International Rice Research Newsletter Vol.13 No.5

IRRN GUIDELINES
The International Rice Research Newsletter objective is: To expedite communication among scientists concerned with the development of improved technology for rice and for rice-based cropping systems. This publication will report what scientists are doing to increase the production of rice, inasmuch as this crop feeds the most densely populated and land-scarce nations in the world . . . IRRN is a mechanism to help rice scientists keep each other informed of current research findings. The concise reports contained in IRRN are meant to encourage rice scientists and workers to communicate with one another. In this way, readers can obtain more detailed information on the research reported. Please examine the criteria. guidelines. and research categories that follow. If you have comments or suggestions. please write the editor, IRRN, IRRI, P.O. Box 933, Manila. Philippines. We look forward to your continuing interest in IRRN.
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Criteria for IRRN research reports has international, or pan-national,

has rice environment relevance advances rice knowledge uses appropriate research design
relevance
reports appropriate, adequate data applies appropriate analysis, using reaches supportable conclusions
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and data collection methodology
The International Rice Research Newslelter is a compilation of research briefs on topics of interest to rice scientists all over the world. Contributions to IRRN should be reports of recent work and work-inprogress that have broad interest and application. Please observe these guidelines in preparing submissions: The report should not exceed two pages of double-spaced typewritten text. No more than two figures (graphs, tables, or photos) may accompany the text. Do not cite references or include a bibliography. Items that exceed the specified length will be returned. Include a brief statement of research objectives and project design. The discussion should be brief, and should relate the results of the work to its objectives. Report appropriate statistical analysis. Provide genetic background for new varieties or breeding lines. Specify the environment (irrigated, rainfed lowland, upland, deep water, tidal wetlands). If you must use local terms to specify landforms or cropping systems, explain or define them in parentheses. Specify the type of rice culture (e.g., transplanted, wet seeded, dry seeded). Specify seasons by characteristic weather (wet, dry, monsoon) and by months. Do not use national or local terms for seasons or, if used, define them. When describing the rice plant and its cultivation, use standard, internationally recognized designators for plant parts and growth stages, environments, management practices, etc. Do not use local terms.
When reporting soil nutrient studies, be sure to include standard soil profile description, classification, and relevant soil properties. Provide scientific names for diseases, insects, weeds, and crop plants; do not use common names or local names alone. Survey data should be quantified (infection percentage, degree of severity, sampling base, etc.). When evaluating susceptibility, resistance, tolerance, etc., report the actual quantification of damage due to stress used to assess level or incidence. Specify the measurements used. Use international measurements. Do not use local units of measure. Express yield data in metric tons per hectare (t/ ha) for field studies and in grams per pot (g/ pot) or per row (g/row) for small-scale studies. Express all economic data in terms of the US$. Do not use national monetary units. Economic information should be presented at the exchange rate $:local currency at the time data were collected. Use generic names, not trade names, for all chemicals. When using acronyms or abbreviations, write the name in full on first mention, following it with the acronym or abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, use the abbreviation. Define in a footnote or legend any nonstandard abbreviations or symbols used in a table or figure.
Categories of research reported
GERMPLASM IMPROVEMENT genetic resources genetics breeding methods yield potential grain quality and nutritional value disease resistance insect resistance drought tolerance excess water tolerance adverse temperature tolerance adverse soils tolerance integrated germplasm improvement seed technology research techniques data management and computer modeling
CROP AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
soils and soil characterization soil microbiology and biological N fertilizer physiology and plant nutrition crop management soil fertility and fertilizer management disease management insect management weed management managing other pests integrated pest management water management farm machinery environmental analysis postharvest technology farming systems research methodology data management and computer modeling
SOCIOECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

environment production livelihood
EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION
training and technology transfer research communication research information storage and retrieval
CONTENTS
GERMPLASM ENVIRONVEMENT
Genetic resources 4 Characteristics of Oryza indandamanica Ellis, a newly discovered wild species 4 Taxonomic key for identifying the 22 species in the genus Oryza 5 Efficiency of wide compatibility gene Breeding methods 6 Sensitivity of upland rice genotypes to gamma radiation Yield potential 7 Heritability of primary root length 7 Rice panicle characteristics 8 Flowering behavior of photoperiod-sensitive rice germplasm of Bangladesh 9 Grain yield and duration of ratoon rice varieties 9 Hybrid rice in rainfed environments Grain quality and nutritional value 10 Modified method for apparent amylose content (AC) of milled rice 10 Grain characteristics of traditional Basmati varieties of northwest India Disease resistance 11 Varietal ranking of blast (Bl) severity in Korean farmers' fields 12 Varietal reaction to tungro (RTV) with change in leafhopper virulence 13 Resistance to bacterial leaf streak (BLS) in hybrid rice and parental lines 13 Sieve tube number in tungro (RTV)-infected rice plants 13 Simplification of sampling method for assessing bacterial blight (BB) severity 14 Susceptibility of bacterial blight (BB) differential varieties of IRRI, Japan, and Korea in Nepal Insect resistance 14 Use of tissue culture to evaluate rice resistance to lepidopterous pests 15 Improved sources of plant resistance to yellow stem borer (YSB) Scirpophaga incertulas Walker in rice 16 High virulence of new brown planthopper (BPH) populations in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam Drought tolerance 16 Rice sensitivity to water deficit at different growth stages 17 A low-cost rapid screening technique for seminal root elongation Excess water tolerance 17 Performance of rice breeding lines under medium deepwater conditions Adverse temperature tolerance 18 Spikelet sterility in three rice cultivars 18 Hybrid rice responses to high temperature at flowering Adverse soils tolerance 19 Modified screening method for salt tolerance 19 Rice yield responses in a saline soil in Sri Lanka Integrated germplasm improvement 20 Nepal releases nine rice varieties 21 Evaluation of African Upland Rice Advanced Trial (AURAT) at Ibadan, Nigeria Data management and computer modeling 21 Models for panicle growth simulation
Soil microbiology and biological N fertilizer 22 Growth and K uptake of Azolla pinnata under different salt levels 23 Herbicide-azolla integration for weed control in transplanted IR60 rice Physiology and plant nutrition 23 Effect of N forms on leaf nitrate reductase activity, yield, and protein content of rice 24 Root and shoot growth of Oryza sativa L. as affected by redox potential Crop management 24 Effect of irrigation, and seedling age and number on rice yield 24 Rice response to N rates and delayed planting Soil fertility and fertilizer management 25 Effect of N source and application time on rice 25 Estimation of pH, ammonium N, and nitrate N of floodwater with integrated N management of lowland rice 26 Efficiency of modified urea granules in transplanted rice 27 Leucaena as green leaf manure for lowland rice 27 Fertilizer requirement of rice - rice - green manure cropping system 27 Effect of rice plants on fertilizer N losses in flooded soil 28 Organic and inorganic N effect on rice 28 Effect of plant spacing on N release of sulfur-coated urea (SCU) in wetland rice 29 Effect of azolla and other fertilizers on rice yields 29 Effects of seedling age and zinc application on yield of rice Disease management 30 A new sheath disease of rice in India caused by Monographella albescens 30 Improved method of purifying rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) Insect management 31 Severe outbreak of green leafhopper (GLH) in Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh, India 31 Parasitoids of leaffolder (LF) pupae from Haryana, India 31 An expert system for insecticide control of brown planthopper (BPH) 32 Effect of neem on yeast-like symbionts (YLS) harbored by brown planthopper (BPH) 33 A new tarsonemid mite, Ogmotarsonemus sp. (Tarsonemidae: Acari), on rice in Tamil Nadu, India 33 Neem for control of rice thrips 34 Infection of brown planthopper (BPH) with insect fungi in the laboratory 34 Effect of Dimilin (R) and Dipel (R) on leaffolder (LF) larvae Weed management 35 Weed control in direct seeded rice under puddled condition 35 Unrecorded weed hosts for rice blast (Bl) pathogen Pyricularia oryzae Cav. in India 36 Weed flora in rice in Bhubaneswar (Orissa, India) 36 Integrated weed and water management in transplanted rice Managing other pests 37 A crab trap for a deepwater rice (DWR) pest Farming systems 37 Performance of rice-based cropping systems in river floodplains 38 Rice cultivation practices in a Negrito foraging society in northeastern Luzon, Philippines 38 Cassava varieties for 5-mo summer rice fallow in Kerala Data management and computer modeling 38 Modeling feeding rates of rice leaffolder (LF) Cnaphalocrocis medinalis on different plant stages
ANNOUNCEMENTS
39 39 40 40 Irrigation symposium planned Origin of Cultivated Rice Rice lexicography published New IRRI publications

Soils and soil characterization 21 Effect of soil type on draft force needed to plow soils of South Sulawesi, Indonesia
ERRATUM
GERMPLASM IMPROVEMENT
Genetic resources
Characteristics of Oryza indandamanica Ellis, a newly discovered wild species
T. V. R. S. Sharma, N. D. Majumder, T. Ram, and A. B. Mandal, Central Agricultural Research Institute for A & N Islands, Port Blair 744101, India
A new wild species, O. indandamanica has been discovered in Rutland (11.50N, 92.25E), Andaman Islands, India. The perennial, herbaceous species was growing on a rocky slope over light loam soil, on a stream bank. Average annual rainfall is 3,000 mm, spread unevenly over 8 mo of the year. Temperature ranges from 27 to 32 C, with 60-80% relative humidity.
O. indandamanica averages 10 tillers/plant with shoot fresh weight of 3.8 g and root fresh weight of 0.8 g. Basal internode diameter averages 1.2 cm. Leaf area per plant averages 0.24 m 2 and leaves respond to moisture stress by rolling. Unbranched panicles bear an average of 8 awnless spikelets, which shed pollen having 4-5% sterility. The grains are nonglutinous. This species is diploid with a chromosome number of 2n = 24. To determine the characteristics presented in the table, 10 plants were randomly selected from the original habitat. O. indandamanica is morphologically similar to Oryza meyeriana (Zoll. & Mor.) Baill. var. meyeriana (Backer s.n.) and Oryza meyeriana var. granulata (Watt) Duistermaat with which this species should be compared.
Morphoagronomic characteristics of Oryza indandamanica Ellis. Character Coleoptile length: mesocotyl length Primary leaf length: mesocotyl length Primary leaf length: coleoptile length Leaves (no.) on main culm Leaf thickness (cm) Length of flag leaf (cm) Width of flag leaf (cm) Tiller angle () Average internode no. Average internode length (cm) Lemma and palea surface Percent filled grains/panicle Grain density (grains/cm) Proteinous layer in grain Scent Observation 2.59 8.59 3.31 4 0.0125 4.53 0.50 45 7 5.36 Glabrous 75 1.98 Peripheral (not uniform) Nonscented
Taxonomic key for identifying the 22 species in the genus Oryza

T. T. Chang, International Rice Germplasm Center (IRGC), IRRI
The IRGC is receiving more and more requests for seeds of wild species of
Oryza, from both rice scientists and biotech workers using rice as an experimental material. Recent revisions in the taxonomy and nomenclature of the 20 wild species and 2 cultigens (cultivated species) in the genus necessitate a revised taxonomic key to identify newly collected materials or to
reevaluate previous identification. A working key prepared earlier has been revised and updated to assist biologists using the wild species as novel sources of resistance to diseases and insects and tolerance for eco-edaphic stresses.
A working key to the valid species of Oryza (modified after Roschevicz, 1931; Chatterjee, 1948; Tateoka, 1963; Bardenas and Chang, 1966; Tateoka, 1965; Sharma and Shastry, 1965; Ng et al., 1981). A-1 Sterile lemmas present B-1 Sterile lemmas linear or linear lanceolate C-1 Ligule of lower leaves 14-45 mm long, tips acute D-1 Annual; leaf blades narrow; no rhizomes; spikelets persistent, 3-14 mm long, 2-5 mm wide; Asian origin; cultivated; diploid ....... sativa D-2 Annual; semi-erect to decumbent growth; without rhizomes; basal internodes spongy; spikelets oblong and deciduous; short anthers; Asian origin; diploid ...................................................................................................................................................................................... nivara D-3 Annual, some perennial; erect to semi-erect growth; without rhizomes; tightly adpressed short secondary rachises resulting in more compact panicle; stiff, erect, ascending panicle branches; Australian origin; diploid ................................................................... meridionalis El Perennial; erect habit; branched, spreading rhizomes; long anthers fill entire spikelet; elliptic pollen; African origin; diploid ................................................................................................................................................................................. longistaminata E2 Perennial; prostrate or floating habit; weak rhizomes; long anthers; adventitious roots and extravaginal branching at higher nodes; long internodes; lax panicles; long, slender, deciduous spikelets; Asian origin; diploid ........................................... rufipogon E3 Perennial; semierect habit; stoloniferous culms; long awns and long spikelets; American origin; diploid ................ glumaepatula C-2 Ligule of lower leaves shorter than 6 mm, tip round or truncate D-4 Sterile lemmas almost equal in length and similar in structure to lemma and palea; ligule with a fringe of hairs at the apex; leaves broad; American origin; perennial; tetraploid ................................................................................................................................... grandiglumis D-5 Sterile lemmas considerably shorter than the lemma and palea E-4 Annual; plants erect; leaves glabrous to slightly scabrid; panicles more or less compact; lemma and palea perfectly or almost perfectly glabrous; sometimes hispid; spikelets usually awnless or short-awned; main panicle axis without secondary or tertiary branches; spikelet length between 7-9 mm; spikelet width 2.9-3.6 mm; tip of sterile lemmas acute; African origin; cultivated; diploid ............................................................................................................................................................................................... glaberrima E5 Annual; plants erect to spreading panicles open, main axis with secondary or rarely tertiary branches; lemma and palea hispid; spikelets 7.8-11.0 mm long, 2.8-3.4 mm wide, always awned (10 cm or longer); awns bristled; sterile lemmas 2.1-5.0 mm long, acuminate at tip; African origin; diploid ........................................................................................................................................ barthii a
4 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)
A-2
A-3
Perennial; main axis of panicle slightly woolly pubescent at the base of primary branches, the rest smooth and glabrous; axis increasingly hispid-scabrid toward the tip; awns less than 5 cm long; sterile lemmas linear or linear lanceolate; rhizomatous; Australian origin; diploid ....................................................................................................................................... australiensis E-7 Ligule with a fringe of hairs at the apex F-1 Perennial; plant not rhizomatous; leaves broad G-1 Width of leaves less than 5 cm; spikelets less than 7 mm long; American origin; tetraploid .................. latifolia G-2 Width of leaves more than 5 cm; spikelets more than 7 mm long; American origin; tetraploid .................... alta E-8 Ligule without fringe of hairs at the apex, leaves less than 2 cm broad F-2 Width of spikelets less than 2 mm G-3 Panicle branches not spreading; length of spikelets 4.5-6.0 mm, width 15 - 2.0 mm; culm base slender, hard and not spongy; ligule less than 3.5 mm, never split, hard , flexuous with fine bristles; sterile lemmas acuminate and narrowly triangular; African origin; perennial; diploid ................................................................................ eichingeri G-4 Length of spikelets 3.7 - 4.7 mm; width usually less than 2 mm; panicle small with spreading branches; awned (2 cm or less) or awnless; Asian origin; perennial; tetraploid ..................................................................................... minuta F-3 Width of spikelet more than 2 mm G-5 Length of spikelets more than 5 mm; width 2.0-2.5 mm; culm base soft and spongy, ligule longer than 3.0 mm, soft, and split when dried; straight or flexuous with rigid bristles; panicle loose with spreading branches; sterile lemmas acute and triangular; African origin; perennial; tetraploid ................................................................................. punctata E-9 Ligule glabrous or hairy; length of spikelets less than 5 mm, width almost always more than 2 mm; awns often shorter than 2 cm, or awnless; occasionally rhizomatous; Asian origin; perennial; diploid ............................................................................. cinalis Sterile lemmas subulate or setaceous B-2 Surface of sterile lemmas and palea granulate; sterile lemmas minute, long, tapered from base; usually awnless C-3 Spikelets oblong to elliptic oblong, shorter than 7 mm; Asian origin; perennial; diploid ......................................................................... granulata C-4 Spikelets narrowly oblong to lanceolate, longer than 7 mm; Asian origin; perennial; diploid .............................................................. meyeriana B-3 Surface of lemma and palea not granulate; awned; spikelets 8-17 mm long C-5 Lemma ciliate along keel, without wing; leaves herbaceous D-6 Awns 6-15 mm long; sterile lemmas shorter than lemma; Asian origin; perennial; tetraploid ........................................................... ridleyi D-7 Awns 16-36 mm tong; sterile lemmas as long as or longer than lemma; New Guinean origin; perennial; tetraploid .......... longiglumis B-4 Surface of lemma almost smooth with fine longitudinally dotted stippled surface C-6 Spikelets linear, 1-2 mm wide; awns 6-17 mm long; sterile lemmas always much shorter than lemma; African origin; annual; diploid .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. brachyantha Spikelets 15 - 1.75 mm long; nodes hairy; New Guinean origin ......................................................................................................................................... schlechteri
E-6
NOTES 1. Excluded from the key are taxa of doubtful validity or names of uncertain application: O. abromeitiana, O. collina, O. fatua, O. malampuzhaensis, O. perennis, O. perennis subsp. cubensis, O. schweinfurthiana, O. stapfii, O. ubanghensis, and O. indandamanica. 2. Removed from the genus Oryza are taxa formerly known as O. angustifolia, O. perrieri, and O. tisseranti - to the genus Leersia; O. coarctata (renamed as Porteresia coarctata ); and O. subulata (to the genus Rhynchoryza). 3. For specimens of uncertain morphological identity, a determination of somatic chromosome numbers from young root-tips will be helpful in certain cases. 4. Annual and perennial growth habits are rather difficult to distinguish when the plants are grown under tropical conditions; the term annual refers to a primary seed-propagated form while perennial refers to a taxon adapted to vegetative propagation by underground plant parts.
a Formerly
known as O. breviligulata, includes the weed race O. stapfii.
Efficiency of wide compatibility gene

