Chapter 1: Chemical Foundations 1. Introduction a.

Luis Alvarez discovered iridium and niobium and hypothesized that a meteor hit earth 65 million years ago and killed the dinosaurs b. Lead poisoning helped decline the Roman Empire c. Low cobalt levels lead to violence d. Lithium salts are effective in controlling effects of manic depression e. Insects communicate by emitting and receiving chemical signals via molecules, pheromones 2. Chemistry: An Overview a. Ancient question: What is matter made of? --> atoms b. Now, we can see individual atoms with STM ( scanning tunneling microscope) using tiny needles to probe the surface c. Macroscopic world vs. Microscopic world d. Sand is made of silicon and oxygen atoms e. Two fundamental concepts of chemistry: a. Matter is composed of various types of atoms b. One substance changed to another by reorganizing the way atoms are attached 3. The Scientific Method 1. Making Observations: qualitative or quantitative (involving a number and a unit) 2. Forming Hypotheses: a possible explanation for an observation 3. Performing Experiments a. Theory/Model: a set of tested hypotheses that gives overall explanation of natural phenomenon, an interpretation of why nature behaves in a certain way, Human inventions b. Natural Law: generally observed behavior, summarizes what happens i. Law of conservation of mass 4. Units of Measurement a. SI system/ metric system (temperature-K, electric current- ampere, amount of sub- mole, luminous intensity- candeta) b. Mass- measure of the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion, force necessary to given an object a certain acceleration c. Weight- response of mass to gravity 5. Uncertainly in Measurement a. We report a measurement by recording all certain digits plus 1 uncertain digit b. Accuracy: agreement of a particular value to its true value c. Precision: degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity d. Random error: measurement low or high, Systemic error: always high or always low e. Significant figures: when multiply/divide least sigfig, when add/sub least decimal place i. none zero numbers ii. captive zeros/ trailing zeros only with decimal point iii. Exact numbers (conversions) do NOT count 6. Temperature a. Kelvin = Celsius + 273.15 b.
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7. Density a. The identification tag, mass of substance per unit volume of substance

8. Classification of Matter a. Matter: anything occupying space and having mass: GAS, SOLID, LIQUID b. Mixture: variable composition: homogeneous (Solution) or heterogeneous c. Pure substance: one with constant composition, contains compounds of free elements d. Compound: a substance with constant composition that can be broken down chemically e. Elements: substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances i. Protons and neutrons can be broken down into Quarks f. Distillation: process that depends on differences in volatility ( boiling point) g. Filtration: used when mixture consists of a solid and a liquid h. Paper chromatography: stationary phase is solid, mobile phase is liquid or gas Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 1. The Early History of Chemistry a. Greeks first tried to explain why chemical change occurs and said that all matter is fire,e arth, water and air and is thus infinitely divisible into small pieces b. Demokritos of Abdera and Leucippos named it atomos c. Georg Bauer- laid the foundations of modern chemistry with development of systematic metallurgy and Paracelsus- used the medicinal application of minerals d. Robert Boyle- first chemistry to perform quantitative experiments with compared the relationship of pressure and volume of air- The Skeptical Chymist (1661) e. Georg Stahl- suggested a substance, Phlogiston, flowed out of burning material, Joseph Preistleyfounded oxygen gas and supported burning and so was low in phlogiston The Priestley Medal 2. Fundamental Chemical Laws a. Antoine Lavoisier- finally explained the nature of combustion, discovered that life was supported by oxygen, Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, Father of Modern Chemistry b. Joseph Proust- given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass (Law of definite proportion) c. John Dalton- if elements were composed of tiny individual particles, a given compound should always contain the same combination of these atoms, Made first periodic table with atomic masses d. Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers 3. Daltons Atomic Theory 1. Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms 2. The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way or ways 3. Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other. A given compound always has the same relative numbers and types of atoms 4. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms a. Joseph Gay-Lussac- measures the volume of gases with same temperature and pressure b. Amadeo Avogrado- at the same temp and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of particles c. Jons Jakob Berzelius- discovered cerium, selenium, silicon, thorium and the modern symbols d. Stanislao Cannizzao- correct atomic mass of carbon is 12

4. Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom a. J.J. Thomson studied electrical discharges in partially evacuated cathode-ray tubes. When high voltage was applied, cathode ray of negative was produced and repelled, so the way was a stream of negatively charged particles called Electrons b. All atoms must contains electrons with diffuse cloud of positive charge with negative electrons embedded randomly in it (Plum Pudding Model) c. Robert Millikan performed experiments using charged oil drops to determine magnitude of electron charge and was able to calculate the mass of the electron d. Henri Becquerel founded radioactivity when a piece of uranium produced its image on a photographic plate in absence of light e. Ernest Rutherford directed a particles at a thin sheet of metal foil and expected it to travel through the foil with minor deflections but many of the particles were deflected at large angles and some were reflected and never hit the detector f. Concluded that the atom is mostly open space with a center of positive charge (Nuclear atom) 5. The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction a. Electrons intermingle with each other and thus the difference in the number of them affects its ability to interact with other atoms b. Isotopes- atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons 6. Molecules and Ions a. Chemical bonds- forces that hold atoms together in compounds b. Cation-positive ion, Anion- negative ion 7. An Introduction to the Periodic Table a. Most elements are metals- lose their electrons to form positive ions b. Elements in the same vertical columns (Groups/families) have similar chemical properties c. The horizontal rows of elements are called periods 8. Naming Simple Compounds a. Binary compounds- compounds composed of two elements b. The ion with the higher charge has a name ending in IC and one with lower charge ends in OUS c. Oxyanions- several series of anions contain an atom of a given element and different numbers of O d. Acids- molecule with one or more H+ ions attached to an anion e. If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the prefix HYDRO and suffix IC f. If it has oxygen, and the anion name ends in ATE, the suffix is IC g. If the anions has an ending of ITE, it is replaced with -OUS

Interesting Facts from Chemistry Impact 1. Barbara Berrie- specializes in identifying paint pigments and analyzes whether paint pigments are appropriate for the period they were painted, ex. St. Cecilia and an Angel 2. Dr. Spencer F. Silver- adhesive for post-it notes from acrylate polymer material, Art Fry developed it 3. Christopher Anderson and Robert Brooks found plants that accumulate gold atoms (Brassica) 4. Hassium- shooting Magnesium at Curium atoms, only lasts for 9 seconds