Us08d 06

N U T R I T I ONA L P ROP E R T I E S OF W HE Y,
L ACTOSE AND MILK MINERALS PRODUCTS 6
R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 49

6 N U T R I T I ONA L P ROP E R T I E S OF W HE Y,
L ACTOSE AND MILK MINERALS PRODUCTS
Edited by CARLA SORENSEN Scientific evidence continues to accumulate

Whey Protein Institute, OVERVIEW that whey contains a variety of nutrient
factors capable of improving health
Eden Prairie, MN Today whey protein is a common ingredient and preventing disease. In particular,
and in products including infant formula, newer information in the areas of nutrient
DR. JOSEPH O’DONNELL specialized enteral and clinical protein bioavailability, regulation of cellular growth
supplements, and sports nutrition products. and maturation, probiotics, prebiotics,
California Dairy Research Foundation,
More recently the product mix has been toxin elimination and pathogenic virulence
Davis, CA expanded to include unique products specific indicates that there is potential to
to weight management and mood control. produce healthful functional foods
Whey protein concentrates have been produced
commercially for a number of years and Advancements made in the development and pharmaceuticals to reduce both
of processing technologies, including infectious and chronic diseases using
have long been valued for their functional whey products. The full health-enhancing
characteristics. At the same time, the excellent ultrafiltration, microfiltration and diafiltration
membrane, and ion-exchange, have made potential of whey and whey components in
nutritional properties of whey proteins became it possible to separate individual protein such products is currently underdeveloped,
more widely recognized, and factors such as fractions into relatively pure forms. This although an increasing number of
their high quality, rich amino acid profile, commercial separation has expanded the manufacturers are starting to take advantage
and ease of digestibility expanded their use of whey protein fractions as nutritional of the nutritional and functional benefits
supplements and as ingredients in cosmetic of whey when designing new products.
market opportunities. As consumer demand for health-promoting
and pharmaceutical products. Examples
of recent advances include the following: foods increases, whey products are an
1) whey proteins as physiologically functional obvious choice to fill this role in the market.
food ingredients, 2) Alpha-lactalbumin and Whey products contain proteins, vitamins,
Beta-lactoglobulin, major whey protein a wide variety of minerals and other
components, as nutritional and specialized constituents such as lactose and lipids.
physically functional food ingredients and The amounts vary by product and Table 6
3) minor whey protein components, such provides detailed information on the
as lactoferrin and glycomacropeptides, as composition of common whey protein
specialized food ingredients and important products. The composition of whey
biotechnological reagents. may vary, depending on milk source
and the manufacturing process involved.
Please consult your U.S. supplier for
more information.
50 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

Table 6
Nutritional Composition of Selected Commercial Whey Products
Value per 100 grams of Edible Portion
Dry Sweet Whey Protein Whey Protein Whey Protein Whey Protein Whey Protein
Whey1 Concentrate Concentrate Concentrate Isolate Isolate
34% 80% 80% WPI2 Hydrolyzed
Nutrient Ingredient Units WPC342 WPC802 Hydrolyzed
Proximates
Water g 3.19 3.93 4.11 4.00 4.50 4.50
Energy kcal 353.00 369.00 412.00 400.00 371.00 360.00
Energy kj 1476.00 1542.00 1722.00 1672.00 1550.00 1504.00
Protein g 12.93 34.36 80.00 80.00 90.75 90.00
Total lipid (fat) g 1.07 3.93 6.60 6.25 0.50 0.50
Carbohydrate, by difference* g 74.46 50.80 5.31 6.00 0.87 0.50
Ash g 8.35 6.99 3.98 3.75 3.38 4.50
Minerals
Calcium, Ca mg 796.00 569.00 423.00 400.00 600 mg 200.00
Iron, Fe mg 0.88 0.89 1.20 5.00 5.00
Magnesium, Mg mg 176.00 104.00 50.00 50.00 15.00 10.00
Phosphorus, P mg 932.00 547.00 0.00 325.00 25.00 30.00
Potassium, K mg 2080.00 1680.00 517.00 800.00
Sodium, Na mg 1079.00 630.00 255.00 225.00 450.00 1000.00
Zinc, Zn mg 1.97 0.21
Copper, Cu mg 0.07
Manganese, Mn mg 0.009 0.06
Selenium, Se mcg 27.20
Vitamins
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid mg 1.50 2.00
Thiamin mg 0.519 0.36
Riboflavin mg 2.208 1.80
Niacin mg 1.258 0.37
Pantothenic acid mg 5.62
Vitamin B6 mg 0.58
Folate, total mcg 12.00
Folic acid mcg 0.00
Folate, food mcg 12.00
Folate, DFE mcg_DFE 12.00
Vitamin B12 mcg 2.37
Vitamin A, IU IU 44.00 100.00
Vitamin A, RE mcg_RE 10.00
Vitamin E mg_ATE 0.029
Lipids
Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.684
Fatty acids, total g 0.297
monounsaturated
Fatty acids, total g 0.034
polyunsaturated
Cholesterol mg 6.00 97.00
Note: Blank fields indicate that no data was available.
1
Source: USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, SR14. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl
Other data including fluid whey and dry acid whey available at this site.
2
Data obtained from product specification sheets and nutrition analysis provided by U.S. whey manufacturers.
Please consult your supplier for exact information.

Table 6 (continued)
Nutritional Composition of Selected Commercial Whey Products
Value per 100 grams of Edible Portion
Dry Sweet Whey Protein Whey Protein Whey Protein Whey Protein
Whey1 Concentrate Concentrate Isolate Isolate
34% 80% WPI2 Hydrolyzed
Nutrient Ingredient Units WPC342 WPC802
Amino acids
Tryptophan g 0.205 0.630 1.200 1.500 1.300
Threonine g 0.817 2.380 5.360 6.250 6.100
Isoleucine g 0.719 1.920 4.800 5.900 4.500
Leucine g 1.186 3.520 8.080 13.000 9.400
Lysine g 1.030 2.920 7.840 9.150 9.800
Methionine g 0.241 0.600 1.600 2.050 2.000
Cystine g 0.253 0.750 2.720 3.100 1.700
Phenylalanine g 0.407 1.050 2.480 2.300
Tyrosine g 0.363 0.630 2.240 3.150 3.200
Valine g 0.697 1.760 4.456 5.350 4.100
Arginine g 0.375 0.700 2.000 2.650 1.700
Histidine g 0.237 0.710 1.200 1.350 2.400
Alanine g 0.598 1.580 4.080 6.000 3.300
Aspartic acid g 1.269 3.630 8.000 9.000 8.900
Glutamic acid g 2.248 4.840 13.280 13.000 11.400
Glycine g 0.280 0.660 1.360 2.350 1.300
Proline g 0.786 1.900 5.120 4.800 8.600
Serine g 0.622 1.800 4.080 5.000 4.100
Other
*Lactose g 74.46 50.80 5.31 0.87 0.50
Note: Blank fields indicate that no data was available.
1
Source: USDA Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, SR14. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl
Other data including fluid whey and dry acid whey available at this site.
2
Data obtained from product specification sheets and nutrition analysis provided by U.S. whey manufacturers.
Please consult your supplier for exact information.

the elderly, and at different physiological The whey proteins (also called milk serum
6.1 NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES conditions, e.g., after stress. The relatively proteins) are the proteins that remain soluble
OF WHEY PRODUCTS high proportion of sulfur amino acids, when caseins are coagulated by either
especially cysteine, is predicted to be of enzyme or acid. The whey proteins include
By DR. ROSEMARY L. WALZEM especial value in conditions of immune Beta-lactoglobulin, Alpha-lactalbumin,
Kelberg Animal & Food Science Center, activation. The high cysteine content of whey bovine serum albumins, immunoglobulins
would be predicted to spare tissue proteins and protease-peptones fractions. Part of
Texas A&M University, because acute phase proteins that are the protease-peptones have been identified
College Station, TX produced in response to immune challenge as proteolytic degradation products of
Copy contributed by: are themselves inordinately enriched Beta-casein.
U.S. Dairy Export Council, in cysteine.
The heat-sensitive whey proteins (Beta-
Arlington, VA Milk proteins are often divided into two lactoglobulin, Alpha-lactalbumin, bovine
broad classes: caseins and whey proteins. serum albumins and immunoglobulins)
Proteins Approximately 80% of the proteins in milk differ in molecular weights and properties
Whey proteins have been used for many are caseins, and these are coagulated and such as isoelectric points (see Table 6.1.2).
years as highly nutritious food supplements. separated as cheese curd (see Table 6.1.1).
Nevertheless, research is still uncovering
Table 6.1.1
aspects of their simple ability to provide
Concentration of Major Milk Proteins
amino acids. The physical properties of whey
proteins in the gut are quite distinct from Protein Concentration (g/l) Approximate % of Total Protein
the properties of caseins. Micellar casein Caseins 24–28 80
forms clots within the stomach, which slows Alpha-casein 15–19 42
their exit from the stomach and increases Beta-casein 9–11 25
their hydrolysis prior to entering the small Kappa-casein 3–4 9
intestine. Alternatively, whey proteins are
Gamma-casein 1–2 4
“fast” proteins, and they reach the jejunum
Whey proteins 5–7 20
almost immediately. Their hydrolysis within
Beta-lactoglobulin 2–4 9
the intestine, however, is slower than that
of the caseins, thus their digestion and Alpha-lactalbumin 1–1.5 4
absorption occurs over a greater length of Protease-peptones 0.6–1.8 4
the intestine. It has been argued that this Blood proteins 1.4–1.6 2
provides a unique delivery of both the amino serum albumin 0.1–0.4 1
acids and peptides. Immunoglobulins 0.6–1.0 2
Total 100
The biological value of whey protein is high in
comparison to that of other dietary proteins, Source: Fennema, 1965.
as is their content of essential amino acids.
Protein quality refers to the ability of a Table 6.1.2
particular protein to provide nitrogen in Characteristics of Heat-Sensitive Proteins in Cheese Whey
a balanced pattern of essential and non-
Approximate % Molecular Isoelectric
essential amino acids. In humans, growth Protein of Whey Proteins Weight Point
and nitrogen retention have been used to Beta lactoglobulin 48 18,400–36,800 5.2
assess protein quality for infants and nitrogen
Alpha-lactalbumin 19 14,200 5.1
balance for adults. The protein efficiency
Protease-peptones* 20 4,000–80,000 5.1–6.0
ratio (PER) of a protein source measures
Blood proteins: 13 69,000 4.8
the weight gain of young animals per gram
of protein eaten over a given time period. serum albumin 5 69,000 4.8
Protein needs differ throughout the life cycle, immunoglobulins 8 160,000 5.5–6.8
and proteins differ in their ability to provide Total 100
readily used amino acids for these differing *Degradation products of various milk proteins including Beta-caseins.
needs. As a result, different amounts and Source: de Wit, 1981; Harper, 1984.
types of proteins can best meet the needs
of specific groups, e.g., infants, athletes or

The functional properties of whey proteins Although the major role of whey proteins is properties and is the major nonspecific
are influenced by a number of compositional to provide dietary nitrogen and amino acids, disease resistance factor found in the
and processing variables including: there are several physiological roles that mammary gland, and it probably mediates
• pH: The pH values increase have been either defined or suggested for protection against microbial infection of the
logarithmically. A pH 4.0 solution minor whey proteins or peptides. These mammary gland. Lactoferrin sequesters and
is 10 times as acidic as a pH 5.0 solution, components can provide passive protection solubilizes iron, thus controlling the amount
and 100 times as acidic as a pH 6.0 against infection; modulate digestive and of iron in metabolism. Although isolated
solution. As the concentration of hydrogen metabolic processes; and act as growth about 30 years ago, the precise biological
ions in a solution increases, the negative factors for different cell types, tissues roles of lactoferrin are still emerging. Bovine
charge on the proteins is neutralized. At and organs. lactoferrin is highly homologous to other
the pH identified as the isoelectric point lactoferrins and transferrins.
Properties of Individual Whey Proteins
for a protein, the charge on the protein
becomes neutral, and the proteins will not Alpha-lactalbumin Lactoferrin has long been considered an
migrate in an electric field. At this pH, the Alpha-lactalbumin comprises 2%–5% important component of the host defense
physical properties of proteins (solubility, of skim milk total protein. This protein is against microbial infection. Although the
conductivity, stability and degree of hydra- a calcium-binding protein and has a high antimicrobial activity of lactoferrin has been
tion) are at a minimum. affinity for other metal ions, including Zn,+2 well described, its mechanism of action has
• Calcium ion concentration Mn,+2 Cd,+2 Cu+2 and Al.+3 Alpha-lactalbumin not been completely characterized. The
• Salt concentration is the “B” protein of the lactose synthase antimicrobial effect of lactoferrin is linked to
• Previous heat treatments enzyme complex, which catalyzes the last its iron-binding activity because lactoferrin
• Residual lipid content step in the biosynthesis of lactose. For this binds iron and renders it unavailable
• Protein concentration reason, it is of major interest in terms of for bacterial growth, and more recent
the control of milk secretion. Purified investigations have found that the protein
Digestion of Whey Proteins Alpha-lactalbumin is used commercially is directly bacteriostatic via its actions on
As stated above, unlike caseins, whey in infant formula because it is structurally bacterial membranes.
proteins empty rapidly from the stomach and compositionally similar to the major Lactoferrin also has the ability to modulate
and transit to the upper intestine. This protein in human breast milk. Purified immune functions and is a growth factor for
difference in digestion rate is not insignificant Alpha-lactalbumin is also used as a various cell types. Lactoferrin also exhibits
and has been shown to influence whole body sports food protein, as it is a good antioxidant activity.
protein synthesis. The whey proteins Beta- source of branched-chain amino acids.
lactoglobulin, Alpha-lactalbumin, lactoferrin Branched chain amino acids are utilized by Enzymes
and immunoglobulins have been detected muscle and several reports have associated Enzymes are quantitatively minor proteins
intact in the intestinal lumen. Lactoferricin improved performance with the consumption in milk, and most are not synthesized by the
generation from lactoferrin within the human of diets enriched in them. mammary gland but arrive adventitiously
stomach, as well as survival of this protein following passage from blood or from the
Lactoferrin breakdown of mammary cells. The enzymes
within the intestine of a rat model, was
In recent years it has become clear that are mainly destroyed in the process of
recently demonstrated by sensitive and
certain dietary proteins and peptides have digestion and are of little nutritional
specific SELDI affinity mass spectrometry.
specific biological activities. Protein fractions significance. Lactoperoxidase is an
Some dietary proteins and polypeptides
such as lactoferrin have been identified oxidoreductase that breaks down hydrogen
reach the intestinal mucosa in significant
that have bioactive properties at low peroxide. This component of milk and whey
amounts and then may be absorbed intact.
concentration. Lactoferrin is a protein with products is an enzyme with antibacterial
Transcytosis of intact protein was detected
a number of exciting functional properties, properties. The lactoperoxidase system is
for Beta-lactoglobulin, Alpha-lactalbumin,
and is already used in many commercial recovered during the lactoferrin purification
prolactin and lactoferrin, but not for casein.
products such as chewing gum, infant process and is used commercially in various
The absorption of large molecules in anti-
genic and biologically-active quantities is formulas, sports and functional foods, cosmetics and as a food preservative. The
believed to play a role in the different physio- veterinary and feed specialties, and lactoperoxidase system is a major part of the
logical and immunological responses that personal care items such as mouthwash antibacterial activity of milk, is thermostable
contribute to oral tolerance and its and toothpaste. and is not inactivated by pasteurization.
regulation. The nature of whey protein Lactoferrin comprises only a small portion, Lactoperoxidase has been studied as a
digestion seems to contribute to retention 0.2%–0.8%, of skim milk protein but is a means of controlling acidity development
of whey protein and peptide bioactivity higher proportion of whey, and is relatively and pH shift during refrigerated storage of
within the gut. easily enriched by taking advantage of its yogurt. Lactoperoxidase has been suggested
unusual cationic binding properties. for use as a natural preservative and it
Lactoferrin has antibacterial and antioxidant plays a role in the keeping quality of
pasteurized milk. In combination with

