in the further sense of their quasi-identity,³⁷ and to ask
moreover for this to be given in experience (in the form of “eine vollständige An-
schauung”³⁸), is in effect to want to cancel the task that constitutes rational self-
consciousness. To desire the whole as Schiller understands it, in Fichte’s per-
spective, is tantamount to wishing not to strive, yet striving is what gives us
knowledge of our wholeness. Schiller’s project may thus be diagnosed as resting
on a confusion, mistaking the ‘rift’ in ordinary consciousness which is a condi-
tion of agency, hence also of self-consciousness, for a deficiency in selfhood.³⁹
As for the more specific problems of political order and moral psychology that
launch the project of the Letters, Fichte believes these have their own solutions,
in the practical philosophy developed from the Wissenschaftslehre.
In Fichte’s eyes, the Wissenschaftslehre thus overtakes the Letters and vindi-
cates Kantianism, on the condition that it is regrounded in a way that disposes of
the doctrine of our constitutive non-wholeness. But it can also be understood
why Schiller may consider Fichte to have missed the problem. If the original ob-
jection to Kant was that nothing in ordinary consciousness counts as an experi-
ential realization of wholeness, then Fichte has done nothing to answer it, since
the wholeness of the “absolute I”, like Kant’s highest good, is a merely noume-
nal matter, with significance for Freedom in its dealings with Nature but not for
Nature itself; whatever its rational necessity for Reason, it appears to Nature as a
mere postulate.

 Fichte, Einige Vorlesungen, FW 6, p. 300.


 Whether and in what sense this unity ‘exists’ – whether the concept is regulative or constit-
utive – is a moot point of Fichte interpretation but not directly relevant to the disagreement of
Fichte and Schiller.
 LAE IV, 1; XIV, 2; XV, 2– 3, where it is called lebende Gestalt; and XVIII, 4.
 LAE XIV, 2.
 All this is clear in Fichte’s Einige Vorlesungen, which endorse the asymmetry of the compo-
nents in Kant’s highest good, FW 6, pp. 299 – 300. Fichte declares that “die Vernunft liegt mit der
Natur in einem stets dauernden Kampf”, which can never end as long as we are not ourselves
gods (FW 6, p. 316). That on the contrary we are gods, or as good as, at least in the making, is
asserted in LAE XI, 7.
248 Sebastian Gardner

The charge is corroborated, the Schillerian may argue, when we examine


Fichte’s account in the System der Sittenlehre of what he calls der Trieb auf
das ganze Ich ⁴⁰:

[T]he I is here to be thought of not as objective but as both subjective and objective […]. This
is what is meant by the expression ‘the entire I’ […]. [O]ne can grasp this concept of oneself
only partially […] that is, in such a way that one thinks only of what is objective as depend-
ent upon what is subjective, and then thinks of what is subjective as dependent upon what
is objective; but one can never grasp it as a single, unified concept in this manner […]. The
essence of the I is neither what is subjective nor what is objective, but rather an identity […].
But can anyone think this identity as himself? Absolutely not […]. Consequently, we never
think the two together but only alongside each other and after each other; and by means of
this process […] we make each of them reciprocally dependent on the other […]. [T]he I is
unable to grasp itself in and for itself. It is purely and simply = X.⁴¹

There can be, Fichte adds, no feeling of the drive-to-the-whole-I, only a “thought”
thereof.⁴² In Schiller’s terms, this is not a solution to the problem but a statement
of it.⁴³
The dialectic arrives here at a difficult and interesting point. On the one
hand, it is true that Fichte offers nothing that exhibits the fully even-handed,
double-sided intelligibility demanded by Schiller.⁴⁴ Even though the Trieb
which the I discovers itself to be when it reflects on itself objectively is not a
mere mechanical force, and in a sense combines traits of Freedom and Nature,
it cannot stand proxy for the I as a whole, for the reason that Fichte gives: it rep-
resents the I only as objective. On the other hand, it is not clear that, even in en-
larged Kantian terms, Schiller’s demand is coherent. Schiller must express the
desire for the whole in terms that make sense to and speak on behalf of Nature
as much as Freedom.⁴⁵ But how can this be done? The disaggregative develop-
ment which humanity has run through has left us not ‘down below’ in Nature
but ‘up here’ on the side of reflective Freedom, looking down (or across the

 Fichte, System der Sittenlehre, FW 4, p. 40. The theme is discussed in Wood 2016, pp. 118 –
120, 156 – 157, 220.
 System der Sittenlehre, FW 4, pp. 41– 42 (System of Ethics, pp. 45 – 46).
 System der Sittenlehre, FW 4, pp. 53 – 45.
 Fichte’s solution sets opposing elements “alongside” and “after” one another: Schiller by
contrast denies that there can be succession in beauty (LAE XXV, 5).
 Schiller calls it a “doppelte Erfahrung” (LAE XIV, 2). Aesthetic experience is interpreted by
Fichte – in the text rejected by Schiller, ‘Ueber Geist und Buchstab in der Philosophie. In einer
Reihe von Briefen’ (1795) – as a manifestation of Freedom alone; it is, as in Kant, of high signif-
icance for rational life but not a requisite of it.
 In the “complete anthropological view”, “living feeling too has a voice” (LAE IV, 3).
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 249

Kluft) at the Nature which we find within ourselves. Schiller’s desire for the
whole appears equivalent to a longing on the part of Freedom qua rational sub-
ject to unite herself with Nature as the desired object – which amounts to an irra-
tional wish for fusion with what is unconscious or desire to grasp empirically
what is necessarily non-empirical.⁴⁶ If so, then it cannot be complained that
Fichte’s regrounded Kantian programme of subordinating Nature to Freedom
leaves anything intelligible to be desired.⁴⁷
The root of the problem, it may be suggested, is that the priority and suprem-
acy of Freedom/Reason is an integral part of the Kantian package, and that if
Schiller wants to correct it, then he first needs to extract himself from Kant’s sub-
ject-prioritizing, Nature-deflating framework: if there is to be certification of the
real possibility of wholeness in Schiller’s sense – an actual experience which
elicits desire of wholeness and reconfigures us appropriately – then a greatly al-
tered conception of the field of possible experience and the Freedom/Nature op-
position is required.
Herder, had he wished to make an internal criticism of the Letters, might
have made levelled this objection. The argument can be made, however, that
Fichte’s idealist successors, Schelling and Hegel, show how Schiller’s insight
into the rights of Nature-within-us, though not formulable in the terms of subjec-

 Hence the ambiguity in Schiller’s attempt to treat Freedom/Reason and Nature symmetrical-
ly, his alternation between (i) a flat opposition of Freedom and Nature as respectively normative
law and its absence or negation, and (ii) a contrast of two types of normative law. Of special rele-
vance is LAE XII, 2n, which grapples with the problem of how we should describe a condition of
pure feeling, i. e., pure being-Nature, since, awkwardly, this appears to amount to Selbstlosigkeit:
Schiller’s solution is to modulate it to a condition of being ausser sich or von sich.
 In accordance with Wood’s assessment: “We fundamentally misunderstand Fichte’s ethics if
we take it to be about the superiority or the dominance of the rational over the natural […]. Our
human vocation is, through reason, to reunite them” (2016, p. 157). Fichte can be understood to
be making the relevant point against Schiller – or alternatively, as failing to understand him –
when he rejects as unintelligible Schiller’s complaint that his own account makes no provision
for Schiller’s “Trieb nach Existenz” or “Stofftrieb”, countering that this can concern nothing
other than “die Darstellung des Stoffs im Gemüthe” (letter to Schiller, 27 June 1795, Schiller’s
und Fichte’s Briefwechsel, p. 37). The difficulty for Schiller is to communicate the import of feel-
ing, its signifying more than a limitation on Freedom, whence the impasse with Fichte: Schiller
in his letter of 3 – 4 August 1795 characterizes their differences as irresolvable, insisting that they
arise from differences of feeling rather than disagreement over philosophical principles, and so,
like quarrels over judgements of taste, must be left unresolved (Briefwechsel, pp. 44– 55). If
Fichte anywhere comes close to granting the validity of Schiller’s ideal, it is in his description
of höheren Sittlichkeit in the Fünfte Vorlesung of his Die Anweisung zum seligen Leben (1806),
FW 5, pp. 468 – 471, but the approximation is at most partial.
250 Sebastian Gardner

tive idealism, can be accommodated without surrendering the advances made by


Kant in favour of Herderian naturalism.⁴⁸
Schelling’s early engagement with the problematic of the Letters overlaps
with Fichte’s but also moves forward in the direction just indicated. In the
early Vom Ich als Princip der Philosophie (1795) and Philosophische Briefe über
Dogmatismus und Kritizismus (1795) Schelling too holds that striving is a condi-
tion that finite rational beings cannot overcome: if to want wholeness is to want
absolute unity, hence absoluteness, then it is a desire for the elimination of ob-
jects, hence for the self’s annihilation.⁴⁹ Yet equally it is true, following Spinoza,
that nothing can rightly be desired but God or absolute identity.⁵⁰ This necessity
stems directly from the overarching formal commitment of human reason to
unity, demonstrated by Kant. Now this immediately alters our understanding
of the desire of the whole: if the desire of God or the absolute is a desire for iden-
tity with it, then to desire one’s own wholeness is to desire to reproduce in one-
self the wholeness of the Whole. ⁵¹ The task of practical philosophy for Schelling
centres accordingly on a non-theistic yet religious aspiration, and the various
ethical theories which he sketches in the course of his development after 1800
turn on what it might mean exactly for the self to be aligned with the Whole,
and to reproduce its infinitude within the sphere of the finite. The significance
of artistic beauty lies for Schelling in the fact that it communicates, not a whole-
ness that we could really exemplify, as Schiller maintains, but an absolute unity
that is impossible for us; its role is anamnestic, reminding us of what we have
lost forever, yet properly desire to recover and can hope to recuperate in an ob-
lique, ethico-religious form.⁵²
Schelling’s more direct treatment of Schiller’s aesthetic programme is found
later, in the Introduction to his 1802– 1804 lectures on the philosophy of art.
What Schelling says here allows a straight line to be drawn from the analysis
of human personality in the Letters to the structure that defines his idealism
in opposition to that of Kant and Fichte. The difficulty facing Schiller, as descri-
bed above, was to articulate the desire for the whole in strong terms that do not
allow a model of one-sided imposition, such as Fichte’s, to count as providing its

 A strategy which also allows Schelling and Hegel to recruit Schiller as a ground for dissat-
isfaction with the Wissenschaftslehre.
 SW 1, pp. 194– 198 and 315 – 316.
 SW 1, p. 197.
 This is simply a reminder of what Schiller himself asserts but then sets aside: our lack of
wholeness does not consist only in our internal Zerrüttung, but is also a matter of our each
being only ein einzelnes kleines Bruchstück des Ganzen (LAE VI, 3 and VI, 7).
 SW 1, p. 285.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 251

best solution. Now in Schelling’s terms the insight to which Schiller is attempt-
ing to give voice is captured in two theses of his own, which immediately over-
come the difficulty: (1) Nature is not alien to Freedom but rather its mirror, for it
too is organized internally by an opposition of subject and object. This blocks the
Kant-Fichte objection that it is nonsensical to treat Nature symmetrically with
Freedom. And (2) the identity of Freedom and Nature is constituted by a point
of “absolute indifference” – a concept which is of wholly general and absolutely
fundamental philosophical significance, validated by its essential role in all con-
texts of philosophical reflection.⁵³ In this light, Schiller’s groping after a synthe-
sis of Freedom and Nature in the Letters, incited by the Third Critique, was alto-
gether on the correct path but hampered by the assumption that it could be
grasped uniquely via the specificities of aesthetic experience.⁵⁴ The upshot is
that Schiller was right to find wholeness prefigured in beautiful art – indeed
that is exactly what a philosophy of art grounded on absolute principles estab-
lishes – but not to think that an adequate understanding of the nature of whole-
ness, or the conditions of its realization, can be gleaned directly from the aes-
thetic in isolation.
Hegel’s early texts contain no explicit references to the Letters yet engage
with Schiller’s problem of wholeness frontally, and with more sympathy for
his outlook than either Fichte or Schelling – a difference accounted for by He-
gel’s preoccupation in the 1790s with the legacy of Christianity and its confron-
tation with the Hellenic ideal expounded by Schiller and, relaying many Schil-
lerian concerns, by Hölderlin.⁵⁵ In fragments from the end of that decade
Hegel defends Schiller’s holistic aspiration but at the same time insists that its
realization rests on a complex set of conditions, in what amounts to a far-reach-
ing critique of the Letters and the wholesale conversion of its aesthetic pro-
gramme into social theory and a renovation of religious concepts.⁵⁶
For Schiller realization of wholeness takes place within a culture, which is
the necessary vehicle of aesthetic education, and it presupposes a body politic,
the problems of which provide the starting point of the Letters. ⁵⁷ Yet Schiller fol-
lows Kant in resolving beauty into operations of subjectivity, analysing Kant’s

