The Role Of Women In The History Of Computing

Joyce Currie Little, Professor

Towson University Baltimore, Maryland U.S.A.= Email: jclittle@towson.edu

Abstract: Long before the electronic computing era, women were already a part of the information processing industry. For the first fifty years of information processing , women had an important role to play -- from the women data entry operators of the early 1900s to the six women programmers of ENIAC in the 1940s and the scientific computation women computists of the 1950s. Sometimes an extraordinary partnership occurred, with women an integral part of a team. Sometimes a stroke of fate placed a woman a the right place at the right time to be a part of t computing history. This paper provides a personal overview of the role of women in the history of information processing and computing, then gives a perspective on the workplace issues of supply and demand that continue to affect that role. Concern is expressed about the future role ih of women in computing and the sciences, w t suggestions for consideration of new ways to approach the shortfall.
Keywords: Computing, computer programming, computer science, computer and information sciences, computer information systems, gender issues, history of computing, information technology, role of women in computing, supply/demandin computing.

Analyzing their role is not only important in order to get the history right and to give accurate acknowledgment to them, but it is important as the foundation for future generations of women in the sciences and engineering.
2. Computing History and the Role of Women

1. Introduction Long before the computing era, women were part of the information processing industry. The early work of woman mathematician Ada Lovelace on the computer being designed by Charles Babbage in the United Kingdom in the mid- 1850s was of such stature that she is still honored today, by being known as the worlds first computer programmer, and by having the United States Department of Defense language Ada named after her (1). In the early 1900s in the United States, the Bureau of the Census played an active part in the development of information processing unit record equipment. As data processing began to be more widely used in government and industry, women played a major role as support personnel. Then in the 1940s before, during and after World War 1 , women mathematicians were called upon to lead 1 the work of the programming of several of the devices underway. One of these was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC), the first electronic digital computer (2). Over the fifty years of the history of electronic digital computing, the role of women changed somewhat in every decade, just as their role in society was changing.

A. The First Fijiy Years In the early 19OOs, record keeping was predominantly done on punch cards, and clerical work included setting up and operating peripheral equipment machines, such as the sorter (to separate decks of cards), the collator (to merge decks of cards), and the tabulator machine (to print output into specific formats). Women provided most of the labor for the entry and validation of large volumes of data. Women also became the computational support, often sitting before a calculator all day doing columns of calculations. In contrast, men became the computer operators, managing the console of the computer, including the moving of large boxes of forms into place for printing. Most women in data processing served in a variety of clerical positions, usually reporting to men. In the 1950s, as the scientific and business worlds added electronic computing machines to the data processing unit-record systems, women mathematicians were actively solicited to become computer programmers, many to do computational science for the aerospace industry. Some employers indicated the reason for first soliciting women in the early days of electronic computing was the lack of available men mathematicians, who were likely in military service at that time (3). Other employers during the 1950s indicated the reason for the active solicitation of women mathematicians was the fact that the early women mathematicians during the 1940s did such excellent work that they were thought to be better at computer programming than men (4). What happened to the women from this era? We recognize the names of some of them -- women such as Jean Bartik, Thelma Estrin, Grace Murray Hopper, Milli Koss, and Kay Mauchley. Some of them moved into government, while others became part of some of the first major computing corporations

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(5).

Some of the married, and some of them had children and a family life.

B. The Next Fiftv Years During the expansion of Computing into the business organizations of the mid-l96Os, women were still used as data entry personnel, tape librarians, and peripheral equipment operators. Large mainframe shops typically had one computer fed by literally hundreds of magnetic tape machines, on which library reels of data were mounted, in t r ,to un feed as input to the processing. As the software industry expanded in the late 1960s due to the unbundling of IBM Corporation by the U. S. Justice Department, women were in a good position to move from the clerical jobs into jobs as systems engineers, serving customers with individual attention, in both a technical and psychological nature. When business computing changed to become local time-sharing, much of the data entry function moved to be done by the user (often a woman), while the operator position (often a man) was automated, causing job displacement of computer operators. When remote time-sharing became a possibility (allowed by the legal permissions of the Carterfone decision), women could suddenly work from home. Many shifted to consulting work, to contract work, sometimes to part-time teaching -- all of which fit better for those with an interest in raising a family. During the 1970s, both the mainframe business world and the minicomputer timeshare world coexisted, and women were evident in both worlds. Some women in the field pursued advanced degrees, which had recently become available; others started to move up the corporate managerial ladder. However, a transition of women into management was difficult; the barrier to management positions became known as the glass ceiling. The entry of women into the universities began to occur as women completed advanced degrees. Some few women became university computer center managers, but very few. During the 1980s many changes came about from the advent of the personal computer. In the mid1970s the Altair computer became available as a kit, and was popular in electronics departments and with hobbyists, usually male. However, in the late 1970s the Apple II personal computer became available, followed by several other brands and types, and a revolution seemed to occur among women, many of whom were already in the field. As the Apple I1 moved rapidly into the educational arena, many more women began to use it, leading to a new and separate clientele for computing. By the time IBM released their personal computer in the early 1980s, more women, many fiom the area of office support, moved into computing. Many women moved to create small