other preservatives, lactoperoxidase is being tissue, and allowed maintenance of a high The proteins of whey are easily digested and
used as a cavity-inhibiting ingredient in level of performance. In another study, a contain all the essential amino acids in the
dental products. mixture of the three branched-chain amino proper proportions, and they rate as an
acids was supplied to subjects during two excellent nutritional source.
Specific Amino Acids in Whey types of sustained intense exercise, a 30 km
Sulfur-containing Amino Acids Using the Protein Digestibility-Corrected
cross-country race and a full marathon. This
Whey proteins have proportionately more Amino Acid Scoring (PDCAAS) method,
study showed that intake of branched-chain
sulfur-containing amino acids (cysteine, whey protein rates a value of 1.0 because it
amino acids during exercise can prevent or
methionine) than casein, which contributes is highly digestible and it meets or exceeds
decrease the net rate of protein degradation
to their having a higher PER than casein, the recommended amount of each essential
caused by heavy exercise. Branched-chain
3.2 versus 2.5. Any protein with a PER of amino acid. Using another method to
amino acid supplements appeared to
2.5 is considered good quality. The high measure protein quality—The Protein
prevent chronic hypoxia-related loss of
sulfur-containing amino acid content of Efficiency Ratio (PER) value—whey also
body mass and muscle loss in 16 subjects
whey proteins is important to their ability to ranks high on the scale. The higher the PER
who participated in a 21-day trek at a
enhance immune-function and antioxidant value, the better the protein. Casein, the
mean altitude of 3,255 m. Although subjects
status via modulation of the sulfur-containing reference protein, has a PER value of 2.5.
in these cited studies consumed mixtures
tripeptide glutathione. Also, as whey proteins Proteins with a PER greater than 2.5 are
of pure branched-chain amino acids,
have a relative surplus of some essential considered to be quality proteins. Whey
researchers reported that whey protein
amino acids (lysine, threonine, methionine, protein, with the PER greater than 3.0,
is an excellent source of these amino acids:
isoleucine), they are effective supplements to is considered to be a nutritionally
crude whey protein containing per gram
vegetable proteins, which often are limiting in excellent protein.
103mg leucine, 59mg isoleucine and 59mg
those amino acids. Thus, whey proteins have valine. Thus properly formulated low-lactose
favorable effects on many common proteins whey protein-containing products are prime Virtually every amino acid present in
that have a PER of less than 2.5, including sources of nutrients for sports nutrition foods sweet-type whey exceeds Food and
soya, peanuts, corn and wheat gluten. and beverages. Agriculture Organization/World Health
Organization (FAO/WHO) nutritional
Branched-chain Amino Acids intake recommendations, both for
Among all protein sources, whey proteins children aged 2 to 5 and for adults (see
contain the highest concentration of the Figure 6.1.3). In many cases, for adults,
branched-chain amino acids-L-isoleucine, whey proteins offer more than double the
L-leucine and L-valine. Virtually every amino minimum FAO/WHO standards.
acid present in sweet-type whey exceeds
Food and Agriculture Organization/World
Health Organization (FAO/WHO) nutritional Figure 6.1.3
intake recommendations, both for children Essential Amino Acid Profile of Whey Protein
aged 2–5 and for adults. For adults, whey and Nutritional Requirements of Selected Groups (FAO/WHO)
proteins often offer more than double the
minimum FAO/WHO standards. Essential Amino Acids
59 Whey Protein
Branched-chain amino acids must be Valine
13
35
Child, 2-5 years

present in the muscle cells to promote 24
Tryptophan 11 Adult
protein synthesis. However, these amino 5
acids are unique as they are also metabolized Threonine 34

68
9
for energy by muscle rather than by the liver.
62
Through this action, they are thought to Phenylalanine.+Tyrosine
19
63
help increase carbohydrate bioavailability 41

Methionine.+Cystine 22
while helping to counteract muscle protein 17
breakdown during exercise. Lysine 58

88
16
Branched-chain amino acids provide Leucine 66

103
19
safe nutritional support for athletes and
59
individuals seeking optimal lean muscle Isoleucine
13
28
mass. A study with competitive wrestlers 20

Histidine 19
showed that a combination of moderate 16
energy restriction and branched-chain amino 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

mg/g Crude Protein
acid supplementation induced significant
Source: Glass, L. and T.I. Hedrick. FAO/WHO. 1976.
and preferential losses of visceral adipose

Whey Proteins compare favorably to many Figure 6.1.4

common proteins that have a PER of less Protein Efficiency Ratios (PER) of Various Animal and Vegetable Proteins
than 2.5, including soy, peanuts, corn,
and wheat gluten (see Figure 6.1.4.). These
Casein 2.5
proteins have limited concentrations of
certain essential amino acids. Because of Whey Protein 3.2
whey protein’s balanced amino acid profile,
whey products are excellent ingredients for Sodium Caseinate 2.6
protein fortification. By fortifying certain

Hen Egg 3.9
vegetable proteins with whey proteins,
scientists have achieved PER values Peanut 1.8
significantly greater than 2.5 and greater
than the average of the PER values for Soya 2.2
the two proteins. In each blend, whey

Corn 2.2
protein contributed no more than 50% of
the total protein. Wheat Gluten 0.8
Vitamins 0 1 2 3 4
PER
The water soluble vitamins in milk remain in Source: Anon. 1972.
the serum and are collected with the whey.
The concentration of vitamin C is reduced Table 6.1.5
during the processing, and whey is not Water Soluble Vitamin Content of Sweet Whey Powder
considered a significant source of vitamin C.
WHO Recommended Daily Intake*
The concentration of other water soluble
vitamins in sweet whey powder is presented Sweet Whey Powder
Vitamin Child 1-3 years Adult Male Content/100g**
in Table 6.1.5.
Thiamin (B1) 0.5 mg 1.2 mg 0.5 mg
Vitamins are large molecules and they Riboflavin (B2) 0.8 mg 1.8 mg 2.2 mg
are concentrated by ultrafiltration. Whey Niacin (PP) 9.0 mg 19.8 mg 1.3 mg
products will naturally fortify the thiamin, Pantothenic Acid NA NA 5.6mg
riboflavin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6 and Vitamin B6 NA NA 2.4µg
vitamin B12 content of foods. Suppliers can Folic Acid 100.0 µg 200.0 µg 12.0 µg
provide specific information on the vitamin
Vitamin B12 0.9 µg 2.0 µg 2.4 µg
contents of their whey products.
Sources:
Vitamin A is the most abundant fat soluble * World Health Organization. 1974.
** Potosi and Orr. 1976.
vitamin in milk. Vitamins A, D, E, and K
are separated with the milk fat that is
entrapped in the curd and separated with
the whey cream.

Minerals Table 6.1.6

Essential Minerals Content of Acid and Sweet Whey Powders
Data in Table 6.1.6 indicates that whey
powder is a good source of certain essential WHO
minerals. For mineral content of specific Recommended
Daily Intake* Acid Whey Powder Sweet Whey Powder
whey products, please refer to Section 6.7. Mineral Adult Male Content/100g** Content/100g**
As the pH of milk decreases during Calcium 500 mg 2,054 mg 796 mg

acid cheese production, more of the Zinc 22 mg 6.31 mg 1.97 mg
salts dissociate. This results in higher Magnesium 300 mg 199 mg 176 mg
concentrations of soluble calcium, Phosphorus 1,348 mg 932 mg
magnesium, zinc and phosphorus in Sources:
acid whey. The concentrations of calcium * World Trade Organization. 1974.
** Potosi and Orr. 1976.
and other minerals may be altered during
whey processing. Mineral concentrations are
reduced by electrodialysis and ultrafiltration, The lactose content of whey products vary
and adjusted to achieve unique functional from about 74-75% in sweet whey, to less
properties. Information for mineral content than 1% in whey protein isolate. Please refer
of specific products should be obtained to Table 6.1 or manufacturers’ specifications
from the supplier of the product. for more data. Detailed information on the
nutritional and physiological properties of
Lactose lactose is presented in Section 6.9.
Lactose is a disaccharide that is hydrolyzed
by the enzyme Beta-galactosidase into The information contained in this section is
glucose and galactose molecules. The drawn from a review article which appeared
slow hydrolysis of lactose by the body in Critical Reviews in Food Science, Vol. 42, pg. 353-
during digestion generates a prolonged 375. RL Walzem, CJ Dillard, JB German.
energy supply. Lactose stimulates the “Whey Components: Millenia of Evolution
growth of acid forming lactobacilli in the Creates Functionalities From Mamalian
intestinal tract. Nutrition: What We Know and What We
May Be Overlooking.”
Recent nutritional studies suggest that
lactobacilli help fight intestinal disorders
and that lactose could be used in dietary
therapy for ailing infants.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that
lactose increases calcium absorption and
retention. It may also improve the absorption
of magnesium and zinc. In animal studies,
lactose extended life expectancy and reduced
the accumulation of body fat.

Almost all of the individual whey proteins

6.2 BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES have been reported to have one or more
OF WHEY COMPONENTS biological activities, although the degree of
evidence supporting the claims is variable.
By DR. W. JAMES HARPER Some claims are strongly substantiated,
Department of Food Science whereas others are based on limited
information. The status of the various
and Technology, activities is dynamic, with new information
Ohio State University, becoming available almost daily. The
Columbus, OH following table (Table 6.2.1) gives the
Copy contributed by: biological activity and the different whey
proteins reported to have that activity. An
American Dairy Products Institute effort has been made to list the activities
Elmhurst, IL in decreasing order to the degree to which
the claims are substantiated, although
the demarcation is somewhat fuzzy. In the
majority of cases, the biological activity in
humans is not substantiated with clinical
trials. Our base of knowledge is dynamic
and rapidly expanding, with new information
continually appearing. A much more solid
information base can be expected over the
next several years.
Table 6.2.1
Biological Activity of Whey Proteins
Whey Proteins
Biological Activity with Reported Activity* Comments
Antimicrobial a) Lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, a) Supported by both in vitro and some in vivo studies. The proteins are
Action/wound healing lysozyme being used/applied commercially; combinations are synergistic.
b) Lactoferricin (pepsin derived b) More antimicrobial than lactoferrin.
peptide from lactoferrin)
Passive immunity— a) Whey protein concentrates, a) Have been proven effective in calves and pigs.
disease protection colostrum derived
b) Immunoglobulin concentrates; b) Hyper-immunization increases specific Ig activity for some,
immunoglobulins not all bacterial antigens.
Bifidobacteria growth Casein glycomacropeptide a) Has been used commercially. Confirmed in trials with infants and
factor/control of one trial on human adults.
intestinal microflora b) Oligosaccharide portion considered most active.
Anti-viral activity a) Lactoferrin a) Supported by three in-vitro studies, one showing the antiviral property
being independent of iron binding.
b) Lactoferricin b) Supported by single study.
c) Whey protein concentrates c) Only limited studies support this claim.
Anti-cancer activity a) Whey protein concentrates a) Fairly strong support based on cell culture. Studies and in vivo in mice
and rats.
b) Alpha-lactalbumin b) Support based primarily on cell culture studies.
c) Lactoferrin c) Based on limited studies from one laboratory.
Gut microflora control Whey protein concentrates Support primarily on in vitro studies.
Immunomodulating a) Whey protein concentrates a) Based on in vitro studies and several in vivo studies in mice—
activity enhanced humoral antibody responses.
b) Lactoferrin b) Supported by cell culture studies and in vivo studies
with experimental animals.
c) Casein glycomacropeptide c) Five reports supporting this activity—with different specific functions.
d) Alpha-lactalbumin d) Based on a single report.
*Where whey protein concentrates have been reported to have biological activity, the specific factor involved can not be determined in most cases.
A specific component may be involved, or more probably the effect is caused by products formed by the action of digestive enzymes.
These could include peptides, glycopeptides or oligosaccharide components.