 At several places Schiller may be considered to be groping after Schelling’s concept: LAE
XIX, 10; XX, 4; and XXI, 4. On the connection see Frank 1989, pp. 119 – 120.
 SW 5, pp. 361– 368. It may be presumed that Schelling includes Schiller among the “einige
vorzügliche Köpfe” that have made progress in aesthetics after Kant.
 See the neoplatonic identification of “das Eine” and “das Wesen der Schönheit” in the eu-
logy of the Athenians with which Band 1 of Hyperion concludes, pp. 81– 82.
 HW 1, 244– 250 and 419 – 427.
 Indeed the ideal of wholeness is “repräsentiert durch den Staat” (LAE IV, 2).
252 Sebastian Gardner

Vermögen into Kräfte: Schiller interprets the final aim of cultural and political
life in terms of aesthetic unity, which is in turn defined in terms of, and originally
instituted within, the individual subject’s relation to an object. In that sense, the
wholeness of any collective, whether of a Volk or the state, is on Schiller’s con-
ception transferred out, genetically and conceptually, from individual self-con-
sciousness, in the same way that Kant constructs the concept of a kingdom of
ends out of the individual’s self-relation. Whence the aptness of Schiller’s con-
cluding reference to a “kingdom of play”.⁵⁸
Hegel’s criticism, as we may reconstruct it, rests on the thought that the de-
mand for wholeness cannot be fulfilled under conditions that leave the subject
confronted with an unmediated opposition. While it is true that the play-drive
eliminates opposition, this occurs only within the bounds of the aesthetic expe-
rience, intra-subjectively, and it therefore leaves intact the basic opposition of
the subject to sheer external objectivity. Hegel’s point may then be put by asking,
first, how the individuality here presupposed is initially possible if not as a ne-
cessity-in-relation;⁵⁹ and second, what the value of ‘being a whole’ can amount
to, if that whole is a nullity from the standpoint of the Whole or if the Whole
which comprehends the individual is itself a nullity⁶⁰ – a predicament closely
similar to that later described in the Phenomenology as an Unhappy Conscious-
ness. Without certification through relation-to-other, the experience of fulfilment
in Schillerian self-consciousness effectively presupposes a solipsistic self-ab-
straction from the objective world, and yet Schiller’s hypothesis requires that
it be exported from the aesthetic context. And so what must be substituted for
consciousness conditioned by the play-drive, Hegel argues, is consciousness of
reciprocal intersubjectivity, in which we find the privileged unity reserved by
Schiller for aesthetic experience, a unification of activity and passivity, sponta-
neity and receptivity, practical and theoretical orientation, and Freedom and Na-
ture, but without residual opposition to anything unmediatedly external.⁶¹ He-
gel’s enlargement of the field of possible experience to include intersubjective
recognition answers Schiller’s demand, and it transforms the religiously con-

 LAE XXVII, 8.
 The intersubjective conception, like the more general conception of individual wholeness as
dependent on the Whole, is not absent from Schiller: LAE XV, 5, and XXVII, 7. But Schiller makes
it conditional and consequent upon beauty. Hegel reverses this order.
 HW 1, p. 246.
 This is true at any rate once the ‘We’ of self-consciousness has come to know Spirit as com-
prehending Nature.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 253

ceived Whole which Schelling designates as the antecedent and transcendent


source of individual wholeness, into the immanent We of objective spirit.⁶²

6 Platonizing Kant
The desire of the whole is proposed by Plato’s Aristophanes in the Symposium as
the solution to the problem of the obscurity of love: sexual desire does not aim at
mere physical enjoyment, and lovers are unable to conceptualize their longing;
only when they are invited to melt into one another and be made bodily one do
they come to understand it.⁶³ Aristophanes’ speech, it has been observed, veers
peculiarly close to Plato’s own thought: once the mimetic-mythical mode of pre-
sentation is removed, we have a rough, preliminary approximation to the doc-
trine that the Form of the Good is the object of desire in general.⁶⁴ Taking a
step back from the detail of the preceding discussion, and with a view to making
the connection with Plato more definite, let me now indicate how the rediscovery
of the desire of the whole in classical German philosophy can be viewed as a pla-
tonic enrichment of Kant.⁶⁵
The stimulus to the Schillerian development plotted above, it may be sug-
gested, lies in Kant’s remarkable combination of two elements which stand in
tension if not opposition: a very strong requirement that the Many be subjected
to the One, which must be given antecedently; and an equally emphatic denial
that the antecedent One can be cognized directly or as anything other than
the unified Many as given to a subject. In this lies the distinctiveness of Kant’s
non-platonic conception of form, his “transcendental formalism”, as Robert Pip-
pin puts it⁶⁶: form comprises a rational function specifying and expressed in a
subject’s operation on a given manifold. Assuming the adequacy of this model
for theoretical cognition, the question is that of its success in the practical or ax-
iological context.

 Whether or not the individual’s wholeness is derivative for Hegel in the way it is for Schelling
depends on the level of development of the We, and, of course, on how the relation of subjective
to objective spirit in Hegel is interpreted.
 Symposium, 192b – 193d.
 This ancient quarrel of poetry with philosophy resurfaces in the Fichte-Schiller-Streit: Fichte
criticizes the Letters for employing an imagistic, metaphorical mode of exposition which stands
in need of translation into thought; Schiller asserts its indispensability.
 The implicit agenda of Schelling’s 1794 Timaeus essay.
 Pippin 1982, Introduction.
254 Sebastian Gardner

A problem arises for Kant, critics may argue, on account of the symmetry he
maintains of desire with belief. Realizing the Good, as Kant conceives it, consists
in rendering the Stoff of practical reason, the manifold of inclinations, conform-
able with law. This strategy would be impeccable if desire aimed at the Good in
the same way that the belief aims at the True – that is, if it aimed simply to fix
with justification on certain objects and states of affairs. Kant must suppose this
to be so, since the implication of his account is that, just as the end of theoretical
cognition is to give systematic shape to our representation of what is real, the
second-order desire governing desire in general is in effect to translate ourselves
into practical syllogisms – in which our desires, collated and given the form of
lawfulness, represent the major premise, the minor premise identifies a certain
life-course made empirically available by the world, and the conclusion is our
actual willing of that life. And if Kant is right, the separation of Freedom and Na-
ture which his account implies is no less acceptable in the practical sphere than
it is in the theoretical, for in both it supplies a necessary framework of justifica-
tion.
Spelling out Kant’s commitment to this syllogistic construal of practical ex-
istence helps to explain why Jacobi (and others) object that Kantian practical
reason embodies a lifeless, mechanical conception of the Good – as having
the repugnant upshot that we exist for the sake of legality.⁶⁷ To the fore in Jaco-
bi’s later writings is an internal criticism of Kant concerning what he regards as
Kant’s botched attempt to repair the axiological deficit created by his rationalism
and idealism.⁶⁸ The skewed and self-stultifying character of Kant’s system is
manifest, Jacobi argues, in his official subordination of theoretical to practical
reason – the doctrine of the primacy of pure practical reason, which supposedly
gives objective reality to what theoretical reason cannot grasp – yet simultane-
ous assimilation of human desire and axiological need to a model suitable
only for empirical knowledge of mechanical nature. Kant’s underlying error is
to fail to grasp the platonic implications of his own insight that the Good is
what presides over the unity of our cognitive powers. In addressing the task of
establishing the conditions under which desire can be counted rational, Kant as-
sumes that we are already activated and set in motion by reason, hence drawn to

 Jacobi, Werke, vol. 3, pp. 39 – 41.


 Jacobi, Ueber das Unternehmen des Kriticismus die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen (1801),
Werke, vol. 3, pp. 175 – 195, and Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung (1811), Werke,
vol. 3, pp. 340 – 378. In both places Jacobi measures Kant’s shortfallings in relation to Plato,
yet allies Kant with Plato in opposition to Spinozism. Jacobi’s own alliance with Plato is asserted
in Werke, vol. 2, p. 58.
The Desire of the Whole in Classical German Philosophy 255

the Good, and this is a foundational datum that Kant not only cannot explain but
also cannot accommodate, given the conclusions of his theoretical philosophy.
Now Jacobi’s catastrophic assessment of Kant’s whole project is of course
not shared by Kant’s idealist successors, but they do accept Jacobi’s verdict
that the Unconditioned which Kant agrees is axiologically indispensable cannot
be realized by practical reason as Kant conceives it. If Kant’s fundamental diffi-
culty is that he tells us what it is to act rationally without telling us how we can
set value on our being the kinds of entities that act thus, then it is this existence-
as-practically-rational that requires primary validation. What cannot be done,
however, under the philosophical conditions newly established by Kant, is to
lay claim to direct and independent cognition of a transcendent motivating
source of value – hence the futility of any simple reassertion of platonic or the-
istic doctrine of the Good (and of Jacobi’s own Glaubensphilosophie). A revised
post-Kantian conception of the Good must instead work out from Kant’s formal-
ism. And the basis for doing so is already present in Kant’s conception of the Fact
of Reason – a consciousness of form that incorporates its own “incentive”, i. e.,
which is necessarily and immediately motivationally efficacious. Kant himself
acknowledges the singularity of this phenomenon – “Die Sache ist befremdlich
genug”⁶⁹ – but without admitting it to be an anomaly. Emancipating the platon-
ism implicit in the Fact of Reason from the constraints imposed by Kant without
casting aside the achievements of Critical philosophy, which include its deep dif-
ferentiation of Freedom from Nature, begins with Schiller, who proposes that re-
pairing Kant means avowing the desire of the whole as the form that constitutes
the true and ultimate a priori of desire.⁷⁰ This desire, Schiller tries to show, has
the same logical character as Kant’s moral law – unity, universality, uncondition-
ality – but does not implicate, rather it overcomes, the opposition of Freedom
and Nature. The programme of post-Kantian idealism does not grow out of Schil-
ler, but the Letters articulate one of its central themes and, connectedly, exem-
plify a strategy employed by all of the German Idealists, namely the restoration
of an authentically platonic dimension to Kant’s formalism.⁷¹

 Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, Ak. 5, p. 31.