D. Senadhira, R. M. Herrera, and J. P. Roxas, Plant Breeding Department, IRRI
Spikelet fertility of hybrids between ordinary varieties (female parent) and those with the wide compatibility gene (male parent). IRRI, 1988 dry season. Female parent Indica ARC6000 China 1039 IR4630-22-2-5-1-3 IR9884-54-3-1E-P1 IR31868-64-2-3-3-3 IR32843-92-2-2-3 IR44670-168-2-3-1 Nona Bokra SR26B Japonica Akihikari Barkat Sasanishiki Ta-mao-tao Tatsumi mochi Tongil Milyang 54 Mean SD Spikelet fertility BPI-76 83.0 90.7 91.9 84.4 79.4 95.0 96.5 95.5 92.3 43.3 30.3 23.6 33.1 78.8 92.1 74.0 26.7 N22 96.9 86.2 66.6 72.3 36.6 79.4 84.2 31.8 76.9 81.0 59.3 69.8 59.6 53.2 40.8 66.3 19.3 (%) Moroberekan 91.0 87.4 70.1 86.0 75.3 71.6 72.4 84.4 72.3 97.0 90.9 95.5 89.6 86.7 93.0 84.2 9.4
In breeding for tolerance for low temperature and problem soils, we use varieties having the wide compatibility gene to combine agronomic traits of japonica and indica varieties. In the 1987 wet season, we used 3 varieties with the wide compatibility gene (BPI-176 [indica], N22 [aus], and Moroberekan [japonica]) to make 66 single crosses involving a range of indicas and japonicas, and one tongil (indica/japonica hybrid). Hybrid seeds were planted in the IRRI F 1 nursery in 1988 dry season.
IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 5
At maturity, 10 main panicles were randomly harvested to determine spikelet fertility for each cross (see table). BPI-76 showed normal fertility with indicas, the tongil, and one japonica. Fertility with N22 was highly variable among japonicas or indicas.
Fertility was normal in all crosses with Moroberekan. Thus, the efficacy of the wide compatibility gene varies from variety to variety. Although the gene of Moroberekan was very effective, it may not be the best to use in breeding
programs because of its poor performance under lowland conditions. Acceptable varieties with efficient wide adaptability gene need to be isolated or developed.
Breeding methods
Sensitivity of upland rice genotypes to gamma radiation
H. C. Pathak and M. S. Patel, Gujarat Agricultural University, Derol, Panchmahals, Gujarat, India
We irradiated 3 genotypes of upland riceSathi 34-36, a local high-yielding, late, and tall genotype; IET2473, dwarf, mid-early, and coarse-grained; and Culture 102-5, semidwarf with medium duration and long, fine grainwith 5, 10, 15, and 20 kR doses of gamma rays. The experiment, with 2 replications, measured germination percentage, and root and shoot length at 10 d after planting. Germination percentage was not appreciably reduced by gamma radiation. Root lengths were progressively reduced from 0 kR (7.14 cm) to 20 kR (3.82 cm) (see figure). Of the 3 genotypes, Culture 1025 had longest roots at 0 kR and shortest at 20 kR. Gamma radiation did not reduce shoot lengths except in Culture 102-5. Analysis of variance confirmed that radiation effects on root and shoot lengths varied significantly among varieties. The root length of Culture 102-5 was reduced 0.30 cm for every kR unit increase in radiation, compared to an average of 0.09 cm/ kR unit for the 2 other varieties. Radiation reduced shoot
Effect of gamma ray doses on root and shoot lengths of 3 upland rice genotypes. Gujarat, India, 1987.
length of Culture 102-5, increased those of Sathi 34-36, but had no effect on those of IET2473. We used rate of reduction in all three seedling characters per unit increase of
kR as the criteria for measuring sensitivity. Culture 102-5 was clearly the most sensitive among the varieties tested.
The International Rice Research Newsletter is published to expedite communication among scientists concerned with rice research and the development of improved technology for rice and rice-based farming systems. Readers are encouraged to write authors at their published addresses to discuss the research and obtain more details.
Yield potential
Heritability of primary root length
N. G. Hajra, S. G. Hajra, RRII, North Eastern Research Complex, P.O. Kunjaban, Tripura 799006; and P. Bairagi, Botany Department, Burdwan University, Burdwan 713104, India
repeated selection in advanced generations of the best 5% of the population. The F2 lines provide a prediction of the genetic advance, or improvement
expected. The primary root length showed a moderately high heritability in each cross (82.4 to 52.3%), although the estimated numbers of effective factors were low (see table).
Genetic parameters of primary root length in 7 rice crosses. Parametera Mean (cm) P1 P2 (P1 + P2) /2 F1 F2 Variance VP1 VP2 VE VF2 VG GA Larkoch/ NC918 8.73 18.80 13.77 14.80 15.80 3.86 5.23 4.54 25.83 21.28 8.63 CH10/ NC918 10.80 18.80 14.80 13.70 14.00 4.29 5.23 4.76 12.27 7.51 4.42 6.20 1.07 ~ 1 ~ CH1040/ NC918 9.13 18.80 13.97 13.60 12.30 3.38 5.23 4.30 9.04 4.74 3.25 52.39 2.46 ~ 2 CH47/ CH63 11.13 20.73 15.93 19.30 16.20 3.64 6.00 4.82 11.43 6.60 4.02 57.78 1.74 ~ 2 CH988/ CHI7 10.93 17.27 14.10 19.00 20.01 5.26 5.86 5.56 18.73 13.17 6.27 10.30 0.38 ~ 0 Badkalamkati 65/CH4 18.03 18.43 18.33 18.68 22.03 5.59 5.54 5.01 14.08 9.07 4.98 64.41 0 Boak/ NC918 15.07 18.80 16.53 16.10 19.47 4.46 5.23 4.34 12.38 7.54 4.41 60.88 0.23 = 0
In rice, as in most cereals, root systems show high variability because the genes controlling them come under environmental influences. We crossed 11 varieties having good and poor root systems and obtained 7 crosscombinations. Seedlings were grown in test tubes with Whites medium. Primary root length was recorded at 28 d and different parameters estimated to indicate the nature and degree of improvement by hybridization in F 2 generation. CH1040/ NC918 and CH47/CH63 were relatively stable, with low response to environment. The five other crosses were highly responsive to environmental fluctuations, requiring
Heritability 82.4 h2 (%) Estimated effective factors K 0.59 ~ 1

aVG
= genetic variance, GA = genetic advance, VP 1 and VP2 = variation of first and second parents, VE = environmental-variance, VF2 = variation of F2 population, P1 and P2 = av root length of parent one and two, F1 and F2 = av primary root length of F1 and F2 hybrids.
Rice panicle characteristics

S. Mallik A. M. Aguilar, and B. S. Vergara, Plant Physiology Department, IRRI
We studied panicle characteristics of 10 IR varieties, 16 O. glaberrima accessions, and 16 lines from a cross involving upland rice parents. High
density (HD) grains, having specific gravity >1.20, are found mostly on primary branches of rice panicles. Increasing the percentage of HD grains by decreasing the number of secondary branches can increase rice yield potential. The number of HD grains may also improve with better delivery system of the assimilates, such as more
vascular bundles, and bigger culms or thicker culms. The glaberrimas had comparatively more primary branches and more spikelets on primary branches than did IR and upland entries (Table 1). They also had fewer secondary branches-the location of most low density grainsand fewer spikelets on them.
Table 1. Range and mean of 10 panicle characters in 3 types of rice varieties. IRRI, 1988. Character 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Primary branches (no.) (Pbr) Spikelets on Pbr (no.) (SPbr) Secondary branches (no.) (Sbr) Spikelets on Sbr (no.) (SSbr) Total spikelets (no.) (TSP) Inner vascular bundle (no.) (IVB) Outer vascular bundle (no.) (OVB) Culm diameter (mm) (CD) Air space (mm) (Asp) Culm thickness a (mm) (Cth) = (CD ASp)/2. Range IR varieties 7 - 16.3 37 -124 18.8- 34.8 60.3-117 100 -241 14 - 25.5 16.8- 30.5 2.1- 3.2 1.5- 2.4 0.3- 0.4 O. glaberrima 8 - 16.3 51 -139 2.2- 27.7 4.7- 59.7 91 -199 13.7- 18.7 17.3- 36 1.6- 2.6 0.8- 1.8 0.3- 0.5 Upland 7.7- 14.7 38.3- 91.3 5.7- 39 12.3-130.7 51 -208 9 - 22.7 13.7- 34.5 1.3- 3 0.6- 2.1 0.3- 0.6 IR varieties 10.3 60.2 26.7 87.3 147.5 19.9 21 2.3 1.7 0.3 0.7 7.5 2.0 6.4 12.2 1.1 1.2 0.1 0.1 0.01 Mean O. glaberrima 13.1 99.3 12.8 33.2 132.4 15.8 34.1 2 1.2 0.4 0.7 7.0 1.9 5.6 7.2 0.4 9.3 0.1 0.1 0.01 Upland 12.1 0.5 70.6 3.7 27 2.8 85 9.6 155.5 12.7 16.0 0.9 24.8 1.7 2.4 0.1 1.5 0.1 0.4 0.02
aCth
The three types differed little in total spikelet number, indicating that panicles with more primary branches and fewer secondary branches can be obtained without reducing total spikelets per panicle. IR varieties had more inner vascular bundles from just below the neck node and glaberrimas had more outer vascular bundles. Culm diameter and air space did not vary widely, but culms were thinner in IR varieties. Correlation coefficients (Table 2) among characters show that primary
branch number was significantly correlated with number of spikelets on primary branch, total spikelets, and inner vascular bundle. In upland lines, culm thickness was correlated with all characters except number of inner vascular bundle. Culm thickness might prove to be a useful overall measure of desirable traits. Breeding programs should transfer useful traits of glaberrimas and upland lines into IR varieties to increase the number of HD grains.
Flowering behavior of photoperiodsensitive rice germplasm of Bangladesh

Md. E. Haque, A. Baset, Z. Zeenat, and N. M. Miah, Plant Breeding Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), P.O. BRRI, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Table 2. Phenotypic interrelationship between different panicle characters in 3 types of rice varieties.a IRRI, 1988. 1 Pbr a 2.SPbr 3.Sbr 4.SSbr 5.TSP 6.IVB 7.OVB 8.CD 9.ASp 10.Cth .97** .59 .65* .93** .80** .95** .89** .85** .60 b .96** .46 .46 .56* .60* .02 .11 .15 .80** 4 SSbr a 2.SPbr 3.Sbr 4.SSbr 5.TSP 6.IVB 7.OVB 8.CD 9.ASp 10.Cth b c a c .98** .77** .77** .86** .91** .83** .89** .88** .61* a .49 .55 .90** .69* .93** .85** .77** .74* 2 SPbr b .34 .36 .68** .62* .05 .24 .27 .05 5 TSP b c a c .81** .80** .89** .87** .79** .87** .85** .58* a 3 Sbr b c
.94** .79** .67* .61 .68* .72* .02
.99** .45 .04 .19 .38 .34 .12 6 IVB b
.99** .98** .54** .73** .83** .73** .82**
.86** .79** .68* .71* .75* .20
.44 .02 .21 .37 .31 .15 7 OVB
.98** .54* .71** .83** .74** .82**
.83* .93** .89** .86** .56
.61* .12 .52* .51* .06 8 CD
.66** .76** .88** .81** .79**
.82** .80** .81** .43
.29 .53* .62* .15 9 ASP
.74** .80** .83** .41
Most traditional transplanted aman rice varieties of Bangladesh are photoperiodsensitive; however, sensitivity varies with variety and location. Nearly 1,050 photoperiod-sensitive germplasm were grown in 1987 transplanted aman season in the BRRI experimental field (latitude 24N) to observe flowering behavior. Materials were seeded on 20 Jul and transplanted on 22 Aug. Varieties flowered from 15 Oct to 25 Nov (see figure). More varieties (395) flowered 1-5 Nov, synchronized with the strongly photoperiod-sensitive local variety Nizersail. Varieties flowering before 1 Nov could be moderately sensitive or have a long critical photoperiod. Those flowering later could be very strongly sensitive to photoperiod or have a short critical photoperiod. Another group of weakly photoperiod-sensitive varieties in Bangladesh flowering from late Sep to mid-Oct is not included here.
a 2.SPbr 3.Sbr 4.SSbr 5.TSP 6.IVB 7.OVB 8.CD 9.ASp 10.Cth

a
.94** .90** .63
.12 .07 .12
.75** .68** .71**
.97** .53
.89** .30
.97** .71**
.36
.15
.53*
a = IR varieties, b = O. glaberrima, c = upland lines. *, ** = significant at 5% and 1% levels of probability, respectively.
The International Hybrid Rice Newsletter is published for researchers in hybrid rice development and technology. Its content focuses on discussions of current issues; it does not publish research reports. For more information, write Dr. S. S. Virmani, Hybrid Rice Newsletter editor, IRRI, P. O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.
Distribution of varieties by date of flowering. BRRI, Bangladesh, 1987.
Flowering on 1-10 Nov indicates that most varieties have critical photoperiod longer (12-12.5 h) than those of Thai, Burmese, and Vietnamese varieties. For
this reason, most Bangladesh photoperiod-sensitive varieties flower too early if planted in Thailand and in similar latitudes. On the other hand, the
introduced photoperiod-sensitive varieties flower later than Bangladesh varieties because their critical photoperiod is shorter.
Grain yield and duration of ratoon rice varieties

A. Palchamy and S. Purushothaman, Agricultural College and Research Institute (ACRI), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai 625104, India
Grain yield and duration of ratoon rice. Madurai, India, 1984-85. Yield (t/ha) Variety Main planted crop Ratoon Ratoon yield compared with planted crop yield (%) 86.6 27.2 31.5 30.7 80.0 34.6 54.3 25.9 46.6 17.9 Crop duration (d) Planted crop Ratoon
To evaluate ratoon performance, we measured grain yield and duration of 10 short- and medium-duration rice varieties during 1984-85 at ACRI. The main as well as ratoon crop received 100-22-41.5 kg NPK/ ha. Immediately after rice harvest, ratoon stubbles were cleaned. Irrigation was given from day 3 onwards. All P and K plus half of N was applied 7 d after cutting. The balance of N was applied in 2 splits on day 25 (maximum tillering) and day 35 (panicle initiation). Ratoon crop yields varied from 0.43 to 2.20 t/ha (see table). Bhavanis high
Bhavani Ponni Puduvai Ponni IR20 ACM8 ACM9 ACMl0 CO43 CO44 MDU2 LSD (P=0.05)
a Yellowing
2.5 1.7 2.4 3.0 0.8 3.6 2.9 2.6 2.0 2.6 0.5
2.2 0.4 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.2 1.6 0.7 0.9 0.5
128 138 138 128 120 104 104 135 120 138
78 88 66 77 67 81 81 69 81 77
disease reduced yields.
yield of 2.2 t/ha was 86.6% of main crop yield. Ratoon crop durations varied from 69 to 81 d. Bhavanis field duration was 128 d in the main crop and 78 d in
ratoon crop. Analysis showed no significant correlation between ratoon crop grain yield and duration.
Hybrid rice in rainfed environments

O. S. Namuco, K. T. Ingram, and M. A. Maguling, Agronomy Department; and S. S. Virmani, Plant Breeding Department, IRRI
Yield and yield components of 2 F 1 hybrid rices and their parents under rainfed environments. IRRI, 1987. Entry Grain yield (t/ha) (F 1) 3.2 0.7 2.4 2.2 2.3 1.7 0.4 (F 1) 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.3 Panicles (no./m2) Lowland site 1118 788 986 716 926 574 320 Upland site 970 794 910 522 492 490 220 100-grain weight (g) 1.90 1.28 1.78 2.13 2.03 2.30 0.20 1.93 1.73 1.65 2.15 1.90 2.20 0.18 Filled grains (%) 62.62 57.05 62.19 56.67 72.09 62.73 22.50 64.28 42.75 46.60 69.80 69.20 62.50 14.66 Harvest index
Two hybrids (IR46830A/IR9761-19-1R and IR54752A/IR46R) and their parents were dry seeded (75 kg/ ha) and grown under strictly rainfed conditions in lowland and upland fields of IRRI in 1987 wet season. IR46, one of the parents, was the check variety. Urea (90 kg N/ha) was topdressed on 17 Sep. Water deficit occurred 45 to 60 d after seeding (DAS) with a maximum stress of 69 kPa soil moisture tension at 20 cm soil depth and 5 kPa at 60 cm. The table shows the performance of the F 1 hybrids and their parents under rainfed conditions. Hybrid IR46830A/IR9761-19-1R yielded
IR46830A/IR9761-19-1R IR9761-19-1 IR46830 IR54752A/IR46R (F 1) IR46 IR54752 LSD (0.05) IR46830A/IR9761-19-1R IR9761-19-1 IR46830 IR54752A/IR46R (F 1) IR46 IR54752 LSD (0.05)
0.30 0.18 0.30 0.20 0.28 0.20 0.06 0.30 0.30 0.23 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.08
highest with 105% midparent heterosis for the lowland trial and 78% for the upland trial. Hybrid IR54752A/IR46R,
exhibited only 7% and 8% midparent heterosis in the 2 trials and yielded as much as did IR46.
The high yield of IR46830A/IR976119-1R was attributed to a high number of panicles. It showed midparent heterosis for all characters at both sites.
Results indicate that hybrids developed specifically for irrigated lowland can be grown under rainfed conditions and still exhibit heterosis
even when subjected to water deficit. Results further suggest that hybrid rices can be developed for rainfed environments.
Grain quality and nutritional value

Modified method for apparent amylose content (AC) of milled rice
C. M. Perez and B. O. Juliano, Cereal Chemistry Department, IRRI
Colorimetric amylose assay based on amylose standard alone overestimates AC of milled rice because of amylopectin-iodine complex interference at acid pH. Addition of amylopectin (waxy rice starch, 0.6% amylose) to amylose in the standard mixture lowers amylose values, particularly for highamylose rice. These values are probably closer to true AC since the potato amylose standard is only 80% pure. Amylose values, however, are expressed on milled rice basis of about 90% starch. Recently, starches of highamylose indica rices were shown to have the same true AC (about 18%) as lowamylose japonica rices. The increased iodine-blue color was due mainly to
Apparent AC of defatted milled rice flour in pH 4.5-4.8 acetate buffer based on amylose standard and amylose-amylopectin standard with starch content calculated to 90% and 70% of milled rice. a IRRI, 1988. Apparent AC (%) based on Variety name Amy1ose alone Amylose + amylopectin to 90% starch IR29 IR2071-137-5 IR24 IR64 IR8 Mean 8.2 16.2 19.9 28.2 32.2 20.9 0.6 9.2 13.2 22.0 26.2 14.2 70% starch 1.9 10.6 14.6 23.4 27.6 15.6
high-iodine binding amylopectin; thus. apparent AC of high-amylose rice starches is 25-26%. High-amylose rice amylopectin has iodine complexing properties different from waxy rice amylopectin, while waxy and lowamylose rice amylopectins are similar in branching properties. Because classification of milled rice AC into low (10-20%), intermediate (2025%), and high (>25%) is well accepted and documented, we propose maintaining such classification but calling it apparent AC. These values can be obtained for defatted rice flour in the amyloseamylopectin standard method by
adjusting starch level (amylose + amylopectin) from 90% to 70% of the milled rice weight. Adding a constant correction factor, 1.4%, to all amylose values based on the 90% starch standard maintains the above classification scheme (see table). With this method, calibration is at pH 4.5-4.8 in acetate buffer, reducing errors inherent in the Williams procedure at alkaline pH. Excess iodine characterizes the acid pH procedure as reflected in the greenish amylose-iodine solution. Defatting with refluxing 95% ethanol gives more accurate apparent amylose values than using undefatted samples, because fat contents of samples are not necessarily identical at similar milling conditions. The detailed procedure is available upon request.
Grain characteristics of traditional Basmati varieties of northwest India

V. P. Singh, E. A. Siddiq, F. U. Zaman, and A. R. Sadananda, Genetics Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
We collected 23 traditional Basmati varieties from northwest India and