Whey proteins have one or more of the The health and nutritional value of the In some cases, whey protein concentrates
following three biological functions in food: components can be divided into several and isolates will contain sufficient
• A source of essential amino acids categories: concentration of components to provide
• A source of proteins for defense against (a) high quality nutritional source physiological functionality, and in other
microbial infections of amino acids; cases the components need to be
• A source of growth factors and modulators (b) anti-microbial action, concentrated or isolated. However, this
especially in the gut; review will focus primarily on the role
The biological properties of whey and (c) growth enhancement of desired gut of the individual whey proteins in nutrition
its components have both current microflora, such as bifidobacteria; and health.
and future potential significance in the (d) immuno-enhancing properties;
nutrition and health of people. Among (e) control of specific diseases,
the components that can be important including cancer;
are: Beta-lactoglobulin, Alpha-lactalbumin, (f) antitoxin activity;
BSA, immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, (g) provide the basis for development
lactoperoxidase, proteose-peptone, of infant foods similar to human
milk fat globule membrane protein, milk through combinations of the
glycomacropeptide, glycophosphopetides, different factors.
other native and derived peptides,
including whey protein hydrolysates,
whey lipids [conjugated linoleic acid (CLA),
sphingolipids and butyric acid].
Table 6.2.1 (continued)

Biological Activity of Whey Proteins
Whey Proteins
Biological Activity with Reported Activity* Comments
Bacterial antitoxin a) Lactoferrin a) Multiple reports confirming activity.
activity b) Casein glycomacropeptide b) Supported by single report.
c) GMP derived peptides c) Supported by several studies.
d) Glycated-Beta-lactoglobulin d) Support only by a single in vitro study—not confirmed.
and glycated Alpha-lactalbumin
Promotion of growth Lactoferrin One in vivo study and 2 patents claiming application.
of some animal cells
Platelet binding a) Lactoferrin a) Limited evidence to support this claim.
(anti-thrombic activity) b) GMP derived peptide b) Three studies in support.
Anti-inflammatory Lactoferrin Based on single 1996 report.
Anti-hypertensive Hydrolyzed whey protein isolate, Supported by two reports.
GMP derived peptide (108-110)
Control of cellular Whey protein concentrate Based on limited studies. Considered to possibly serve as an antioxidant
glutathione levels and in the repair of DNA. Requires further confirmation.
Diet suppressant— Casein glycomacropeptide Based primarily on studies with dogs, primarily studied by a
reduction in gastric single research group.
secretion
Control of PKU Casein glycomacropeptide Is aromatic amino acid free, but not known to have
been used for control of PKU.
Opioid effect Peptides derived from GMP, Limited evidence to support this effect, primarily in experimental animals.
(reduction in heart rate Beta-lactoglobulin,
and respiration) Alpha-lactalbumin
*Where whey protein concentrates have been reported to have biological activity, the specific factor involved can not be determined in most cases.
A specific component may be involved, or more probably the effect is caused by products formed by the action of digestive enzymes.
These could include peptides, glycopeptides or oligosaccharide components.

General Nutritional Aspects Hambreaus (1982) gave a comparison of the

essential amino acid composition of several
As noted previously, whey proteins are
proteins of interest in comparison with the
considered to have among the highest
FAO provisional amino acid scoring pattern
nutritional values of all food proteins.
presented in Table 6.2.2.
As individual fractions become available,
knowledge of their individual amino acid The amino acid composition of individual
profiles will become increasingly important. whey proteins is presented in Table 6.2.3.
Table 6.2.2
Essential Amino Acid Content of Selected Proteins (mg/g protein)
FAO Provisional
Total Amino Acid
Amino Acid Human Milk Whey Protein Casein Scoring Pattern
Isoleucine 45 76 54 40
Leucine 89 118 95 70
Lysine 66 113 81 55
Methionine + cysteine 33 52 32 35
Phenylalanine + tyrosine 71 70 111 60
Threonine 44 84 47 40
Tryptophan NA 24 16 10
Valine 49 72 75 50
Total – 609 511 360
Table 6.2.3
Amino Acid Composition of Selected Whey Proteins (mg/g protein)1
Beta- Alpha- Immuno- Glycomacro
Amino acid lactoglobulin lactalbumin BSA globulins -peptide Lactoferrin
Essential
Isoleucine 63 62 24 30 110 26
Leucine 136 104 104 96 170 106
Lysine 105 108 101 68 58 78
Methionine + cysteine 56 67 67 41 20 70
Phenylalanine + tyrosine 68 87 125 106 0 77
Threonine 44 50 58 105 174 52
Tryptophan 20 52 3 27 17
Valine 54 42 61 96 89 66
Other
Alanine 54 15 79 48 59 98
Arginine 25 11 40 41 0 58
Aspartic2 100 169 92 41 77 99
Glutamic 174 117 136 123 190 98
Glycine 9 24 26 52 9 74
Histidine 15 29 29 32 0 14
Proline 49 16 48 100 116 44
Serine 33 43 48 115 78 50
1
Calculated from data of Kinsella and Whitehead (1989)
2
Includes both amine and acidic forms

Biological Properties of Whey Proteins Bifidus Factors Gyorgy (1953), Gyorgy and Rose (1955)
and Gyorgy et al. (1954 a,b,c,) reported that
The general biological properties of milk Factors, which stimulate the growth of
N-acetylglucosamine-containing saccharides
proteins have been reviewed (Fox and Bifidobacteria, are known to be important
are essential for the cell wall synthesis of
Flynn 1992). Some of the properties are in the health of infants, and this topic has
B. bifidum. This factor is present in large
influenced by more than one whey been reviewed by Fox and Flynn (1992).
quantities in human milk, but not in bovine
component, including:
Bifidobacteria represent more than 95% of (cow’s) milk. Most of the bifidus growth
• Binding proteins
the faecal microflora of breast fed infants, factors in human milk are non-dialyzable
• Bifidis factors
and this predominance has been related to and are considered to be mixtures of
• Growth factors
the presence of stimulatory factors in human glycoproteins or higher oligosaccharides.
• Biologically active peptides
milk. Bifidobacteria are also found as the
Binding Proteins A large number of different compounds
major faecal microflora of formula fed babies,
have been associated as bifidus growth
A number of different proteins are capable of but the predominating strains are different.
factors. Predominant among these have
binding adjuncts, which can have significance B. bifidum is the major strain in breast fed
been oligosaccharides (Hartemink et al.
to their biological functionality. In a number infants, with some B. longum. Dominant
1994). Gibson and Wang (1994 a,b)
of instances, the exact biological function, strains in formula fed infants are B. longum,
showed that Bifidobacteria utilized
if any, remains ill defined or unknown. with lesser amounts of B. bifidum, B. infantis,
fructo-oligosaccharides as a carbon
B. adolescentis and B. breve.
Table 6.2.4 summarizes the binding source, including inulin and oliofructose.
characteristics and possible biological Factors that stimulate Bifidobacteria include: Different oligosaccharides appear to
function of various whey proteins. • Pantethine—required by some strains, favor different strains of Bifidobacteria.
including B. bifidum
There are several minor proteins that bind Several components of cow’s cheese
• N-acetyl glucosamine containing
vitamins including B12 binding protein, whey and cheese whey protein concentrates
saccharides (Bifidus factor 1)
folate binding protein and riboflavin binding are known to stimulate Bifidobacteria.
• Some glycoproteins and peptides
protein. There is some evidence that the Generally, the major growth factor in
(Bifidus factor 2)
binding of the vitamins assist in the cheese whey is considered to be the casein
• Oligosaccharides from a wide range
absorption of the appropriate vitamin glycomacropeptide, with the activity being
of materials
and may have a very specific function primarily associated with the oligosaccharide
• Lactulose
in this regard (Fox and Flynn 1992). The portion of the molecule. Pahwa et al. (1989),
mechanisms for such transfer are not clear using gel permeation chromatography found
at this time. the bifidus factor in 10 different fractions
in milk acid hydrolysates of rennet whey.
Table 6.2.4 Gyorgy et al. (1974) found a growth factor
Binding Characteristics of Selected Whey Proteins that was not dialyzable and considered to be
a conjugate form of the casein macropeptide.
Protein Material Bound Biological Effect Reference
Beta- Vitamin—Retinol Not established Fox and Flynn (1992) Whether the oligosaccharides from other
lactoglobulin Vitamin D Not established Wang et al. (1997) whey proteins have any growth factor activity
and cholesterol for Bifidobacteria remains to be determined.
Alpha- Mineral— Modifies protein and Kinsella and It is known that oligosaccharides from
lactalbumin calcium and zinc significant to its function Whitehead (1989) a number of plant sources have been
in lactose synthesis mentioned as promoting Bifidobacteria
May enhance calcium Pantako et al. (1994)
growth—these include soybeans, Jerusalem
transport
artichokes and onions. Evidence is increasing
Bovine serum Mineral Unknown Peters (1985)
albumin Lipid Modifies structure, that specific Bifidobacteria have positive
biological function unknown health effects in humans (Araki et al. 1999,
Lactoferrin Metal—iron Potential for iron transport, Lonnerdal and Lyer Fukashima et al. 1998, Gracheva et al. 1999).
iron absorption and (1995) Fukashima et al. (1998) found that feeding
antimicrobial activity viable Bifidobacteria to healthy Japanese
children increased faecal levels of both total
IgA and anti-polio virus IgA.
Note: All references can be found in the reference

section at the end of this manual.