 Notably, Schiller talks of “das Factum der Schönheit” (LAE XXV, 7).
 Arguably it is Jacobi’s refusal to recognize this dimension of the post-Kantian idealist devel-
opment which allows him to sustain his nihilism objection – exemplified in his assumption that
the pure formality of the Fichtean I entails its complete emptiness (Werke, Bd. 3, pp. 39 – 41).
256 Sebastian Gardner

References
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Wissenschaften (ed.). Berlin: De Gruyter 1900 ff.
FW | Fichte, J. G.: Sämmtliche Werke. I. H. Fichte (ed.). 8 vols. Berlin: Veit & Comp
1845 – 1846. And: Nachgelassene Werke. I. H. Fichte (ed.). 3 vols. Bonn: Adolph-Marcus,
1834 – 1835.
HW | Hegel, G. W. F.: Theorie-Werkausgabe in 20 Bänden. Eva Moldenhauer and Karl Markus
Michel (eds.). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp 1970.
SW | Schelling, F. W. J.: Sämmtliche Werke. 14 vols. K. F. A. Schelling (ed.). Stuttgart: Cotta
1856 – 1861.

Beiser, Frederick (2005): Schiller as Philosopher: A Re-Examination. Oxford: Clarendon.


Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (2005): The System of Ethics According to the Principles of the
Wissenschaftslehre [1798]. Breazeale, Daniel/Zöller, Günter (trans. and ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Frank, Manfred (1989): Einführung in die frühromantische Ästhetik: Vorlesungen. Frankfurt am
Main: Suhrkamp.
Haym, Rudolf (1980): Herder nach seinem Leben und seinen Werken dargestellt. Berlin:
Gaertner.
Henrich, Dieter (1982): “Beauty and Freedom: Schiller’s Struggle with Kant’s Aesthetics”. In:
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Chicago Press.
Herder, Johann Gottfried (1998): Kalligone [1800]. In: Irmscher, Hans Dietrich (ed.). Werke.
Vol. 8. Schriften zu Literatur und Philosophie 1792 – 1800, pp. 641 – 964. Frankfurt am
Main: Deutscher Klassiker Verlag.
Hölderlin, Friedrich (1957): Hyperion oder der Eremit in Griechenland. Band 1 [1797]. In:
Sämtliche Werke. Vol. 3. Beissner, Friedrich (ed.). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich (1812 – 1825): Werke. 6 vols. Roth, Friedrich/Köppen, Friedrich
(eds.). Leipzig: Gerhard Fleischer.
Pippin, Robert (1982): Kant’s Theory of Form: An Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason. New
Haven: Yale University Press.
Pugh, David (1996): Dialectic of Love: Platonism in Schiller’s Aesthetics. Montreal:
McGill-Queen’s.
Sartre, Jean-Paul (1995): Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology
[1943]. Barnes, Hazel E. (trans.). London: Routledge.
Schiller, Friedrich (1847): Schiller’s und Fichte’s Briefwechsel. Fichte, Immanuel Hermann
(ed.). Berlin: Veit & Comp.
Schiller, Friedrich (1982): On the Aesthetic Education of Man in a Series of Letters [1795]
[Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen, in einer Reihe von Briefen]. Translated by
Elizabeth M. Wilkinson and L. A. Willoughby. Oxford: Clarendon.
Wiggins, David (1998): “The Concern to Survive”. In: Wiggins, David. Needs, Values, Truth:
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Wood, Allen (2016): Fichte’s Ethical Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
II. Rezensionen/Reviews
Markus Kohl

Schönecker, Dieter (ed.): Kants Begründung von Freiheit und Moral in Grundle-
gung III. Neue Interpretationen. Münster: Mentis 2015

This book, based on the “7. Siegener Kant-Tagung” in 2012, consists of eight es-
says that discuss the third part of Kant’s Groundwork.
Larissa Berger considers how we should understand Kant’s worry about a
“circle” in his argument. She offers a careful textual analysis of the relevant pas-
sages, interspersed with helpful surveys of recent Kant scholarship on this issue.
Her main suggestion is that the circle concerns a twofold problem: first, the as-
sumption of freedom, which is necessary and sufficient for the validity of the
moral law, has not been justified; second, the validity of the Categorical Imper-
ative (henceforth: CI) has not yet been shown. As Berger notes (pp. 75 – 76), one
problem for this suggestion is that Kant considers the circle issue solved before
he discusses the CI in Groundwork III (Ak. 4, p. 453).¹ Berger’s reading assumes
that one must distinguish sharply between the non-imperatival moral law and
the CI (p. 77): when Kant states (what Berger calls) the “analyticity thesis”
that a free will and a will under moral laws are one and the same (Ak. 4,
p. 447), he means the non-imperatival moral law; but when he worries that
the “objective necessity” of the principle of autonomy has not yet been establish-
ed, he refers to the CI (pp. 42– 43). Both of these points may be questioned.
Kant’s vague phrase, “under moral laws,” may apply even to the evil (but still
law-governed) acts of an unholy will that apprehends the law as an imperative.²
And, since Kant says that a perfectly rational being would cognize lawful actions
as “objectively necessary” (Ak. 4, p. 412), the notion of objective practical neces-
sity (unlike the notion of necessitation) is not confined to the CI.
Jochen Bojanowski offers an exceptionally clear discussion of Kant’s attempt
to deduce the CI in Groundwork III. Bojanowski denies the common assumption
that Kant seeks to legitimize the idea of freedom by appeal to the spontaneity of
theoretical reason³: when Kant says that we must act under the idea of freedom,
he already presupposes a notion of pure practical reason from which freedom of
will is inferred (pp. 93 – 96). This notion is, for Bojanowski, based on our aware-
ness of ideas of pure practical reason, such as the moral law (p. 97). Hence, Bo-

 References to Kant are to the pagination of the Academy edition (volume and page number) of
his collected works: Kant’s gesammelte Schriften. Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissen-
schaften (ed.). Berlin: W. de Gruyter 1900–.
 For a similar point, s. Jochen Bojanowski’s essay in this volume (pp. 92– 93; p. 100).
 For a good defense of this assumption, s. Berger’s essay in this volume (pp. 63 – 67).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-012
260 Markus Kohl

janowski suggests, Kant does not succeed in giving a non-circular justification of


freedom and morality: the project of a deduction of the CI fails (pp. 104– 105).
Bojanowski argues, further, that Kant does not make metaphysical claims
about ourselves as beings that are really free or determined: rather, Kant’s
point is only that we must consider ourselves “as if” we were free and causally
determined from the respective standpoints (p. 98). One problem here is that
Kant’s commitment to determinism (in the sensible world) is not a regulative as-
sumption, but an objectively necessary, constitutive principle of the possibility of
nature and experience (see, for instance, The Critique of Pure Reason, A 543/
B 571).
Paul Guyer’s contribution divides into two parts. In the first part, Guyer ar-
gues that in Groundwork II there is a transition from an “apagogical” form of
proof, by which Guyer means that Kant argues for the CI through exclusion of
alternatives (pp. 116 – 118), to an “ostensive” form of proof: the latter, Guyer sug-
gests, is Kant’s argument for the “end in itself” formula (p. 119). However, I did
not quite see what this ostensive “proof” or “argument” (p. 124) is supposed to
be, especially since Guyer himself insists that no argument can be given for the
claim that the concepts of a rational being and of an end in itself are necessarily
connected (pp. 121– 123), and since Kant argues from the exclusion of alterna-
tives for the idea that rational beings are ends in themselves as well (Ak. 4,
p. 428). The second part of the article concerns Groundwork III. Guyer argues
(pp. 130 – 131) that Kant tries to solve the circle problem by giving a theoretical
proof for the claim that we are rational beings, from which it supposedly follows
that we are free and (thus) stand under the moral law. For Guyer, Kant here de-
fends an inference from “is” to “ought,” namely, from the claim that our “proper”
self is rational and free to the claim that we ought to treat ourselves and other
persons as ends in themselves (pp. 121– 122, pp. 132– 133). Whether Kant believes
that descriptive facts about our rationality entail moral norms or capacities is, of
course, controversial (Kant denies this in his later works; see, e. g., Ak. 6, p. 26).
Christoph Horn suggests that Groundwork III uses a combination of two argu-
ments to prove our freedom. The first argument, offered at Ak. 4, pp. 447– 449,
invokes our awareness of the freedom of our rational capacities, which occurs
for the first time in the Schulz review (p. 144), and which is meant to show
that the determinist is guilty of a performative self-contradiction (p. 150). Horn
claims that, at Ak. 4, pp. 449 – 451, Kant regards this argument as insufficient,
because he now worries that we “prematurely” ascribe to ourselves freedom
even though our will lacks purity (p. 152). I found Horn’s claim a bit puzzling:
why should the mere fact that our will is sensibly affected (impure) raise a sus-
picion that it is not free? Horn claims that Kant supplements the first argument
by invoking the spontaneity of reason that gives us categorical imperatives; this
Schönecker, Dieter (ed.): Kants Begründung von Freiheit und Moral 261

shows that our awareness of freedom is not an illusion (p. 155). But if there was a
serious worry, deriving from our impurity, that our awareness of freedom might
be illusory, then (it seems to me) this worry also arises for our putative awareness
of a spontaneity that gives an imperative to our impure will (see Ak. 4, p. 419).
Heiko Puls’s essay is a commentary on the part of Groundwork III entitled,
“Von der äußersten Grenze aller praktischen Philosophie” (Ak. 4, pp. 455 –
463). Like Bojanowski, Puls argues that when Kant invokes our awareness that
our reason is independent of “subjectively determining causes” (Ak. 4, p. 257),
Kant refers to the freedom of our practical reason or will rather than to the spon-
taneity of theoretical reason (pp. 176 – 182). For Puls, if one denies (as Kant does
in Groundwork III) that every justification must take the form of a theoretical
proof, then one can justify one’s assumption of free will through one’s “Erfah-
rung innerhalb seines praktischen Selbstverständnisses” qua governed by the
CI (p. 183). It is not clear to me how this position can be regarded as a response
to Kant’s circle problem. Moreover, Puls’s claim that we possess an experience of
our freedom that is real in a practical respect, although it may be an illusion
from an epistemological perspective (p. 199), raises several questions: how is
this compatible with Kant’s insistence (which Puls cites, p. 203) that freedom
cannot be given in any possible experience (Ak. 4, p. 459)? And, how can we re-
gard our consciousness of freedom as real or genuine in a practical context,
when we must concede that a theoretical perspective might well expose this
same consciousness as illusory?
Frederick Rauscher also focuses on Kant’s discussion of the boundaries of
practical philosophy. In his view, this discussion shows that the Groundwork de-
duction must be understood in a limited, practical sense, which carries no onto-
logical implications (p. 215). Rauscher argues that for Kant there can be no pos-
itive proof that we are free; he concludes that practical reason cannot provide a
sufficient justification of freedom and morality (p. 223). With Puls, one might
counter that the absence of a theoretical proof of freedom need not rule out a
justification of freedom that is “sufficient” in some practical sense. Rauscher
also argues that practical reason, like theoretical reason, faces the problem
that it is constrained to posit an absolute necessity, an unconditioned condition,
which it cannot comprehend (pp. 224– 226). However, his evidence for this con-
troversial claim is a passage in the Feyerabend lecture script for which there is no
parallel in the Groundwork. Moreover, it is not clear why practical reason should
find the theoretical inscrutability of an unconditionally necessary law of reason
troubling, as long as this law can guide our actions and be practically intelligible
to us.
Oliver Sensen seeks to show that Kant’s justification of the CI is not based on
some unconditional value but arises from the autonomy of reason (p. 231). To my
262 Markus Kohl