Grain characteristics of Basmati varieties, India. Character Milled rice length (mm) Brown rice (% of rough rice) Total milled rice (% of rough rice) Head rice (% of rough rice) Milled rice breadth (mm) Length-to-breadth ratio Length of cooked grain (mm) Elongation ratio Alkali spreading value Amylose content (%)
studied their grain characteristics (see table). We divided varieties into two groups. Varieties of group AHBC-5 (Havana Basmati collection), HBC-85, Pakistani Basmati (Amritsar), Basmati Kota, and Karnal localhave a growth duration of 145-150 d, and are phenotypically similar to Karnal local, which fetches the highest prices in the domestic and export markets.
Group A (n = 5) Range 1.00 - 7.35 78.20 - 79.40 65.30 - 67.70 32.20 1.74 4.02 13.90 1.89 3.80 21.00 42.50 1.78 4.13 15.00 2.12 5.00 23.00 Mean 1.20 78.74 66.72 38.14 1.76 4.08 14.55 2.02 4.28 22.00 SEM 0.062 0.235 0.533 1.873 0.008 0.018 0.198 0.042 0.224 0.316
Group B (n = 18) Range 6.17 - 6.87 78.60 - 80.50 65.80 - 68.80 25.10 1.69 3.15 12.20 1.89 3.00 21.00 58.50 1.89 3.84 14.00 2.19 4.00 23.50 Mean 6.5 1 79.80 67.31 47.24 1.81 3.56 13.26 2.04 3.46 21.86 SEM 0.041 0.128 0.198 1.846 0.013 0.037 0.127 0.021 0.087 0.212
a Standard: amylose 0-30 mg/100 ml; amylose: amylopectin 0-30: 90-60 mg/100 ml for 90% starch or 0-30: 90-40 mg/100 ml for 70% starch with defatted milled rice standards at 100 mg/ 100 ml.
Varieties of 135-140 d duration represent group B. HBC-30,40,45,46, 85,98 and 136; Mohabawali, Kanwali, Chanderbani 1 and 11, Niranjanpur, and Ramgarh (named after the villages of Dehra-Dun Valley) are phenotypically similar to Basmati 370 whereas Hansraj and N-10B resemble Type-3. Among these cultures, only Basmati 370 and Type-3 have been officially released for
cultivation and seed production. Major differences in groups A and B (see table) appear to be in growth duration, milled rice length, length-tobreadth ratio, head rice recovery, and alkali spreading value. Difference in head rice recovery could possibly be due to postharvest handling and mechanical factors, but the lower mean value
(38.14%) in group A as compared to group B (47.24%) suggests higher vulnerability of longer grains to breakage. Farmers grow Basmati 370, Type-3, and Karnal local under different names, warranting study of key diagnostic characteristics to establish their identities.
Disease resistance
Varietal ranking of blast (Bl) severity in Korean farmers' fields
S. W. Ahn, C. H. Kim, and N. K. Park, IRRI; and H. C. Choi and S. Y. Cho, CES, Rural Development Administration, Korea
Table 1. Relative ranking of Korean varieties based on B1 severity in farmers' field. Korea, 1988. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tongil type Taebaeg (79), Chupung (79) Cheongcheong (79), Samgang (182) Palgwang (78), Milyang 42 (78) Milyang 30 (77) Gaya (82), Weonpung (83), Baegyang (82), Shinwang (82) Seogwang (79), Hangangchal (79) Shinseonchd (82), Seomjin (82), Nonglim Na 1 (67) Nongbaeg (69), Odae (82), Seolag (79), Sobaeg (82), Boggwang (81), Dobong (79), Sangpung (81), Kwanak (79), Yeongdeog (85), Dongiin (81), Daecheong (84), Bonggwang (74) Chiag (81), Gwangmyeong (84), Namyang (83) Daechang (81), Yeomyeong (77), Jinheung (62), Palgeum (67). Chugwang (81) Seonam (82), Giho (83), Cheonma (84), Jiniu (79), Nagdong (75), Samnam (81), Chucheone (70) Japonica type
Varietal reactions to rice Bl in farmers' fields and their relative ranking help determine resistance level, virulence frequency, disease pressure, and their interactions. Such rankings can guide cultural management. To develop a varietal ranking in Korea, we used an indirect method without taking a comprehensive disease survey. We compared 56 varieties released in Korea: 26 of Tongil type (Korean indica) and 30 of japonica type. Most of the 51 varieties released before 1984 were grown in a considerable area. Cultivation area and duration of varieties vary widely, often highly influenced by Bl. Criteria for comparisons were the relative degree of maximum leaf or panicle Bl incidence and severity, yield losses due to Bl, and chemical requirement. Varieties were classified into 9 groups (Table l), and common features of five odd-numbered ranking groups were described (Table 2). Ranking groups 2,4, 6, and 8 reflect severity levels between those of the oddnumbered groups described. To minimize subjectivity, five evaluators rated each variety several times until they unanimously agreed. Varieties scored 1 or 2, such as Taebaeg and Cheongcheong, were
7 8
Baegunchal (79), Pungsan (81), Nampung (81) Saetbeol (77), Geumgang (77)
Milyang 23 (76), Sujeong (81), Yeongpung (82), Nopung (77), Tongil (71), Yushin (75), Hwanggeum (76), Chilseong (84)
Total planting area of underlined varieties is more than 5,000 ha for Tongil type, and more than 10,000 ha for japonica type as of 1986. Figures in parentheses indicate year the variety was released.
planted in more than 10,000 ha each until 1984, but their levels of quantitative (partial or field) resistance are not known because compatible isolates were either absent or extremely low in frequency. Variety Samgang was cultivated in more than 130,000 ha from 1984 to 1987, yet no severe Bl outbreak was observed. Several varieties scoring 4 or 5, such as Seomjin, Milyang 42, and Milyang 30, have high levels of quantitative resistance. They occasionally may require one or two chemical applications. Varieties that scored 6 frequently need four applications, two for leaf Bl and two for
Table 2. Common features of Korean varieties in each ranking group of Bl severity in farmers fields. Korea, 1988. Rank 1 3 5 Common features Extremely low incidence and severity. Low incidence with minor damage. Chemical application seldom necessary. Bl is common. Low to moderate severity, without severe yield loss. Three or fewer chemical applications sufficient. Moderate lo high incidence and severity. Four or five application needed. Severe Bl and significant yield loss. Extensive chemical application required, with control less than anticipated.
7 9
panicle Bl. Varieties scored higher than 6 are vulnerable to Bl and damage could be high. Cultivation of many cultivars in rank 9 was discontinued because of severe outbreak of Bl. Yet several late-
maturing varieties with good grain quality favored by Koreans are widely grown in the southern plain of Korea with intensive applications of chemicals for Bl control. On these varieties, panicle
Bl is less severe than leaf Bl. The ranking can be applied to other varieties when no historical quantitative disease data are available.
Varietal reaction to tungro (RTV) with change in leafhopper "virulence"

G. Dahal, V. M. Aguiero, R. C. Cabunagan, and H. Hibino, IRRI
Green leafhopper (GLH) Nephotettix virescens populations were periodically collected at Koronadal, South Cotabato; Maligaya, Nueva Ecija; and Los Baos (IRRI Experimental Farm), Laguna, in the Philippines in 1986-88 and reared on TN1 plants in cages in an insect-proof greenhouse. First or second generation adults that had fed on RTV-infected plants were allowed to feed 1 d on test seedlings. GLH feeding behavior was monitored by the color reaction of honeydew excreted by GLH on bromocresol-treated filter paper disks: blue color (basic reaction) indicates phloem feeding and brown or orange color (acidic reaction) indicates xylem feeding. At 3 wk after the feeding, seedlings were indexed by latex serology for the presence of rice tungro bacilliform (RTBV) and spherical (RTSV) viruses. GLH populations collected thrice at Koronadal had similar transmission efficiency and feeding behavior on each test cultivar. GLH populations collected thrice at Maligaya were also similar. All these populations transmitted RTBV and RTSV together (RTBV + RTSV) at high efficiency and fed mainly from both phloem and xylem on IR54. Six populations collected at Los Baos varied in their transmission efficiencies and feeding behavior, especially on IR54. Populations collected prior to Apr 1987 transmitted mostly RTBV alone and fed mainly from xylem on IR54. Populations collected after Aug 1987 efficiently transmitted RTBV + RTSV, and fed predominantly' from both phloem and
Area of acidic and basic honeydew spots (a), percentage of area of basic honeydew spots (b) excreted by 6 GLH collections from IRRI farm, Los Baos, Philippines, Aug 1986-Jan 1988, during a 22-h inoculation feeding, and transmission of RTBV and RTSV to 6 rice cultivars (c). IRRI, 1988. RTBV and RTSV incidencea in 14 rice cultivars in demonstration plots at IRRI, 1986 and 1988 DS. b 1986 dry season Cultivar Plants tested (no.) Plants (%) with RTBV+ RTSV 87 0 0 67 70 1 0 0 0 50 2 83 RTBV RTSV Plants tested (no.) 36 36 36 36 36 56 36 70 34 34 36 1988 dry season Plants (%) with RTBV+ RTSV 56 0 0 11 61 71 3 66 80 38 78 RTBV 14 RTSV 19 0 0 75 36 16 33 23 0 24 6
IR8 IR22 IR26 IR30 IR36 IR42 IR54 IR58 IR64 Gam Pai 30-12-15 Sigadis Peta TN1
a Plants
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 50 c 90 d 90 d 36
11 59 41 7 12 3 0 6 1 22 12 13
2 0 0 15 10 19 9 12 9 7 7 2
31 25 0 0 11 0 4 15 9 8
were indexed by latex serology. bDashes indicate not tested. cTested in 1985 WS. d Tested in 1985 DS.
xylem on IR54 and IR64 (see figure). Additional measurements Jan-Feb 1988 confirmed this. The shift in feeding
behavior on IR54 and IR64 of the Los Baos population from predominant xylem feeding to phloem and xylem
feeding could be the major reason for the shift in virus transmission efficiency. At Los Baos, RTV incidence in IR54, IR64, and some other cultivars having Gam Pai 30-12-15 in their parentage was very low before the 1986
wet season (WS) and very high from 1987 dry season (DS) onward. RTBV + RTSV incidence on IR54 and IR64 was very low in 1986, but very high in 1988 (see table). Gam Pai 30-12-15 also had high incidence of RTBV + RTSV in
1988. These results indicate the breakdown of IR54 and IR64 resistance to RTV in Los Baos in 1987 DS was due to a shift in GLH virulence. RTBV + RTSV incidence on IR36 was high in 1986, but low in 1988 (see table).
Resistance to bacterial leaf streak (BLS) in hybrid rice and parental lines
Li Ren-Hua, Hunan Hybrid Rice Research Center, Changsha, Hunan, China; and E. Medalla, Plant Pathology Department, IRRI
Reactions of different A and R lines and F 1 to BLS. IRRI, 1988. Reactiona Hybrid A IR46830A/IR50 IR46830A/IR9761-19-1 IR54752A/IR54 IR54752A/IR19392-211-1 Zhonshan 97A/Milyang 54 7.2 4.0 8.0 4.6 8.8 3.8 8.7 3.1 8.4 6.2 Isolate 93 R 4.9 3.7 8.9 5.3 7.5 2.4 8.7 4.8 0 F1 7.7 4.4 8.5 6.3 7.9 3.2 8.9 4.3 2.1 2.0 A 2.5 6 .0 5.2 7.4 3.4 5.0 3.1 5.2 3.7 7.5 Isolate 335 R 2.2 3.7 6.1 6.5 0.3 3.7 1.8 6.0 0 F1 3.8 5.1 4.9 6.8 2.5 5.7 2.0 6.3 0.0 2.7
Five rice hybrids from IRRI and their male sterile (A) and restorer (R) lines were evaluated against two isolates of BLS in the greenhouse. Pregerminated seeds were grown in plastic trays, three rows in a tray, one for each F1, A, and R lines. Isolates 93 and 335 of Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzicola were used to spray-inoculate the test plants at 21 and 30 d after sowing (DAS). The bacterial suspension was adjusted to l09 cells/ml. Scoring was done 10 and 15 d after inoculation (DAI) using the Standard evaluation system for rice (SES), based on leaf area infection.
a Scores are averages at 10 DAI on plants inoculated at 21 DAS (fist row in each set), and 30 DAS (second row). 0-3 = resistant, 3.1-4.9 = moderately resistant, 5-9 = susceptible.
Of the five hybrids, Zhonshan 97A/ Milyang 54 was resistant to the two isolates in both inoculation stages (see table). IR46830A and IR54752A became moderately resistant when inoculated with isolate 93 at 30 DAS.
The two parental lines with moderate resistance produced rice hybrids with moderate resistance. The R line contributed resistance in F1 for the A line-susceptible and R line-resistant combination.
Sieve tube number in tungro (RTV)-infected rice plants

B. Srinivasulu and R. Jeyarajan, Plant Pathology Department, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
Simplification of sampling method for assessing bacterial blight (BB) severity

N. Nilpanit, W. Sirisantana, and S. Disthaporn, Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, K. Soontrajarn, Rice Research Institute, Department of Agriculture, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
To study the effect of RTV infection on phloem tissues, we collected leaves from healthy and RTV-infected rice plants. Cross sections of leaves of the same age were dipped in a saturated solution of phloroglucinol in 18% hydrochloric acid. The phloem cells per microscopic field were counted. We found no necrosis of phloem cells in infected leaves. However, the mean number of sieve tubes was 123 in healthy leaves, compared to 73 in diseased leaves. We conclude that RTV reduced sieve tubes 41%.
This study attempted to simplify methods to assess BB ( Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzae ) severity. Rice variety RD9 was transplanted into 5 5 m2 plots at Pathum Thani Rice Research Center, Thailand, during DS 1987. Disease was induced by inoculation in several levels on border rows of seven treatments with two replications each.
Severity was assessed 5 times at 49 d after transplanting (DT), 55 DT, 62 DT, 69 DT, and 76 DT, on 8 hills per plot. Leaf area damage on each of the top three leaves of each tiller (LADl, LAD2, and LAD3) as well as whole hill damage (VLAD) were visually assessed and expressed in percent. The average leaf area damage of leaves 1-3 (ALAD) and disease incidence for each leaf position (IL1, IL2, IL3, and ILT) were calculated. At maximum tillering (49 DT) and booting (55 DT) severity on the third leaf (LAD3) was highly correlated with average severity on the whole hill (ALAD) (see table). At flowering (62 DT), close correlations between average severity on a hill and severity on second or third leaves (LAD2 and LAD3) were found. At milk (69 DT) and dough
stages (76 DT), close correlations between average severity on a hill and the flag leaf (LAD1) or second leaf (LAD2) were observed. At all growth stages, incidence on all upper three leaves (ILT) was closely related to average severity on these leaves (ALAD). Results suggest that BB severity can be assessed on one of the upper three leaves instead of on all three. The method could be further simplified by counting infected leaves, rather than by estimating leaf damage.
Xa-7 Kuntlan, Xa-6; and CAS209, Xa10. During 1979 tests, Korean differentials Milyang 23, Yushin, Suweon 281, and Tongil with resistance genes from Kinmaze, Kogyoku, Kogyoku, and Rantai-emas groups, respectively, were also nonfunctional against Parwanipur and Kankai isolates.
Thus, IRRI, Japanese, and Korean resistant varieties cannot be used as differentials to identify pathogenic races of Xco in Nepal. Therefore, national programs should develop their own differentials, possibly using local popular varieties, to monitor pathogenic variability of Xco. liter of LS medium, with 1 mg 2,4-D and 30 g sucrose. Oryza ridleyi and Rexoro calli were obtained on LS medium; Chianan 2, Yabami Montakhab 47, and IR5865-26-1 calli were obtained on MS3 medium. In a no-choice bioassay, about 200 mg of callus were placed in a 5-cmdiameter Gelman 7242 petri dish (see figure). Rexoro and O. ridleyi were susceptible and resistant checks, respectively. Due to limitations in available callus, Chianan 2 was bioassayed only against Scirpophaga incertulas, Yabami Montakhab 47 against Chilo suppressalis, and Ptb 10 and IR5685-26-1 against Cnaphalocrocis medinalis. Insect egg masses were surface sterilized and incubated at 28 C until eggs hatched. Callus in each petri
Insect resistance
Use of tissue culture to evaluate rice resistance to lepidopterous pests
P. Caballero, D. H. Shin, Z. R. Khan, R. C. Saxena, B. O. Juliano, and F. J. Zapata, IRRI
Susceptibility of bacterial blight (BB) differential varieties of IRRI, Japan, and Korea in Nepal
P. B. Karki, D. N. Sah, and D. N. Manandhar, Agriculture Station, Parwanipur, Nepal
BB caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzae (Xco) is a major rice disease in the terai and inner terai regions (main rice-growing area) of Nepal. Recently, this disease was observed also in the warm river basins of the hill regions. The numerous pathogenic races of Xco in Nepal hinder efforts to breed resistant varieties. To identify pathogenic variability of Xco, IRRI and Japanese varieties were tested as possible differentials at Parwanipur, Janakpur, and Kankai from 1979 to 1987. Twenty-one-day-old seedlings of differential varieties were transplanted in 3 rows, each 5 m long. Each hill had 1 seedling and spacing was 20 20 cm. The plots were fertilized with NPK at 120-30-30 kg/ha. Plants were clipinoculated at maximum tillering. The disease was scored 21 d after inoculation according to the IRRI Standard evaluation system for rice. All IRRI varieties and Japanese differentials except DV85 in the 1979 test at Kankai were found susceptible to Nepalese isolates. The differential varieties have these resistance genes: Java 14, Xa-1 and Xa-3; Kogyoku, Xa-1 and Xa-kg; Nigeria 5, Xa-1 and Xa-2; Tetep, Xa-1 and Xa-2; IR20, Xa-4; IR1545-339-2-2, xa-5; DV85, xa-5 and
Larval development was evaluated on plant tissues cultured from rice genotypes varying in levels of insect resistance. Murashige and Skoog (MS) and Linsmaier and Skoog (LS) media were used to induce and develop callus. Each liter of MS medium was supplemented with 2 mg 2, 4-D, 1 mg BAP, and 30 g sucrose (MS3); and each
Lepidopterous pests reared on rice plant calli: a) C. medinalis larvae feeding on Ptb 10 callus; b) S. incertulas larva feeding on resistant O. ridleyi callus; c) growth of C. medinalis larvae on calli of O. ridleyi (c1), IR5865-26-1 (c2), Ptb 10 (c3), and Rexoro (c4); and d) growth of C. suppressalis larvae on calli of O. ridleyi (d1), Yabami Montakhab 47 (d2), and Rexoro (d3). IRRI, 1987-88.
dish was infested with 3 neonate larvae and incubated at 26 C, at 12 h light/12 h darkness photoperiod. Each treatment was replicated five times. In all cases, larvae developed normally on susceptible Rexoro. After 20 d of infestation, neonate S. incertulas larvae developed to 5th instar on Rexoro callus and to 3d on Chianan 2, but failed to survive on O. ridleyi. At 15 d after infestation, C. suppressalis neonate developed to 5th instar on Rexoro, to 4th on Yabami Montakhab 47, and to 2d on O. ridleyi. At 17 d after infestation, C. medinalis neonate larvae developed to 5th instar on Rexoro and Ptb 10 calli, to 4th on IR5865-26-1, and to 2d on O. ridleyi callus. Results verify the use of tissue culture to investigate rice resistance to insect pests. Further work could provide plant breeders with sensitive screening tools to develop rice germplasm with better sustainable levels of insect resistance.
YSB infestation in selected test entries in different screening trials under outbreak conditions or egg mass implantation in growing plants in the field. Cuttack, India, 1980-87. Trial Season and year Details of entries Entry Infestation (%) 5.2 45.7 nil 2.2 2.5 42.3 nil 27.4 0.3 21.6 5.5 22.8 9.2 7.9 4.1 4.8 8.0 19.2 Deadhearts 11.7 16.1 13.7 16.6 52.6 35.9 Whiteheads 19.1 11.6 8.1 NF NF 32.4
1 2
Kharif 1980 Kharif 1980
30 late varieties a 51 late culturesa (replicated) 10 late culturesa (replicated) 10 late culturesa (replicated) 25 entries of IRTP YSB screening set + 11 others (replicated)b
Mahsuri CR1010 CR301-3066 Mahsuri CR259-398-326-155 Jagannath CR260-30 CR1016 CR260-30 CR1018 IR9828-23-1 Ratna W1263 CO 18 W1253 IR15723-45-3-2-2-2 CR317-166 IR29 W1263 IR15723-45-3-2-2-2 IR9828-23-1 W1253 GEB24 IR29
3 4 5
Kharif 1980 Kharif 1980 Kharif 1982
Rabi 1983
20 entriesb
Improved sources of plant resistance to yellow stem borer (YSB) Scirpophaga incertulas Walker in rice
P. S. P. Rao and G. Padhi, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, India
Kharif 1983
80 breeding lines b + 25 others
Infestation (%) CR260-151-81-2-710 9.7 CR260-167-247-179 10.0 CR260-30 17.4 IR9828-23-1 25.0 IR15723-45-3-2-2-2 28.0 W1253 7.6 Sashyashree 77.3 RP2199-7-10-8-3 W1253 IR9828-23-1 W1263 RP2069-39-3-1-4 IR20 IR58 IR24 CR1018 CR260-100-11 CR260-30 IR5 RP2199-3-3-1-6 IET9405 (OR437) IR15723-45-3-2-2-2 W1253 IR9828-23-1 W1263 5.9 6.0 4.3 10.2 39.5 19.2 18.9 47.5 28.6 2.3 3.2 50.0 8.8 4.9 4.0 9.3 10.5 3.3
Kharif 1985
Dependable sources of resistance to YSB have not been available. For example, Ratna and Sashyashree, said to have moderate field resistance to YSB, have not been resistant to heavy infestation. Since 1980, we have worked to identify better donors of resistance. In kharif 1980 and 1986, YSB broke out at heading stage in 121 late (140 d and above) cultures and varieties in 5 experiments and seed multiplication plots, resulting in whiteheads (up to 45.7%). In kharif 1982,1983, 1985, and 1986 and rabi 1983 and 1987, 6 planned experiments involving 352 entries (including national and international YSB screening sets, named varieties of IRRI, and repeats from earlier years) were field tested. Test plants (minimum of 4 and maximum of 16 per entry) were implanted with 24 healthy, laboratorylaid 4-d-old egg masses of YSB per hill
60 entries of stem borer set (DRR) + 20 others b
9 10
Rabi 1986 Kharif 1986
30 released IR varieties + 20 other entries b 20 varieties on farm a
11
Rabi 1987
36 entries of stem borer screening, kharif 1986 (DRR) + 30 IR varieties + 15 others b
aYSB
outbreak in field at heading. bYSB egg mass implantation in growing plants in field.
between 35 and 70 d after planting, and borer infestation was evaluated at 2025 d after implantation. Borer incidence in all 11 trials showed adequate YSB pressure on the 473 entries (see table).
CR260-30 (trial 4), W1253 (5), W1263 (5), IR9828-23-1 (5), IR15723-45-3-2-2-2 (5), and Mahsuri (2) proved consistently resistant to YSB. They are the most promising donors for use in YSB resistance breeding programs.
High virulence of new brown planthopper (BPH) populations in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam
Nguyen Van Huynh, Plant Protection Department, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Can Tho; and Han Thi Nhung, Southern Plant Protection Center, Vietnam
Reactions of the differential varieties for BPH biotypes to 2 BPH populations collected in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, 1986-87. Reaction to BPH populations a Differential variety Resistant gene Tien Giang a Taichung Native 1 IR26 Mudgo ASD7 NN3A NN6A IR13240-10-1 IR46 Rathu Heenati Ptb 33 Balamawee
a Damage
An Giang a 9 5 5 7 7 7 0 1 b 7 9 9 9 9 1 1
b 5 5 6 2 2 2
Since BPH biotype 2 occurred in the Mekong Delta in 1977 (IRRN 6/ 1977), it has been controlled by integrated pest management using resistant varieties. However, in late 1986 and early 1987, two populations were detected. They were collected, mass-reared, and tested in the screenhouse with the differential set for BPH biotype by the seedling nursery method (see table). The population collected from Tien Giang Province in 1986 wet season shows moderate damage on varieties carrying the resistant gene bph 2 (ASD7 and IR46) and even on varieties with Bph I gene (IR26). The population from
Susceptible check Bph 1 Bph 1 Bph 2 bph 2 bph 2 bph 2 bph 2 + minor Bph 3 Bph 3 + bph 4 bph 4
9 2 3 4 1 1 1
scoring.
was rated 1 to 9 twice: a = when all plants of TN1 were dead, and b = 7 d after the first
An Giang Province collected on IR13240-10-1 in early 1987 shows higher damage on the currently cultivated varieties carrying bph 2 gene with damage scores from 5 to 7. The varieties with Bph 3 and bph 4 genes were not damaged, but IR26 with Bph I was
moderately attacked. These results indicate new populations of a new biotype are becoming strong enough to damage resistant varieties widely cultivated in the area. This demands intensive surveillance.
Drought tolerance
Rice sensitivity to water deficit at different growth stages
K. T. Ingram and E. B. Yambao, Agronomy Department, IRRI
In the IRRI greenhouse, we measured sensitivity of rice in various growth stages to water deficit of several durations. One IR64 plant per pot was grown in pots 55 cm high, 20 cm internal diameter and containing about 16 kg of Maahas clay soil under aerobic conditions. Control pots were watered daily to replenish all water lost by evapotranspiration. In water deficit treatments, water was withheld for 5, 10, or 15 d beginning at 10, 25, 40, 55, 70, 85, and 100 d after seeding (DAS). At the end of each stress period, plants were fully rewatered. During stress, the soil was covered with polyethylene and
aluminum to minimize evaporation. Daily transpiration was estimated by weighing pots, and stress intensity was estimated as the cumulative difference between transpiration in control and stress treatments, (Tc - Ts). During vegetative growth, water deficit had no effect on grain yield (see table). During the reproductive phase, water deficit of 5 or 10 d reduced yields by 25 to 45% and water deficit of 15 d reduced yields up to 88%. These results confirm previous findings that rice yields are reduced most when drought occurs during reproductive stage. Control plants transpired about 50 kg total with greatest Tc from 55 to 70 DAS. In other words, maximum yield reduction coincided with maximum Tc. Grain yield was highly correlated with (Tc - Ts), even with data from all growth stages combined (see figure). The greatest deviation from the regression line is for 15d stress at panicle initiation. We computed (Tc-Ts) only during the stress period. Possibly because of reductions in
leaf area, Ts was also less than Tc after rewatering. If true, then the errant point should fall much closer to the regression. If rice sensitivity to water deficit changed with growth stage, then we would expect to have different regressions between (Tc-Ts) and yield at different growth stages. Since yield data from stresses at all growth stages fall on the same regression
Grain yield of IR64 in response to water deficit at different growth stages and durations. IRRI, 1988. Stress onset in days after seeding 10 25 40 55 70 85 100 Grain yield a (g/plant) at stress duration of 5d 45 a-f 52 ab 40 d-g 40 c-g 37 fg 41 a-f 40 c-g 10 d 51 49 41 31 36 39 39 a-c a-e c-g gh fg e-g e-g 15 d 55 50 16 7 26 42 a a-d i j h b-f
a Yields followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P<0.05 by DMRT. Control (no stress) grain yield was 54 g/plant.
Relationship between summation of daily difference between transpiration of control and stressed plants, and grain yield. IRRI, 1988.
line, differences in grain yield with drought at different growth stages can be entirely accounted for by differences in S (Tc - Ts). Though IR64 was most susceptible to yield reduction by drought at flowering, it was not most sensitive to water deficit then. Rather, stress developed fastest and plants were most severely stressed at flowering because rapid growth then used water fastest. It appears that S(Tc-Ts) alone, with no factor to scale for growth stage, can be used as a drought stress index to compare results of screening trials in different locations and years.
glass jar, preferably 30 cm high, 8 cm diameter (see figure). 2. Fill the jar to its brim with water. 3. Place 25 uniform pregerminated seeds over the nylon net so they touch the water. 4. Radicles enter the water in 24 h. 5. Daily, drain the water level to arrest adventitious root growth so only tips of long radicles touch the water by 1 mm. (To drain water from jar, use a small rubber tube 2 mm in diameter.) The seedlings with short or malformed radicles will dry up. 6. Thereafter, drain the water every 24 h, continuing to allow root tips to touch the water. 7. Seven days after germination, take out the seedlings and compare lengths of seminal roots. Deep-rooted genotypes will develop longer seminal roots. The advantages of this technique follow: 1. Root elongation provides valid data for drought resistance. 2. Shallow-rooted genotypes vary
Pregerminated seeds grown for 1 wk in a tall glass cylinder, mouth covered with nylon net.
greatly from deep-rooted genotypes, allowing quick visual screening. 3. Where a greenhouse is not available, this simple technique can supplement field data.
Excess water tolerance