Growth Development
6.3 HEALTH ENHANCING The growth-promoting properties of milk are The mammalian infant is conspicuous for its
PROPERTIES OF well established, but discouragingly little immature development at birth. Humans
WHEY PROTEINS AND knowledge actually extends to understanding especially, are born with organs and tissues
WHEY FRACTIONS at the molecular level how these properties in a formative state, and the provision of
are achieved. For example, successful, specific factors that support development is
By DR. ROSEMARY L. WALZEM controlled and balanced growth of key organs clearly an activity of milk. Whey proteins are
Kleberg Animal and Food Science Center, and tissues do prove superior in milk-based again conspicuous for their ability to support
Texas A&M University, diets per se, but exactly which proteins, development in both in vitro models and in
College Station, TX factors, etc. are responsible for achieving vivo studies. Applications of such activities
this benefit are not completely known. Most and concentrated factors would be a
and particularly, from the gastrointestinal tract logical strategy for food products in which
C. J. DILLARD, and beyond, to bones, skin and muscle, supporting development is a desired
DR. J. BRUCE GERMAN growth is superior when animals are fed milk outcome. Recovery of tissues post-trauma
Department of Food Science proteins relative to the same basic nutrients and injury are the most obvious examples.
and Technology, in a non-milk form. It has been speculated, although the results
are not yet clear, that whey proteins provide a
University of California, Growth-supporting effects have been significant benefit to recovery of tissues when
Davis, CA suggested to be due to 1) enhanced the stress is not serious damage or trauma,
absorption of essential nutrients such such as the stress associated with exercise.
Bioactivities of Whey Proteins as calcium, 2) controlled delivery of Nevertheless, the mechanisms of action
The major individual proteins derived from amino acids to particular tissues, 3) direct known for the various factors in whey are
whey, Beta-lactoglobulin, Alpha-lactalbumin, stimulation of cellular growth via receptor consistent with such benefits.
lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase all have activation and 4) inhibition of inflammatory
commercial applications. Research cytokines that promote tissue disassembly Maturation
describing a number of their properties and indirectly decrease growth. It is entirely The various tissues and cellular systems
and biological functions is presented below likely that given the importance of milk as of mammals, including humans, undergo
as well as those of whey proteins in general. a growth supporting food, that multiple processes of maturation both early in life and
The aspects by which whey proteins act on mechanisms have evolved to achieve throughout the life cycle. Examples include
the health of the gastrointestinal tract are this net effect and that many of these the development of self-non-self recognition
summarized in Table 6.3.1. The multiple mechanisms have yet to be determined. by the immune system in infancy and
examples of whey proteins and other whey Whey components contain several known tolerance to various antigens throughout life.
constituents that illustrate these properties growth-supporting factors, including The well-recognized interaction between
are cited to provide an indication of principle. lactoferrin, EGF and IGF1. There is an whey components and the immune system
However, a substantial body of literature that interesting question that emerges from this is one of the most promising nutritional
increases monthly, adds to this knowledge body of knowledge. What value is stimulating properties of whey. Particularly, in aging
and further identifies the specific molecules growth in adults? The answer to this question adults in whom immune senescence
and mechanisms behind these effects. ironically is surfacing with the emergence of becomes a serious threat to an appropriate
Beyond the interaction with the gut and the deteriorative diseases of aging such as response to pathogens, the inclusion of
intestinal immune functions, more and more osteoporosis. It has become clear in the maturation supporting factors in the diet
benefits are being tested that are logical course of studying osteoporosis that bone would be beneficial. It is also attractive
predictions from the molecular actions at the is not a static structure but is a tissue that is to speculate that many of the benefits of
level of the intestine, immune system and constantly turning, and in which tissue yogurt-like products on the immune system
cellular biology. Of these, beneficial effects of destruction and tissue growth are constantly are the result of the positive interaction
whey proteins have been reported in relation opposing each other. During aging, the between beneficial probiotic bacteria and
to inhibition of cancer cell growth adjuvant, disassembly of bone begins to take quantita- whey components consumed simultaneously
as antihypercholesterolemia agents and as tive superiority over bone growth. As more with them.
anti-aging agents. research has been done on other tissues like
muscle and nervous tissues, this theme of
constant tissue replacement has become
central. Thus, growth support may become
even more important to maintaining health
through aging. In fact, therapeutic growth
hormone has become a significantly
beneficial clinical intervention for the elderly
that even supports the immune system.
Protection peristalsis. The fact that whey components Bioactive Non-protein Whey Components
stimulate and regulate smooth muscle cell
The substantial body of knowledge emerging There is considerable interest in several of
functions has become an area of intense
on the antimicrobial properties of whey the non-protein components of whey. These
interest as it has become clear that the
proteins such as lactoferrin has brought this components include the major constituent
decrease in gut motility is an important
benefit of milk components even beyond the lactose and the minor bioactive components,
factor in the deterioration of optimal
scientific community to general acceptance especially those in the globule membrane
gastrointestinal functions during aging
by a large lay audience. Although it is not the fraction, including sphingolipids and
(Table 6.3.1).
subject of this review, an apparent evolved gangliosides. Although the concentration
benefit of milk has been to promote through These various actions of milk components, of lipids in whey is low, the amount present
a variety of effective means, a microfloral largely retained in whey, have long been in a commercial preparation of whey is
population with many protective properties. recognized to be of value to infants but only dependent on the fractionation technique.
The value of whey components as prebiotics recently have the mechanisms of action
The myriad functions and actions of whey
in stimulating a beneficial microflora is not as become of clear and attractive value to
proteins discovered to date illustrate not
well established to date; yet this awareness is adults. Perhaps it is not an overstatement
only interesting biological activities in their
continuing to develop. The value of whey to suggest that although we are still within
own right, but provide ample evidence of a
components in protection is a nutritional the realm of research in which single
coordinated system of biological actions
benefit that is directly transferable to adults component actions are being discovered,
designed through evolution. These actions
in all life stages. the next generation in which the positive
are not simply to carry essential nutrients but
Elimination interaction between different components
rather to protect, nourish and support the
is discovered will be even more exciting.
The aggressive and rapid elimination of toxic maximal physiological status of the growing
The example of the positive interaction as
substances and microorganisms is a largely mammal. The mechanisms of these actions
antibacterial agents between lysozyme,
overlooked benefit of protective nutrients, discovered to date are so complex and
which attacks bacterial cell walls,
especially those in milk. The most obvious disparate, that the major proportion of
and lactoferricin, which attacks cell
mechanism of action of toxin-binding beneficial properties have likely not yet been
membranes, is logically the first of many
glycoproteins and glycolipids in milk is to discovered. Whey from bovine milk contains
such complementary molecular systems
supply the same molecules to the digestive a significant number of the already described
that evolved together within milk to protect
tract that are present on the surfaces of beneficial activities of human milk including
infants. Other benefits discussed below,
intestinal cells. By binding toxins in the components that provide protection from
which have been discovered and are of
gut contents, their elimination becomes pathogens, intestinal growth regulation,
most obvious benefits to adults, are even
a vivid example of simplicity in action. immune maturation, probiotic support and
more intriguing to research scientists
Gastrointestinal contents are propelled of course, a balanced composition of proteins
in discovering what value they provide
by the combination of fluid viscosity and with excellent overall nutritional quality. The
to infants.
science and applications of nutrition are
moving ahead from the study of essential
Table 6.3.1 nutrients to begin to understand the role
Biaction of Whey Components
of non-essential nutrients, structures and
Target Mechanism Example Implications bioactive factors in foods. In this context,
Growth Cell cycle stimulation IGF–1 Promote tissue repair milk and whey are emerging as excellent
of intestinal cells models, not only for research but also for
Maturation Bind to and activate TGFb Intestinal integrity direct application to value-added foods.
natural receptors
in intestinal cells The information contained in this section is
Protection Disrupt pathogenic Lactoferricin Pathogen inhibition drawn from a review article which appeared
bacterial membrane in Critical Reviews in Food Science, Vol. 42, pg. 353-
Prevention Stimulate beneficial Lactoferrin Prebiotic effects 375. RL Walzem, CJ Dillard, JB German.
bacteria “Whey Components: Millenia of Evolution
Elimination Endotoxin binding Immunoglobulins Toxin excretion Creates Functionalities From Mamalian
Nutrition: What We Know and What We
May Be Overlooking.”

concentration of BCAAs (20-26g per 100g Protein Power and Sports Connection
6.4 WHEY PROTEIN AND protein), a high quality, pure protein with
Amino acids provide the building blocks of
SPORTS NUTRITION little or no fat, cholesterol or lactose, and
cellular structures, which are necessary for
they have excellent bioavailable calcium.
human metabolism and supply the body with
By DR. GONCA PASIN Whey, Energy and Sport energy. As much as 15% of the energy spent
Pasin Group, during exercise can come from proteins, with
The body’s energy requirements are met by
University of California, carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The main a large percentage coming from one amino
Davis, CA source of energy in short and medium term acid, leucine. Before amino acids can be used
and exercise is carbohydrate as glycogen. This is for energy, deamination or transamination
gradually replaced by lipid, as the exercise must occur to remove nitrogen. Athletic
DR. SHARON MILLER training can double the levels of important
period becomes longer. Proteins can also be
National Dairy Council, used as a source of energy particularly during transaminases, and this significantly
Rosemont, IL prolonged exercise. The oxidation of amino increases the body’s ability to utilize leucine
acids, mainly BCAAs, can provide 10%-15% and other amino acids for energy. Several
Recently U.S. whey products have become of the total energy required during exercise. studies using leucine turnover measurements
very popular ingredients in sports nutrition. show an increase of up to 20% in protein
The past decade has seen increasing popular Performance Nutrition and Proteins turnover during aerobic exercise. The case
interest in healthy lifestyles based on regular Proteins play a central and significant role in for increased protein needs during exercise is
exercise, such as cycling, running, aerobics, performance nutrition for athletes and there also supported by studies showing increased
swimming, bodybuilding, weight training and is a growing interest in protein metabolism excretion of 3-methyl histidine, increased
cross country skiing. This increase in the associated with sports activities. Muscle urea nitrogen losses, and depression of
number of muscle and fitness enthusiasts protein contains about one third of their protein synthesis.
has prompted a growing consumer demand amino acids as BCAAs. They have an Studies show an increased utilization of
for protein sports beverages, specialized important functional role and are constantly primarily the BCAAs, leucine, isoleucine,
nutritional drinks, nutritional snack bars and renewed at a rate of 250-300g per day. and valine during exercise. The BCAAs are
other products designed to optimize athletic Proteins are important in sports nutrition degraded by active skeletal muscles to
performance. A growing body of scientific in three areas: endurance, strength/power release nitrogen, which is combined with
evidence indicates whey proteins deliver training and muscle fiber repair. Endurance pyruvate in muscles to form alanine. The
important physiological benefits for is the ability to continue exercising muscles liver removes nitrogen from alanine to form
consumers seeking superior physical for an extended period of time. Muscle glucose as a source of energy. However,
performance and recovery. endurance depends on the adequacy of turnover rates for other amino acids, such as
Whey proteins are both easily digested and muscle glycogen stores and blood glucose. lysine, are unaffected by exercise. Nitrogen
have excellent metabolic efficiency, giving Proteins can provide an additional source of losses have been shown to increase or not
energy to spare muscle glycogen and help change during and after exercise though no
the protein a high biological value. They
also contain the highest concentration maintain blood glucose levels. An athlete detectable amount of muscle mass is lost
of branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) can improve endurance through dietary during exercise.
available from any natural food protein manipulations that increase muscle glycogen
source. During exercise, whole body protein storage. Protein supplements are known to
increase muscle glycogen storage needed
synthesis is decreased, and proteins are
for prolonged exercise.
mobilized into free amino acids. Skeletal
muscles take up BCAAs from the blood and Why Athletes Require Additional Dietary
break them down into glucose for energy. Protein/Amino Acids
Therefore BCAAs are unique among amino
• To cover increased loss of amino acids
acids in their ability to provide an energy
oxidized during exercise
source during endurance exercise. Whey
• To cover increased mitochondrial
proteins are specially suited to sports drink
protein content, that requires increased
and bar formulations. They provide a high
protein content
• To provide additional raw materials to
replace exercise-induced muscle damage
• To provide supplemental raw materials to
enhance muscle protein synthesis

Special Protein Requirements and Sports Nutritional considerations of strength/ U.S. whey proteins deliver superior value.
power athletes participating in bodybuilding, All proteins are good, but some are better.
To maintain fitness and overall health, the
weightlifting, wrestling, and self-defense are The ideal sports protein should meet
U.S. Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)
different than other sport groups. Nitrogen these criteria:
for protein is 0.8 gram per kg body weight.
balance studies indicate levels of protein up • A good balance of essential and
At 70kg, for example, this equals 56g
to 2.0g per kg body weight per day may be nonessential amino acids
of protein per day. However, an individual’s
required for endurance and strength/power • An abundant supply of BCAAs
protein requirements also depend on
athletes to remain in positive balance. Body • Low in fat, and cholesterol
lifestyle, physical condition, overall health,
builders are known to take in large quantities
age, sex, carbohydrate status, previous level The nutritional quality of a protein can be
of whey proteins. Some consume higher than
of protein intake, training level, and type, expressed in various ways. Protein Efficiency
2.0g protein per kg of body weight. They
duration and intensity of exercise. Ratio (PER), Protein Digestibility (PD),
recognize that increasing lean muscle mass
requires additional protein intake and Biological Value (BV), Net Protein Utilization
In general, the RDA is sufficient for a seden-
demanding bouts of exercise. (NPU) and Protein Digestibility Corrected
tary lifestyle, but exercise increases the need
Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) are frequently
for protein. The American Diet Association
It does not take much extra protein to supply used to indicate the potency of a food protein
(ADA) and other nutritionists associations
amino acids for enlarging muscles. However, as a source of amino acids. By all measures,
have reported that 1.5g protein per kg body
no protein is 100% utilized. The loss of whey proteins offer excellent protein quality.
weight, which is considered an adequate
efficiency in high-quality protein utilization
amount for athletes, is required for maximal
is about 30%, and in poorer-quality protein, Table 6.4.2
protein deposition (97 to 105g of protein per
it is about 60%. Theoretically, to build 100g Nutritive Value of Key Proteins
day for a 70kg individual). These protein
of extra protein, the athlete must consume
intakes are recommended for keeping the Protein
130g of high–quality protein or 160g of
body in nitrogen balance, or to give a positive Source BV PER NPU
lower-quality protein in a week. Ingestion
balance with increased muscle mass for WPC 104 3.2 92
of very high amounts of protein, and
certain athletes or other individuals requiring Soy protein 74 2.1 61
particularly lower quality proteins, increases
more muscle mass. Whole egg 100 3.8 94
metabolic stress to organs such as the
kidney, which must process the overload Cow’s milk 91 3.1 82
of materials. It is clearly much more desirable Casein 77 2.5 76
to eat proteins with the best biological value, Beef 80 2.9 73
such as whey proteins.
Table 6.4.1
Examples of Activity
and Protein Requirements
Protein g/kg body
Activity weight/day
Sedentary workers 0.8
Individuals regularly 1.2–1.4
active in endurance
exercise: aerobics,
jogging, etc.
Power/Speed athletes: 1.3–1.6
sprinters, track cyclists,
bodybuilders, etc.
Power/Strength 1.5–2.0
athletes: judo, boxing,
weightlifting, etc.
Endurance athletes: 1.5–2.0
marathon runners,
road cyclists,
triathletes, etc.

PDCAAS measures protein quality based Whey proteins contain a high level of
on the amino acid requirements of humans. Benefits of Whey Proteins BCAAs (~26%). These amino acids provide
Criteria needed for PDCAAS are approximate in Sports Nutrition an additional benefit for sports beverages
nitrogen composition, essential amino acid • Easily digestible high quality protein— designed to provide energy for those who
profile, and true digestibility. According to provides additional energy, spares undergo intense or prolonged exercise. The
this method, the PDCAAS of an ideal protein endogenous protein. BCAAs (leucine, isoleucine and valine) are
that meets all the essential amino acid • Contains high levels of BCAAs: leucine, taken up directly by skeletal muscles during
requirements of the human body has a isoleucine, and valine—may increase extensive exercise, rather than first being
value of 1.00. Whey proteins have a PDCCAS time to exhaustion. metabolized through the liver like other
of 1.14, a score that exceeds 1.00 for soy • Good source of sulfur containing amino acids. Since the body’s demand for
protein. The U.S. dairy industry is a leader amino acids such as cysteine and these amino acids increases during exercise,
in proprietary whey protein processes used methionine—maintains antioxidant athletes who want to preserve muscle mass
by the sports nutrition industry. levels in the body, and are thought to may benefit by increasing their consumption.
stabilize DNA during cell division.
Whey has 10.3g leucine, 5.9g isoleucine and
Table 6.4.3 • Contains high levels of arginine
5.9g valine per 100g of protein. There are
Typical PDCAAS of Key Proteins and lysine—may stimulate growth
some variations in amino acid composition
hormone release, and thus stimulates
Protein Source PDCAAS depending on the origin and the processing
an increase in muscle mass and a
Whey protein isolate* 1.14 of the protein. Different processes produce
decline in body fat.
Casein 1.00 whey proteins with different BCAA contents.
• Contains glutamine—helps muscle
Milk protein isolate 1.00 In the US, dairy companies produce whey
glycogen replenishment and prevents
Soy protein isolate 1.00 proteins with enhanced levels of BCAAs
decline in immune function from
specifically tailored for sports beverages
Egg white powder 1.00 overtraining.
and sports bar applications.
Ground beef 1.00 • Excellent source of bioavailable
Canned lentils 0.52 calcium—reduces stress fractures
during exercise and prevents bone Table 6.4.4
Peanut meal 0.52 BCAA Content of Key Proteins
Wheat gluten 0.25 loss in hypoestrogenic female athletes.
BCAAs g/
*Check with your supplier for exact composition. Protein Source 100 g Protein
WPI 26
Egg white powder 22
Milk protein isolate 20
Soy protein isolate 17