businesses, based on the personal computer and its capabilities, especially in areas such as desk-top publishing and software development for education. It is well known that during the early days of personal computing, information systems managers (mostly male) considered the personal computer a toy, suitable for children rather than the professional workplace, Even the first few years of the exhibits of personal computers at the prestigious National Computer Conference was relegated to a separate site. Therefore, many mainframe computer facilities missed the first opportunity to move into personal computing, or to combine it with the services of the computing services responsibility. But, by the close of the 1980s , many computing departments had created an information center, to help the personal computer users with their needs. Soon, personal computers were everywhere, and information systems managers had no choice but to assume some responsibility for their use. Many managers soon created new networks by linking personal computers, leading to a whole new area of work in systems management. More men than women made a job transition into networking, and that statistic is still true today. As mainframe facilities moved to downsize to networks, client-server configurations arose. Some facilities acted quickly to acquire the more powerful workstations. As workstations moved into specialized user applications areas, such as radio and television production, women were again very visible in their capabilities with these machines. During the 199Os, computing challenges continued, with any number of different environments possible. Personal computing and remote computing had merged with communications, leading to a wide variety of services. The Internet had moved fiom the research and university community into the general public consciousness. Internet companies began to arise, many of them led by women. As the use of Internet becomes the standard for public release of information, and as intranets and extranets become part of an organizations requirement to cany out their work, web design became a major job position, very attractive to women. As we move into the next millenium, opportunities for women will no doubt continue to abound in computing. 3. The Demand for and Supply of Information Technology Workers

An extremely high demand for information technology workers was documented in 1997 through a study done by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), resulting in the release of two reports (6,7). A later study by the U.S.

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Department of Commerce reported similar findings. A more recent report has provided a thorough explanation of the complex supply/demand situation in information technology jobs in the United States (8). Yet questions about the validity of the projections continue to arise (9). Controversy arose from the circumstance of the older worker, the minority worker, and women. Conditions surrounding some positions seem to make them more attractive to young single males rather than to those interested in maintaining a family and having a life. Most projections indicate a long and continuing demand for workers. The supply side of the equation is far more challenging to measure. One difficulty with enumerating the supply of workers is caused by the lack of a standardized nomenclature that allows easy measurement. It is difficult to know with accuracy how many graduates there are in the computing discipline, since there is no standard name by which programs are known and recognized. The most recognized, computer science, was defmed with the release of ACMs Curriculum 68. Other programs, including those in the community colleges, have been and still are known by many other names, such as computer studies, data processing, business computer programming, information systems management, information management, and computer information systems. Statistics about the percentage of women being educated in the broader computer and information sciences category show decreases each year in the number of women baccalaureate graduates, with 35.8 % women in 1984-85 to 28.4 % in 1993-94 (10). Computer science and computer engineering graduates in 1997-87 were reported to be 16% and 13% women, respectively, continuing a decline that started in the mid-1980s (11).
4. Qualifications and Preparation of Women in Computing

moving into computing came through another discipline as a user. Many say women are less qualified due to their lack of mathematical skills. Programs in computer science were and are more demanding mathematically than the programs in information systems. Women entering college as freshmen were and are usually less well prepared in mathematics than men. Statistics on the student selection of a major show that, typically, women tend to choose health sciences, education, and liberal a t programs rs over those in mathematics, science, and engineering. (16 ) Retention of women who do choose technical programs has not been as good as with men, for a variety of reasons, not all well understood.

5. Conclusions and Observations

Women have had an important role to play in the history in computing. They have been instrumental in carrying out computer programming and support services tasks for a century of information processing. It is important to todays generations of women to document their role in the past, learn from their experiences, and prepare for the future. In the next millenium, women should be able to more easily find workplace roles to occupy that will allow them to have more control over their lives and their fortunes. It has been said that if the number of women were increased to equal the number of men, even the huge shortages would be filled (17). However, there is no reason to believe the lack of an equal distribution of women among the inventors, the industrialists, and the technical innovators is the fault of the women. (18). In fact, analysis of the sciences and engineering overall show that the number of women completing university programs in computing is somewhat better than in the other sciences, except for the biological sciences, and that it is much better than in the engineering disciplines (19). It has been recommended that we look for solutions not in the women but in the structures and processes of our world ( 20). We must do that. We must rethink how we introduce young people to computing, how we stereotype our various job positions, and how we measure success and progress. We must help our human resources personnel to understand why a good foundation is more important than this weeks fad on the software shelf. We must insist that employers help to keep workers current in the knowledge base. We must insist on the type of instruction that assists students in learning how to learn. Some say that computing tends to become too technical and too specialized too soon in the academic pipeline, discouraging those who would be otherwise