Performance of rice breeding lines under medium deepwater conditions
M. M. Amante and D. J. Mackill, Plant Breeding Department, IRRI
A low-cost rapid screening technique for seminal root elongation

P. Gomathinuyagam and S. Natarajan, Agricultural Research Station, Paramakudi; and M. Subramanian and M. Nagarajan, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai, India
In rainfed lowland rice-growing areas with impeded drainage, water may stagnate at depths above 25 cm for much of the growing season. Field experiments were conducted under medium deep conditions at IRRI 1983-
Yields of promising rainfed lowland rices and check cultivars grown under medium deepwater conditions (25-50 cm water depth). IRRI, 1983-85. Designation IR13149-71-3-2-3 IR24705-11-3-2-3-3 IR26760-27-1-3-2-1 IR26760-76-2-1-2-3 IR19382-42-3-3-2 IR9217-58-2-2 IR54 IR42 Mahsuri LSD (0.05)
aDuration,
Durationa (d) 127 137 141 133 136 126 120 129 132
Height a (cm) 123 123 131 128 134 127 119 113 152
Lodging a score 3.2 2.8 4.3 3.5 2.3 3.3 5.3 2.7 7.0
Yield (t/ha) 1983 2.7 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.6 2.4 1.9 0.6 0.8 1984 2.9 3.0 2.6 2.5 2.3 2.5 2.0 1.8 1.4 0.6 1985 4.4 4.5 4.2 4.3 4.0 3.3 2.7 3.2 1.3 0.9
Grand mean yield (t/ha) 3.3 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.4 2.3 1.1
Deep roots offer resistance to drought. To identify deep-rooted rice genotypes, we developed a new method of growing seedlings in solution culture. This technique fosters seminal root growth in young seedlings by hindering adventitious root growth: 1. With nylon net, cover tightly the mouth of a tall measuring cylinder or
height, and lodging score (SES scale) are means from the 3 yr.
85 wet seasons relating yield to agronomic traits of rainfed lowland breeding lines. Water depth was maintained at 25 to 50 cm from 3 wk after transplanting to maturity. We tested 75 entries in 1983, 73 in 1984, and 64 in 1985. They included check cultivars and advanced breeding lines, with entry changes each year. Grain yields were low in 1983 and 1984 (0.6-3.0 t/ha), but were as high as 4.9 t/ha in 1985. They did not correlate well with agronomic traits. In 1984, a
subset of 25 entries was grown under shallow (5 cm) water depth. Grain yield for medium deepwater and shallow conditions correlated positively ( r = 0.66), indicating that yield potential at both water depths was related. Tillering did not correlate with yield nor differ between depths. Plant heights averaged 138 cm over all entries under medium deep conditions, compared to 131 cm under shallow conditions. Average lodging score by Standard evaluation
system for rice (SES) was 5.5 in medium deepwater and 2.6 in shallow water. Twenty-one breeding lines were included in all years trials. Correlations between years were low. Several breeding lines performed better than check cultivars (see table). In selecting lines for medium deep conditions, it is important to conduct yield trials over several years and select for intermediate plant height and lodging resistance.
Adverse temperature tolerance

Spikelet sterility in three rice cultivars
V. D. Naidu and P. S. Reddy, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, Agricultural Research Station (ARS), Nellore 524004, A.P., India
and palea in florets were twisted. Most florets were aborted (see figure). IR20 in rabi 1983, and Rasi and IR50 in late rabi 1984-85 and 1985-86 were
observed for sterility in the field. IR20 recorded 4.3%; Rasi, 28.8%; and IR50, 15.2% sterility (see table). The suspected cause of the high sterility in IR50 is high temperature from panicle initiation to flowering. The higher temperatures might have affected meiosis, resulting in sterility.
Spikelet sterility in 3 rice cultivars and weather parameters during panicle initiation to flowering. ARS, Nellore, India, 1983-86. Hills affected (%) 100 100 100 Panicles affected (%) 100 90 100 Total spikelets (no./panicle) 134.5 76.5 66.4 Spikelet sterility (%) 4.3 28.8 15.2 Weather parameter a Maximum temp ( C) 28.9 38.1 37.0 Minimum temp (C) 21.1 26.9 26.0 Relative humidity (%) 85.1 71.8 70.3
Spikelet deformity was observed in three rice cultivars at ARS farm in rabi 1983 (Oct-Mar), late rabi 1984-85 (Feb-Jun), and rabi 1985-86. Sterility ranged from 4 to 29%. When panicles were opened at booting, the androecium and gynoecium were already aborted and the lemma
Cultivar
IR20 IR50 Rasi

a Rainfall
was nil during the trials.
Hybrid rice responses to high temperature at flowering

Tan Zhonghe, Lan Taiyuan, and Fang Wen, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences; and Ren Chang Fu, Southwestern Agricultural University, China
Characteristics of sterile spikelets under high temperature at panicle initiation.
We studied hybrid rice responses to high temperature at flowering in the phytotron and under natural climatic conditions in southeastern Sichuan, China. Panicles of hybrids Shan You 2 and Ai You 2 that emerged 50-60% at the same growth stage were observed. Before temperature treatments, spikelets that had undergone anthesis were cut. After treatment, unbloomed spikelets were cut.
In the phytotron, spikelets treated with a constant day temperature of 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37, and 39 C for 6 consecutive hours from 0800 to 1400 h had sterility percentages of 10.0, 11.5, 7.7, 9.2, 15.8, 26.4, and 74.3%, respectively. Thus the percentage of sterility increased as temperature increased beyond 35 C, a correlation significant at 1% level. Sustaining the high temperature progressively increased sterility. Sterility was 15.5, 26.6, and 28.8% when the spikelets were treated at 35 C for 2, 4, and 6 h, respectively. Spikelet sterility induced by natural climatic high temperature was observed during flowering in fields in southeastern Sichuan, China. Results (see table)
Percentage of spikelet sterility induced by high temperature under natural climatic condition in southeastern Sichuan, China. Method Spikelet treatment Panicle treatment Daily mean temperature (C) 27.9 1.02 31.27 1.12 27.2 1.10 30.87 0.06 Daily maximum temperature ( C) 32.4 1.75 36.35 1.11 31.35 2.39 35.27 0.25 Sterility (%) 7.24 1.64 10.85 2.05 14.87 2.84 21.93 1.36 Spikelets or panicles observed (no.) 11,984 7,719 200 150
indicate that daily mean temperatures 30 C or lower and daily maximum temperatures 35 C or lower significantly affected spikelet sterility. To determine the stages most sensitive to high temperature, we treated 2,636
spikelets at meiosis, 778 at pollen grain development stage, and 1,320 at flowering, using 35 C for 4 h in the phytotron. This induced 4.1% sterility at meiosis, 5.3% at pollen grain development, and 15.8% at flowering.
The index of heat tolerance (% fertility at high temperature/ % sterility at normal temperature) for hybrid rices Shan You 2 and Ai You 2 were determined at 33, 35, and 37 C in the phytotron. Heat tolerance for Shan You 2 was 1.05, 0.78, and 0.14; that for Ai You 2 was 0.84, 0.42, and 0.09, respectively. Thus Shan You 2 tolerated high temperature better than did Ai You 2. Adopting high temperature-tolerant varieties and adjusting flowering times are strategies to avoid high temperature sterility.
Adverse soils tolerance

Modified screening method for salt tolerance
Guo Wang-mo and Chen Rong-ye, Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, China National Rice Research Institute (CNRRI), Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
We developed a practical method to screen rice varieties for salt tolerance, based on IRRIs screening techniques. Some modifications have been made: 1. Rice seedlings are planted in soil fertilized with NPK instead of raised in solution culture, simplifying the screening of more varieties at lower cost. 2. Screening is fixed at the 3-leaf stage to eliminate the unfavorable effects caused by 2-wk-old seedlings grown in different seasons.
3. At 4 wk after transplanting (WT) the plants are scored by both the percentage of dead leaves and the salt injury symptoms (visual), and IRRIs standard of score 2 and score 1 are merged into score 1. We have tested 1,580 rice varieties, including some of IRRIs resistant and susceptible checks such as Nona Bokra, Pokkali, Kalarata, and Damodar, by this modified method. Results are similar to those with IRRIs technique. The procedure is as follows: Germinate rice seeds in demineralized water. Plant the pregerminated seeds in soil fertilized with NPK. Irrigate up to 1 cm depth until seedlings reach the 3-leaf stage. Pull the seedlings without injuring the roots, wash the roots in water, and select
four good uniform seedlings from each variety. Plant them in a tray (41 27 13 cm) filled with 7 kg clay loam soil, and add 5.6 liters of 0.5% common salt solution to the soil. The ECe of the soil saturation extract should be 8-10 dS/m. Plant tolerant and susceptible checks. Add demineralized water whenever necessary. Score at 4 WT, using percentage of dead leaves and leaf injury symptoms (see table).
Rice yield responses in a saline soil in Sri Lanka

A. H. G. Mithrasena and H. D. Jayawickrama, Regional Agricultural Research Centre, Bombuwela, Sri Lanka
Results of screening rice plants for tolerance for salinity, using a modified method. CNRRI, China, 1988. Dead leavesa (%) 0-35 36-50 51-70 71-90 91-100
aPercentage
Reaction to salinity Normal growth, absence of salinity symptoms Restricted growth and tillering, a few rolling leaves Very restricted growth and tillering, most leaves rolling Growth ceases, most leaves and some plants dead Most plants dead or nearly dead
Score 1 3 5 7 9 100.
Tolerance degree Highly tolerant Tolerant Moderately tolerant Moderately susceptible Susceptible
dead leaves =
no. of dead leaves/plant no. of leaves/plant
In the low country wet zone of Sri Lanka, 10% of riceland is coastal saline. Pokkali is one of the few adaptable varieties, particularly where soil conductivity goes up to 7-8 dS/m. However, Pokkali is not widely grown because it has low yields and is susceptible to lodging and diseases. This study compared two promising salt-tolerant cultivars with Pokkali at 2 spacings in 1985-86 wet season in a farmers field with salinity up to about 7 dS/m. Two-week-old seedlings of Bw 272-8, Bw 297-2, and Pokkali from a dry bed
nursery were planted at 3 seedlings/ hill, spaced 15 10 cm and 15 20 cm. Plot size was 6 3 m, with 30 cm space between plots. A 3 2 factorial, randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Fertilizer and agrochemicals were applied as recommended by the Department of Agriculture. Plots were harvested after removing 2 rows around each plot, and yield estimated at 14% moisture. Soil samples were randomly collected weekly for measuring soil pH and soil conductivity from planting to grain filling. Highest conductivity was 6.65 dS/m when the crop was at tiller initiation.
Bw 272-8 and Pokkali had some scorching of leaf blade tips. Bw 297-2 had leaf rolling. Heavy rains 3 to 5 wk after transplanting reduced soil conductivity, which gradually increased to 4 dS/m at flowering stage. No growth retardation or panicle sterility was observed. Pokkali lodged (40-55%) at flowering, especially in 15- l0-cm plots. Bw 2972 lodged slightly in the closer spacing. Bw 272-8 yielded significantly more than Bw 297-2, and both varieties bested Pokkali (see table). For all varieties, reducing spacing from 15 20 cm to 15 10 cm significantly increased yield. Interaction between variety and spacing was not statistically significant.
Effect of spacing on yield of 3 transplanted varieties in saline fields. Bombuwela, Sri Lanka. Variety Yield (t/ha) 15 l0 cm 3.4 2.8 1.3 2.5 15 20 cm 2.7 2.0 0.8 1.9 Variety mean 3.1 2.4 1.1
BW 272-8 BW 297-2 Pokkali Spacing mean LSD for variety (0.01) 0.7 t/ha (0.05) 0.5 t/ha LSD for spacing (0.01) 0.6 t/ha
Results show that using resistant varieties at reduced spacing could increase yields in saline tracts.
Integrated germplasm improvement

Nepal releases nine rice varieties
G. L. Shrestha, National Rice Improvement Program (NRIP), Parwanipur Agriculture Station, Birganj, Nepal
Most Nepal ricefields (88%) lie in the tropical to subtropical climatic region that includes the Tarai region (southern plain area), 9.5% are in the midhill region up to 1,372 m, and 2.5% are in cold high hills between 1,372 and
2,316 m. Rice is cultivated up to elevations of 3,048 m. Nepals target rice production is 5.1 million t, averaging 3.5 t/ha, by year 2000. Improved varieties are needed to help reach this goal. In Aug 1987, Nepal released nine varieties for different ecological regions and conditions (see table). Palung 2 is
New rice varieties recommended for ecological regions of Nepal, 1987. Ecological region and conditions for cultivation For high hills (1524-1981 m) (cold temperate region) Irrigated condition For midhills (914-1524 m) Warm temperate region Recommended variety name Palung 2 Original designation Parents Country of origin When introduced in Nepal Nepal bred Growth duration (d) 158-186 Yield (t/ha) 4.9 - 7.2 Grain type
Temperate region NR10073-167-3-1-3 BG94-2/Pokhareli Masino NR10068-60-3-2 NR10078-76-14 Jarneli/KN-LB-36t BLK-2-8 IR28/Pokhareli Masino Nepal Nepal
Coarse
Khumal 2 Khumal 4
Nepal bred Nepal bred
130-153 139-148
3.5 - 7.7 4.2 - 8.4
Coarse Coarse
1) Irrigated condition (610-1524 m) Early season (Feb-Jun) cultivation (Chaite Dhan Kheti)
Tropical to subtropical region Chaite 2 Chaite 4 IR7151-260-3-3 IR9729-67-3 B4416-126-3-21 PAU41-262 BG34-8/ IR2061-522-6-9 (IRRI) BG34-8/IR28// IR2095-625-1-252 (IRRI) C4-63 GB/B 531b-TK-39 RP72/Mutant 65 1979 1980 Indonesia India 1977 1979 120-125 120-125 130-140 135-145 3.6 - 6.4 3.4 - 6.6 3.5 - 5.3 3.3 - 4.7 Medium Medium Fine Medium
Normal season (Jun-Oct) cultivation (Barkhe Dhan Kheti) 2) Rainfed lowland condition For normal season cultivation 3) Rainfed upland condition For normal season cultivation
Barkhe 2 Khajura 2
Makwanpur 1
BG400-1
Ob 78/IR20/H4
Sri Lanka
1980
140-150 3.5 - 6.3
Coarse
Ghaiya 2
MW10
MTU/W. Kakaiku
India
1980
110-115
2.1 - 4.7
Medium
recommended for cold temperate region. Khumal 2 and Khumal 4 were selected for warm temperate regions under irrigation. Chaite 2 and Chaite 4 are
recommended for early season (Feb to Jun) and Barkhe 2 and Khajura 2 for normal season (Jun to Oct) cultivation under irrigation in tropical or
subtropical regions. Makwanpur 1 is released for rainfed lowland and Ghaiya 2 for rainfed lowland for the hot region.
Evaluation of African Upland Rice Advanced Trial (AURAT) at Ibadan, Nigeria