BCCAs Aid Recovery U.S. Whey Proteins, Muscle Growth Glycomacropeptides and Sport
BCAAs are thought to decrease muscle and Fatigue Prevention Glycomacropeptides are formed during the
protein degradation during exercise and allow Whey proteins are rich in arginine and lysine. cheese making process from the reaction
athletes to train more intensively for longer Arginine and lysine are among the amino of chymosin with k-casein. These proteins
periods of time. There is evidence they can acids thought to possibly stimulate growth are strictly Kappa casein-derived peptides
help revive athletes after intense exercise and hormone, a potentially beneficial response that are collected and concentrated during
aid recovery, and these topics have become for bodybuilders. Proteins may stimulate ultrafiltration of whey. Whey proteins contain
active subjects for sports medicine research. release of growth hormone, which is about 15%-20% glycomacropeptides (GMPs).
The current theory is that during prolonged an anabolic hormone or stimulator of Glycomacropeptides are biologically active
exercise, BCAAs are oxidized by skeletal muscle growth. Since the use of anabolic proteins with a positive effect on the
muscle, the carbon part is used as fuel and drugs was banned from competition, digestive system. “Digestion regulators”
the nitrogen part is used to make the amino strength/power athletes have sought are considered important in sports nutrition.
acid alanine, which then goes to the liver legal, natural substances to help build Glycomacropeptides have been shown to
where it is turned into glucose for energy. bigger muscles. Whey proteins offer natural stimulate the synthesis and release of
For athletes who want to protect their alternatives to anabolic-androgenic steroids cholesystokinin in the body. Cholesystokinin
existing mass, the idea is to take whey protein for bodybuilders. plays a role in the regulation of digestive
fortified products naturally rich in BCAAs functions as an appetite suppressant. Other
before and after the exercise. Exercise can Whey contains glutamine, a conditionally functions linked with GMPs include growth
be considered to be a “metabolic stress” like essential amino acid. Glutamine has been factors for bifidus bacteria in the intestine,
injury or trauma. Under these conditions, studied for its role in preventing fatigue and antiviral activity, modulating digestion,
muscle tissue is progressively catabolized to over-training in athletes. It is conditionally improved calcium absorption, antibacterial
provide the liver with precursors for glucose. essential because in certain situations, it properties and improvement of the
Therefore BCAAs can be extremely beneficial may be needed in the diet. It acts as a fuel for immune system.
in the diet of athletes as aid to recovery. dividing cells. It makes up 60% of the amino
acid pool in skeletal muscle, so athletes are
BCAAs Delay Fatigue cautious not to allow any shortage in the
Marathoners talk of “hitting the wall” and belief its absence would reduce muscle
cyclists speak of ‘bonking’. Both groups growth and increase muscle breakdown.
experience fatigue in intense events lasting Glutamine plays an important role in binding
longer than an hour. It has been proposed ammonia, which is a molecule produced
that ingestion of BCAA might delay fatigue by muscles in exhaustive conditions.
during prolonged aerobic exercise by Supplementing with whey proteins may
delaying central fatigue. Several field studies increase the need to have more glutamine
using BCAA supplementation with runners, in the formula since nitrogen from BCAA’s
soccer players, and cross-country skiers have may be incorporated into ammonia.
shown beneficial effects on performance. While under stress, the body’s glutamine
requirements can increase considerably.
Adding glutamine provides opportunities
for whey product line extensions. Glutamine
can also be used in sports drinks, bars and
instant drink mixes. Formulators may
enhance their formulas by adding glutamine
into products.

linoleic acid (CLA), to produce a new antihypertensive peptides from sour milk
6.5 WHEY PROTEINS AND generation of dairy products designed have shown that these peptides can be
CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH to promote cardiovascular health. For absorbed in the digestive system. Research
many years, low fat dairy foods have been with infants confirms that di- and tripeptides
By SHARON K. GERDES recommended as part of a total diet to can be easily absorbed in the intestine.
S K Gerdes Consulting, reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Newer studies indicate that fairly long
Recent research reveals that specific peptides can cross the intestinal barrier
Richlandtown, PA components of whey may also positively in adults and reach the target organ.
and impact coronary health.
When developed as food ingredients, the
DR. W. JAMES HARPER Whey-derived Peptides and Blood Pressure processing of these peptides is vital to their
Department of Food Science activity. Severe heat treatment will have a
The two major risk factors contributing to
and Technology, the worldwide incidence of cardiovascular negative affect on the bioavailability of whey
Ohio State University, disease are hypertension and dyslipidemia. peptides, so processors must carefully
Columbus, OH Whey based peptides have demonstrated monitor production parameters. Careful
activity that may reduce both risk factors. selection of enzymes for proteolysis will
Edited by DR. GREG MILLER result in maximum biological activity and
Recent research has shown that bioactive
National Dairy Council, limit development of bitter flavor notes.
whey peptides may be involved in these
Rosemont, IL functions: U.S. whey manufacturers have shown world
• ACE inhibitory activity leadership in manufacturing and testing
A growing body of scientific evidence reveals whey peptides.
• Opioid-like activity
that U.S. whey contains various bioactive • Antithrombotic activity ACE Inhibitory Activity
components that may have a positive effect • Cholesterol-reducing activity
on cardiovascular health. Certain bioactive Whey peptides have shown angiotensin
peptides may protect against hypertension Whey peptides may also have other converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity,
through angiotensin converting enzyme functions, including antioxidant activity, both in vitro and in animal experiments.
(ACE) inhibition and opioid-like activity. which improves overall cardiovascular health. The overall effect of an ACE inhibitor is
Bioactive whey peptides may also be the control of high blood pressure through
Whey proteins can be broken down into
involved in inhibiting platelet aggregation dilation of blood vessels and its effect on
various bioactive peptides through enzymatic
and lowering cholesterol levels. Other whey blood volume.
proteolysis. This process can occur during
components such as calcium, magnesium,
gastrointestinal digestion, by fermentation While angiotensin I is an inactive hormone;
zinc, B-vitamins, and certain lipid fractions
of milk, or through controlled reactions in angiotensin II is a molecule that directly
may also help reduce the overall risk of
the laboratory or whey processing facility. constricts vascular smooth muscle, thereby
cardiovascular disease.
Regardless of the method of hydrolysis, increasing blood pressure. It also has
Food scientists generally favor whey proteins in order to exert antihypertensive activity, numerous other effects on the cardiovascular
because of their high biological value, the peptides must be absorbed from the system, such as decreasing the renal output
excellent functional properties and clean intestine in an active form. and increasing water retention. Angiotensin
flavor profile. U.S. whey ingredients are used converting enzyme, ACE, converts the
Relatively high levels of bioactive peptides
throughout the world in beverages, bars and inactive angiotensin I into angiotensin II.
could potentially be produced using low
other food systems. Newer whey ingredients An ACE inhibitor blocks this reaction by
include hydrolyzed whey proteins that amounts of whey. These whey peptides could competitive inhibition, and prevents the
contain high levels of bioactive peptides, enter peripheral blood intact and potentially effects of angiotensin II. ACE also contributes
exert systemic effects. The table below shows
and milk mineral complex, which is rich in to the inactivation of bradykinin, a potent
potential yield of bioactive peptides from
calcium, phosphorus and other minerals. vasodilator that is also involved in the
ingestion of 1g of whey.
These two ingredients show particular control of blood pressure.
promise as components of functional
Yield of Alpha-lactophorin 35.2 mg Several milk-derived peptides have been
foods designed to improve cardiovascular
Yield of Beta-lactophorin 30.2 mg shown to have ACE inhibitory activity. ACE
health. Whey ingredients might also be
inhibiting peptides that are derived from
used as components of other foods such as Yield of serophorin 0.5 mg
casein are called casokinins, while those that
fermented or hyperimmune milk drinks, or
are derived from whey are called lactokinins.
products with increased levels of conjugated Various lactic acid bacteria, including
Lactobacillus GG and Lactococcus lactis, have ACE is present in a large number of tissues
been shown to hydrolyze milk proteins including plasma, kidney, lung and brain. In
into bioactive peptides. Studies with the order to exert an antihypertensive effect in
vivo, the Ace-inhibitory peptides must be

absorbed from the intestine and delivered from k-casein. GMP comprises 10 to 15% In an animal study on albino rats, the use
to the target organ. While earlier research of the protein of whey processed by of condensed whey or lactose-hydrolyzed
with sour milk isolated a number of microfiltration/ultrafiltration. The large condensed whey in yogurt was shown to
casein fractions with ACE inhibiting and GMP molecule can not be absorbed, and have a beneficial effect on cholesterol
antihypertensive properties, newer studies must be broken down into smaller peptides levels. In this study, whole milk and standard
have shown that numerous whey fractions to have an effect on blood components. yogurt had no hypocholesterolemic
also possess ACE-inhibiting activity. effect, but standard yogurt containing
Casoplatelins are made up of fragments lactose-hydrolyzed condensed whey and
In recent research, ACE inhibiting 106-116 of the GMP molecule. These bifidus yogurts lowered serum cholesterol.
fragments from both Alpha-lactalbumin compounds have been shown to inhibit In general, yogurts changed HDL-cholesterol
and Beta-lactoglobulin were formed by using both aggregation and I-fibrinogen binding little, but tended to raise triacylglycerols.
various enzymes. It has been shown that ACE to ADP-treated platelets. Several other There was marked lowering of LDL-
prefers substrates containing hydrophobic fragments have been shown to have cholesterol in rats given either type of
(aromatic or branched side-chains) amino antithrombotic activity: these include yogurt fortified with whey protein.
residues at the C-terminal position. Whey fragments 108-110, 106-112, and 113-116.
fractions hydrolyzed with trypsin alone or A GMP derived peptide shown to have A second study found that whey protein
a combination of trypsin, pepsin, and antihypertensive activity was fragment lowered liver cholesterol levels when fed at
chymotrypsin, showed ACE inhibitory 108-110. low amounts (10g/kg feed), and significantly
activity as outlined in Table 6.5.1. ACE reduced both plasma and liver cholesterol
inhibition is measured by the concentration
Whey Proteins and Cholesterol Levels levels when fed at high rates (150g/kg feed).
of substance needed to inhibit 50% of original Whey proteins have also been shown to In another rat study, whey protein versus
ACE activity, (IC50). A lower IC50 value reduce blood cholesterol levels in animal casein significantly reduced plasma
indicates higher efficacy. studies. Elevated LDL-cholesterol and cholesterol concentration by about 35%.
triacylglycerol levels are associated with an The plasma cholesterol lowering as induced
Whey Ingredients with increased risk of atherosclerosis. However, by extra whey protein in the diet was due
Antithrombotic Activity there is an inverse relationship between to decreases in the VLDL fractions.
Thrombosis, defined as the formation or HDL-cholesterol and atherosclerosis.
Numerous clinical trials have shown that Overall, whey peptides exhibit a wide range
presence of a blood clot within a blood
for each 1% reduction in total plasma of bioactive properties, and thus show much
vessel, is another major risk factor in
cholesterol levels, there is a 2% reduction promise as components of functional foods.
cardiovascular disease. Fibrinogen is a
in coronary events in subsequent years. The following table (Table 6.5.1) highlights
plasma protein that is produced in the liver
specific bioactive peptides and their function.
and is converted into fibrin during blood clot
formation. The fixation of fibrinogen to the
platelets is necessary for platelet aggregation. Table 6.5.1
Other Bioactive Peptides Derived from Whey Protein
Milk peptides are believed to inhibit this
platelet fixation. Precursor Peptide
Protein Fragment Sequence Name Function
Some whey peptides have been investigated Alpha-lactalbumin 50–53 YGLF Alpha-lactophorin Opioid agonist
for their antithrombotic activity. Studies ACE inhibition
demonstrate that a glycomacropeptide Beta-lactoglobulin 102–105 YLLF Beta-lactophorin Non-opioid
(GMP) derived peptide may be involved in stimulatory
platelet binding. Another study also gives effect on ileum
limited evidence that lactoferrin-derived Beta-lactoglobulin 146–149 HIRL Beta-lactotensin Ileum contraction
peptides may be involved in platelet binding. GMP 106–116 MAIPPKKNQDK Casoplatelins Antithrombotic
Further knowledge of roles of whey-derived 108–110 activity
peptides may show promise in the treatment 106–112
113–116
of thrombosis.
GMP 108–110 IPP Antihypertensive
Glycomacropeptide activity
Glycomacropeptide is formed during the Bovine serum 399–404 YGFQDA Serophorin Opioid activity
albumin
cheese making process. Rennet or chymosin
hydrolyzes the peptide bond between Bovine serum 208–216 ALKAWSVAR Albutensin Ileum contraction
albumin ACE inhibition
residues 105 and 106 of k-casein to produce
the resulting molecule, GMP, which is eluted Adapted from Shah, 2000, and Korhonen et al., 1998.
References are available from the U.S. Dairy Export Council
in the whey fraction. The C-terminal portion
of the molecule contains residues 106-169