mind, the essay would have benefited from a clearer articulation of the supposed
contrast between positing an absolute value and making a judgment of reason
(see, e. g., p. 245). For Kant, the CI might be based on an absolute value, on a
conception of what is good in itself, that is posited through a self-legislative judg-
ment of reason (see, e. g., Ak. 4, pp. 393 – 395; Ak. 5, pp. 57– 65). I was further
struck by Sensen’s claim that Kant distinguishes between the existence and
the validity or bindingness of the moral law (pp. 238 – 240, pp. 254– 255). How
could there be a practical law of autonomy that lacks validity or bindingness
for the will that legislates it? Would this lack of validity not mean that morality
and autonomy are mere “figment[s] of the brain” (Ak. 4, p. 445)? Sensen also tries
to explain Kant’s argumentative strategy in the second Critique. His central claim
is that the “fact of reason” justifies the idea of freedom and that this idea in turn
justifies the moral law (pp. 248 – 249). This is problematic: the moral law can
only serve as legitimizing ground for our belief in freedom if we take the
moral law to be already justified, prior to inferring our freedom. In the second
Critique, the justificatory relation between morality and freedom is unilateral
(Ak. 5, p. 47).
Michael Wolff’s article seeks to provide a full commentary of Groundwork III.
It contains a wealth of interesting analyses, but I must confess that I could not
follow some of Wolff’s more ambitious suggestions, such as his attempt to illu-
minate Kant’s project to show how the CI is possible as a synthetic a priori cog-
nition through an analogy with the deduction of the categories (pp. 299 – 306),
especially in view of Wolff’s later multiple qualifications, even denials of the
possibility of explaining the moral law (pp. 315 – 320). One central component
of Wolff’s analysis is the following: In his view, section 2 already provides a de-
duction of freedom, namely, an inference that all rational beings are free based
on the premise that such beings cannot regard their practical principles as con-
trolled by alien impulses; it follows (on the basis of the reciprocity thesis) that
the moral law is valid for the will of all such rational beings (pp. 273 – 275).
But then, Wolff suggests (pp. 284– 287), a new question about the validity of
this law as a CI arises because one cannot easily ascribe free practical reason
to finite beings whose will is affected by non-rational sensuous incentives, un-
less one already assumes, circularly, that their will is bound by the law of au-
tonomy. According to Wolff, the problem is solved through the emphasis (in sec-
tion 3) that finitely rational beings can adopt a special (“intelligible”) standpoint
from which they consider their freedom as an a priori rather than an empirical
property of their will (p. 290). I found this suggestion puzzling, because Kant
(in the Groundwork) never considers the possibility that our freedom might be
anything but an a priori capacity. Moreover, if it was earlier deemed acceptable
to validate freedom by invoking the common self-conception of agents who
Schönecker, Dieter (ed.): Kants Begründung von Freiheit und Moral 263

must assume that their practical principles are not determined by alien impulses,
then it cannot suddenly appear as a problem that we, who are agents and thus
satisfy this condition, have finite practical reason that is (merely) affected by
such impulses.
All eight essays are a fine display of philosophical scholarship, and contain
much interesting, thought-provoking material. Hence, this volume is a must-read
for anyone interested in Kant’s Groundwork or in his project of moral justifica-
tion.
Daniel Sutherland

R. Lanier Anderson: The Poverty of Conceptual Truth: Kant’s Analytic/Synthetic


Distinction and the Limits of Metaphysics. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015

R. Lanier Anderson places Kant’s philosophy in historical context, and in partic-


ular in the context of 17th and 18th century logic and metaphysics. A theory of
logic and conceptual representation shaped Leibniz’s rationalism as well as
Wolff’s philosophy, which was based on it. As Anderson shows, one cannot
fully understand Kant without appreciating Kant’s evolving views of logic, con-
cepts, and the analytic-synthetic distinction against this backdrop. The impor-
tance of doing so is paramount, since the analytic-synthetic distinction is crucial
to Kant’s critical philosophy.
Anderson’s book is impressive for the breadth of its investigation, beginning
with the Port-Royal Logic, through Leibniz, Wolff, and others, and for his careful
tracing of the development of Kant’s philosophy from his earliest writings into
the critical period. Anderson provides an overarching interpretation of the evo-
lution of Kant’s views that at the same time makes sense of the details. Anderson
is also good at summarizing secondary literature, especially on the analytic-syn-
thetic distinction and Kant’s philosophy of mathematics.
As Anderson convincingly shows, Kant’s understanding of the analytic-syn-
thetic distinction in his mature critical period is first and foremost logical; that
is, an analytic judgment is one in which the concept of the predicate is contained
in the concept of the subject. This is in contrast to the influential interpretations
of Lewis White Beck and Henry Allison, who, under the pressure of 20th century
attacks on analyticity, worried about the logical version of the analytic-synthetic
distinction – about the purported role of introspection and a vulnerability to
converting synthetic judgments to analytic judgments – and as a result endorsed
an epistemological reading of the analytic-synthetic distinction. By re-establish-
ing the primacy of the logical interpretation of the distinction, Anderson pro-
vides an important corrective in our understanding of Kant. But there is much
more of value in Anderson’s work as well.
The book includes 13 chapters divided into an introduction, four parts and
an epilogue, followed by three appendices with further supporting material. An-
derson’s interpretation can be partially summarized in five theses. First, Kant
came to appreciate the inadequacy of Leibniz and Wolff’s logic and metaphysics,
which he had accepted in his early career; most importantly, in a process that
took decades, he came to reject the predicate-in-subject principle, according to
which all truths are true in virtue of the containment relations among concepts.
Kant furthermore saw that Wolff’s logico-metaphysics, according to which those

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-013
266 Daniel Sutherland

containment relations formed a hierarchy of concepts under an ultimate highest


concept, was even less capable of accounting for all truths.
Part I of the book provides a thorough account of Leibniz’s and Wolff’s views
that is valuable in its own right and sets the stage for Kant’s reaction to them.
Anderson spends a fair amount of time carefully laying out Wolff’s philosophy.
He reveals Wolff’s weaknesses as a philosopher and at the same time explains
Wolff’s commitment to an organization of all concepts into a hierarchy, under
a highest concept. An important vestige of this hierarchy survives in Kant’s
own views.
A second thesis of Anderson’s interpretation is that Kant started out fully
committed to the predicate-in-subject principle, but eventually came to realize
that he needed to argue for a distinction between concept containment truths
and other truths that did not beg the question against his rationalist predeces-
sors. Kant cannot simply introduce the analytic-synthetic distinction by fiat.
He needs an argument to show that apparently synthetic truths do not turn
out to be analytic on a correct analysis of the concepts; in particular, he needs
an argument that blocks what Anderson calls the “recuperation strategy,” where-
by a Leibnizian or a Wolffian reformulates a purported synthetic truth to turn it
into an analytic one. Kant therefore needs what Anderson characterizes as “a
two-step strategy” for overturning the rational logico-metaphysics he inherited:
a non-question-begging argument that there are truths that in principle cannot
be true in virtue of concept containment; and then an explanation of how
such truths are possible. The two-step strategy, which Anderson articulates at
the close of Part II, structures Anderson’s overall interpretation.
A third thesis, which constitutes the bulk of Part II, is that in his pre-critical
period, Kant endorsed two versions of the analytic-synthetic distinction – the
methodological and the epistemological – that were not adequate for the first
step of the two-step strategy. Furthermore, Kant’s development of the logical ver-
sion, which allowed him to respond to his rationalist predecessors, was a key fac-
tor, perhaps the key factor, in the development of his critical philosophy.
The key feature of both the methodological and epistemological versions of
the analytic-synthetic distinction is that they characterize ways of arriving at or
justifying a judgment. They allow a distinction between analytic and synthetic
judgments that distinguishes them by how they are arrived at or supported.
This distinction, however, is derivative; it is not distinguished solely in virtue
of the content of those judgments, and a judgment with some particular content
could be either analytic or synthetic. This marks a deep difference from the log-
ical version of the analytic-synthetic distinction, which applies directly to the
content of judgments and concerns the relation of the concepts contained in
it. Only the logical version of the analytic-synthetic distinction makes it possible
R. Lanier Anderson: The Poverty of Conceptual Truth 267

to argue that there are truths that are not reducible to concept-containment
truths.
Anderson traces the development of Kant’s views from the methodological
and epistemological versions to the logical version starting in the pre-critical pe-
riod, through the Inaugural Dissertation and into the “silent decade” before the
appearance of the first Critique. According to Anderson, Kant was stymied by his
inability to shed his full commitment to the predicate-in-subject principle, and
hence the claim that all truths are true in virtue of concept containment. Ander-
son views the famous letter to Herz in 1772 as the turning point, when Kant first
sees that he needs the logical version of the analytic-synthetic distinction to for-
mulate a non-question-begging argument against the rationalists.
I do not think this account gives sufficient credit to the role of the distinction
between logic and real grounds in the development of Kant’s critical philosophy.
As Anderson himself explains, already in his Negative Magnitudes of 1763, Kant
was inspired by Crusius to draw a distinction between logical and real grounds,
and argues that the Leibnizian-Wolffian philosophy is inadequate because real
grounds are required to explain truths that cannot be expressed as mere logical
containment relations between concepts. Anderson in fact notes that in Negative
Magnitudes, “the logical-real distinction appears to do the very work assigned to
the critical analytic/synthetic distinction” (p. 163) and adds that the text is re-
markable because it “apparently suggests all the key moves that Kant will
later make using the analytic-synthetic distinction” (p. 164).
Anderson is right that Kant did not see his way clearly through the issues
until later in his career, sometimes showing a lingering commitment to the pred-
icate-in-subject principle, sometimes asserting that there are non-logical truths
with real grounds. But as I understand Kant, the logical-real ground distinction
played a crucial role in the development of Kant’s philosophy, and what stymied
Kant is not unwavering commitment to the predicate-in-subject principle, but his
lack of an account of real grounds. Introducing the logical version of the analyt-
ic-synthetic distinction facilitated clear expression of Kant’s views, but the cru-
cial idea was that there are truths with non-logical grounds. Settling this
issue, however, would require further argument.
The fourth thesis of Anderson’s work, the topic of Part III, is that Kant need-
ed to appeal to mathematics for a robust non-question-begging argument against
the claim that all truths are concept-containment truths. Mathematical concepts
are much clearer than philosophical concepts, making it harder for a Leibnizian
or Wolffian to claim that the propositions of mathematics are obscured analytic-
ities. Moreover, philosophers had long pointed to mathematics as the paradigm
of scientific knowledge, so that if Kant is successful, the challenge would shake
the Leibnizian and Wolffian philosophies at their core.
268 Daniel Sutherland