P. G. Pillai, National Cereals Research Institute, Ibadan Sub-Station, P.M. B. 5042, Ibadan, Nigeria
Nurseries of 17 entries in 1985 and 15 each in 1986 and 1987 were laid out during the wet season at Ibadan in a
randomized complete block design with 4 rep1ications. Plot size was 12 m2. Four to six dry seeds were dibbled at 25 25-cm spacing. Eleven entries were tested over 3 yr. In 1985, moisture stress reduced plant height and grain yield. IRAT104, which possessed clean grains, significantly outyielded the check FARO 11. Yields in 1986 were variable but not significantly different. In 1987, plant
height, tillering, and grain yields generally increased because of steady rainfall throughout the growing season. ITA305, ITA3 15, IRAT170, and UPLRi-5 yielded significantly higher than FARO 11. Four entriesITA305, IRAT161, IRAT 104, and ITA3 15that outyielded FARO 11 by 25% were selected for national multilocation trials.
Data management and computer modeling

Models for panicle growth simulation
G. F. Li and D. Senadhira, Plant Breeding Department, IRRI
Panicle growth simulation helps determine rate and duration of grain
filling. Using data from 1987 wet season experiments at IRRI, we tested six growth models to find the best one for simulating panicle growth. Richards function performed best, with the largest regression coefficient between simulated and actual growth. Logistic function ranked second,
followed by cubic polynomial, quadratic polynomial, negative exponential, and Gompertz function. Results indicate Gompertz function is not suitable for panicle growth simulation.
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Soils and soil characterization
Effect of soil type on draft force needed to plow soils of South Sulawesi, Indonesia
T. M. Lando and B. Abidin, Agricultural Engineering Department, Maros Research Institute for Food Crops, P. O. Box 173, Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
Draft of soil types in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Soil draft (kN) Soil Grassy Grey alluvial Old grey alluvial Grey brownish alluvial Yellowish grey alluvial Hydromorphic alluvial Brownish grey alluvial Brownish alluvial Complex brown Regosol, Mediterranean, and Latosol Latosol Reddish brown Mediterranean Complex reddish brown Mediterranean and Latosol 0.53 0.66 0.54 0.43 0.65 0.54 0.60 0.44 0.47 0.52 0.56 Wetland Nongrassy 0.45 0.51 0.47 0.39 0.93 0.46 0.46 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 Grassy 0.58 0.63 0.60 0.49 0.63 0.65 0.63 0.48 0.60 0.57 0.57 Dryland Nongrassy 0.50 0.57 0.49 0.42 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.37 0.47 0.51 0.51
We measured the draft required to pull special-purpose plows on different soils in South Sulawesi. Draft was measured with a drawbar dynamometer, three times for each soil. Carabao, cow, or human power was used, depending on site condition. Cuts were 15 cm wide
Continued on next page
and 12 cm deep at 2.0 km/h or 0.56 m/s. Of the soils tested, grey Grumusol required the highest draft, yellowish red lateritic soil the lowest (see table). Grassy soil needed higher draft than nongrassy soil. Soil with scattered stones needed a high draft. Wetland (previously puddled) needed a slightly lower soil draft than dryland (nonpuddled): 0.64 kN on grassy wetland, 0.57 kN on nongrassy wetland, 0.63 kN on grassy dryland, and 0.58 kN on nongrassy dryland. The following formula calculates power required for land preparation on different soil types: Power (kW) = draft (kN) speed (m/s) For example, on vegetative grey Grumusol with a soil draft of 1.26 kN and on yellowish red lateritic with a soil draft of 0.38 kN, the required power for land preparation is 0.71 and 0.21 kW, or 0.95 and 0.28 hp, respectively.
Table continued Soil draft (kN) Soil Grassy Complex reddish brown Latosol and Latosol Grey Grumusol Old grey Grumusol Black Grumusol Yellowish red lateritic Yellowish grey Regosol Yellowish red podzolic Yellowish brown podzolic Brown podzolic Violet podzolic Brown Mediterranean Grey Mediterranean Complex grey brown podzolic Complex yellowish brown Mediterranean and Latosol Complex red Mediterranean and Latosol Yellowish red Latosol Reddish brown Latosol Brown Latosol Grey brown Regosol Brownish yellow Latosol 0.58 1.26 1.12 1.16 0.38 0.73 0.48 0.49 0.69 0.63 0.79 0.43 0.5 7 0.72 0.62 0.73 0.60 0.88 0.77 0.70 Wetland Nongrassy 0.49 1.08 1.09 1.14 0.33 0.65 0.42 0.41 0.63 0.58 0.72 0.41 0.51 0.67 0.55 0.60 0.50 0.77 0.66 0.62 Grassy 0.50 1.18 0.99 1.16 0.40 0.79 0.40 0.5 7 0.78 0.67 0.82 0.54 0.67 0.78 0.76 0.79 0.64 1.02 0.86 0.72 Dryland Nongrassy 0.49 0.88 0.88 1.07 0.36 0.70 0.36 0.44 0.68 0.5 1 0.74 0.44 0.52 0.12 0.61 0.62 0.60 0.79 0.69 0.69
Soil microbiology and biological N fertilizer

Growth and K uptake of Azolla pinnata under different salt levels
K. Rajarathinam and M. A. Padhya, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Botany Department, The M.S. University of Baroda, Baroda 390002, India
We studied salt tolerance, growth, N content, acetylene reduction, and K accumulation of Azolla pinnata grown
under different K levels (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ppm). The plant was grown on a N-free medium containing 40 ppm Mg, 40 ppm K, 40 ppm Ca, 20 ppm P, 0.5 ppm Mn, 0.2 ppm B, 0.1 ppm Mo, 0.01 ppm Cu, 0.01 ppm Zn, and 2 ppm Fe. Salt concentration in the control medium was 770 ppm. To test salt tolerance, NaCl was added to the medium to make 1000, 1300, 1900, 2500, 3100, and 3700 ppm. Three grams of actively growing azolla
Influence of salt concentration on growth and K accumulation in Azolla pinnata. Baroda, India. Total salt concentration of the medium (ppm) 710 1000 1300 1900 2500 3100 LSD (0.05) Fresh weight (g) 25.9 25.7 25.3 17.6 10.8 7.2 1.3 Dry weight (g) 1.03 1.02 1.01 0.72 0.39 0.07 0.07 N content (%) 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.1 2.8 0.1 C2H4 formed (nmol/g fresh weight per h) 685 680 668 530 411 213 76 K content (% by dry weight) 2.98 2.93 2.90 2.61 1.98 1.14 0.28
plants were inoculated in a plastic tray (40- 25- 10-cm) containing 2 liters of the test medium. Cultures were incubated at 25 2 C under fluorescent light for 16/8 h light/dark cycle. Culture medium was changed once in 3 d. Plants were harvested after 21 d. At lower concentrations of salts (1000 and 1300 ppm), azolla grew as well as the control. Salt levels 1900 ppm and higher significantly reduced biomass production, N content, acetylene reduction activity, and K accumulation (see table). Plants were killed at 3700 ppm salt level. Growth and K accumulation increased with increasing level of K in the culture medium. Besides fixing N of Anabaena azollae, azolla plants efficiently accumulated K.
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Herbicide-azolla integration for weed control in transplanted IR60 rice

G. Srinivasan and P. Pothiraj, Agronomy Department, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore 3, India
Effect of weed control treatments on weed dry matter (DM) and relative dry weight, and grain yield of rice. a TNAU, 1987 dry season. Weed DM at 60 DT (g/0.5 m 2 ) cd ab ab bc a e d Weed Relative dry weight (%) efficiency Marsilea (%) Echinochloa 73.47 87.76 69.39 84.49 80.41 93.88 36.33 46.15 60.00 40.00 68.40 50.00 53.30 60.95 50.64 23.08 16.67 26.68 10.53 20.83 13.33 12.24 22.44 Grain yield (t/ha) 5.0 b 5.2 b 4.9 bc 5.1 b 5.7 a 5.8 a 4.1 d 4.6 c
Treatment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
a In
In a field experiment at TNAU in rabi 1987, we studied the weed-suppressing ability of azolla alone and with herbicides. We used a randomized complete block design with three replications. The herbicide treatments (see table) were imposed 3 d after transplanting (DT) and azolla was inoculated 9 DT and incorporated at 30 DT (except in treatment 8). Weed dry matter (DM) was recorded at 60 DT. The weed flora included Echinochloa crus-galli, Cyperus difformis, Marsilea quadrifolia, Ammannia baccifera, and Eclipta alba. Hand weeding twice (HWT) + azolla (treatment 6), anilofos + 2,4-D EE + azolla (treatment 2), and thiobencarb +
Anilofos 0.30 kg/ha + 2,4-D EE 6.5 at 0.51 kg/ha T1 + azolla DC at 2 t/ha 3.0 Thiobencarb l.0 kg/ha + 2,4-D EE 7.5 at 0.51 kg/ha T3 + azolla DC at 2 t/ha 3.8 4.8 Two hand weedings T5 + azolla DC at 2 t/ha 1.5 24.5 Unweeded check 15.6 T7 + azolla DC at 2 t/ha
a column any two means followed by a common letter are not significantly different from each other at the 57% level. DC = dual culture.
2,4-D EE + azolla (treatment 4) effectively reduced weed DM at 60 DT (see table). Azolla effectively suppressed Marsilea but not Echinochloa. HWT + azolla recorded the highest weed control efficiency of 93.88% at 60 DT, followed by anilofos + 2,4-D EE + azolla with 87.76%. Weed control efficiency at 60 DT was strongly
correlated with yield r = +0.89**. Two hand weedings alone or in combination with azolla as dual culture recorded higher yields. Herbicide-treated plots either singly or in combination with azolla recorded lower yields, but these were significantly higher than that of the unweeded check alone or with azolla.
Physiology and plant nutrition

Effect of N forms on leaf nitrate reductase activity, yield, and protein content of rice
A. T. Reddy, D. V. R. Reddy, V. S. Rao, T. V. Kumar, R. N. Pillai, and I. V. Subba Rao, Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry Department, Agricultural College, Bapatla 522101, A.P., India
(120 kg N/ ha) with a basal dose of superphosphate (40 kg P/ ha) and muriate of potash (40 kg K/ ha). Control was no N. N was supplied in 3 split doses-at transplanting, 25 d after transplanting (DT), and 50 DT. Experimental soil was heavy-textured clay loam with pH 7.0, 0.45% organic C, and 94-12-700 kg available NPK/ ha.
Leaf NRA was assayed in the uppermost leaf or flag leaf at maximum tillering > panicle initiation > flowering stages. It was in the order maximum tillering gt panicle initiation gt flowering (see table). Potassium nitrate treatment recorded highest NRA, followed by urea and ammonium sulfate. Neither grain yields nor protein contents differed significantly among N forms. However, N fertilizer improved grain yield and protein content compared to the control.
Using 4 replications, we studied the relationship of leaf nitrate reductase activity (NRA) at crop growth stages to yield and protein content of rough rice as affected by N forms during 1987 WS at Agricultural College, Bapatla. MTU5249 (Vajram) was grown in glazed pots (6 kg soil/pot) under flooded conditions. The seedlings (3 wk) were transplanted at 2 seedlings/pot and fertilized separately with potassium nitrate, urea, and ammonium sulfate
Leaf NRA, grain yield, and protein content of MTU5249 rice as affected by different forms of fertilizer N. Bapatla, India, 1987 WS. Leaf NRA (nmol NO2 formed/g per h) Treatment Maximum tillering 150 460 420 405 38 Panicle initiation 110 410 385 360 25 Flowering 90 380 360 345 31
Grain yield (g/pot) 3.10 9.85 10.45 9.42 1.15
Grain protein (%) 7.61 9.45 8.62 8.55 0.92
Control Potassium nitrate Urea Ammonium sulfate LSD (0.05)
Root and shoot growth of Oryza sativa L. as affected by redox potential

N. Sekhon, H. S. Sur, and N. T. Singh, Soils Department, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India
Effect of soil redox potential on rice roots and shoots.a Ludhiana, India. Treatment Soil Root Eh porosity (mV) (%) + 343 7.8 b + 70 12.9 a 91 13.2 a 396 15.2 a Tillers (no./ plant) 5.5 6.0 6.8 5.8 b a a a Plant ht (cm) 74.4 84.3 84.8 82.3 b Leaf Total Root area chlorophyll density 2/ (mg/g (dm (g/cm3) plant) fresh wt) 6.3 1.5 8.3 7.7 a a a b 4.1 4.2 5.1 5.3 b b 498 735 847 792 a a a b Straw yield (g/pot) 165 c 208 b 287 a 259 a Grain yield (g/pot) 98 221 264 242 a a a b
We compared root and shoot growth responses to levels of soil reduction. Iron pots 1 m high and 50 cm in diameter were uniformly packed with a loamy sand (Typic Ustochrept) and different levels of redox potential created using the treatments control (soil kept near 60% field capacity), submergence (4-6 cm standing water), submergence + 0.5% starch, and submergence + 1% starch. One day after treatment, 21 seedlings of cultivar PR106 were transplanted into each pot. Recommended doses of fertilizers were used. All measures, except shoot and
Control Submergence (S) S + 0.5% starch S + 1% starch

a In
a a a
a a
a column, values followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level.
grain weight, were recorded at panicle emergence. The redox potentials created ranged from +343 mV to -396 (see table). Decrease in Eh from +343 to +70 mV significantly improved growth measures except for total chlorophyll content. Lowering Eh to -97 mV further improved all measures including the chlorophyll content. Further decrease in redox potential did not improve growth but signiticantly reduced tillers, leaf
area, and root density. The amount of roots increased in the surface 5-cm soil layer with decrease in redox potential from +343 to -3% mV. Growth improvement with decrease in Eh to -97 mV could be explained by better tissue hydration, higher availability and uptake of nutrients, and improved soil physical conditions. Further reduction may lead to accumulation of toxic products.
Crop management
Effect of irrigation, and seedling age and number on rice yield
A. S. Sidhu, G. C. Aggarwal, and N. T. Singh, Soils Department, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, India
Table 1. Effect of irrigation, and seedling age and number per hill on rice yield. Ludhiana, India, 1988. Rice yield (t/ha) 2 3 Mean seedlings/ seedlings/ hill hill Irrigation 10.2 I1 9.6 I2 9.1 I3 LSD (P = 0.05) 0.1 Seedling age (d) 32 45 57 LSD (P = 0.05) 10.1 9.4 9.4 0.5 10.1 9.9 9.5 ns 10.1 9.6 9.7 ns 10.1 9.8 9.3 0.1 10.0 9.5 10.0 0.4
Table 2. Interactive effect of irrigation and seedling age on rice yield. Ludhiana, India, 1988. Seedling age (d) 32 45 57 Mean Rice yield (t/ha) I1 10.6 9.8 10.0 10.1 I2 10.1 9.6 9.5 9.8 I3 9.4 9.2 9.3 9.3 LSD (P = 0.05) 0.9 ns ns 0.6
Using variety PR106 on a calcareous sandy loam soil (Typic Ustochrept), we laid out treatments with three replications in a split-plot design. Irrigation was in the main plot and combinations of seedling age and number per hill in the subplots. Irrigation levels were daily irrigation (I1), irrigation on alternate days (I 2), and irrigation after 2 d (I 3). Seedling ages were 32, 45, and 57 d and seedling rates were 2 and 3 per hill. The nursery was transplanted 5 Jul. NPK was applied at 120-18-25 kg/ ha. Irrigation treatments began, after 3 wk of continuous submergence after transplanting, with 259 cm applied in I 1, 210 cm in I2, and 181 cm in I 3. The soil had 8.0 pH, low
frequency was significant only when younger seedlings (32 d old) were transplanted (Table 2).
organic C (0.3%), and medium available P (14.5 kg P/ ha) and available K (136 kg K/ ha). Rice yields were significantly better with daily irrigation (Table 1), but only with 2 seedlings/hill. Similarly, yields were better with younger (32 d) seedlings, but only with 2/hill. Results indicate that transplanting 3 seedlings/hill ameliorated the adverse effect of decreased irrigation as well as of advanced seedling age. Irrigation
Rice response to N rates and delayed planting

A. K. Pande and R. C. Gautam, Agronomy Department, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Nainital 263145, U.P., India
Usually kharif rice planted late, with the onset of monsoon, yields less. We studied whether variety duration and N rate can compensate for later planting. In 1985 wet season at the Crop Research Center (29 N, 79.3 E, and
Table 1. Atmospheric temperature, rainfall, and solar radiation during planting time. Nainital, U. P., India, 1985 wet season. Date 18-24 Jun 25- 1 Jun 2- 8 Jul 9-15 Jul 16-22 Jul Temperature (C) Maximum 40.0 35.1 33.2 31.1 31.1 Minimum 27.7 24.7 25.4 24.7 24.6 Rainfall (mm) 26.4 48.7 54.4 113.0 129.9 Sunshine (h/d) 6.7 8.8 5.3 5.5 6.1
Table 2. Grain yield as influenced by planting date, variety, and N rate. Nainital, India, 1985 wet season. Treatment Planting date 25 Jun 5 Jul 15 Jul
a
Grain yield (t/ha) 5.4 4.8 3.9 0.3 4.2 5.2 0.2 4.4 5.0 0.2 7.8
LSD (P = 0.05)
243.8 m altitude), we used Beni silty clay loam, fine-silty, mixed, hyperthermic, Aquic Hapludoll with pH 7.5, 1.3% organic C, 0.11% total N, 15.82 kg available (Olsen) P/ha, and 139.68 kg available K/ha. The region enjoys subhumid subtropical climate with high temperature in May-Jun and heavy rainfall during Jul-Aug (Table 1). Twelve treatment combinationsthree
planting dates, two varieties and two N rateswere compared in a randomized block design (Table 2). Varieties Govind and Pant Dhan 4 differed in duration (105 and 130 d). Significantly higher grain yield was obtained with early planting, high N, and with a short-duration variety under delayed planting.
Variety Pant Dhan 4 Govind LSD (P = 0.05) N rate (kg/ha) 60 120 LSD (P = 0.05) CV (%)
a
Seed sowing date in nursery.
Soil fertility and fertilizer management