Objective
6.6 WHEY PROTEIN ISOLATE OVERVIEW The objective of this pilot trial was to
VERSUS SOY PROTEIN define the effect of WPI and ISP, in healthy
ISOLATE: EFFECTS This paper covers the results from
“A comparative pilot trial evaluating the exercising adults, in terms of body
IN HUMANS composition, exercise performance,
effect of whey protein isolate and isolated
soy protein in healthy adults.” This study immune system parameters, serum amino
By LAURIE A. NELSON was funded by Davisco Foods International, acids, sex hormones, thyroid function
Davisco Foods International Inc., and was conducted at Peak Wellness, Inc. and blood lipid profile.
Eden Prarie MN in Greenwich, CT. Study Design
and The design of the study was a double blind,
With all the accumulating evidence regarding
C.M. COLKER, the beneficial properties of whey protein prospective and randomized pilot trial that
D.S. KALMAN, isolate (WPI) and soy protein isolate, was 12 weeks long. To participate in the study,
M. SWAIN-O’NEILL commonly referred to as isolated soy protein subjects were required to be greater than
Peak Wellness, Inc., (ISP), it is desirable to compare some of the 18 years of age, and have a minimum of
benefits these protein sources may offer 6 months of weight training experience.
Greenwich, CT
to a person seeking and living a healthy In total 30 adults were recruited for the study
A double blind comparative pilot trial lifestyle. Research has revealed positive and randomized into 1 of 2 groups. Fifteen
health benefits from both whey protein (15) subjects received WPI, specifically
evaluating the effect of whey protein isolate
isolate and isolated soy protein. For example, BiPRO® manufactured by Davisco Foods
and soy protein isolate in healthy adults. soy protein is believed to reduce cholesterol International, Inc. and 15 subjects received
(Gardner, Newell et al. 2001), reduce the ISP, specifically SUPRO® manufactured by
incidence of certain cancers (Hakkak, Protein Technologies, Inc.
Korourian et al. 2000; Ronis, Rowland
As a brief comparison, the composition and
et al. 2001), maintain bone mineral
protein quality of WPI and ISP is shown in
density important for the prevention of
Table 6.6.1. WPI has a higher protein content
osteoporosis, and reduce menopausal
of 97.5% on a dry weight basis, compared
symptoms. Whey protein isolate has been
to 92.5% protein on a dry weight basis for
extensively researched in clinical trials for
ISP. There are only minor differences in the
its effect on the immune system (Bounous,
other components. For protein quality, both
Batist et al. 1989; Bounous, Gervais et al.
proteins have the maximum value of 1.0 for
1989; Bounous, Batist et al. 1991; Bounous
PDCAAS, protein digestibility corrected
and Gold 1991; Bounous, Barauchel et al.
amino acid score, indicating that both
1992; Bounous and Molson 1999), for
proteins have the ability to supply essential
enhancing protein synthesis and athletic
amino acids in the minimum amounts
recovery (Schena, Guerrini et al. 1992;
needed to meet human requirements.
Esmarck, Anderson et al. 2001), and for
its content of bioactive peptides (Meisel,
Table 6.6.1
Frister et al. 1989; Guimont, Marchall et al.
Composition and Protein Quality
1997; Mullally, Meisel et al. 1997).
Composition WPI1 ISP2
However, despite both these proteins being
Protein (% db) 97.5 92.5
promoted in the consumer market, limited
Fat (%) <1.0 3.0
comparative data exists with respect to their
effects on blood and other parameters as Ash (%) <3.0 4.1
indices of general health. Moisture (%) 5.0 5.0
Carbohydrate (%) <1.0 <1.0
Protein Quality
PDCAAS 1.0 1.0
Davisco Foods International, Inc.
1
Protein Technologies, Inc.

2

For this study, protein supplements in Data Analysis the 12 weeks of the study.
the form of chocolate flavored powdered
In total, 12 weeks of data were analyzed. Figure 6.6.3 shows the same data as Figure
beverage mixes were developed. The
Data were analyzed for differences between 6.6.2 but represents the time trend analysis.
beverages were formulated to contain
the groups, meaning the WPI supplemented The time trend represents the mean change
30g protein per serving and were flavored
group and the ISP supplemented group. Data in GSH at 6-week intervals. Group analysis
to mask any difference in taste between
were also analyzed for differences between revealed significantly different time trends
WPI and ISP. Researchers and subjects
the sexes in each group to determine a between the two groups. Within the whey
were blinded to the identity of the protein
gender effect. P values <0.05 were considered group, the average GSH value increased
supplement. Participants were instructed
statistically significant. Of the 30 participants 3.46 units per 6 weeks, while in the soy group,
to consume 2 servings daily for a total of
that started the study, 3 people dropped the average GSH value decreased 0.79 units
60g protein per day.
out during the study and therefore 27 per 6 weeks. These results indicate that WPI
Subjects performed resistance training participants were included in the analysis, bolsters glutathione, a key antioxidant in the
3 times per week. This training was a full with 14 subjects in the whey group and 13 red blood cell, which may prolong the life of
body type program that was supervised subjects in the soy group. By gender, there the cell, enhance immunity and promote
at the facility by the exercise physiology were 16 females and 11 males in the study. health in general, while ISP may not have
department. Participants also completed Results the same effect on cellular health.
24-hour diet recalls and met biweekly with
the registered dietician to ensure dietary and The following graphs (Figures 6.6.2–6.6.12)
supplement compliance. will illustrate the significant results from
the study.
A brief summary of the data collected
throughout the study included body Glutathione Results for All Subjects
composition measurements and blood Figure 6.6.2 shows the glutathione (GSH)
analysis. Body composition tests included results from analyzing the data for all
monitoring of body weight and percentage subjects. There was a significant increase
of body fat, with body fat percentage tested in GSH within the whey group at both week
using bioelectric impedance analysis and 6 and week 12. There was no significant
Lange calipers. Specific blood tests were change in GSH within the soy group over
taken at week 0 (baseline), week 6 and week
12. These blood tests included the amino Figure 6.6.2
acids glutamate, cystine, methionine, lysine Glutathione Results for All Subjects
and the antioxidant glutathione. There was 80
also blood withdrawn for thyroid function
(T3, T4 and TSH), cholesterol, including total 75
cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, and the
mg/dL RBC
hormones, testosterone and estradiol. 70
65 Whey
Soy
60
Week 0 Week 6 Week 12
Figure 6.6.3
Glutathione Results for All Subjects (time trend data)
80 Time Trend Whey

Time Trend Soy
75
mg/dL RBC
70
65
60

Methionine Results for All Subjects have the same PDCAAS values, indicating Blood Lipids
Shown in Figure 6.6.4 are the methionine high protein quality, only WPI had an impact
Total Cholesterol Results
results, from analyzing the data for all on serum methionine levels which may be
for All Subjects
subjects. Within the whey protein group, attributable to the higher methionine levels
Shown in Figure 6.6.5 are the time trend
over six weeks, there was a significant in whey protein compared to soy protein.
results for total cholesterol. There was a
increase in methionine levels of 12.29 units
significant decrease in total cholesterol
from baseline values. Over the 12 weeks,
within both the WPI group and the ISP
the whey group also showed a significant
group after 12 weeks, a decrease of 6% for
increase in methionine, an increase of 7.5
ISP and 15% for WPI. However, there was
units from baseline. The soy group did not
no significant difference between groups.
have any significant changes in serum
These results are promising for whey, given
methionine over 6 or 12 weeks. These results
the numerous publications showing the
indicate that although whey and soy protein
cholesterol lowering effect of soy protein
and the recently approved health claim
Figure 6.6.4 in the United States for soy protein and
Methionine Results for All Subjects (time trend data) cardiovascular health.
45 Whey
LDL Cholesterol Results
Soy
for All Subjects (time trend data)
40
Shown in Figure 6.6.6 are the time trend data
35 for LDL cholesterol. There was a significant
mg/dL RBC
30 decrease in LDL cholesterol within each

group, a drop of 10% for the soy protein
25
group, and a drop of 20% for the whey group.
20 However, there was no significant difference
15 between groups.
Figure 6.6.5
Total Cholesterol Results for All Subjects (time trend data)
240
Time Trend Whey
220 Time Trend Soy
200
180
160
Figure 6.6.6
LDL Cholesterol Results for All Subjects (time trend data)
160
Time Trend Whey
140 Time Trend Soy
120
100

HDL Cholesterol Results Figure 6.6.7

for All Subjects HDL Cholesterol Results for All Subjects (time trend data)
Shown in Figure 6.6.7 are the time trend data
65
for HDL cholesterol. No significant changes Time Trend Whey
in HDL cholesterol were seen in either group. Time Trend Soy
60
Triglyceride Results
for All Subjects (time trend data) 55
Figure 6.6.8 shows the time trend data for
triglycerides. There was only a significant 50
drop in triglycerides within the soy
protein group. 45
Thyroid Results for Male Subjects
Looking at gender differences, shown in Figure 6.6.8
Figure 6.6.9 are the results for T4 thyroid Triglyceride Results for All Subjects (time trend data)
hormone for male subjects in the study. 240
Although there were no significant differences Time Trend Whey
220
within groups due to the small samples sizes, Time Trend Soy
200
at week 12, the males in the soy group had a
180
significantly greater decrease in T4 value from
baseline than that of the whey group. There 160
was a mean change from baseline of 1 unit 140

for the males in the soy group, from 7.7 to 120
6.6ug/dL compared to a mean drop from 100
baseline of 0.1 unit for the men in the whey Week 0 Week 6 Week 12
group, or a drop from 7.6 to 7.5ug/dL. These

results indicate that 60g of ISP ingested Figure 6.6.9
Thyroid Results for Male Subjects
daily by men may alter thyroid function.
The fact that ISP was found to effect thyroid 80
8.0
is consistent with animal and human data.
7.5
Cystine Results for Male Subjects
Figure 6.6.10 shows the cystine results for
ug/dL
7.0
male subjects in the study. At week 6, the
men in the whey group had a significantly
6.5 Whey
higher change from baseline value for cystine
Soy
than men in the soy group, a mean increase
60
6.0
from baseline of 5.2 units for the men in Week 0 Week 6 Week 12
the whey group and a mean decrease from
baseline of 9 units for men in the soy group. Figure 6.6.10
These results are significant since cystine is Cystine Results for Male Subjects
a sulfer containing amino acid important for
55 Whey
many processes in the body and is the direct
Soy
precursor to glutathione within the cell. 50
45
mg/dL
40
35
30

Estradiol Results Summary References

for Female Subjects
In general, our findings demonstrate that Bounous, G., S. Barauchel, et al. (1992). “Whey Proteins
Shown in Figure 6.6.11 are the estradiol
the daily ingestion of 60g of WPI or ISP had as a Food Supplement in HIV Seropositive Individuals.”
results for women. At week 12, the whey
a positive effect on lipid profiles over the Clinical and Investigative Medicine 16(3):204-209.
group had a significantly greater decrease
12 weeks of the study, as indicated by the
from baseline estradiol value than that of the Bounous, G., G. Batist, et al. (1989). “The
drop in total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol Immunoenhancing Property of Dietary Whey
soy group, a decrease from baseline of 21.4
in both groups. Protein in Mice: Role of Glutathione.” Cinical and
units for the women in the whey group and a
Investigative Medicine 12(3):154-161.
mean decrease from baseline of 0.2 units for In addition our data demonstrates that
women in the soy group. This indicates that ISP significantly lowered T4 levels in men, Bounous, G., G. Batist, et al. (1991). “Whey Proteins in
Cancer Prevention.” Cancer Letters 57:91-94.
whey protein isolate may have antiestrogenic confirming earlier reports of a possible
effects. This finding, coupled with recent work adverse effect of soy on thyroid function, Bounous, G., F. Gervais, et al. (1989). “The Influence
by Dr. Badger (Hakkak, Korourian et al. 2000), with unkown long-term side effects. WPI of Dietary Whey Protein on Tissue Glutathione
showing that whey protein may reduce the exhibited no such adverse influence. and Diseases of the Aging.” Clinical and Investigative
Medicine 12(6):343-349.
size of breast tumors in animal studies is
worthy of more research. WPI decreased estradiol in women Bounous, G. and P. Gold (1991). “The Biological
indicating that whey may have anti- Activity of Undenatured Dietary Whey Proteins:
Glutathione Results estrogenic effects whereas ISP may not Role of Glutathione.” Clinical and Investigative Medicine
for Female Subjects offer any protection against estrogen 14(4):296-309.
Figure 6.6.12 shows the glutathione time driven adverse health conditions. Bounous, G. and J. Molson (1999). “Competition for
trend results for women. There were Glutathione Precursors Between the Immune System
significantly different time trends between WPI did significantly increase intracellular and the Skeletal Muscle: Pathogenesis of Chronic
the whey group and the soy group. In the GSH which confirms whey proteins’ Fatigue Syndrome.” Medical Hypotheses 53(4):347-349.
whey group, the average GSH value increased immunoenhancing properties.
Esmarck, B., J. L. Anderson, et al. (2001). “Timing of
2.99 units per 6 weeks, while in the soy In summary, our findings from this pilot Postexercise Protein Intake is Important for Muscle
group, the average GSH value decreased study demonstrate that WPI had a more Hypertrophy with Resistance Training in Elderly
2.89 units per 6 weeks. The results indicate Humans.” Journal of Physiology 535:301-311.
positive impact than ISP on biomarkers of
that whey protein isolate contains the good health in exercising adults. Further Gardner, C. D., K. A. Newell, et al. (2001). “The Effect of
naturally occurring precursors that can studies need to be conducted to explore Soy Protein With or Without Isoflavones Relative to
enhance glutathione. Milk Protein on Plasma Lipids in Hypercholesterolemic
these results more fully.
Postmenopausal Women.” American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition 73:728-735.
Figure 6.6.11
Guimont, C., E. Marchall, et al. (1997). “Biologically
Estradiol Results for Female Subjects
Active Factors in Bovine Milk and Dairy Byproducts:
Influence on Cell Culture.” Critial Reviews in Food Science
100 Whey
and Nutrition 37(4):393-409.
Soy
80 Hakkak, R., S. Korourian, et al. (2000). “Diets
Containing Whey Proteins or Soy Protein Isolate
pg/dL
60
Protect Against 7, 12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-
Induced Mammary Tumors in Female Rats.”
Cancer Epidiemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 9:113-117.
40
Meisel, H., H. Frister, et al. (1989). “Biologically
20
Active Peptides in Milk Proteins.” Zeitschrift fur
Week 0 Week 6 Week 12 Ernahrungswissenschaft 28(4):267-278.
Mullally, M. M., H. Meisel, et al. (1997). “Angiotensin-
Figure 6.6.12 I-Converting Enzyme Inhibitory Activities of Gastric
Glutathione Results for Female Subjects (time trend data) and Pancreatic Proteinase Digests of Whey Proteins.”
Int. Dairy Journal 7:299-303.
85
Ronis, M. J., J. C. Rowland, et al. (2001). “Inducibility of
80 Hepatic CYP1A Enzymes by 3-Methylcholanthrene and
Isosafrole Differs in Male Rats Fed Diets Containing
mg/dL RBC
75 Casein, Soy Protein Isolate or Whey from Conception

to Adulthood.” Journal of Nutrition 131:1180-1188.
70
ey
Time Trend Whe
65
Time Trend Soy
60