Anderson identifies two kinds of argument intended to show that mathemat-


ics is ineliminably synthetic. The first kind targets both Leibniz and Wolff, and
further divides into two arguments: the need for singular representation in math-
ematical reasoning and the inability of concepts to represent distinctively math-
ematical properties and relations. The second kind of argument only targets
Wolff and his commitment to a hierarchy of genus-species concepts. The former
arguments are more ambitious, since Leibniz is a much better and more influen-
tial philosopher. They are also more effective, since Leibniz was the source of the
predicate-in-subject principle; a successful argument against Leibniz obviates
further argument against Wolff or the Wolffians. I will focus on the first kind
of argument, and in particular on the inability of concepts to represent distinc-
tively mathematical properties and relations.
Anderson describes common ground shared by Leibniz, Wolff and Kant on
the nature of conceptual representation: that concepts represent and only repre-
sent qualitative differences. As a result, it is not possible for concepts to repre-
sent numerical difference with qualitative identity. This finds expression in Leib-
niz’s principle of the identity of indiscernibles (PII), where what makes things
discernible are differences in quality that are at least in principle conceptually
representable. Kant agrees with PII, so far as conceptual representation goes,
but he appeals to intuition as a ground of numerical difference without qualita-
tive difference, and on that basis attacks Leibniz’s endorsement of PII. Kant,
however, needs a non-question-begging argument to show that there are math-
ematical truths that cannot be explained as concept-containment truths. It
would not be enough to argue that mathematical cognition requires the repre-
sentation of magnitudes, which in turn requires intuition. What is required is
that there are mathematical propositions about magnitudes that are irreducibly
synthetic. One strategy is to focus on the nature of mathematical composition
underlying claims such as 5 + 7 = 12. Kant strongly suggests this approach in
the famous passage of the Introduction at B15‒16. Another approach, which An-
derson pursues, is to argue that arithmetical statements represent an equiva-
lence of non-identicals. Anderson argues that “in the domain of conceptual
truth, to be equal is to be strictly identical. Thus, no sense can be given to equiv-
alent but non-identical conceptual contents (or logical extensions)” (p. 248). An-
derson backs this up with a thorough analysis of a letter from Kant to Johann
Schultz in 1788. This is an important additional line of argument.
A fifth thesis, the topic of Part IV, is that Kant extends his non-question-beg-
ging arguments from mathematics to metaphysics by focusing on the generality
of concepts and the need for singular representation in metaphysics. The philo-
sophical issues are difficult and it is less clear that Kant’s arguments do not beg
any questions against the rationalists, but on the whole, Anderson gives a rich
R. Lanier Anderson: The Poverty of Conceptual Truth 269

account of Kant’s arguments in the Transcendental Dialectic against traditional


metaphysics.
Finally, the epilogue is no mere afterthought; it is one of the most rewarding
parts of Anderson’s book. His careful work on Wolff’s hierarchy of genus-species
concepts under a higher genus allows him to give a new, much more nuanced
account of Kant’s similar views on the organization of our knowledge into a sys-
tem of concepts. Anderson’s analysis of Kant on empirical concept formation is
particularly insightful and explains features of Kant’s views that others have ne-
glected.
While there are points on which I disagree, I profited greatly from Ander-
son’s work. His careful reconstruction of the rationalism against which Kant re-
acted and his insistence on a non-question-begging argument against it provides
new insights into Kant’s philosophy and its development. He also deftly explains
puzzling features of Kant’s early views and the development of Kant’s critical
philosophy. Anderson avoids Kantian jargon, writes remarkably clearly, and
takes a long view of the history of the analytic-synthetic distinction, including
Quinean arguments against it. The Poverty of Conceptual Truth will be a standard
reference point for future work on the history of the analytic-synthetic distinc-
tion, on the pivotal role of the distinction in Kant’s philosophy, and on the de-
velopment of Kant’s views.
Michael Nance

Jean-Christophe Merle/Andreas Schmidt (eds.): Fichtes System der Sittenlehre.


Ein kooperativer Kommentar. Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann 2015

The back cover of this kooperative Kommentar to Fichte’s System der Sittenlehre
states that the volume “ermöglicht dem Leser, die Argumentation des Textes
Schritt für Schritt nachzuvollziehen.” The volume’s careful, analytically detailed
essays for the most part accomplish this aim. Thus this Kommentar would serve
well as a companion for philosophically sophisticated readers approaching
Fichte’s Sittenlehre for the first time, or for scholars engaged in close reading
of specific passages. In the rest of the review, I briefly describe the structure
and contents of the volume’s essays and then conclude with some general eval-
uative remarks.
Andreas Schmidt’s “Einleitung” introduces the reader to Fichte and sketches
some basic principles of the broader philosophical project, the Wissenschaft-
slehre, that Fichte carried out during the 1790s, as well as the place of the Sitten-
lehre in that broader project. As I suggest below, Schmidt’s chapter might be read
in conjunction with Daniel Breazeale’s Chapter on “Der systematische Ort der Sit-
tenlehre Fichtes” to give a new reader a comprehensive introduction to Fichte’s
systematic project in the text.
In Chapter Two, Wayne Martin discusses Fichte’s “Einleitung” to the Sitten-
lehre. Martin emphasizes two Fichtean themes: first, the close connection be-
tween our self-relation in cognitive activity and in practical activity, and second,
the unique kind of practical normativity that, in his view, characterizes Fichte’s
project in the Sittenlehre (37). Regarding the former theme, Martin argues that
our “reflexive Sich-Finden” presupposes “eine präreflexive Selbstbeziehung”
(29). Fichte’s idea is that self-consciousness, in cognition and in action, presup-
poses an immediate identity between the I qua subject and the I qua object.
Chapter Three, by Schmidt, covers §§ 1– 3 of the Sittenlehre, which Fichte en-
titles “Deduction des ersten Princips der Sittlichkeit.” Fichte’s stated aim in this
first Hauptstück of the text is to derive the unconditional bindingness of the
moral law from first principles. Schmidt’s thesis, which he elucidates by refer-
ence to the Kantian distinction between Wille and freie Willkür (Ak. 6, 226), is
that Fichte aims to show how the moral law can 1) have an unconditionally
necessary authority, while 2) remaining a law whose authority is freely authorized
by us as autonomous beings (40). Fichte’s solution, per Schmidt, is at its core
Cartesian: it is the idea that rational compulsion to agree to a thought or princi-
ple is itself a form of freedom (51– 53).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-014
272 Michael Nance

At this point in the text, Fichte takes himself to have derived a conceptual
connection between the idea of a free action and his version of the moral law,
which commands the pursuit of “Selbständigkeit, schlechthin ohne Ausnahme”
(I/5, 69 – 70).¹ Chapters 4– 6 deal with the text’s second “Hauptstück,” the “De-
duction der Realität und Anwendbarkeit dieses Princips” (Sittenlehre, §§ 4– 13).
In this Hauptstück, Fichte wants to show that the requirements of the moral
law are, in principle, actually realizable in the empirical world, for the latter
is in a certain sense determined “durch die Freiheit, als theoretisches Princip”
(I/5, 77). This requires a fundamental re-thinking of the relationship between na-
ture and freedom. Chapters 4– 6 cover the sections in which Fichte carries out
this re-thinking.
Michael Quante’s Chapter 4, which discusses §§ 4– 7, is a model for how to
do close textual analysis. Quante begins the chapter with a concise outline of
the proof structure of the paragraphs as a whole (59 – 60). Of special interest
are Quante’s reconstructions of Fichte’s claim that the practical perspective of
self-conscious agency implies a commitment to realism about the external ob-
jects with which we practically interact (63), a realism which Fichte then further
determines as a kind of causal relation between free agency and external objects
(69; I/5, 95). For a practical agent to be aware of itself as such, it must regard it-
self as causally interacting with a world of independent objects.
In Chapter 5, Friedrike Schick analyzes § 8, in which Fichte analyzes nature
“within” the rational being and nature “outside” the rational being. Fichte aims
to further determine the free rational being’s relation to nature by showing that
inner and outer nature share the same teleological “Trieb” structure. This purpo-
sive, non-mechanistic construal of nature provides Fichte with a “Mittelglied zwi-
schen Natur als blossem Mechanismus […] und Freiheit, als direktem Gegensatze
alles Mechanismus” (I/5, 113). Schick argues that Fichte’s account of the I’s inner
drive-structure conflates the perspective of the practical I with the perspective of
the philosophical theorist describing the I (83), and she with good reason ques-
tions the soundness of Fichte’s “Verallgemeinerung des Triebs zur Verfassung
von Natur überhaupt” (86).
Chapter 6, by Allen Wood, is one of the highlights of the volume. The leading
theme of Wood’s contribution is that Fichte’s key doctrines of “Triebe” and “mor-
alisches Interesse” are meant to provide a unitary ground in the practical subject
for both nature and freedom, thereby overcoming Kant’s dualisms of “Vernunft

 References to Fichte are to the Bavarian Academy edition (division, volume and page number)
of his complete works: J. G. Fichte-Gesamtausgabe. Lauth, Reinhard; Gliwitzky, Hans (eds.).
Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog 1962– 2012.
Jean-Christophe Merle/Andreas Schmidt (eds.): Fichtes System der Sittenlehre 273

und Sinnlichkeit bzw. Pflicht und Neigung” (94, 99, 104). Wood’s account of
Fichte’s complex theory of “natural” and “pure” drives and their interaction is
extraordinarily clear and incisive (98 – 104). These arguments complete Fichte’s
account of the free agent’s integration into nature, thereby securing the “Realität
und Anwendbarkeit” of the moral principle. Wood concludes with a critique of
Fichte’s rigorism, which holds that every action is either morally commanded
or morally forbidden, according to whether it furthers the final end of reason
(105 – 108; I/5, 146).
Part III of the Sittenlehre is entitled “Systematische Anwendung des Princips
der Sittlichkeit.” In this last part of the text, Fichte proceeds to determine, in in-
creasingly concrete detail, the form and content of our moral duties. Roughly
speaking, §§ 14– 18 (the first and second sections of Part III) deal with what
we would call metaethics and normative ethical theory, while the third section,
“Die eigentliche Pflichtenlehre,” deals with more concrete applications.
Chapters 7 and 8, both by Jean-Christoph Merle, discuss the “formal”
(§§ 14– 16) and “material” (§§ 17– 18) conditions of morality, respectively. The
“formal” condition of morality is Fichte’s doctrine of conscience (§ 15). Merle
skillfully situates Fichte’s discussions of the will (§ 14) and evil (§ 16) in relation
to Kant. But one might have wished for more exposition of the difficult doctrine
of conscience itself, which Merle glosses only briefly (117). Fichte’s idea that con-
science is the feeling of certainty that results from the “Uebereinstimmung un-
sers Bewusstseyns mit unserm ursprünglichen Ich” (I/5, 158) is quite opaque,
and more guidance here would have been helpful.
Chapter 8 deals primarily with the three “material” conditions of morality
that Fichte lays out in § 18. Per Merle, the three conditions are “der Leib, die Sub-
stantialität des Individuums, und die Wechselwirkungen zwischen den einzelnen
Individuen” (135). After briefly describing the relations among the three condi-
tions (136 – 137), Merle discusses each condition, the sense in which it conditions
the I’s practical activity, and the general classes of obligations that Fichte derives
from each condition.
Chapter 9, by Marc Maesschalck, turns to Fichte’s concrete applications of
his theory. His discussion ranges widely over the following topics: the relation
of Fichte’s Sittenlehre to Kant, the doctrine of “bedingte Pflichten” as this is de-
veloped in §§ 20 – 21, the systematic importance of this doctrine for Fichte’s prac-
tical philosophy, and the contemporary relevance of Fichte’s views. I found
Maesschalck’s discussion of the sense in which Fichte’s ethics is a material
ethics, as opposed to Kant’s merely formal approach, and the substantive ram-
ifications of this fact for Fichte’s entire approach to practical philosophy to be
especially illuminating (164 – 165). The systematic connections he explores be-
274 Michael Nance

tween the doctrine of besondere bedingte Pflichten and Fichte’s other works on
education and economic theory are also instructive (175 – 178).
Chapter 10, by Carla de Pascale, treats the doctrine of universal or uncondi-
tioned duties (§§ 22– 25). Pascale argues that these paragraphs offer resources for
responding to critics of Fichte’s ethical rigorism and communitarianism. Fichte’s
rigorism might give one the impression that moral agents are in all cases respon-
sible for making the world maximally good. Pascale points out in response that
for Fichte, “der Einzelne [hat] nicht die Verantwortung für den gesamten Lauf
der Welt zu übernehmen,” because the individual has absolute duties only “in
seiner Sphäre freier Wirksamkeit” (197). Fichte’s move here is meant to put
some limits on the demands of morality. Regarding Fichte’s communitarianism,
Fichte’s idea that individuals are “Mittel, die Vernunft zu realisiren,” (I/5, 230) or
“Werkzeuge” of the moral law (I/5, 214) would seem to lead to an un-Kantian
subordination of the status of individuals as ends in themselves in favor of
the end of reason, which is to establish the community of rational beings (I/5,
229 – 231). In response, Pascale emphasizes that Fichte’s doctrine of duties re-
quires that individual persons regard each other as equal members of the
moral community and thus not as in any way dispensable (197). This response
leaves open the important question as to whether Fichte is some kind of Kantian
consequentialist, or whether there is a non-consequentialist way of interpreting
the teleological structure of his ethics.²
Anthony La Vopa’s Chapter 11, which is not focused on the text of the Sitten-
lehre, takes up Fichte’s views about marriage, gender, sexuality, and love. La
Vopa’s thesis is that sexuality and marriage present a potential “Bruchstelle”
in Fichte’s thought, for they are located on the edge of three competing concep-
tions of the human person that Fichte struggles to integrate: the person as nat-
ural being, the person as moral agent, and the person as juridical subject. After
reconstructing the historical context for Fichte’s extremely patriarchal views
about marriage and gender, La Vopa goes on to make a strong case that Fichte
understood basic elements of the Wissenschaftslehre itself as gendered. The Wis-
senschaftslehre’s emphasis on the Tätigkeit and Streben of the I, as well as the
doctrine’s emphasis on abstract, universal principles are all coded, for Fichte,
as strongly male (215).
In Chapter 12, Jean-Francois Goubet discusses the Einteilung der Berufe and
the particular duties that attach to various Berufe (which, for Fichte, must be