Why are there so few women in the pipeline? Clarke and Teague provide a plethora of reasons, with suggestions for improvement (12). Frenkel documents much of the evidence fiom the 1980s (13). A major study of one institution criticized the computer laboratory environment (14). Another study indicated that the numbers of students dropping out was widely variant by department, and that department variations should be studied (15). Others say we must look beyond the pipeline, toward external sources. Several programs have been established especially for mature returning women. Training programs, sometimes with certification examinations available as a credential, offer another route to job placement. Many of those

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encouraged by a different beginning (21). Perhaps by modifying the way we approach the hands-on work of the crafts and of the technologies, we could encourage more of our young people to be builders. And, we must help our colleagues, both male and female, who have been the founders of ti discipline to continue hs to be active and alert. We must insist on fair treatment for all, whatever the age, status, or gender.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing, held in San Jose California in September 1997, honored six women computer pioneers from our early history. I would like to thank Denise Gurer for coordinating the activity at the Celebration, which led to these women becoming acquainted with each other and their stories. I would also like to thank Anita Borg and others who worked to make the event possible, to bring these women pioneers together at the event. Thanks also to John Impagliazzo and the supporters for the symposium Women and Computing, held at Hofstra University, New York in October 1998. In these two events, women have come together with students in computing, to share their history, their personal stories, and their contributions to the industry. One result of this interaction has been more awareness of the varied roles of women in our history; another result is that their stories have inspired numerous young women in their work.

[7] Help Wanted 1998: A Call for Collaborative Action for the New Millennium, (Washington D.C.: ITAA and Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Feb. 1988). 181 %RA National Study of IT Worker Shortage, ComputingResearch News, 10,no. 5, Nov., 1998,l. [9] Peter Freeman and William Aspray, The Supply of Information Technology Workers in the United States, (Washington D.C.: Computing Research Association, 1 9 ) 99. [lo] Wolfgang Strigel, Whats the Problem: L a b r Shortage or Industry Practices? IEEE Software, MayIJune 1999,52-54. [ I] l Peter Freeman and William Aspray, op cit, 112. Dexter Kozen and Jim Moms, Th.D. Enrollment UP [12] for the Third Straight Year, 1997-98 CRA Taulbee Survey, ComputingResearch News, March 1999,l. [13] Valerie A. Clarke and G. Joy Teague. A Psychological Perspective on Gender Differences in Computer Participation, Twenty-flfih SIGCSE Technical @mposiwn on Computer Science Education SIGCSE Bulletin ,26, 1, March 1994,258-262. no. [I41 Ellen Spertus, Why are There so Few Female Computer Scientists? (Boston, MA: MIT Artificial Intelligence la bra to^^ Technical Report No. 1315), 1991. [I51 J. McGrath Cohoon, Departmental Differences Can Point the Way to Improving Female Retention in Computer Science, Thirtieth SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education SIGCSE Bulletin, March 1999,198-202. [I61 National Center for Education Statistics, Findingsfrom the Condition of Education 1997: Women in Mathematics and Science, (Washington D.C.: NCES 97-982, July 1 9 ) 97. [I71 Peter Freeman and William Asprey, ibid. 1 1 1. [18] Shirley M. Malcom, Fault Lines, Science, 284, no. 5418, 21 May 1999,1271. [I91 Karen A. Frenkel, Women & Computing, Communicationsof the ACM, Nov. 1990,3546. [20] Shirley M.Malcom, ibid. [21] Dennis J. Frailey, Specialization is Harmful to Computer Education, SIGCSEBulletin inroads,30, no. 2, June 1998,46.
Dr. Joyce Currie Little is a Professor and former Chairperson, Computer and Information Sciences, Towson University, Baltimore, Maryland. She has been in computing since the mid1950s,having worked first in aerospace as a computational test engineer, then developing courses and teaching computing at several different colleges. Joyce is a director of the Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP), representing ACM, and is a member of the ACM Community College Education Committee. Joyce received the ACM Distinguished Service Award in 1992, became a charter ACM Fellow in 1994, and was named a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( M S ) in 1995. Her Ph.D. is from the University of Maryland, College Park.

REFERENCES

[l] Betty Alexandra Toole, ed., Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers (Mill Valley, CA: Strawberry Press, 1992). [2] Denise W. Gurer, Pioneering Women in Computer Science, Communicationsofthe ACM, 38, no. 1, January 1995,

45-53. [3] Address by Kay Mauchley Antonelli, Symposium on Women and Computing. Hofstra University, October 1998. [4] Authors nterview with hiring personnel at Convair Aircraft Corporation, A Division of General Dynamics, San Diego, CA, July 1957. Women in the History of Computers (Grace Murray [5] Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing), Insight Media, #1130W930,1997, videocassette. [6] Stuart Anderson, Heb Wanted: The IT Workjorce Gap at the Dawn of a New Century (Washington D.C.: ITAA, Feb. 1997).

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