More Calcium is Needed Bioavailability of Calcium

6.7 WHEY PRODUCTS, The Food and Nutrition Board of the From Dairy Sources
MILK MINERALS AND Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National There are many factors that influence
DAIRY CALCIUM: NEW Academy of Sciences (NAS) released new calcium bioavailability. Both exogenous
FINDINGS AND BENEFITS recommendations for calcium and related and endogenous factors influence calcium
nutrients. These new recommendations— bioavailability. Level of calcium intake,
Edited by DR. DOUG DiRIENZO now called Dietary Reference Intakes vitamin D status, phytates, oxalates, lipids,
National Dairy Council, (DRIs)—update and expand the phosphopeptides and other proteins, lactose,
Rosemont, IL Recommended Dietary Allowances phosphorus and caffeine are among the
(RDAs) set in 1989 by the National Academy exogenous factors influencing the intestinal
Whey Products as a Source of Calcium of Sciences. The gap between calcium calcium absorption.
Calcium can be obtained in the diet by intakes and calcium recommendations
is much wider than previously thought. Dairy foods and ingredients are not only
various sources, but the most highly rich in calcium, but the calcium from these
recommended source is dairy products. Most people are not meeting the new
recommendations for calcium. In addition, sources is readily available. Normal healthy
Dairy products are a source of calcium with individuals absorb about 20 to 35% of the
high bioavailability. The ingredient milk new scientific findings have added further
support to the beneficial role of calcium calcium in dairy foods and ingredients.
calcium is derived from milk by a unique Studies have shown that the calcium
separation technique. Whey-based products in health. The World Health Organization
sets recommendations for calcium intake, absorption efficiency from non-dairy
are an excellent and cost efficient source of calcium fortified sources (such as fortified
calcium (500-2,000mg/100g, see table for as well as individual countries health
authorities, therefore recommended soy milk) was 25% less than that from a
more details). In addition, natural milk dairy source. For this reason, manufacturers
calcium (and other calcium-rich whey intakes might be different from those
referred to in this manual. Please consult can rely on dairy ingredients rich in calcium
ingredients) presents advantages in terms (from milk powders, whey minerals
of their neutral taste and bland odor. All local recommendations for intake, claims
and product labeling. to various types of whey ingredients) to
natural and obtained from milk, these provide adequate fortification with a highly
ingredients are preferred by consumers Calcium Recommendations
bioavailable calcium content. Furthermore,
and help manufacturers design products Children 4-8 800 mg dairy calcium is 100% natural (all natural
with a “clean label” and natural image. Preteens and teens 9-18 1,300 mg “clean” label appeal) and contains a range
Adults 19-50 1,000 mg of other minerals such as phosphorus
Adults 51 and older 1,200 mg and magnesium.
Source: National Academy of Science Table 6.7.1 presents the typical calcium
content of major dairy ingredients.
Table 6.7.1
Typical Calcium Content of Major Dairy Ingredients
Dairy Ingredient Typical Calcium Content, in mg/100 g
Demineralized whey <100 mg/100 g
Whey protein concentrate 500–700 mg/100 g
Whey protein isolate 600 mg/100 g
Reduced-protein (deproteinized) whey 600–700 mg/100 g
Sweet whey 700–800 mg/100 g
Whey permeate 800–900 mg/100 g
Reduced lactose whey 800–900 mg/100 g
Mineral concentrated whey >5,000 mg/100 g
Whole milk powder 950–1,000 mg/100 g
Skim milk powder 1,300 mg/100 g
Acid whey 2,000 mg/100 g
Milk minerals 23,000-28,000 mg/100 g
Note: Typical values only. Please consult your U.S. dairy ingredient supplier for more information.

Major Functions of Calcium in the Body Calcium and Chronic Disease Prevention calcium status. However, if calcium intake
is adequate, these other dietary factors have
Calcium's Role in Bone Development Increasing scientific evidence indicates
relatively little effect on osteoporosis risk.
Bones serve as a basic support system that an adequate calcium intake reduces
protecting vital organs and as a reservoir the risk of several major chronic diseases Osteoporosis experts agree that an optimal
for calcium—the most abundant mineral in including osteoporosis, hypertension, intake of calcium throughout life, from early
the body. In fact, 99% of the body’s calcium colon cancer, and possibly cardiovascular childhood and adolescence through the
is found in bones and teeth (the other 1% is disease and kidney stones. These diseases postmenopausal and later adult years,
found in cells, blood, and other body fluids). are responsible for considerable morbidity reduces the risk of osteoporosis. Research
Despite its static appearance, bone is and mortality in many patients, as well as indicates that it is never too early or too
constantly being formed and broken down. rising national health expenditures. late to improve bone health and reduce the
This process, called remodeling, is the risk of osteoporosis. Intake of milk and milk
Osteoporosis
resorption (breaking down) of existing products has been demonstrated to protect
Osteoporosis (porous bones) is a skeletal
bone and deposition of new bone to against osteoporosis by increasing bone
disease in which bones become so fragile
replace that which has been broken down. retention and reducing fractures.
they spontaneously break as a result of a
At any one time, about 10% to 15% of bone
minor fall or even from everyday activities. In a study involving over 5,500 women, 50
surfaces are undergoing remodeling.
Decreased bone mass and microarchitectural years of age and older from six countries, an
A number of interrelated hormonal,
damage to bone tissue cause the bones to adequate calcium intake from milk decreased
nutritional, mechanical, and genetic
factors influence remodeling. become fragile. the number of hip fractures by 35%.
Resorption of old bones and formation of The rate of osteoporosis has reached Menopause and Bone Loss
new bone is processes that continuously epidemic proportions in many countries of During menopause, accelerated bone loss is
overlap. The importance of these processes the world and is responsible for considerable due mostly to the sharp decline in estrogen
varies at different times throughout the life morbidity, mortality, and economic costs. levels. Estrogen replacement therapy is the
cycle. In general, from birth until about age Diet, specifically calcium intakes below the most effective means to slow bone loss,
20, the bones are in a phase of active growth. recommended levels throughout life, may especially in the first six to eight years after
Beginning in the 40s or later, resorption of increase the risk of osteoporosis. Also, an menopause. Adequate calcium intake, while
existing bone starts to exceed formation of inadequate vitamin D status contributes less effective than estrogen in slowing bone
new bone, resulting in a net loss. Age-related to low bone mass. Ensuring an adequate loss, nevertheless is important at this time.
bone loss is influenced by both genetic and calcium and vitamin D status throughout life In women who were between three and six
environmental factors. is estimated to reduce osteoporotic fracture years past menopause, increasing calcium
risk by 50% or more. Other dietary factors intake to 1,700mg/day for three years slowed
The body’s calcium status depends more on like sodium, protein, and fiber may influence bone loss, although the combination of
overall nutritional factors than just calcium the risk of osteoporosis by impacting calcium and estrogen therapy was more
intake. Some nutritive factors influence the effective than calcium alone. A high
body’s absorption of calcium, while other calcium intake may reduce the dosage of
factors affect calcium retention or urinary estrogen necessary to prevent bone loss
calcium excretion. Urinary losses of calcium in postmenopausal women. A recent
are a big determinant of calcium loss. meta-analysis found that increasing calcium
intake in conjunction with estrogen increased
Calcium nutriture depends not only on
bone mass in the spine, hip, and arm about
calcium intake, but also on numerous dietary
three times more than with estrogen alone.
and nondietary factors that influence calcium
metabolism. Dietary factors aiding calcium In postmenopausal women, bone loss
absorption and retention include: vitamin D, is minimized by calcium intakes of 1,000 to
lactose (which stimulates the intestinal 1,500mg/day. Particularly noteworthy is the
absorption of calcium in laboratory animals finding of significantly fewer fractures by
and in human infants), fiber, phosphorus, women who consumed about 1,700mg
protein, sodium and other elements. calcium/day compared to women who
consumed 700mg calcium/day.

Calcium and Premenstrual Syndrome Although increased calcium intake generally Colon Cancer
Calcium supplementation, in recent research, lowers blood pressure more in adults than in Experimental animal and human evidence
is being linked to a decrease in premenstrual children, a blood-pressure-lowering effect of supports the hypothesis that calcium intake
syndrome (PMS) symptoms. Dr. Susan calcium has been demonstrated in some inversely correlates with colon cancer risk
Thys-Jacobs states that “clinical trials in young children, especially those whose and cell proliferation in the colonic mucosa.
women with PMS have found that calcium calcium intakes are initially low. In teens, Colon cancer is the third leading cause of
supplementation effectively alleviates the differences in calcium intake have been cancer deaths in the U.S. and a leading
majority of mood and somatic symptoms.” observed between those with high-normal cause in many countries. Both genetics and
A recent double-blind, placebo-controlled and low-normal blood pressure. Because as environmental factors contribute to this
study of 466 women with PMS concluded many as one half of children with high blood disease. While some dietary factors are
that “calcium was effective in reducing pressure may have hypertension as adults, suspected of contributing to colon cancer,
emotional, behavioral, and physical children should consume an adequate intake others are thought to be protective. Several
premenstrual symptoms (Pearlstein). This of calcium. components in cow’s milk fat such as
study showed a 48% reduction in the PMS conjugated linoleic acid, sphingolipids,
symptoms score by the third treatment cycle, High Blood Pressure, and butyric acid have been found to protect
compared to the baseline (Thys-Jacobs, Pregnancy and Calcium against colon cancer in experimental animal
AJOG). The current research results have Pregnancy-induced high blood pressure and laboratory studies. Findings from a
indicated a positive impact of calcium on occurs in 10% to 20% of pregnancies. number of scientific studies indicate
premenstrual syndrome symptoms. Future Studies have shown that increasing that calcium intakes in excess of current
research goals include determining the pregnant women’s calcium intake by 1,500 recommendations may reduce risk of
calcium’s mechanism in reducing PMS to 2,000mg/day reduced the incidence colon cancer.
symptoms, as well as looking into the of pregnancy-induced high blood pressure
by 70% and preeclampsia by 62%. Studies to date indicate that calcium intake of
potential ability of PMS to be an indicator
Further, consuming optimal amounts 1,500 to 2,000mg/day—amounts greater than
for increased osteoporosis risk.
of calcium reduced the likelihood of current calcium recommendations of 1,000 to
Hypertension developing preeclampsia. 1,200mg/day for most adults—are necessary
In the U.S. the Joint National Committee to protect against colon cancer, especially in
on Direction, Evaluation and Treatment Based on numerous clinical studies, individuals at risk of this disease. However,
of High Blood Pressure recommends researchers acknowledge that the beneficial further studies are needed to firmly establish
consuming adequate amounts of calcium effects of calcium on blood pressure might calcium’s protective effect against colon
(as well as potassium and magnesium) to be even greater if calcium is derived from cancer and to determine the mechanism(s)
help reduce blood pressure. A review of 25 food, such as milk and milk products, involved. Advice to increase calcium intake
epidemiological studies investigating the instead of supplements. The findings that above current recommendations to protect
relationship between the intake of calcium or milk has a better antihypertensive effect than against cancer is considered premature at
calcium-rich foods and blood pressure found calcium alone support this speculation. In this time.
that the majority of these studies supported addition to calcium, milk and milk products
an inverse relationship. The beneficial effect contain potassium and magnesium, each of
of calcium on blood pressure provides yet which has been demonstrated to reduce
another reason to ensure adequate intake blood pressure.
of calcium-rich foods as part of a healthy Cardiovascular Disease
diet. An advantage of milk minerals (as an Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the most
ingredient for enrichment) over other calcium common and serious form of cardiovascular
sources, is that this ingredient provides highly disease in the U.S. Cigarette smoking, high
bioavailable calcium in balance with other blood pressure (hypertension), and elevated
minerals to optimize health benefits. blood cholesterol levels are the major risk
A diet containing an adequate amount factors for this disease. Calcium may protect
of calcium is recommended as a against CHD by its effect on two of these
nonpharmacological lifestyle modification risk factors: hypertension and blood lipid
for the prevention and treatment of high levels. In patients with mild to moderate
blood pressure. Many studies have hypercholesterolemia, an increased calcium
demonstrated that calcium reduces intake lowers total and LDL (low-density
the risk of hypertension or high blood lipoprotein) blood cholesterol levels. Calcium
pressure, especially in certain subgroups alone is not responsible for milk’s protective
of the population. effect against stroke. Total calcium intake or
intake of calcium from nondairy sources did
not have the same protective effect as milk.
Phosphorus is required for bone growth and Table 6.7.1