 For discussion, see Wood: Fichte’s Ethical Thought. Oxford University Press 2016, pp. 149 – 154;
and Kosch, Michelle: “Agency and Self-Sufficiency in Fichte’s Ethics,” in: Philosophy and Phe-
nomenological Research XCI no. 2 (September 2015).
Jean-Christophe Merle/Andreas Schmidt (eds.): Fichtes System der Sittenlehre 275

freely chosen). Fichte gives pride of place to Gelehrten in the social order because
of their ethical expertise, in particular, their “Kenntnis der Vernunftideen, die als
organisatorische Prinzipien gelten” in an ethical society (232). However, Goubet
emphasizes that it is part of Fichte’s moral ideal that this arrangement should be
superseded so that all people are equally able to unite theory and practice (235 –
236). Goubet’s discussion of the duties of Staatsbeamten is especially interesting
for its attention to the political context of Fichte’s remarks (243 – 246).
The final two essays discuss, first, the “Rezeption und Wirkungsgeschichte”
of Fichte’s Sittenlehre (Günter Zöller), and second, the “systematischer Ort” of the
work (Daniel Breazeale).
Zöller’s Chapter 13 chronicles the scholarly reception of Fichte’s Sittenlehre
since its publication. Although Zöller provides a good overview of some aspects
of the literature on Fichte’s Sittenlehre during the 19th and 20th centuries, I note
two reservations about his account.³ First, according to Zöller, Hegel treats
Fichte’s Sittenlehre only negatively during the Jena years, but I think there is
good evidence in the Jena System Drafts that Hegel engages more positively
and constructively with Fichte’s Sittenlehre in the later Jena years prior to the
Phenomenology. ⁴ Second, Zöller laments the lack of systematic attention to
Fichte’s ethics among contemporary ethicists, but this state of affairs is rapidly
changing, with prominent systematic treatises by Allen Wood and Michelle
Kosch either recently published or forthcoming.
The final essay in the volume is Daniel Breazeale’s excellent chapter on the
“systematische Ort der Sittenlehre Fichtes.” Breazeale’s characteristically thor-
ough scholarship and mastery of the structure and development of Fichte’s
thought are on display. Especially for a first-time reader, one difficulty of the Sit-
tenlehre is that, although the text is filled with arguments, it is very hard to orient
oneself in terms of the overall aims of the work. The systematic context provided
by Breazeale helps remedy this difficulty by clarifying Fichte’s ambitions within
the work before one gets bogged down in the details. Breazeale gives a very in-
formative overview of the shape of Fichte’s Jena system and the place of the
Sittenlehre within that system (267– 283). Breazeale also comments on several
important themes within the Sittenlehre and their relation to Fichte’s larger sys-
tematic project, including the idea of a material ethics (278 – 79, 284– 286), and
the primacy of practical reason (283 – 286). In my view, then, Breazeale’s chapter
might best be read in conjunction with Schmidt’s shorter “Einleitung” as an in-

 Additionally, see Kosch (2015): “Fichtean Kantianism in Nineteenth-Century Ethics,” in: Jour-
nal of the History of Philosophy 53 no. 1, 111– 132.
 I make this argument in “Hegel’s Jena Practical Philosophy,” in: Moyar, Dean (ed.): The Oxford
Handbook of Hegel. Oxford University Press, forthcoming 2017.
276 Michael Nance

troduction to the Sittenlehre. Thus its place at the end of the volume is somewhat
confusing.
My brief summaries do not do justice to the essays’ many detailed analyses
of Fichte’s text. The coverage of the crucial second Hauptstück, in which Fichte
develops the difficult metaphysical and action-theoretic views that underpin his
ethics, is especially effective. Several discussions of the sense in which Fichte’s
ethics is material, as opposed to merely formal, are also illuminating (Breazeale,
Maesschalck, Merle). And the attention paid to the later parts of the work, in
which Fichte develops his “applied” ethics, stands out, since scholarly attention
has been more focused on the earlier, more “theoretical” parts of the work. There
are, however, a few topics that deserve more attention than they receive, in par-
ticular Fichte’s doctrine of conscience, and the question of consequentialism in
the Sittenlehre. Despite these omissions, the volume provides valuable guidance
through a very difficult text.
Allen Speight

Christopher Yeomans: The Expansion of Autonomy: Hegel’s Pluralistic Philosophy


of Action. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2015

Hegel scholarship over the last couple of generations has explored the post-Kant-
ian character of Hegel’s project in ethics, moral psychology and agency in ways
that have given helpful new context to traditional issues of debate such as He-
gel’s criticisms of the alleged empty formalism of Kantian moral law. It can hard-
ly be disputed that the notion of autonomy is central to this debate, but there re-
mains insufficient consensus around whether Hegel’s larger project, with its
appeals to freedom as discoverable only within a context of Sittlichkeit, should
be understood to have taken this key Kantian concept in some relevant sense fur-
ther (the claim of “expansion” so central to Yeomans’ project) or instead just
cannily to have shifted the topic in a way that somehow betrays its Kantian
source.
Yeomans shapes his rich contribution to this debate around the problematic
relationship between universality and individuality that lies at the heart of the
concept of virtue in the ethics of both Kant and Hegel (a concept which in
both cases must be marked off as importantly different from its embodiment
in ancient Greek ethical philosophy). The stakes here could hardly be more cru-
cial, not only for the territory Yeomans wants to claim for both thinkers (versus a
Schopenhauerian insistence that we can’t be individuated qua free) but also for
certain distinctively Hegelian contributions to the debate. (On this latter point, a
key question is what it might mean for Hegel to claim that individuality is best
understood not in terms of a concatenation of various qualities but rather as a
form of self-determination – a topic mentioned mostly in passing here but
which, at the metaphysical level, lies interestingly behind much of what is dis-
cussed in this book.)
Yeomans argues that there are three related but often conflicting projects in-
volved in the “expansion” of autonomy, if such a term is going to have any mean-
ing: self-appropriation (which includes apperception but also the sort of Selbst-
gefühl relevant for connection to one’s own and other wills); the specification
of content (not only in terms of individual needs and desires but also in terms
of goods and principles of right); and effectiveness (the question of how to trans-
late self-determination so that an agent can find recognition in what she does).
Each of these problems, Yeomans claims, has both an objective and a subjective
aspect, which he characterizes in broadest terms as a relationship between tal-
ents and interests, the former emphasizing individual forms of the capacity to set
ends in which freedom is, as it were, in the mode of givenness or naturalness,

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-015
278 Allen Speight

and the latter focusing on what most generally triggers or could satisfy our con-
cern or curiosity in the world. Yeomans’ analysis and employment of these terms
is philosophically creative and (one hopes) possibly conversation-changing – he
suggests that their role is similar, for example, to that of beliefs and desires in
causal accounts in contemporary philosophy of action.
The book is structured around two large textually-informed discussions,
each of which is worthy of sustained attention by contemporary scholars of Ger-
man Idealism. The first is devoted to Hegel’s account of active reason and indi-
viduality in the Phenomenology of Spirit (PhG) sections that he gave the remark-
able titles “Virtue and the Way of the World” (Die Tugend und der Weltlauf) and
the “Spiritual Animal Kingdom” (Das geistige Tierreich), and the second is devot-
ed to Hegel’s account of the estates (Stände), as it appears in the Jena Realphi-
losophie and ultimately (in somewhat different form) in the Philosophy of Right
(PR).
Yeomans’ discussion of the Phenomenology passages in light of this Kantian
background is philosophically stimulating and, in highlighting what is involved
in the relation between talents and interests, may well perform a similar service
for the “Spiritual Animal Kingdom” section that Dean Moyar’s Hegel’s Conscience
has recently done for the concluding section of the “Spirit” chapter – by offering
a reading that rescues it from those interpretations over the years that have fo-
cused exclusively on the negative side of what Hegel critiques there and by
prompting instead a reconsideration of its positive import for Hegel’s ethics.
There are some difficulties with this approach, however. One is textual. Al-
though Yeomans is right to insist that his is an argument that remains worth con-
sidering even if the exegetical issues don’t work out fully, many readers will still
no doubt come to his book with an interest in how it illuminates the key sections
he so carefully discusses. And, while a consideration of these sections of the Phe-
nomenology in connection with specific issues raised by Kant’s Tugendlehre
shines light on a philosophically coherent Hegelian project of “expanding” au-
tonomy, it is unclear (if the history of PhG reception be any key) whether it
will come to be accepted by scholars of Hegel’s work.
As Yeomans points out, the “Spiritual Animal Kingdom” already has advo-
cates of quite different readings: he acknowledges, for example, the Herderian
strain isolated by Michael Forster’s interpretation of this section, but he remains
unconvinced of this as an overall reading of the passage, and he admits that
there are other background influences (Fichte’s, for example) that would be im-
portant for a complete understanding of the section. Kant, Herder and Fichte are
no doubt all relevant for understanding the background of this section (as are
without doubt figures Yeomans doesn’t mention here, including Smith, Mande-
ville, and Shaftesbury) but textual work on such sections in the PhG (as distinct
Christopher Yeomans: The Expansion of Autonomy 279

from less allusive parts of the Hegelian corpus) needs to proceed on very careful
grounds, informed both by a level of textual scholarship examining the range of
Hegel’s employment of sources and with a construal of the broader philosophi-
cal project that Hegel is committing to the distinct form of the Phenomenology.
On the one hand, not all of the textual links Yeomans suggests between Kant
and these sections of the Phenomenology are dispositive; on the other hand, it
seems hard to controvert a point of the sort made years ago by Kurt Meist and
Manfred Baum (and confirmed by passages in Hegel’s own Jena notebooks)
that Hegel directly lifted the titles and key descriptive phrases of all three “Active
Reason” sections from a remarkable review in the Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung in
April 1805 of a series of romantic era novels, all reflecting a central Sturm und
Drang problematic that Hegel also clearly links to Goethe’s Faust, Schiller’s
Karl Moor and perhaps a romantically-inspired Don Quixote. If these sources –
and their interconnectedness – are indeed in Hegel’s mind, what should be em-
phasized is not something that derives in the first instance from an engagement
with inherent difficulties in Kantian moral philosophy but – as Hegel’s section
title “Active Reason” suggests – something that begins in a more immediate
and romantic vein as the expression of agents in a pre-sittlich environment
whose newly-awakened senses of individuality all come up against a world
which appears to oppose that agency but which in fact has only been created
by that agency itself. Yeomans’ reading does have the benefit that it underscores
Hegel’s own stress on how all these engagements lead to the issue of empty for-
malism, and it does also frequently tally with the perspective of what I’m calling
the more romantic reading – for example, when he claims that the “spiritual an-
imals” who result are (like those, he says, in “later childhood and adolescence”)
“creatures who are just starting to take reflective responsibility for their own in-
dividuation” (p. 27).
Beyond the textual issues involved, however, it’s not clear how this specific
strand of argument about individuality fits within the contours of the larger post-
Kantian project in ethics that Hegel is working out over his own development.
Yeomans moves directly to compare the Metaphysics of Morals (MM) with the
Phenomenology sections he takes up, but, as Rosenkranz pointed out, Hegel’s
engagement with the MM had a longer trajectory, beginning in the decade before
the Phenomenology with a section-by-section commentary that Hegel wrote dur-
ing his time at Frankfurt (and continuing over the years in Nürnberg and Heidel-
berg). Yeomans doesn’t mention this earlier engagement of Hegel’s with the MM,
but the perspective of the larger developmental account is important because,
from what we can tell of Hegel’s Frankfurt reading of the MM, he was concerned
both then and later not merely with issues such as the construal of Kant’s notion
of virtue and the ends of rational agents, but above all with the question of unity
280 Allen Speight