Effect of N source and application time on rice
N. A. Salam, E. Tajuddin, K. Varghese, S. M. S. Hameed, and Y. Thomas, Kerala Agricultural University, Karamana 695002, Trivandrum, India
We studied effects of N sources and application times on Jaya rice grain and straw yields during 1987 kharif (JunSep) at the Cropping Systems Research
Center, Trivandrum (11N, 77E, 30 m above mean sea level). We used 3 sources of N at 90 kg N/ha and 4 application times (see table). The basal application was broadcast and incorporated at transplanting time. For topdressing, all sources were broadcast, keeping soil moist and gradually increasing the water level to 2-3 cm. The soil (sandy clay loam, riverine alluvium deposited over laterite soil) contained 0.47% organic C, 120-7.7-58 ppm of
available NPK, and 390 ppm total soil N, with a pH of 5.2 and EC of 0.25 dS/m. Results show N impact differed with source and with application time. PU gave higher grain (14% moisture) and straw yields when applied in 3 splits (1/3 basal + 1/3 at tillering + 1/3 at panicle initiation). MPCU should be applied entirely as basal or in 2 splits (1/2 basal + 1/2 at tillering). LGU gave best yields when applied in 2 splits (1/2 basal 4 1/ 2 at tillering) or in 3 splits (1/ 2 basal + 1/4 at tillering + 1/4 at panicle initiation).
Grain and straw yields as influenced by time of application and source a of urea. Trivandrum, India, Jun-Sep, 1987. Time b Full basal 1/2 B + 1/2 T 1/2 B + 1/4 T + 1/4 PI 1/3 B + 1/3 T + 1/3 PI Grain yield (t/ha) PU 3.0 3.0 2.6 3.3 3.0
MPCU
Straw yield (t/ha) Mean 3.1 3.4 3.0 3.0

PU
LGU 3.0 3.7 3.7 2.7 3.3 LSD (0.05) 0.3 ns 0.5
MPCU 4.1 5.1 5.6 4.6 4.8
LGU 5.0 5.6 5.7 4.0 5.1 LSD (0.05)
Mean 4.5 5.6 5.2 4.5
3.4 3.5 2.6 2.9 3.1
4.2 6.3 4.4 4.9 4.9
Estimation of pH, ammonium N, and nitrate N of floodwater with integrated N management of lowland rice
B. S. Mahapatra, K. C. Sharma, and G. L. Sharma Agronomy Department, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Nainital 263145, U.P., India
Time (T) Source (S) TS

a PU
Time (T) Source (S) TS
0.5 ns 0.9
= prilled urea, MPCU = Mussoorie phosphate-coated urea, LGU = large granule urea. b B = basal, T = tillering, PI = panicle initiation.
Ammonium N and nitrate N in floodwater reflect the N loss that occurs easily in a submerged soil-water system common to lowland rice. The extent of
ammonium N in floodwater is controlled by the pH of floodwater. We measured the pH, ammonium N, and nitrate N of floodwater with integrated organic-inorganic N management. The experimental loam soil (Mollisol of Tarai of northern India) had pH (1:l) 7.6, EC (1:l) 0.115 dS/m, 2.03% organic C, 0.21% total N, 7.4 ppm available ammonium N, and 12.2 ppm available NO3- -N Floodwater ammonium N peaked at 3 d after transplanting (DT) in 1982-83 and at 7 DT in 1983-84. Thereafter, it decreased and was not found in either year at 30 DT (see figure). The low concentration of floodwater ammonium N is attributed to floodwater pH, in turn controlled by partial pressure of CO 2 . Higher concentration of ammonium N in 198384 over 1982-83 is also attributed to floodwater pH, as pH at the initial dates after transplanting was higher in 1983-84 (see figure). Nitrate N peaked at 9 DT and
Floodwater pH, NH4+ -N, and NO3- -N with respect to time in lowland rice. Nainital, U.P., India.
reached zero at 30 DT both years. However, its concentration was more than that of ammonium N, probably because of nitrification in the transitional zone of the flooded soil water system.
Results show that floodwater pH, ammonium N, and nitrate N can be kept at lower levels by using organic N sources (green manure and farmyard manure) as part of integrated N
management.
Efficiency of modified urea granules in transplanted rice

T. V. R. Prasad, M. M. Hosmani, L. S. Devi, and K. R. Kulkarni, Agronomic Research Project, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore 560065, India
We tested efficiency of modified urea granules in transplanted rice in farmers fields, Bangalore district, Karnataka, India, in monsoon 1986. Seven treatments (see table) were tried
in 10 randomly selected fields, using cultivar Mandya Vani (140-d duration) in clay to clay loam soils. The soils had pH 6.6, EC of 0.18 dS/m at 25 C, 489 kg available N/ha, 14.2 kg P/ha, and 285.4 kg K/ha. A common dose of 22 kg P and 42 kg K/ha was applied in a plot 50 m 2 . At 56 kg N/ha, urea supergranule (USG) was superior (29.6% more yield), followed by rock phosphate-coated urea (RPCU, 24.2%), large urea granule (LGU, 18.6%), and gypsum-coated urea
(GCU, 16.7%). Modified urea granules may provide more efficient N utilization, shown by higher harvest index (ratio of yield to total biomass), more panicles per m 2 at harvest, and more filled grains per panicle (see table). In yield per kg of added N, USG was best, followed by RPCU, LGU, and GCU, all superior to prilled urea (PU) at 56 and 84 kg N/ha. Cost-wise, PU equals LGU, with others equal to or 1020% higher than PU.
Effect of modified urea granules on grain yield and yield attributes.a Bangalore, India, 1986 wet season. Treatment b T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 No N PU d LGU (45% N) e RCPU (36.4% N, 1.85% P) e GCU (36.5% N, 4.4% Ca, 3.4% S) e USG (45% N) f PU d Grain yield (t/ha) 3.60 g 4.51 f 5.35 bcd 5.60 abc 5.26 de 5.85 a 5.63 ab Responsec (kg grain/ kg N) 16.2 31.2 35.7 29.6 40.1 24.2 Panicles (no./m2 ) 14.3 89.3 105.9 109.4 103.8 108.0 101.3 g f Filled grains/ panicle 97 101 121 103 115 121 121 cde cd c Harvest index 0.44 e 0.46 d 0.48 c 0.52 a 0.48 c 0.52 a 0.50 b Biomass (t/ha) 8.5 10.3 11.3 11.0 11.1 11.4 11.6 g f
abc a abcd ab cde
a ab a a
abc abcde abcd ab a
aColumn dApplied
means followed by common letters are not significantly different at the 5% level. b T2 - T6 at 56 kg N/ha, T7 at 84 kg N/ha. cOver 0 kg N/ha. in 3 equal splits: basal, 30 and 50 d after transplanting. eBasal broadcast incorporation. fPlacement after planting.
Leucaena as green leaf manure for lowland rice

S. Jeyaraman and S. Purushothaman, Agronomy Department, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai 625104, Tamil Nadu, India
Effect of leuaena as green leaf manure on growth characters, yield components, and grain yield of rice (IR20). Madurai, India, 1986-87 rabi. Growth character Treatment Plant height (cm) 72.2 82.6 83.0 92.4 91.4 97.4 93.8 3.1 Tillers (no./hill) 5.8 8.0 7.8 8.8 8.6 10.2 9.2 0.7 Productive tillers (no./hill) 4.2 5.8 6.0 8.0 7.2 9.8 8.2 1.1 Yield component Panicle length (cm) 18.62 19.76 19.86 20.64 20.52 21.32 20.96 0.46 Filled grains (no./panicle) 78.0 93.2 92.6 105.6 99.8 110.2 104.6 3.9 1000 grain (g) 16.42 18.60 18.64 19.56 18.78 20.74 19.68 0.78 Grain yield (t/ha) 2.8 3.6 3.6 4.3 4.0 4.8 4.3 0.4
Leucaena leucocephala is a renewable source of green manure. On dry basis, the tender loppings contain 4.3% N. We tested the contribution of 10 t leucaena/ha to growth and yield of IR20 using 4 levels of N (0, 50, 75, and 100 kg/ha) during rabi 1986-87, in 3 replications. Soil was clay loam with 0.06% total N, low Olsens P (8.6 kg/ha), 70 ppm exchangeable K, pH 7.4, CEC 18.6 meq/ 100 g, and 0.34% organic C. Fresh tender loppings of 50-d-old leucaena (Hawaiian Giant Var. K8) harvested from 2-yr-old plants were
No N Leucaena at 10 t/ha 50 kg N/ha alone 50 kg N/ha + leucaena 75 kg N/ha alone 75 kg N/ha + leucaena 100 kg N/ha alone LSD (0.05)
incorporated 10 d before planting rice. A basal dose of 22 kg P, 41.5 kg K, and 50% of N was applied just before planting; the rest of N was topdressed in 2 equal splits 30 and 40 d after transplanting. Leucaena as leaf manure combined
with fertilizer N at suboptimal levels increased growth and yield over suboptimal N alone (see table). Leucaena with 75 kg N/ ha gave highest grain yield (4.8 t/ha), better than that with 100 kg N/ ha (4.3 t/ha). Applying 50 kg N with leucaena gave 4.3 t/ha.
Fertilizer requirement of rice rice - green manure cropping system

D. Alexander, Kerala Agricultural University, Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Mele Pattambi 679306; B. Mohankumar, College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, Trichur; P. H. Latif and N. R. Nair, RARS, Pattambi, Kerala, India
We assessed the fertilizer requirements of rice - rice - green manure, a major
cropping system in Central Kerala, at RARS, Pattambi, 1983 to 1986. Green manure Sesbania speciosa was raised (Feb-May) and incorporated before the kharif crop (Jan-Sep), at 4.3 t/ha (21.1% dry matter, 2.4% N, 0.31% P, and 1.42% K). The rabi crop (Sep-Jan) was given no organic manure. The kharif and rabi rices (Jaya variety) were given 50, 75, and 100% of the fertilizer dose 90-45-45 kg NPK/ ha. The sandy loam soil contained 1.38% organic C, 0.025% available N, 19.1 kg
available P, and 222.3 kg available K/ ha. The pH was 5.4 and cation exchange capacity 12.6 meq/100 g soil. The treatment receiving 75% of the fertilizer dose in each season yielded the same as that receiving 100% (see table).
Effect of rice plants on fertilizer N losses in flooded soil

Huang Zhi-wu, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China; and F. E. Broadbent, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
Effect of fertilizer treatments on grain and straw yields of rice - rice - green manure cropping system. Pattambi, Kerala, India, 1983-86. Percentage of fertilizer dose Kharif T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 LSD (0.05) 100 100 100 75 75 75 50 50 50 Rabi 100 75 50 100 75 50 100 75 50 3.3 3.1 2.8 2.9 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.1 2.9 3.8 3.6 3.6 4.1 3.7 3.1 3.7 3.4 3.4 Mean grain yield (t/ha) Kharif Rabi Total for the system 7.1 6.7 6.4 7.0 6.9 6.3 6.7 6.5 6.3 0.4 Mean straw yield (t/ha) Kharif Rabi Total for the system 6.1 6.0 6.1 6.4 6.1 4.8 5.6 5.0 5.5 0.6
Treatment
2.9 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.8
3.2 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.1 2.3 3.0 2.5 2.7
We evaluated the influence of rice plants on fertilizer N losses from flooded soil in greenhouse experiments in 1986-87 with planted (variety M201) and unplanted treatments. Five kg of Myers clay soil (pH 6.6, 0.1% total N) in 1986, and 3 kg of Sacramento clay soil (pH 7.7, 0.1% total N) in 1987 were weighed into plastic pots after air-drying and screening. Solutions of 15N-labeled KNO 3 and urea were separately mixed with soil
Table 1. Mass balance of 300 mg incorporated KNO3-N and urea N in flooded soil at grain maturity stage, 1986.
15N 15N
recovery (%) Planted Unplanted
fraction
Difference between treatmentsa (mg/pot)
Soil Plant Recovered Unaccounted for Soil Plant Recovered Unaccounted for
a*
KNO3 3.5 3.7 1.2 4.6 3.7 95.4 96.3 Urea
The difference between unplanted and planted treatments in urea N unaccounted for was greater in the banded application in 1987 (22.3%) than in incorporated urea in 1986 (9.4%). Since twice as much urea was band applied, we cannot conclude whether its losses were higher than those with
incorporation. Growing rice plants effectively reduced the urea N losses from flooded soil, even though plant roots sometimes stimulated denitrification. Urea N losses were probably due to ammonia volatilization, but denitrification cannot be ruled out.
2.8 ns
43.9 43.6 87.5 12.5
78.1 78.1 21.9
Organic and inorganic N effect on rice

S. Ramasamy, A. S. Dawood, and K. N. Chinnaswami, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (TRRI), Aduthurai 612101, India We studied the integrated effects of dhaincha Sesbania aculeata, azolla Azolla pinnata, and N, P, and K fertilizers during winter 1987 at TRRI, in medium-duration IR20. The soil was clayey loam with available status of 222 kg N, 29.9 kg P, and 12.45 kg K/ ha. pH was 7.3. One week before transplanting rice, 60-d-old dhaincha (3.2% N, 0.31% P,
28.3*
= significant at 5%, ns = not significant by T -test.
Table 2. Mass balance of 600 mg banded urea N in flooded soil at 3 growth stages, 1987.
15 15N
N recovery (%) Planted Unplanted
fraction
Difference between treatmentsa (mg/pot)
Soil Plant Recovered Unaccounted for Soil Plant Recovered Unaccounted for Soil Plant Recovered Unaccounted for
a**
Six-leaf stage 81.6 91.5 13.7 95.3 91.5 4.7 8.5 Panicle initiation stage 56.6 74.6 24.6 81.2 74.6 18.8 25.4 Grain maturity stage 57.9 59.0 23.4 81.3 59.0 18.7 41.0
and 1.1% K on dry weight basis) was cut and incorporated at 12.5 t/ ha. One week after transplanting, azolla at 1 t/ha on fresh weight basis (3.07% N, 0.07% P, and 0.15% K on dry weight basis) was applied and allowed to multiply and disintegrate by itself. Azolla improved grain yield when applied with inorganic N or with dhaincha (see table). Dhaincha at 12.5 t/ ha gave significantly better grain yield than 40 kg N. Dhaincha applied with 40 kg N was even better than 80 kg N. The combined application of dhaincha and azolla was equal to 80 kg N/ha.
23.0 ns
Effects of dhaincha and azolla on grain yield of IR20. Aduthurai, India, 1987 winter. Treatment Mean plant height (cm) 73.3 74.4 73.7 71.2 75.6 82.7 84.5 81.9 77.1 5.3 Productive tillers (no.) 6.8 7.0 7.6 6.2 7.5 8.5 9.9 9.0 8.4 0.9 Grain yield (t/ha) 2.7 2.9 3.2 2.9 3.7 4.0 4.6 4.4 4.1 0.4
39.5ns
134.0**
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Control 0 kg N + 8.7 kg P + 16.6 kg K/ha 40 kg N + 8.7 kg P + 16.6 kg K/ha Azolla + treatment 2 Azolla + treatment 3 Dhaincha + treatment 2 Dhaincha + treatment 3 Dhaincha + azolla + treatment 2 80 kg N + 17.4 kg P + 33.2 kg K/ha LSD (P = 0.05)
= significant at 1%, ns = not significant by T -test.
samples at 300 mg N/pot in 1986. In 1987, only 15 N-labeled urea solution was used at 600 mg N/pot. Band application was simulated by applying solution at a depth of 5 cm in a circle 8 cm in diameter. Rice plants had no significant effect on losses of KNO 3-N (Table 1). Loss was more than 95% in both planted and unplanted pots, probably through denitrification. With urea (Table 1, 2), N losses were significantly higher from unplanted pots in both years.
Effect of plant spacing on N release of sulfur-coated urea (SCU) in wetland rice

C. S. Khind and M. F. Kazibwe, Soils Department, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India
SCUs controlled release rate helps reduce N losses in wetland soil, thereby producing higher yields than other urea materials. As the sulfur coating
decomposes, N is released. This process is affected by temperature, soil microbial activity, soil water, method of application, and coating characteristics. To examine an additional factor, we studied the effect of plant spacing on N release patterns of SCU in wetland rice. We used 2 spacings, 15 20 cm and 20 10 cm, in a sandy loam soil (Typic Ustochrept). The soil had pH 8.5, EC 0.15 dS/m, 0.23% organic C, 0.04% total N, and 4 meq cation exchange
Effect of azolla and other fertilizers on rice yields

D. Alexander, Kerala Agricultural University, Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Mele Pattambi 679306; N. Sadanandan, Vellanikkara; and K. Karunakaran, RARS, Pattambi, Kerala, India
We evaluated azolla as an organic manure, varying application rate and percentage of substitution for chemical. fertilizer at RARS Pattambi during rabi seasons (Sep-Jan) of 1980 and 1981. In the split-plot experiment, azolla at 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 t/ha was compared with cattle manure and green leaves
Changes in urea N remaining at deep placement sites after application of SCU in a wetland soil. Ludhiana, India, 1988.
(Gliricidia maculata) at 5 t/ha. Subplot treatment was the percentage of fertilizer dose (90:45:45 kg NPK/ha) applied. The sandy loam soil contained 0.02% available N, 9.7 kg available P, and 184.4 kg K with a pH of 5.5. On dry weight basis, cattle manure has 9.4% dry matter, 1.52% N, 0.4% P, and 21.1% K; for gliricidia, the values are 21.1, 2.6, 0.5, and 1.4%. Substituting 5 t azolla/ha for cattle manure saved 25% of the fertilizer dose (see table). Azolla at 7.5 t/ha with full dose of fertilizer recorded the highest grain and straw yields. Applying more than 7.5 t azolla/ha was not beneficial.
Effect of organic manures and fertilizer levels on grain yield of rice. Pattambi, India, 1980 and 1981 rabi (Sep-Jan). Organic manure Control Cattle manure Green leaves Azolla Azolla Azolla F test b LSD (0.05) Rate (t/ha) 0 5.0 5.0 5.0 7.5 10.0 Grain yield (t/ha) with given fertilizer dose a 0 1.8 2.4 2.8 2.1 2.6 2.3 * 0.27 c 25 % 2.3 2.7 3.1 2.7 3.0 2.8 0.29 d 5 0% 2.7 3.1 3.4 2.8 3.2 3.2 75% 3.1 3.1 3.6 3.4 3.7 3.2 100% 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.7 4.2 3.7
capacity/100 g. A nylon screen bag with 460 mg N as SCU (38.6% N) was placed between 2 layers of wet soil freshly collected from the lower layer of 3- 5cm or six 20- l0 cm rice hills 5 d after transplanting of 45-d-old seedlings of cultivar PR106. The plots received a basal dose of 26 kg P and 50 kg K/ha. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design. Five nylon bags from each treatment were chosen at random and SCU granules were digested, then analyzed for urea N at 6, 10, 25, 45, and 60 d after placement. The remaining wet soil mass was extracted with 2 M KCl-PMA solution, and the extract was also analyzed for urea N. Results showed that SCU granules released urea N at a fairly controlled rate up to 60 d after placement. Spacing significantly affected the amounts of SCU N recovered. SCU N disappeared faster in the closer plant spacing (see figure). Closer plant spacing had more impact after 30 d of SCU placement, coinciding with active proliferation of rice roots. Furthermore, dissolution rate of SCU was about 9 and 19% higher than its empirical 7-d dissolution rate of 21% with 15- 20-cm and 20- 10-cm spacings, respectively.
a Fertilizer dose: 90-45-45 kg NPK/ha. b Significant at 0.05 level. c For comparing 2 fertilizer levels at the same level of organic manure. d For comparing 2 organic manures at the same or different levels of fertilizer.
Effects of seedling age and zinc application on yield of rice