6.7.1 PART II: maintenance, and most recommendations Typical Composition of Milk Minerals
BALANCE IN DIETARY for phosphorus are to maintain a dietary
Component Percentage
MINERAL CONSUMPTION calcium:phosphorus ratio of 2:1. Because
Ash 70.00%
most of the calcium supplements deliver only
Calcium 25.00%
By DR. ERIC BASTIAN calcium and none of the other bone building
minerals such as magnesium, potassium, Phosphorus 14.00%
Glanbia Nutritionals USA Ca/P 1.79
zinc and other minerals required for good
Monroe, WI bone health. Ca/PO4 0.58
Magnesium 1.50%
Recently, the importance of dietary Just as Ca/Mg/K ratios have received
Sodium 0.65%
calcium has increased because research little attention among researchers in the
Potassium 0.83%
has established that calcium is not only osteoporosis area, ratios of the required
essential for bone growth and development, Zn (mg/100 g) 27.40
micronutrients also have received
it is also important for regulation of cell little attention. The effects of calcium Cu (mg/100 g) 0.37
function, nerve conduction, muscle supplementation with and without zinc, Fe (mg/100 g) 1.88
contraction, and blood coagulation. copper and manganese showed that bone Organic Mineral (citrate) 9.00%
In addition, calcium provides a protective loss in postmenopausal women could be Total Mineral Content 79.00%
role against osteoporosis, essential only partly arrested by Ca supplementation,
hypertension, gestational hypertension, but to fully maintain bone mass, trace
hypercholesterolemia, certain cancers (colon minerals were required. It can be concluded
and mammary) and possibly gallstones. that many minerals are required for optimal
bone growth and health, but that the extreme
Several population segments in both
focus on only calcium has, in a sense,
developed and developing countries have
inhibited the promotion of a balanced
low calcium intake. Calcium supplementation
approach for mineral supplementation,
and fortification has become increasingly
particularly for segments of the population
important and calcium is being incorporated
that are at risk for osteoporosis.
into many food products around the world.
Calcium supplements are usually calcium One mineral supplement that has been
salts such as calcium citrate, calcium lactate, widely accepted in Asia and is recognized
calcium carbonate, and calcium phosphate. there as the “premier” bone building
supplement is “milk calcium” (more
In the hype that has surrounded calcium
accurately called milk mineral). It has been
supplementation and fortification, one of the
recently shown by several studies that milk
basic principles of nutrition balance has been
mineral contains the appropriate balance
neglected and overlooked. Obviously, to
of minerals for optimal bone health.
maintain proper composition of mineral in
Milk mineral is an ingredient that retains
the bone, there must be adequate absorption
the mineral balance of milk while allowing
and delivery of all bone minerals to bone
for mineral supplementation into products
sites in the human body.
that traditionally do not contain good ratios
of bone building minerals.

but such diets may also have other health Lactose: Its Prebiotic, Bifidogenic Effects
6.8 NUTRITIONAL AND benefits. By improving insulin sensitivity and
Lactose stimulates the growth of beneficial
PHYSIOLOGICAL lowering blood lipid levels, low glycemic
intestinal flora but inhibits the growth of
PROPERTIES OF LACTOSE index diets may help reduce the risk of
pathogenic bacteria and endotoxins. Because
heart disease.
of lactose’s slow transit time through the
By LOIS McBEAN Lactose and Mineral Absorption digestive system, some undigested
Nutrition & Health Communications, Lactose in the diet stimulates the intestinal lactose reaches the colon where it is
Ann Arbor, MI absorption and retention of calcium, as well used as a substrate for the growth of
as other minerals such as magnesium, zinc beneficial lactic acid bacteria such as
Lactose or milk sugar is a disaccharide that is and manganese. This beneficial effect of Bifidobacterium bifidum and Lactobacillus.
hydrolyzed by the enzyme beta-galactosidase lactose is shown in laboratory animals and in Growth of these lactic acid bacteria results
into glucose and galactose molecules. human infants. Less clear is whether lactose in an acid environment that inhibits the
The slow hydrolysis of lactose by the body has a unique effect on the absorption of growth of pathogenic organisms. Lactose
during digestion generates a prolonged minerals such as calcium in adults. Lactose’s is a starting material for prebiotics such as
energy supply. Because lactose has a low ability to stimulate the intestinal absorption lactulose, lacitol, lacto-sucrose, and lacto-
glycemic index, or causes a slow rise in of calcium is independent of vitamin D and, oligosaccharides that selectively stimulate
blood glucose relative to a standard, this because lactose acts on passive calcium the growth of health-promoting bacteria
sugar may be beneficial for diabetics. Diets absorption, its effect is not influenced by (i.e., probiotics) such as bifidobacterium in
that emphasize foods with a low glycemic calcium intake. The mechanisms involved the colon. Specific strains of bifidobacteria
index may have important health benefits. are unknown. However, increased mineral are reported to inhibit the growth of
Lactose increases the absorption of minerals solubility, particularly for calcium absorption, pathogens, stimulate the immune system,
such as calcium, magnesium, and zinc in has been proposed. The metabolism of restore the gut flora after antibiotic therapy,
laboratory animals and human infants. lactose by intestinal flora increases lactic and have positive effects on antibiotic-
Compared to other sugars such as sucrose, acid concentration in the intestinal tract, associated diarrhea. The potential health
lactose has minimal ability to produce tooth which reduces the pH in the intestinal lumen benefits of modifying the intestinal flora are
decay. By stimulating the growth of beneficial and increases calcium solubility. Lactose’s being recognized. Intake of lactose by infants,
intestinal bacteria such as Bifidobacteria effect on the absorption of calcium and children and adults may increase resistance
and Lactobacilli and inhibiting pathogenic other minerals may depend on its presence to intestinal infections and contribute to the
bacteria, lactose contributes to a healthy in the distal bowel. In Caucasians who maintenance of a healthy intestinal flora.
intestinal flora. generally maintain a relatively high level Lactose Intolerance
Lactose, Glycemic Index of the intestinal enzyme lactase, which
Lactose is a disaccharide found naturally
and Carbohydrate Metabolism hydrolyzes lactose, little lactose reaches
in the milk of mammals. It is found in cow’s
the distal intestine. In contrast, in other
Lactose has a relatively low glycemic milk and many other dairy products. During
populations with low lactase levels, the
index, which may make this sugar beneficial digestion, the intestinal enzyme lactase
higher amount of lactose in the distal
for diabetics. The glycemic index of a breaks down lactose into the simple sugars,
intestine may favor mineral absorption.
carbohydrate or food refers to the increase glucose and galactose, for absorption into
in blood glucose relative to a standard such Lactose and Dental Caries the bloodstream. Most people produce
as glucose or white bread. Foods with a low The low cariogenicity (caries-producing sufficient amounts of lactase at birth
glycemic index cause a slow, modest rise in effect) of lactose compared to other sugars and during childhood to digest usual
blood glucose levels. In contrast, foods with has been confirmed by many studies. amounts of dietary lactose. However,
a high glycemic index cause a faster, higher Lactose is metabolized slowly by oral plaque some individuals, as they age, may have
increase in blood glucose. An increase in microorganisms, which results in a minimal a low level of intestinal lactase, which can
blood glucose elicits secretion of insulin, effect on plaque pH. In contrast, sucrose is result in lactose maldigestion. Many lactose
which controls blood glucose levels. metabolized quickly and pH values fall to maldigesters can consume the amount of
However, because of insulin deficiency levels conducive to caries promotion. lactose in at least one cup of milk when
in diabetics, blood glucose levels remain Also, unlike sucrose, which supports the consumed with a meal. Moreover, tolerance
elevated and adverse health effects result formation of dental plaque, lactose does to lactose can be improved by gradually
if treatment with insulin and/or diet is not not give rise to dental plaque. Lactose, increasing intake of lactose-containing foods
provided. Lactose has a lower glycemic index in contrast to sucrose, is considered to such as milk and other dairy products.
(65) than either glucose (138), honey (104), be either noncariogenic or minimally
or sucrose (87). Diets that emphasize low caries-promoting.
glycemic index foods not only may help
decrease the risk of developing diabetes and
improve blood sugar control in diabetics,

Whey protein use in human food, while material as an ingredient of the foods we are
6.9 WHEY PROTEINS advancing rapidly, remains an exciting and formulating. For whey protein to confer its
IN MEDICAL AND rapidly changing domain for understanding benefits, we must be using it in foods, and
FEEDING APPLICATIONS it’s broad-spectrum performance in human assuring that those foods get to the people
(INCLUDING HIV) nutrition. Whey proteins can be used in who need them.
nutrition programs. An example is ABCI’s
This can be built upon many ingredient
By R. W. J. CAMPBELL recent inclusion of whey protein (80%) in
criteria including:
an experimental maize flour-based fortified
Advanced Business Concepts International • Performance goals: whey proteins
biscuit designed for malnourished Mayan
(ABCI), children in Guatemala. This work was done meeting the nutritional needs of the
a subsidiary of Land O’Lakes, health conscious and athletes.
in collaboration with MainStay Foods of
• Preventative intervention: whey
Arden Hills, MN Guatemala. Through the use of WPC80, a
proteins fortifying the diets of the
85% daily value (“DV”) of protein requirement
Whey proteins resonate across a wide nutritionally deprived.
was achieved, including the nine essential
range of criteria for superior human food • Therapeutic care: whey proteins
amino acids, for a child if they eat three of
ingredients: natural, good flavor, functional strengthening immune function through
these 50g biscuits a day. In addition, the
human nutrition factors, cow’s milk source, flavor, texture, and color of the biscuit were nutrition, for example, of those living
a variety of forms to choose from, good improved, and protein levels sustained with HIV/AIDS.
availability, cost effective, exceptional healthy through baking. Moreover, functional claims made about
image, continuing research, food processing performance of whey protein in human
performance, among others. While we strive to delve deeply into the
exceptional performance factors of nutrition are substantiated by a bulwark of
We know that whey proteins evolved as whey protein, at the same time we must published and ongoing research that can be
critical components of mammalian milk aggressively employ this complex functional cited by food processors.
(mother’s milk) on which the survival of all
mammals depend with each new generation
of young. This is truly the nutritional miracle Whey proteins and HIV, herpes infection
of mammalian milk. Significantly, the The spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including human immunodefficiency virus
cross species nutritional value—cows to type 1 (HIV-1) and herpes infections have continued despite educational efforts spearheaded
humans—is also remarkable. For these two as a response to the HIV-1 epidemic. This has suggested the need for prophylactic
reasons alone, whey protein is deserving measures, including the application of topical antiviral agents. Researchers at the LFK
of our attention as a source of functional Research Institute of the New York Blood Center worked on the chemical modification
ingredients with powerful value that of Beta-lactoglobulin, the major protein of whey, that led to the generation of a potent HIV-1
we must continue to explore, but most inhibitor, shown to also have activity against herpes simplex virus 1 and 2. In agreement with
importantly, actively apply in the results on inhibition of HIV-1 infection, this lactoglobulin derivative appears to be the acid
formulation of nutritious foods. anhydride-modified protein of choice as an antiviral agent against herpes viruses. The widely
available source of lactoglobulin from whey for the production of these compounds also
suggests, according to researchers at the Center, its potential application for diminishing
the frequency of HIV transmission.
Neurath, A.R. et al. 3-Hydroxyphtaloyl beta-lactoglobulin. III. Antiviral activity against herpes viruses. Antivir.
Chem. Chemother. 1998. 9(2): 177-84.
Other studies have focused on the role of whey proteins in the diet of HIV-seropositive
individuals. HIV infection is characterized by an enhanced oxidant burden and a systemic
deficiency of the tripeptide glutathione, a major antioxidant. Different strategies to increase
glutathione levels have been suggested, including oral supplementation with whey proteins.
Studies have demonstrated that in patients who maintain adequate total caloric intake, the
addition of “bioactive” whey protein concentrate as a significant portion of total protein
intake increases body weight and shows elevation of glutathione content of mononuclear
cells toward normal levels. Long-term clinical trials remain needed to show how
supplementation with whey proteins can translate into a more favorable course of
the disease.
Micke, P. et al. Oral supplementation with whey proteins increases plasma glutathione levels of HIV-infected
patients. Eur. J. clin. Invest. 2001. 32(2): 171-178.
Bounous. G. et al. Whey proteins as food supplement in HIV-seropositive individuals.
Clin. Invest. Med. 1993. 16(3): 204.

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N U T R I T I ONA L P ROP E R T I E S OF W HE Y,

L ACTOSE AND MILK MINERALS PRODUCTS 6

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 49

Edited by CARLA SORENSEN Scientific evidence continues to accumulate

50 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 51

52 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 53

54 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

Child, 2-5 years

acids are unique as they are also metabolized Threonine 34

help increase carbohydrate bioavailability 41

breakdown during exercise. Lysine 58

Branched-chain amino acids provide Leucine 66

mass. A study with competitive wrestlers 20

energy restriction and branched-chain amino 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 55

Whey Proteins compare favorably to many Figure 6.1.4

protein fortification. By fortifying certain

the two proteins. In each blend, whey

56 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

Minerals Table 6.1.6

As the pH of milk decreases during Calcium 500 mg 2,054 mg 796 mg

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 57

Almost all of the individual whey proteins

58 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

Table 6.2.1 (continued)

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 59

General Nutritional Aspects Hambreaus (1982) gave a comparison of the

60 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

Note: All references can be found in the reference

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 61

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 63

64 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 65

66 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 67

68 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 69

Protein Technologies, Inc.

70 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

hormones, testosterone and estradiol. 70

80 Time Trend Whey

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 71

30 decrease in LDL cholesterol within each

220 Time Trend Soy

Time Trend Whey

140 Time Trend Soy

72 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

HDL Cholesterol Results Figure 6.6.7

was a mean change from baseline of 1 unit 140

group, or a drop from 7.6 to 7.5ug/dL. These

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 73

Estradiol Results Summary References

75 Casein, Soy Protein Isolate or Whey from Conception

74 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

More Calcium is Needed Bioavailability of Calcium

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 75

76 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

Phosphorus is required for bone growth and Table 6.7.1

78 R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s

R e f e r e nce M anu a l f or U. S. W h e y and L a c t o s e Pr o du c t s 79