raised by Kant’s MM project as a whole. For Hegel, as the structure of the PR fi-
nally was to make clear, both right and virtue require grounding in the notion of
Sittlichkeit and the social and political considerations it involves, and a number
of claims on the strictly legal or political side are missing from Yeoman’s discus-
sion (Hegel’s PR claim about the reciprocality of right and duty within ethical
life, for example, or Mark Alznauer’s recent claim that moral responsibility re-
quires the establishment of a legal and political order).
There is a similar abstraction from the political and legal side of things in
the book’s second part concerning Hegel’s Ständelehre, but what Yeomans
does offer is an important account both of the respect that Hegel’s theory of eth-
ical life gives to what we might call the “ordinary virtue” of farmers, craftspeo-
ple, soldiers and merchants, and of his incorporation of the differing modes of
ethical motivation that are appropriate for each (“trust” for farmers, reliance on
institutional chains of connection and support for merchants). The question of
the “estates” is particularly a question for the post-French Revolutionary
world, as Hegel’s own writings about a Europe coming to terms with Napoleon
and his aftermath show. Yeomans chooses a telling quotation from the Jena Re-
alphilosophie as one of the epigrams for the second part of the work in which he
contrasts the French Revolution’s achievement of the “abolition of the privileged
estates” with the persisting diversity of estates, the abolition of which Hegel said
was only “empty talk.” On Hegel’s political view, neither the “atomizing” univer-
salism of abstract French principles nor the conservative insistence on maintain-
ing the old privileges of the estates addressed the realities of the modern world:
what characterized his approach instead has frequently been termed an “organi-
cism” or “articulated” view that acknowledged key social differences – hence,
the “pluralism” of Yeomans’ title. How far that goes in the direction of pluralism
as conceived in political terms today is another question (Yeomans makes clear
that a contemporary appeal to Hegel need not be literal-minded about the spe-
cific Stände of Hegel’s own day). But a pluralism in which trust and a more
rational calculation of interests both play a role may be of help in getting a per-
spective on some pressing current issues few contemporary social philosophers
(whether Hegelian or not) have been able to address. To take a quick example: it
might be of help in understanding the tendency of some voters to prefer (for pre-
sumably “cultural” reasons) candidates who may not act on what is in their eco-
nomic interest.
The book claims in conclusion that a consideration of the relation between
talents and interests in a post-Kantian account of individualism may offer impor-
tant support to the case for a contemporary Hegelian philosophy of agency
which can articulate itself as an alternative at once to options such as Hobbesian
compatibilism, mechanical determinism and empirical/causal accounts of ac-
Christopher Yeomans: The Expansion of Autonomy 281

tion. A further point – that finite autonomy deserves a certain respect – receives
an interesting defense at the end: responding to criticisms by Gary Watson and
Mark Wrathall that if, on this model, agency is “all about self-expression”
(p. 211), then has Hegelian agency really done anything more than just affirm
a certain vanity in human agency? Well, yes, seems to be the answer: Yeomans
asks (rightly) whether it shouldn’t be viewed as an advantage of a philosophy
of agency that it builds in the possibility of vanity, but then he makes clear
that Hegel’s way of addressing such vanity is not simply to affirm it (whatever
that might mean), but to offer us the realm of criticism of and by one another
for which the “Spiritual Animal Kingdom” has long held its justified reputation.
(It’s not about me, it’s about the reviews.) Whether that means a realm of mod-
ern agency in which, as Hegel puts it in that section, “feelings of exaltation, or
lamentation or repentance are all together out of place”¹ is a question still worth
asking, however.

 G. W. F. Hegel: Gesammelte Werke. Vol. 9. Bonsiepen, Wolfgang; Heede, Reinhard (eds.). Ham-
burg: Meiner 1980, p. 220.
Robert Seymour

Lara Ostaric (ed.): Interpreting Schelling: Critical Essays. Cambridge University


Press 2014

This collection, as the first volume in English solely dedicated to the thought of
Schelling on his own terms, marks the belated official entrance of Schelling into
Anglophone philosophical discourse (if one discounts the background role
Schelling played in the development of nineteenth century British Idealism
and Peircean Pragmatism). While Fichte has in recent years acquired a certain
importance for strands of post-analytic philosophy and Critical Theory, partly be-
cause of his pioneering theory of intersubjectivity, Schelling has remained be-
yond the pale. The permutations of his thought – from philosophy of nature
through radical monism to a historicized metaphysics of freedom – seem equally
unsuited to a reconstruction within the “soft-naturalist” framework current prev-
alent in the interpretation of German Idealism. As such, Schelling has mostly
featured in the often rhapsodic celebrations of an overlooked Vordenker of
themes in so-called “Continental Philosophy.” This appropriation, however,
has done little to dispel the after-image of a questionable Romantic with irration-
alist proclivities, which Schelling left in the wake of the political upheavals that
marked the final years of his activity.
But this situation is changing. A counter-movement against what is usually
called “soft-naturalism” (or even “relaxed naturalism” – McDowell), and a grow-
ing awareness of the distortions that are required to fit the Idealists into its
mould, are providing the prerequisites for serious engagement with Schelling.
As such, this collection is an important event, managing to make substantial
contributions to existing debates whilst simultaneously performing an introduc-
tory function. It offers snapshots from all the major stations of Schelling’s devel-
opment, from the very early essay “Über die Möglichkeit einer Form der Philos-
ophie überhaupt” to the late critique of Hegel. Hopefully this approach will
excite curiosity amongst the uninitiated, bringing attention to the extraordinary
range of Schelling’s philosophy through contributions from scholars who have
made their name primarily in connection with other thinkers (Breazeale, Forster,
Guyer, Watkins, Zöller), as well as from the doyens of German and English schol-
arship (Frank, Bowie). In what follows I will only be able to draw out a few
strands, highlighting how this volume adds to existing debates and suggests dis-
tinctive perspectives on Schelling.
Eric Watkins opens the volume with a piece which follows the recent trend
of renewed attention to Schelling’s reception of Kant. Watkins focuses on Schel-
ling’s “fundamental” debt in his search for the first principle of philosophy in his

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110579802-016
284 Robert Seymour

earliest publications, the Formschrift and Vom Ich, to Kant’s specific formulation
of the notion of the unconditioned. Watkins’ account implies a radical down-
grading of the influence of Fichte on Schelling’s early work, which has long
been simply taken for granted. However, Watkins’ assertion that Fichte never
claimed that the first principle of philosophy must be “absolutely uncondi-
tioned”, and his attendant denial of proper Kantian pedigree for Fichte’s innova-
tions, are contestable. As Zöller notes later in the volume, Fichte’s On the Con-
cept of the Wissenschaftslehre (1794) is in some ways the true “oldest system
program of German Idealism.” While less picturesque than the famous fragment,
the blueprint for post-Kantian architectonics is much more clearly set out there.
Watkins is right that Schelling’s account of the unconditioned incorporates ele-
ments from Kant, especially the so-called Transcendental Ideal, which are not
foregrounded in the Wissenschaftslehre. However, it would seem that the reason
for this is not greater attentiveness to Kant so much as Schelling’s willingness to
read Kant’s ideas of reason neo-Platonically. This in turn allows Schelling to es-
tablish a priority of Vernunft over Verstand and hence explains why the uncon-
ditioned Urform of philosophy can be accorded independent existence, whilst
Fichte’s account of the unconditioned is clearly still entangled with the sub-
ject-object structure of Erkenntniskritik. It could also be argued that the overcom-
ing of the merely regulative function of the unity of reason in Schelling’s postu-
lation of the unity of thought and being counts as a decisive criticism of Kant
rather than as an innovation in his spirit. It seems that Schelling’s influences
are diverse at this stage – Spinoza’s causa sui is likewise central in Schelling’s
account of the unconditioned self-positing of the Ich – and the tensions in his
early position seem precisely to derive from the forced reconciliation of many in-
commensurable positions.
The tendency to search for Kantian precedents is similarly evident in the ori-
entation of research into his philosophy of nature. This domain of Schelling’s
thought is the one to which contemporaries are currently most receptive, but it
presents special difficulties, being at once highly suggestive and forbidding in
its now antiquated technicalities. Recent scholarship has found a way forward
in tracking the proximity of the language of the philosophy of nature to that
of Kant’s transcendental deduction. But however enlightening this approach
might be, it provides no insight into why Schelling frames the philosophy of na-
ture in terms of the utopian overcoming of alienated man, suffering from the
“sickness” of “mere reflexion.” Lara Ostaric’s contribution provides helpful me-
diation between the contrasting strands of technicality and utopian reconcilia-
tion in Schelling’s writing of this period, by examining the role of life as an “an-
alogue of reason” which reveals the unifying ground of nature and mind. For
Ostaric, the genesis of Schelling’s project can be found in the anti-mechanist ac-
Lara Ostaric (ed.): Interpreting Schelling: Critical Essays 285

count of the dynamic relation of the two forces necessary for the possibility of
matter in Kant’s Metaphysische Anfangsgründe. In charting the creative extension
of this theory of forces, in its combination with the notion of free play, Ostaric
highlights the extent to which Schelling’s relationship to Kant is one of trans-
gression as much as fidelity.
Ostaric’s article also helpfully counters the trend toward viewing the philos-
ophy of nature as entirely sui generis. She shows how Schelling’s conception of
absolute identity emerges immanently from problems in the development of the
philosophy of nature; in the First Outline of a Philosophy of Nature (1799), Schel-
ling already moves from a basic opposition of two forces to an original unity
which manifests itself in Entzweyung. Breazeale’s meticulous tracking of Schel-
ling’s conception of philosophical construction from 1801– 1804 allows the read-
er to follow the further development and formalization of this idea. Since the
identity system is now usually hurried over as the least stimulating period of
Schelling’s thought, it is hard to recapture its euphoric initial reception, as pro-
viding the solution to all basic problems of philosophy. Manfred Frank’s piece on
the “Identity of Identity and Non-Identity” nonetheless succeeds in recovering
the power of Schelling’s thinking. He makes a case for the identity of identity
and non-identity as Schelling’s Grundgedanke, which informs everything from
his appropriation of Kant’s conception of the organism to his later theory of pred-
ication. The broad outlines will be familiar to readers of Frank’s classic essay
“Identität und Subjektivität”, which staked a claim for Schelling’s redoubled
theory of identity as an unprecedented event in the history of Western specula-
tion. The wealth of additional material here draws attention to the depth of
Schelling’s learning, in a tradition that runs from medieval logic through Leibniz
to Ploucquet.
The relative weight given to Schelling’s identity system in comparison to the
philosophy of nature is a welcome corrective to excessive enthusiasm about the
latter, but the volume also provides insight into other neglected areas. Despite
appearing to have as little to say about politics as Fichte has to say about nature,
what Schelling does say, from the middle period onwards, is highly unusual. It is
also instructive for understanding Schelling’s edgy relationship to Idealism in
the wake of the treatise On the Essence of Human Freedom (1809). Norberto Bob-
bio once described Hegel’s position in the tradition of political philosophy as
that of the transformation and perfection of classical natural law theory. Accord-
ing to Zöller’s stimulating and wide-ranging discussion of the political thought of
the Stuttgarter Privatvorlesungen, delivered a year after publication of the treatise
on freedom, Schelling would seem to be something like the inverter: the first the-
orist of the withering away of the modern state. While others have read this text
as a presentiment of anarchism, noting Bakunin’s early interest in Schelling, Zöl-
286 Robert Seymour