M. Datt and R. C. Gautam, Agronomy Department, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Nainital 263145, U.P., India
We evaluated the impact of seedling age and Zn application on rice in wet season, using three seedling ages as main plots, five rates of Zn applied through soil and one foliar spray as subplots, with three replications (see table). Seedlings (30, 40, and 50 d old) of variety Pant Dhan 4 were transplanted at 2-3 seedlings / hill, 20- 20-cm spacing. Soil was Beni silty clay loam, fine silty, mixed, hyperthermic, Aquic
Hapludoll with pH 7.6, CEC 20 meq/100 g, 1.0% organic C, 20 kg available (Olsen) P/ha, and 0.8 ppm Zn. Grain yield declined significantly with increasing seedling age (see table). Panicles/m 2 and filled grains/ panicle were significantly higher with 30- and 40-d-old seedlings than with 50-d-old ones. Filled grain percentage and 1,000grain weight were significantly higher with 30- and 40-d-old seedlings than with 50-d-old ones. Application of 8 ppm Zn gave significantly higher yield than other Zn treatments; 4 ppm Zn was significantly superior to Zn spray, 1 ppm Zn, and the control. Panicles/ m 2, filled grains/ panicle, and filled grains percentage were significantly higher with 8 ppm Zn than with all other
Yield and yield attributes of rice as affected by seedling age and rate of Zn application. Nainital, India, 1988 wet season. Treatment Seedling age (d) 30 40 50 LSD (P = 0.05) Zn rate (ppm) 0 1 2 4 8 Spray LSD (P = 0.05) Grain yield (t/ha) 6.7 6.2 5.7 0.2 5.9 5.9 6.2 6.4 6 .7 6.0 0.3 Panicles (no./ m2 ) 197 194 182 6 180 184 190 197 208 189 6 Filled grains (no./panicle) 131 127 122 2 111 118 127 132 148 122 4 Filled grain percentage 90.3 91.2 86.5 1.9 87.3 87.8 89.1 90.1 92.7 88.9 1.5 1000grain weight (g) 29.0 29.2 28.7 0.4 28.1 28.7 28.9 29.4 29.8 28.8 1.1
treatments, but l,000-grain weight was not. The interaction between seedling age and Zn rate was not significant.
The International Azolla Newsletter is published for researchers in the development and application of azolla in rice production. Its content focuses on discussions of current issues; it does not publish research reports. For more information, write Dr. I. Watanabe, Azolla Newsletter editor, IRRI, P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.
Disease management
A new sheath disease of rice in India caused by Monographella albescens
N. I. Singh, Botany and Plant Pathology Department, Manipur Agricultural College (MAC), Iroisemba, Imphal 795001, India
rotted. Several superficial, black perithecia were formed. Microscopic examination showed morphological characteristics exactly the same as those of leaf scald (LSc) pathogen. The anamorph and teleomorph have been identified as Gerlachia oryzae (Hashioka and
Yokogi), W. Gams and M. albescens (Thiimen) Parkinson, Sivanesan, and Booth, respectively. The anamorph of the LSc pathogen was previously reported in India, but the teleomorph has evidently not been. This indicates that the same fungus can produce different disease symptoms.
From Oct 1986 onward, we observed a severe sheath disease of rice in MAC experimental plots and in many farmers fields. The lesions develop as oblong or irregular spots 1-2 cm long and 0.51.0 cm wide with dark brown margins and greyish centers. About 80-100% of uppermost leaf sheaths enclosing young panicles are rotted. Many small, black, fruiting bodies (perithecia) of M. albescens appear on infected sheaths and grains. We isolated the pathogen from fresh diseased specimen on potato dextrose agar. It produced white mycelium during early growth. At maturity, it produced pink patches of conidial masses. We inoculated the injured sheaths with conidial suspension prepared from a 7-d-old culture. Symptoms appeared 4 d after inoculation. In 2 wk, uppermost leaf sheaths and young panicles completely
Improved method of purifying rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV)

Y. P. Duan, Plant Virology Laboratory, Fujian Agricultural College, Fuzhou, Fujian, China; and H. Hibino, IRRI
We improved the method of purifying RTSV without using organic solvent and driselase: Infected TN plants at 45-60 d Harvest whole plants except roots. Homogenize in 3 volumes of 0.01 M EDTA, pH 8.4. Filter through cheesecloth. Filtrate Stir at room temperature for 2 h. Incubate in water bath at 40 C for 2 h. 15,000 g for 10 min. Supernatant Add PEG 8000 to 7%, NaCl to 0.2M and Triton X-100 to 1%.
Resuspend in 20 ml 0.01 M EDTA, pH 8.4. 11,000g for 10 min. Supernatant 100,000 g for 60 min. Pellet Resuspend in 2 ml 0.01 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.2. 11,000 g for 10 min. Supernatant Layer on 10-50% linear sucrose density gradient in PB. 25,000 rpm for 2 h. Collect a virus zone (ca. 3 cm below the meniscus). Dilute with 0.01 PB. 130,000 g for 1 h. Pellet Resuspend in 2 ml 0.01 PB. 11,000 g for 10 min. Supernatant (virus preparation)
Pellet
Stir at room temperature for l h. 30,000 g for 30 min.
The procedure takes 1.5 d. From 500 g infected plants without roots, current methods yielded 1 ml of purified preparation with an absorbance at 260 m ranging from 1.0 to 2.8. With 300 g materials, the modified method yielded 1 ml, with absorbance ranging from 13 to 20. The ratio of absorbance
at 260 nm and 280 nm of the purified virus ranged from 1.70 to 1.75. Purified preparations were injected into rabbits, and antiserum with a titer of 1/1280 in the ring interface precipitin test was obtained. We also attempted to improve the purification method for rice tungro
bacilliform virus (RTBV). Without using driselase and organic solvent, the virus yield was not significantly improved. The rabbit antiserum to RTBV had a titer of 1/640. The antisera did not cross-react and did not react with healthy rice extracts in ELISA and the latex test.
Insect management
Severe outbreak of green leafhopper (GLH) in Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh, India
P. S. R. Reddy and V. D. Naidu, A. P. Agricultural University, Agricultural Research Station, Mellore 524004, India
adults (30-150/ hill), with adults more numerous. IR20 and IR50 had fewer GLH and no hopperburn (see table). Phalguna, Mahsuri, NLR9672, and NLR9674 showed hopperburn in patches. Mahsuri showed 100-150 GLH/hill. IET7575, a brown planthopper-resistant variety, had 20-40/ hill. This outbreak appeared due to migration from adjoining Mellore
district after harvest of the 1984 summer rice crop (May-Aug) where about 20,000 ha were devastated by tungro (RTV). The early crop, planted in late Aug, escaped infestation but the late crop showed severe infestation. Despite heavy GLH population, there was no RTV, even though adjacent Mellore and Prakasam districts had severe RTV the same season.
Nearly 50,000 ha of transplantedirrigated rice is grown in Cuddapah district in wet season. Predominant cropping is rice followed by groundnut during winter-summer in canal water area, and a single rice crop in tankfed areas depending on rainfall. Main cultivars are Phalguna, Mahsuri, and NLR9672, with some NLR9674, IET7575, IR50, and IR20. Low humidity, high temperature, and scant rainfall (400-500 mm) reduce insect and disease incidence. Cuddapah received good rainfall the last 2 wk of Oct and first 2 wk of Nov 1984, when hopperburn and numerous GLH were observed in 30-40% of cropped area on most cultivars. This was the first report of GLH outbreak from Cuddapah. The crop was in tillering to active tillering phases. A 15-village survey showed nymphs and
Severity of GLH on common rice cultivars in farmers fields in A. P., India, 1984. Cultivar Mahsuri Phalguna IET1515 NLR9612 NLR9674 IR50 IR20 Crop phase Active tillering Active tillering Active tillering Initial tillering Initial tillering Panicle emergence Grain hardening GLH (no./hill) 100-150 30-55 20-40 45-75 45-75 10-15 5-10
Parasitoids of leaffolder (LF) pupae from Haryana, India

L. R. Bharati and K. S. Kushwaha, Haryana Agricultural University, Rice Research Station (RRS), Kaul 132021, Haryana, India
Four parasitoids of pupae of rice LF Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guene) were
recorded at RRS during 1987 kharif. They were Xanthopimpla flavolineata (Cameron), Xanthopimpla sp. (Ichneumonidae), Brachymeria sp. nr. lasus (Walker) (Chalcididae), and Tetrastichus ayyari Rohwer (Eulophidae). Parasitism rates are shown in the table.
Parasitism rates of 4 parasitoids of LF pupae. Haryana, India, 1987. Days after transplanting 55 65 75 85 Parasitism (%) Xanthopimpla flavolineata 23.3 7.5 10.7 20.0 Xanthopimpla sp. 1.0 2.0 Brachymeria lasus 1.5 Tetrastichus ayyari 2.5
An expert system for insecticide control of brown planthopper (BPH)

J. Holt and T J. Perfect, Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, College House, Wrights Lane, London W8 5SJ, UK
Using insecticides to control BPH can promote rather than limit BPH
population development. Insecticides can kill natural enemies that keep BPH populations below serious levels. Insecticides must be used only when this natural balance has been lost, and then must be timed carefully. An expert system (see figure) can show when insecticide use is appropriate. Expert systems are computer programs that offer information or advice as a human
expert would. They can improve decisionmaking in agriculture, either directly or as a training device. The system, built using an expert system shell (Crystal), searches for the appropriate recommendation. The computer asks the user questions, via a series of interactive screens (starting at the top of the figure). The answers lead to a recommendation. The expert system is programmed to recommend that insecticides be applied against BPH only in certain circumstances, at particular stages of crop growth. For example, if only large nymphs are present between 31 and 79 d after transplanting and insecticide was previously applied, the computer program assumes that natural enemy action has been disrupted and that the absence of small nymphs reflects absence of eggstherefore it is the best time to spray. The computer suggests an alternative insecticide because nymphs now present may be resistant to the previous insecticide. Any expert system requires considerable refinement and development before it manages effectively. This one needs detailed advice about insecticides and application methods, integrated with advice for controlling other pests, in tune with local conditions. It shows the potential value of the technique in pest management. A version in PROLOG will be available shortly, for comments, on receipt of an IBM MSDOS formatted 5.25 diskette.
A search graph representing an expert system designed to identify insecticide application tactics for BPH control. A recommendation (rectangular) may be reached by a variety of routes, depending upon the answers, often a simple yes (Y) or no (N), to a series of questions (oval).
Effect of neem on yeast-like symbionts (YLS) harbored by brown planthopper (BPH)

S. Raguraman and S. Jayaraj, Entomology Department, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India, and R. C. Saxena, Entomology Department, IRRI
In the biology of many homopterous insects, endosymbionts seem to fulfill the lipid and sterol requirements of sapsucking insects, such as planthoppers, which feed on sugar and amino acid-
rich, but lipid-deficient, phloem photosynthates. Endosymbionts also evidently produce antibiotic defense substances. If endosymbionts are killed by heat treatment, the insect body becomes covered with mold. We tested whether exposure of BPH nymphs to rice plants treated with neem seed derivatives would affect the YLS populations that BPH harbor. Treatments were 20-d-old IR20 plants sprayed with various neem preparations (see table), IR20 seedlings grown in soil where a neem cake-coated urea mixture
(1:1 wt/wt) had been incorporated, and untreated plants as control. Each of treated and control plants was then infested with 25 first-instar BPH nymphs. Insect survival was recorded at 4-d intervals. When nymphs reached the fifth-instar stage, they were collected, weighed individually, and homogenized with 0.8% saline solution to a known volume. Aliquots of homogenates were taken using Thoma pipettes. An improved Neubauer hemocytometer (Weber, England) was used under a phase
contrast microscope for counting symbionts. The symbionts were counted from the 5 squares (each 1 mm2) of the hemocytometer. Symbionts per insect was calculated and expressed per mg body weight as follows: Symbionts = a(x+m)/n.v, where a = symbionts in a known volume of homogenate, m = weight of insects homogenized, n = number of insects homogenized, v = volume of homogenate sampled in the hemocytometer, and x = volume of saline solution used to homogenize nymphs. The experiment was replicated four times. A second experiment (see table) used 30-d-old IR20 plants sprayed with various neem preparations with untreated plants as controls. Treated and control plants were infested with 30 4-d-old nymphs/replication. Nymphal mortality was recorded 4 and 8 d after treatment. Surviving individuals were removed and homogenized to count endosymbionts. The YLS population was significantly smaller in BPH that fed on neem-treated IR20 plants than on untreated ones (see
Effect of neem seed derivatives on survival and body weight of fifth-instar BPH nymphs and YLS they harbor. a Treatmentb NO 3% NO:CAO (2:l) NSKE 5 % NCE 10% NCU (basal) Control (untreated) NO 3% NO:CAO (2: 1) NSKE 5% NCE 10% NSB (2500 ppm) Control (untreated) Mortalityc (%) 14 b 18 ab 80 a 63 c 67 c 86 83 84 15 66 a a a b Body wt (mg/nymph) Experiment I 1.05 a 1.12 a 1.02 a 1.12 a 1.16 a 1.42 b Experiment II 1.10 ab 1.07 ab 0.93 a 1.09 ab 1.38 b 1.88 c YLS (x10 4/nymph) 24.72 27.45 24.91 27.42 31.08 40.35 20.95 19.63 17.21 21.04 26.80 42.32 a a a a a
ab ab a ab b
aWithin an experiment, means in a column at the 5% level by DMRT. Each treatment neem oil:custard-apple oil (vol/vol), NSKE NCU = neem cake-coated urea, NSB = nymphs were 12 d old.
followed by the same letter are not significantly different was replicated four times. bNO = neem oil, NO:CAO = = neem seed kernel extract, NCE = neem cake extract, neem seed bitters. cCorrected mortality recorded when
table). This decrease could be due to direct antibiotic effect of neems active principals on the endosymbionts or indirectly through BPH fat bodies which store YLS. Insect brains and fat bodies are highly sensitive to triterpenoid azadirachtin, the principal bitter
component in neem. Nymphs developing on treated plants weighed less than those on control plants. Nymph mortality was significantly higher on treated plants than on controls, mainly because of molting impairments.
A new tarsonemid mite, Ogmotarsonemus sp. (Tarsonemidae: Acari), on rice in Tamil Nadu, India
M. Mohanasundaram and S. Parameswaran, Agricultural Entomology Department, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, India
In a survey of phytophagous mites, brown discoloration and necrosis were noted in rice leaf sheaths near ground level. Investigation revealed a tarsonemid mite Ogmotarsonemus sp. infestation at all development stages. Eggs are almost round, transparent, and in clusters. Nymphs are translucent to light white, found between sheaths and culms and inside sheaths. They are oblong with two pairs of legs in the anterior propodosoma and one pair in the metapodosoma. They move sluggishly, staying in the necrotic area even when disturbed.
Adults are light brown with four pairs of legs, more sclerotized, and quite active. Females are oblong; males are broader, with characteristic flange-like enlargement in the femorogenu of the fourth leg. The first species described under this genus is Ogmotarsonemus erepsis Lindquist (1986), attacking Spartina sp., a saltmarsh grass in Georgia, United States. This species on rice is new, and is being described for publication elsewhere.
Rice thrips Stenchaetothrips biformis (Bagnall) can damage leaves in nursery plants and in the young transplanted crop. The randomized block design had three replications using variety TM8089. When incidence was severe, neem products and chemical insecticides (standard checks) were applied at 20 d
Effect of neem products on rice thrips at Chengalpattu, India, 1987. Thripsa (no./ sweeps) 2 DAT
Treatment
Rate
Neem for control of rice thrips

M. A. K. Pillai and S. Ponniah, Rice Research Station, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tirur 602025, Tamil Nadu, India
Neem seed extract Neem seed extract Neem cake extract Neem cake extract Neem oil Phosphamidon 100 EC Fenthion 100 EC Untreated control
aMean
5% 24.5 bc 10% 19.5 ab 5% 34.6 c 10% 32.1 bc 2% 7.5 a 250 ml/ha 11.2 a 500 ml/ha 6.6 a 96.3 d
We evaluated neem products for thrip control in late sornavari in rice planted in Jun-Jul 1987 in Chengalpattu district.
of 3 replications. Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level based on LSD value. DAT = days after treatment.
after transplanting with a hand-operated sprayer. Thrips populations were counted with 5 sweeps/plot using a plastic bat 20 cm in diameter, 48 h after spraying. All treatments significantly reduced thrips intensity (see table). Neem oil at 2% was as effective as insecticides in controlling rice thrips.
Infection of brown planthopper (BPH) with insect fungi in the laboratory

R. M. Aguda, Entomology Department, IRRI; M. C. Rombach, Insect Pathology Resource Center, Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853-0331, USA; and B. M. Shepard, Entomology Department, IRRI
suspensions of l0 2 to l08 conidia/ml prepared by serial dilution in the Tween 80 solution. Each treatment had 50 BPH alates. Insects were dipped in conidia suspension in Tween 80 (0.02%), submerged for 60 s, and transferred to filter paper to drain off liquid. Insects of the control treatment were dipped in pure Tween 80 (0.02%) solution before transfer. The insects were kept on potted rice plants in mylar cages in a greenhouse at 25-30 C (day) and 1520 C (night), with humidity near
saturation. After 5 d of incubation, live and infected (dead and covered with fungus) insects were counted and mortality calculated: Mortality (%) = 100 ((no. infected insects)/(no. infected insects + no. living insects)) Mortality in the fungus treatments was corrected for control mortality (8%) by Abbotts formula. Results showed mortality increased with increasing dosage, but did not differ among fungi.
Effect of Dimilin (R) and Dipel on leaffolder (LF) larvae
(R)
The BPH Nilaparvata lugens (Stl) is commonly infected with insect fungi (Deuteromycotina; Hyphomycetes) in the field and in insect rearing cages. The fungi can be isolated on artificial media and mass-produced in liquid fermentation media. To select the most virulent fungus species or strain for BPH control on rice, we bioassayed selected isolates. We tested infection of BPH by Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill., Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin, M. flavoviride var. minus Rombach, Humber and Roberts, and Hirsutella citriformis Speare (see table). Fungi isolated from insects were grown on Emersons YpSs agar (Ma, Mfm), and Sabouraud dextrose agar (Bb, Hc). Conidia were washed off plates in a 0.02% Tween 80 solution after 2 wk of incubation at 25-28 C. Conidia were counted by standard hemocytometer techniques, and
Abbreviations of fungal species and strains. Fungus species Beauveria bassiana Metarhizium anisopliae M. flavoviride var. minus Hirsutella citriformis Strain BbE Ma12 Ma16 Mfmll Mfm16 Hc490
R. M. Aguda, Entomology Department, IRRI; M. C. Rombach, Insect Pathology Resource Center, Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853-0331, USA; and B. M. Shepard, Entomology Department, IRRI
Rice LF (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) infests irrigated rice in Southeast Asia. Broad-
spectrum insecticides sprayed to control LF larvae can also kill such natural enemies as predators (mainly spiders) and parasites. That can lead to outbreaks of secondary pests, such as brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens (Stl). Selective insecticides kill only target pests. We tested Dimilin(R) , containing diflubenzuron, a chitin inhibitor, and the Bacillus thuringiensis product Dipel (R)
Mortality of LF Cnaphalocrocis medinalis populations caused by Dimilin (Dim) and Dipel (Dip) treatments, IRRI, 1988. Vertical lines on bars represent standard deviations.
for selective LF control in the greenhouse. Because sprays do not reach larvae in folded leaves as well as they do larvae on fresh, unfolded leaves, we compared spray effectiveness before and after leaf folding. Pots of 24 rice plants (3
pots/ treatment) were randomly infested with 25 2d- to 3d-instar larvae of LF Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guene. Insecticides were applied either just before infestation or 1 d after infestation, when more than 90% of larvae had folded leaves. After 3 d, living and dead larvae were counted.
Treatment before leaf folding was more effective than treatment after folding (see figure). All treatments except Dip b1 and Dip a1 differed significantly from control. Dimilin was more effective than Dipel, but not always significantly so.
Weed management
Weed control in direct seeded rice under puddled condition
C. R. Vijayaraghavan, B. Uthayakumar, and T. B. Ranganathan, Rice Research Station, Tirur, Tamil Nadu 602025, India
Economics of weed control treatments on irrigated direct seeded CO 43 rice variety. a Tamil Nadu, India, 1985 samba. Treatment Yield (t/ha) 3.2 3.9 3.7 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.7 0.1 Yield increase t/ha 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.5 % 20 15 9 9 14 20 14 14 Weed dry wt (g/m2) at 40 DAS 160 41 40 47 42 38 35 39 59 Weed control (%) 75 75 71 74 76 78 76 63 Cost ($/ha) 36 17 25 17 17 Savings ($/ha) 19 10 19 19
In samba 1985 in Chingleput district, weed control treatments were compared in irrigated direct seeded CO 43 rice under puddled condition. There were 7 weedicide treatments, 1 farmer's method of weeding on 20 and 40 d after seeding (DAS), and an unweeded control in a randomized block design with 4 replications (see table). The farmers method of hand weeding 20 and 40 DAS gave highest grain yield of 3.9 t/ha, on par with butachlor at 1.0 kg ai/ha plus 1 hand weeding in 40
Unweeded control Hand weeding 20 and 40 DAS Butachlor 1.0 kg ai/ha 2,4-D EE 0.8 kg ai/ha Fluchloralin 1.0 kg ai/ha Piperophos 1.0 kg ai/ha Butachlor 1.0 kg ai/ha + 1 hand weeding Oxyfluorfen 0.1 kg ai/ha Oxadiazon 0.5 kg ai/ha LSD
a
A dash = data not available.
DAS. These yields were 0.7 t/ha (20%) more than that of the control. The weed dry matter 40 DAS was least with butachlor application plus 1 hand weeding (35 g/m 2), or 78% better than that of the control. The farmers hand weeding gave 75% more weed
control. Thus, in direct sown rice under puddled condition, butachlor plus 1 hand weeding can control weeds and produce yields as well as can 2 weedings with manual labor, saving $10/ha in weeding cost.
Unrecorded weed hosts for rice blast (BI) pathogen Pyricularia oryzae Cav. in India
N. I. Singh and K. U. Singh, Botany and Plant Pathology Department, Manipur Agricultural College, Iroisemba, Imphal 795001, India
Rice reaction to P. oryzae isolates from 4 weed hosts. Manipur, India, 1986-87. Weed host Leersia hexandra Cyperus rotundus C. compressus C. iria
a+
Disease reaction a on HR-12 + + + + KD, 2-6-3 + + +
In India, weeds such as Leersia hexandra, Panicum repens, Arundo donax, Brachiaria mutica, and Cyperus compressus have been reported to harbor P. oryzae. During 1986-87, we searched for weed hosts of P. oryzae in Manipur ricefields, field bunds, and irrigation channels. We collected diseased weeds in districts of Imphal, Thoubal, Bishenpur, Churachandpur, and Senapati.
= infected, = noninfected.
From these collections, we isolated P. oryzae on potato dextrose agar. To test pathogenicity, we sprayed mycelial fragments of the isolated fungus, prepared from 7-d-old culture, onto weed hosts. Weeds sprayed with sterile water served as control. Among the weed hosts, L. hexandra, C. compressus, Cyperus rotundus, and
C. iria consistently harbored P. oryzae. The ocurrence on C. rotundus and C. iria constitutes a first report from India. To study pathogenicity, we raised highly susceptible HR-12 and popular, high-yielding KD, 2-6-3 in pots and inoculated seedlings at 3-4 leaf stage with different isolates of P. oryzae. All isolates produced Bl symptoms on HR12. Only the isolate from C. compressus failed to infect KD,2-6-3 (see table).
For instructions on preparation of brief reports of rice research to submit for publication in IRRN, see the inside front cover of this issue.
Weed flora in rice in Bhubaneswar (Orissa, India)