ler suggests that the motivating idea is an uncomfortably reactionary return of


the repressed, the escape of religion from its legitimising ideological subser-
vience to the state. Zöller shows that Schelling moves from his early critique
of the state as a “mechanistic” imposition, stymying spontaneous and organic
interaction, to a theological evaluation of its failings as an illegitimate unifica-
tion of particular and universal under conditions of a post-lapsarian perversion
of freedom. The present age only allows for true unification in ecclesial form – a
spiritual anticipation of the true Gemeinschaft which will overcome its sem-
blance in the form of Gesellschaft, to borrow terms from a debate which Schel-
ling anticipates. Zöller recognises the continuity with later Kantian themes
(supra-national political unity and eschatology), but strongly suggests that
once severed from a conception of the Rechtsstaat as guarantor of personal au-
tonomy, we are on very uncomfortable ground.
Zöller’s reading is an interesting challenge for those who see radical political
potential in Schelling’s break from the Kantian conception of normativity in
1809. His account also makes sense of another less publicised reception of Schel-
ling. This is best exemplified by the anti-nationalist political thinker and Schel-
ling-publicist Constantin Frantz, the reactionary pioneer of the concept of Mitte-
leuropa as successor to the Holy Roman Empire, whose Naturlehre des Staates
(1870) may well be, to date, the only articulation of a Schellingian politics on
a grand scale.
One striking theme running through the collection is an interest in the aes-
thetic. This is encouraging, since engagement with Schelling’s aesthetics and
philosophy of art has yet to escape the shadow cast by Dieter Jähnig’s enormous
and apparently definitive work of erudition, Schelling: Die Kunst in der Philoso-
phie (1966). In the most ambitious revisionary contribution in the volume,
Dobe attempts to overthrow the well-established commonplace that Schelling
gives up on aesthetics in his mature work and in doing so focuses on the fasci-
nating and often overlooked speech from 1807, Über das Verhältnis der bildenden
Künste zur Natur. It is tempting to see Fichte as the hidden target of Schelling’s
ambivalent attack on Winckelmann’s account of mimesis, which involves a cate-
gorical distinction between nature and spiritual sphere. Schelling’s most blister-
ing polemic against the older idealist had been written the year previously. How-
ever, Dobe turns our attention towards what was to come, suggesting that
Schelling’s account of artistic creation, a guiding of the infinite into the limits
of form, prefigures the later dialectic of ground and existence. However,
Dobe’s case for the innovative moral significance of Schelling’s aesthetics
seems to me to need qualifying; Schelling’s language in the Munich address is
clearly still informed by the identity theory’s interest in the “revelation” of the
infinite in the finite. But these types of ambiguity extend throughout the “middle
Lara Ostaric (ed.): Interpreting Schelling: Critical Essays 287

period” and Dobe helpfully deepens our understanding of Schelling’s thought in


transition.
Reflection on the aesthetic resonances of Schelling’s philosophy informs
Bowie’s case, in “Nature and Freedom in Schelling and Adorno,” for the rele-
vance of Schelling’s thought in contemporary philosophy. For Bowie, the aesthet-
ic significance of the later philosophy lies in its move away from the idea of art
as reconciliation of the infinite and the finite, the unconscious and the con-
scious, the capstone of the System of Transcendental Idealism (1800), towards
a notion of art as expressing the dialectic of necessity and freedom, which is
later fully realised in Adorno’s aesthetics. This insight emerges out of Schelling’s
later account of nature, and in turn suggests an account of freedom which can
enter into dialogue with the “normative” revival of Hegel. Schelling’s importance
lies in his rejection of the recurrent tendency to systematize or naturalize free-
dom in a manner which leads to its extinction. Freedom is to be understood
as inseparable from its ground in nature, without being reducible to it, and it
is this relation of dependence on and transcendence of the given which is dis-
closed in the aesthetic. Bowie further argues that Schelling’s account has critical
potential which is occluded by the “normative” Hegelian conception of freedom
which involves “leaving nature behind.” For Schelling, the latter amounts to a
disavowal of the ground of freedom, resulting in a perpetuation of natural com-
pulsion by other means. Bowie’s focus on the fruitful use to which Schelling can
be put leaves work to be done at the exegetical level. It is striking, for example,
that Schelling’s major statement on freedom – the 1809 treatise – argues both
that freedom and necessity demand systematic reconciliation and that it is the
vital antagonism between them that animates the history of thought.
A more circumscribed approach to some of the same issues is offered by
Fred Rush’s reconstruction of Schelling’s Hegelkritik, the last piece of the volume.
Discussions of this fateful philosophical rupture can easily become partisan and
for this reason Rush’s judicious tone is helpful. There are good grounds for think-
ing that the differences between Hegel and Schelling on basic logical issues can-
not be fully evaluated without considering the broader consequences for their
respective philosophical systems. Rush’s numerous interesting suggestions and
historical asides go some way toward doing this. But his claim that Schelling’s
criticisms have no immanent purchase against Hegel does not seriously address
Schelling’s detailed criticism of the beginning of Hegel’s Logic. Schelling’s cri-
tique is admittedly less than totally lucid, but he presents serious arguments in-
tended to show that the self-movement of the concept requires either an illegit-
imate determination of pure being as being in potentia or the surreptitious
introduction of an opposition between pure thought and thinking, of the sort
that should have been overcome by the beginning of the Logic.
288 Robert Seymour

Unfortunately, Rush tends to reduce the basic point of contention to a stand-


off based on an undecideable parti pris for or against a fundamental experience
of what he calls “Being as such.” This interpretation reiterates that of Eduard von
Hartmann, Schelling’s first post-Schopenhauerian champion, according to
whom the fundamental divergence between Hegel and Schelling is traceable
right back to the two thinkers’ interaction in Jena. On this account, the distinc-
tion between “positive” and “negative”, characteristic of Schelling’s late phase,
depends on a revamped conception of intellectual intuition as pre-discursive
“experience” preceding all conceptualisation. We may wonder if we are getting
the whole story here, particularly in the light of Manfred Frank’s work on the fail-
ure of self-grounding reflection, or Axel Hutter’s investigation of the reconfigura-
tion of the relation of practical and theoretical reason in Schelling’s late philos-
ophy. Since Schelling presents his own elaborate “negative” philosophy
(philosophy abstracted from its positive historical basis) as an ontology, it is per-
haps misleading of Rush to suggest that, according to Schelling, Hegel is guilty of
a “massive mistake in fundamental ontology.” The issue is rather that for Hegel
ontology can be generated entirely by the self-application of pure thinking; this
explains Schelling’s preoccupation with the moves at the beginning of the Logic.
The volume ends with something of a dismissal: Rush asserts that positive
philosophy’s purportedly a posteriori intuition of un-pre-thinkable Being (das
unvordenkliche Seyn) ultimately results in an assertion concerning the necessary
a priori structure of experience. Positive philosophy thus turns out to be nega-
tive – abstractly conceptual – and Schelling’s philosophical revolution therefore
rests on an unperceived incoherence. We are left with difficult questions. Is
Schelling then still an Idealist, despite his strenuous efforts to break the
mould from within in his later thought? If his main contribution was to provide
“an obstacle to the further development of Hegelianism,” is this obstructionism
at all justified? Despite the current widespread diffusion of a watered-down, ‘na-
turalised’ Hegelianism, from whose perspective Schelling may appear as an in-
assimilable relic, the issues raised by this battle of Titans are unlikely to disap-
pear any time soon.
III. Anhang/Appendix
Autoren/Authors

Federica Basaglia
Fachbereich Philosophie
Universität Konstanz
Fach 9
Universitätsstraße 10
78464 Konstanz
Deutschland
federica.basaglia@uni-konstanz.de

Alix Cohen
Department of Philosophy
Room 4.13, Dugald Stewart Building
3 Charles Street
Edinburgh, EH8 9AD
Scotland
Alix.Cohen@ed.ac.uk

Dina Emundts
Institut für Philosophie
Freie Universität Berlin
Habelschwerdter Allee 30
14195 Berlin
Deutschland
dina.emundts@fu-berlin.de

Sebastian Gardner
Department of Philosophy
University College London
Gower Street
London WC1E 6BT
United Kingdom
sebastian.gardner@ucl.ac.uk

Paul Guyer
Jonathan Nelson Professor of Humanities and Philosophy
Department of Philosophy,
45 Prospect Street,
Brown University
Box 1918,
Providence, Rhode Island 02912
USA
Paul_Guyer@brown.edu
292 Autoren/Authors

Christoph Halbig
UZH Philosophisches Seminar
Zollikerstrasse 117
CH-8008 Zürich
Schweiz
Christoph.halbig@philos.uzh.ch

Thomas Khurana
Department of Philosophy
University of Essex
Wivenhoe Park
Colchester CO4 3SQ
United Kingdom
t.khurana@essex.ac.uk

Markus Kohl
Department of Philosophy
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Caldwell Hall, CV # 3125
240 East Cameron
Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 – 3125
USA
mkohl17@email.unc.edu

Michael Nance
Department of Philosophy
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
1000 Hilltop Circle
Baltimore, Maryland 21250
USA
nance@umbc.edu

Judith Norman
Department of Philosophy
Trinity University
One Trinity Place
San Antonio, Texas 78212 – 7200
USA
jnorman2@trinity.edu

Ulrich Pothast
Frömmlingstraße 2
30655 Hannover
Deutschland
Pothast@t-online.de
Autoren/Authors 293

Andreas Schmidt
Friedrich-Schiller-Universität
Philosophische Fakultät
Institut für Philosophie
Zwätzengasse 9
07743 Jena
Deutschland
andreas.as.schmidt@uni-jena.de

Sally Sedgwick
Department of Philosophy (MC 267)
University of Illinois at Chicago
601 South Morgan Street
Chicago, IL 60607-7114
USA
sedgwick@uic.edu

Robert Seymour
Department of Philosophy
University of Essex
Wivenhoe Park
Colchester CO4 3SQ
United Kingdom
rseymo@essex.ac.uk

Ludwig Siep
Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität
Philosophisches Seminar
Domplatz 6
D-48143 Münster
Deutschland
siep@uni-muenster.de

Allen Speight
Department of Philosophy
Boston University
745 Commonwealth Avenue, Room 516
Boston, Massachusetts 02215
USA
casp8@bu.edu
294 Autoren/Authors

Daniel Sutherland
Department of Philosophy
University of Illinois at Chicago
601 South Morgan Street
Chicago, Illinois 60607 – 7114
USA
sutherla@uic.edu

Allen Wood
Ruth Norman Halls Professor of Philosophy
Department of Philosophy
Indiana University
1033 E. Third Street
Sycamore Hall 026
Bloomington, Indiana 47405 – 7005
USA
awwood@indiana.edu
Hinweis an die Verlage/Letter to Publishers
Wir möchten alle Verlage bitten, uns auf Neuerscheinungen aufmerksam zu
machen, in denen der Deutsche Idealismus Thema ist.

We request publishing houses to inform us of new materials related to the theme


of German Idealism.

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