G. K. Patro and K. C. Nanda, Agronomy Department, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar 3, Orissa, India
Weeds seriously limit rice production at Bhubaneswar, Orissa. In 1985 wet season, we surveyed weeds in ricefields in uplands, medium lands, lowlands, and swampy and waterlogged fields, using random sampling of 10 farmers from each site type. From each field, we randomly selected five 1- 1-m areas.
Only weeds common in all samples are reported here. 1. Uplands Grasses: Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa colona, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis nutans, Panicum antidotale, Cynodon dactylon. Sedges: Cyperus rotundus, C. iria, Eimbristylis dichotoma. Broadleaved weeds: Senna obtusifolia, Crotalaria juncea, Celosia argentea, Sida rhombifolia. 2. Medium lands Grasses: Echinochloa crus-galli, Eragrostis nutans, Paspalum conjugatum.
Sedges: Cyperus elatus, C. esculentus, C. brevifolius. Broadleaved weeds: Murdannia nudflora, Ludwigia perennis, Corchorus aestuans, Aeschynomene americana, A. aspera. The fern Marsilea quadrifolia was also found. 3. Lowlands Eragrostis cilianensis, Oryza sp. (wild rice), Cyperus exaltatus, Scirpus supinus. 4. Swampy lands and waterlogged fields Pistia stratiofes, Glyceria sp., Glycine sp., Ulothrix sp., Spirogyra sp., and Chara sp.
Integrated weed and water management in transplanted rice

S. Purushothaman, S. Jeyaraman, and M. Chandrasekaran, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai 625104, India
We studied weed control and water use efficiency (WUE) with three irrigation
regimes and six weed control treatments (see table) in transplanted rice during 1985-86 dry (DS) and wet (WS) seasons. The treatments were in a split-plot design, replicated three times. Weeds at the experimental site (sandy clay loam) were Echinochloa colona, E. crus-galli, Cyperus rotundus, C. iria, C. difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea, Eclipta alba, Ammannia baccifera, Marsilea quadrifolia, Monochoria vaginalis, and
Ludwigia paryzflora. WUE was better with 5-cm continuous submergence than with irrigation with 5-cm water 1 d after water disappeared, saving 40% water in WS and 33% in DS. Grain yields were comparable. Among weed control treatments, preemergence butachlor (1.25 kg ai/ ha) plus postemergence 2,4-D (sodium salt) (0.75 kg ai/ ha) effectively controlled
Effect of weed control treatments under different irrigation regimes on grain yield, weed dry matter, water use efficiency, and total water requirement of transplanted rice, Madurai, India, 1985-86. Grain yield (t/ha) WS IR50 7.0 6.9 6.6 DS IR20 5.9 5.8 5.4 Weed dry matter at harvest (g/m 2) WS IR50 10 14 15 DS IR20 26 32 33 Water use efficiency (kg/ha per cm) WS IR50 43 61 50 DS IR20 62 92 65 Total water requirement (cm) WS IR50 166 100 131 DS IR20 94 63 83
Treatment
Irrigation regimes 5 cm continuous submergence 5 cm submergence 1 d after water disappeared Maintenance of 5 cm submergence at reproductive stage and 5 cm submergence 1 d after disappearance at vegetative and ripening stages LSD (0.05) Weed control methods Unweeded check HW 15 and 30 DT Butachlor 1.25 kg ai/ha + HW 30 DT Thiobencarb 1.50 kg ai/ha + HW 30 DT Butachlor 1.25 kg ai/ha + 2,4-D (sodium salt) 0.75 kg ai/ha 30 DT Thiobencarb 1.50 kg ai/ha + 2,4-D (sodium salt) 0.75 kg ai/ha 30 DT LSD (0.05) Interaction (weed control irrigation) LSD (0.05)
0.3 5.8 7.2 7.1 6.9 7.5 6.8 0.8 ns
0.4 4.9 6.0 5.8 5.6 6.2 3.6 0.4 ns
0.9 34 9 9 10 8 9 1.7 ns
ns 75 20 24 23 18 22 1.5 ns
44 57 56 55 60 54
60 78 74 73 81 73
1.4 136 132 132 132 131 131 0.6 ns
1.2 84 80 80 80 79 81 2.0 ns
weeds and recorded least weed dry matter and maximum WUE, followed by 2 hand weedings (HW) (15 and 30 d after transplanting [DT]) both seasons.
The combined approach of irrigation to 5-cm submergence 1 d after water disappeared and weed control through preemergence butachlor plus
postemergence 2,4-D sodium salt could save irrigation water in transplanted rice that otherwise would be used by competing weeds.
Managing other pests

A crab trap for a deepwater rice (DWR) pest
D. N. Das, B. Roy, and P. K. Mukhopadhyay, Deepwater Rice Pest Management Project (IRRI/ICAR/Government of West Bengal Cooperative Project), Rice Research Station (RRS), Chinsurah, West Bengal 712102, India
(see figure). Smooth entry points let crabs in, bamboo sticks projecting inside the box keep them from leaving. DWR farmers use similar devices to trap wild fish and prawns in their fields. We tested
the crab traps in 1987 wet season. Traps were baited with snail-meat and left in the water ovenight. Each trap collected 30-40 crabs/d during Aug-Sep. The crabs can be eaten.
In West Bengal, common freshwater crabs Paratelphusa hydrodromus Herbertson and P. spinigeru WoodManson (Family Potamidae) damage DWR by cutting elongating stems. Damage is most severe in fish - rice culture. Chemical methods, including bleaching powder (calcium chloro hypochlorite), fail to control them. We designed a crab trap of fine bamboo sticks bound with nylon thread
Device used to trap field crabs in Chinsurah, West Bengal, India, 1987 kharif.
Farming systems
Performance of rice-based cropping systems in river floodplains
S. B. Singh and R. D. S. Yadav, N. D. University of Agriculture and Technology, Crop Research Station, Masodha, Faizabad 224001, India
Rice yield equivalent and net profit of rice-based cropping systems in Gomti River floodplain. Faizabad, India. Cropping system Rice Rice Rice Rice Rice Rice Rice - wheat (C-306) - barley (Azad) - chickpea (Radhey) - lentil (T36) - safflower (T45) - taramira (T-136) - mustard (Varuna) Grain yield (t/ha) Wet season 1.31 1.24 1.21 1.24 1.22 1.33 1.31 Dry season 1.96 2.11 0.11 0.41 0.34 0.29 0.59 Total yield (t/ha) 3.27 3.35 1.32 1.65 1.59 1.62 1.90 Total yield equivalent (t/ha) 3.50 3.33 1.40 2.06 1.77 2.02 3.46 Net profit ($/ha) 216.72 212.88 32.16 124.00 88.64 36.00 223.28
We evaluated seven rice-based cropping systems for Gomti river floodplain in 1983-84. Soil had 0.20% organic C, 6.2 kg P, and 119 kg K with pH value of 7.7. Rice (Oryza sativa) variety Saket 4 was directly seeded in rows 20 cm apart in 6- 5-m plots. After harvesting the wet season rice crop, wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare),
chickpea ( Cicer arietinum), lentil (Lens esculenta), safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius), taramira (Eureca sativa), and mustard (Brassica juncea) were sown during dry season (DS). The experiment was in a randomized block design with four replications. Grain yields of DS crops were converted to rice yield
equivalents and net profits computed (see table). Rice yield equivalents of rice - wheat and rice - mustard crops were highest, with rice - barley next. Rice - chickpea produced least. Rice - mustard gave net profit of $223.281/ha, followed by rice wheat with $216.72/ ha.
The river floodplain area of Uttar Pradesh State occupies nearly 1.5 million ha; main rivers are the Ganga, Yamuna, Sarda, Gomti, Saryu, and Gandak. The Gomti accounts for 0.20 million ha. Adopting cropping sequences of rice - mustard or rice wheat could significantly improve its agriculture.
The Agta planted 10 different rice varieties in the swiddens. They grew 47 cultivars of all crops in swiddens, averaging 7.5 cultivars/ swidden, including rice (s.d.: 6.3, range: 1-27). To our knowledge, the Agta have the smallest swiddens of any cultural group in SE Asia (1/7 ha), the fewest rice varieties/ swidden (1.5), and the fewest cultivars/swidden (7.5). Though they eat rice at 92% of their meals, only 5% of
the rice they eat comes from their own fields. They secure most of it by trading minor forest products and through casual wage labor for outsiders. The Agta cultivate rice mainly as a hobby and for prestige, rather than to produce food. They are not farmers, and since Spanish records show they were making swiddens in the 1700s, they are not evolving from foraging to farming.
Rice cultivation practices in a Negrito foraging society in northeastern Luzon, Philippines

T. N. Headland and J. D. Headland, Summer Institute of Linguistics, 7500 West Camp Wisdom Road, Dallas, Texas 75236, and Department of Linguistics, University of Texas at Arlington
Cassava varieties for 5-mo summer rice fallow in Kerala

K. K. Santha, K. Karunakaran, and N. R. Nair, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi 679306, India
The Casiguran Agta, a Negrito population in northeastern Luzon, Philippines, are nomadic hunters and gatherers. Many households, however, also make swiddens (slash-and-burn fields), and a few cultivate wet rice paddies. In 1984,609 Agta were living in a 700-m2 rainforest area in northern Aurora Province. Rainfall averages 3,448 mm/yr. For 19 mo in 1983-84, we studied Agta cultivation practices by measuring and recording crop data and interviewing field owners. It was a good year, with no significant crop damage from insects or weather. Twenty-two percent of households planted crops, sharing harvests with others. They cultivated 43 swiddens and 5 irrigated rice paddies. The Agta spend little time in agriculture. Overall, men and women gave 6% of their days to this task (range 0-36%). Total cropped area was 8.6 ha, 91% in rice, only 141 m2 per capita. Rice cropping was 128 m2 per capita. Mean swidden size was 0.14 ha (s.d.: 0.11 ha), mean paddy size was 0.53 ha. Total annual rough rice production was 9.1 t, 4.7 t from swiddens and 4.4 t from paddies, enough to feed the population for only 15 d. Mean rough rice yield from swiddens was 0.9 t/ ha (n=17). One paddy yielded 1.7 t/ha.
Extensive rice areas in Kerala have a pattern of two rice cropsone mediumduration rice for rainy (May-Aug) season and one long-duration for dry season (Aug-Dec)followed by a 5-mo summer fallow. We tested five cassava
varieties for summer fallow in a replicated yield trial during summer 1987. We used 75- 75-cm spacing, 5050-50 kg NPK/ ha, a basal application of cattle manure at 12.5 t/ ha, and irrigation every 2 wk. Varieties Co 2 (recently released from Tamil Nadu) and M4 (already popular in Kerala for a 9-10 mo season) are suited to the 5-mo summer rice fallow season under Kerala conditions (see table).
Performance of 5 cassava varieties in the 5-mo summer rice fallow season. Pattambi, Kerala, 1987. Plant height (cm) 102 123 117 141 124 Tuber yield (t/ha) 12.6 11.6 10.0 9.1 10.3 2.0 Tuber characteristics Length (cm) 22 22 26 25 24 Girth (cm) 12 11 12 11 12 Softening on cooking Very good Very good Very good Good Good
Variety
Co 2 M4 Malavella 12/77 11/76 LSD (P = 0.05)
Data management and computer modeling

Modeling feeding rates of rice leaffolder (LF) Cnaphalocrocis medinalis on different plant stages
K. L. Heong and L. T. Fabellar, Entomology Department, IRRI
The rice LF damages plants by feeding on the leaves, removing patches of photosynthetic tissue. Daily leaf area
consumed can be measured by exposing larvae of known age to susceptible rice. The cumulative consumption by a larva at age t represents the total leaf consumption from hatching to that age. The first three instars fed little. More than 90% of feeding was done by the 4th and 5th instars age 11-19 d after hatching. The data fit an exponential model extremely well. The model is
Ct = ebt - 1.0
Parameters of data fitted to the model Ct = e t - 1.0 relating the total leaf area consumed (cm 2)/ larva with larval age in days at different plant stages. a IRRI, 1988. Plant stage (DAS)b 40 60 80 100
a
SE 0.1815 0.1692 0.1536 0.1360 0.0007 0.0007 0.0009 0.0011
Goodness of fitc MSR 6205** 7673** 3487** 2024** VR 3820** 7438** 10929** 8547**
= feeding rate coefficient and SE at 95% confidence. b DAS = days after sowing. cMSR = mean square ratio of mean squares for regression and residual from nonlinear curve fitting, VR = variance ratio from regression analysis of linearized data. ** = significance at P = 0.001.
where Ct is the age-specific total leaf area consumed from age 0 to age t and is the feeding rate. Feeding rates differed significantly for plants of different ages (see table). The rate constants related well to the plant stages expressed in days after sowing (DAS) by a linear model = 0.213 0.0008*DAS ( r2 = 0.99). Combining the two models, the relationships between leaf area consumption, age of LF larva, and plant stage can be shown (see figure). On plants 40 DAS, the LF larva could consume as much as 30 cm 2 leaf area, while on plants 100 DAS, it could consume only 11.5 cm 2. Since the leaf area consumed by LF larvae can be quantified using these two models, the effects of the pests damage may now be computer simulated using an existing rice growth model. This coupling will allow us to predict yield reductions by a known population.
Relationship between leaf consumption, age of LF larvae, and plant stages. IRRI, 1988.
The International Rice Research Newsletter is mailed free to individuals and institutions engaged in rice research and training. For further information, write IRRI, Communication and Publications Dept., Division R, P. O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Irrigation symposium planned
An Asian Regional Symposium on Modernisation and rehabilitation of irrigation and drainage schemes is scheduled 13-15 Feb 1989 at the Development Academy of the Philippines. The symposium is planned to encourage a dialogue among the various disciplines involved at all stages of irrigation and drainage rehabilitation. Papers presented on scheme selection, design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation will include case studies. Specialists in engineering, agriculture, economics, and the social sciences will participate. Papers selected for the symposium are based largely on the Asian experience. Invited papers from other parts of the world will show different approaches to solving common problems in different environments. Organizers and sponsors are Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford, England; National Irrigation Administration, Manila, Philippines; Overseas Development Administration, London; and Asian Development Bank, Manila. Copies of papers, special lectures, and
discussion reports will be available from the Overseas Development Unit, Hydraulics Research, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BA England. Copies are free to organizations in developing countries; individuals pay 25.
Origin of Cultivated Rice

This book by Hiko-Ichi Oka, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima City, Japan, updates current understanding of the origin of cultivated rice, from biological and archaeological-historical perspectives. Recent discoveries are reviewed and new questions posed. The content emphasizes ecological and genetical aspects, comparing the

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IRRN GUIDELINES

Guidelines for contributors

Criteria for IRRN research reports has international, or pan-national,

and data collection methodology

Categories of research reported

CROP AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

SOCIOECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

EDUCATION AND COMMUNICATION

CROP AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Taxonomic key for identifying the 22 species in the genus Oryza

4 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

known as O. breviligulata, includes the weed race O. stapfii.

Efficiency of wide compatibility gene

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 5

6 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

Heritability 82.4 h2 (%) Estimated effective factors K 0.59 ~ 1

Rice panicle characteristics

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 7

Flowering behavior of photoperiodsensitive rice germplasm of Bangladesh

.94** .79** .67* .61 .68* .72* .02

.99** .45 .04 .19 .38 .34 .12 6 IVB b

.99** .98** .54** .73** .83** .73** .82**

.86** .79** .68* .71* .75* .20

.44 .02 .21 .37 .31 .15 7 OVB

.98** .54* .71** .83** .74** .82**

.83* .93** .89** .86** .56

.61* .12 .52* .51* .06 8 CD

.66** .76** .88** .81** .79**

.82** .80** .81** .43

.29 .53* .62* .15 9 ASP

.74** .80** .83** .41

a 2.SPbr 3.Sbr 4.SSbr 5.TSP 6.IVB 7.OVB 8.CD 9.ASp 10.Cth

.94** .90** .63

.12 .07 .12

.75** .68** .71**

a = IR varieties, b = O. glaberrima, c = upland lines. *, ** = significant at 5% and 1% levels of probability, respectively.

8 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

Grain yield and duration of ratoon rice varieties

disease reduced yields.

Hybrid rice in rainfed environments

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 9

Grain quality and nutritional value

Grain characteristics of traditional Basmati varieties of northwest India

We collected 23 traditional Basmati varieties from northwest India and

10 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 11

Varietal reaction to tungro (RTV) with change in leafhopper "virulence"

12 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

Sieve tube number in tungro (RTV)-infected rice plants

Simplification of sampling method for assessing bacterial blight (BB) severity

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 13

14 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

Kharif 1980 Kharif 1980

Kharif 1980 Kharif 1980 Kharif 1982

80 breeding lines b + 25 others

60 entries of stem borer set (DRR) + 20 others b

Rabi 1986 Kharif 1986

30 released IR varieties + 20 other entries b 20 varieties on farm a

36 entries of stem borer screening, kharif 1986 (DRR) + 30 IR varieties + 15 others b

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 15

16 IRRN 13:5 (October 1988)

Excess water tolerance

A low-cost rapid screening technique for seminal root elongation

IRRN 13:5 (October 1988) 17

.94 .79 .67* .61 .68* .72* .02

.99 .98 .54 .73 .83 .73 .82**

.86 .79 .68* .71* .75* .20

.98** .54* .71 .83 .74 .82

.83* .93 .89 .86** .56

.66 .76 .88 .81 .79**

.82 .80 .81** .43

.74 .80 .83** .41

.94 .90 .63

.75 .68 .71**