HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO - HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET - UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI

Tiedekunta - Fakultet - Faculty

Faculty of behavioural sciences

Tekij - Frfattare Author

Laitos - Institution Department

Institute of behavioural sciences

Jussi Palomki
Tyn nimi - Arbetets titel - Title

Brain oscillatory responses during a brand-related working memory task: A neuromarketing study
Oppiaine - Lromne - Subject

Cognitive science
Tyn laji ja ohjaaja(t) - Arbetets art och handledare Level and instructor Aika - Datum - Month and year Sivumr Sidoantal Number of pages

Masters thesis; Christina Krause, Markus Kivikangas

Tiivistelm - Referat - Abstract

05-02-2010

46 + 24 app

Objectives: The continuous EEG (electroencephalogram) -signal can be decomposed into oscillatory components at different frequencies. These brain oscillatory components respond differently to dissimilar stimulation as well as different cognitive states. The EEG can be measured while subjects are performing various cognitive tasks. Using brain-imaging methods to study the brains responses to marketing-related stimuli is nowadays referred to as neuromarketing. The first objective of this study was to assess brain oscillatory responses of the 4-35 Hz EEG frequencies to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands, using a working memory paradigm with advertisements printed in newspapers and magazines as stimuli. The second objective was first to find out which brands that appeared in the advertisements were well and poorly recalled 1-2 weeks after the first time they were presented as stimuli. Thereafter, the objective was to assess the differences in brain oscillatory responses elicited by i) the presentation of the advertisements where the well recalled brands appeared in and by ii) the presentation of the advertisements where the poorly recalled brands appeared in. Methods: Before the actual experiment, two behavioural pilot studies were conducted to assess the functionality of the experimental paradigm. The actual EEG experiment included two phases. In the first phase, EEG was gathered while subjects took part in a visual n-back task with 4 memory load conditions (0, 1, 2 and 3-back). In the second phase, subjects returned 1-2 weeks later to complete two different behavioural aided recall tasks and one unaided recall tasks concerning the brands they saw in the advertisements during the n-back task. 20 subjects took part in the experiment. The results of the EEG analyses were processed into time-frequency representations, which illustrate power changes in brain oscillatory responses to an event in a single matrix as a function of time and frequency. Results: Brain oscillatory responses in the 4-35 Hz EEG frequencies were modulated by increasing degrees of memory and attentional demands during a visual n-back task. Modulations in brain oscillatory responses in the ~13-35 Hz frequencies seemed to be connected to the presentation of well recalled brands (appearing in the advertisements) used as stimuli during the n-back task.
Avainsanat Nyckelord - Keywords

Brain oscillations, brands, EEG, electroencephalography, long-term memory, n-back, neuromarketing, working memory
Silytyspaikka - Frvaringsstlle - Where deposited

Muita tietoja - vriga uppgifter - Additional information

HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO - HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET - UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI

Tiedekunta - Fakultet - Faculty

Kyttytymistieteellinen tiedekunta
Tekij - Frfattare Author

Laitos - Institution Department

Kyttytymistieteiden laitos

Jussi Palomki
Tyn nimi - Arbetets titel - Title

Brain oscillatory responses during a brand-related working memory task: A neuromarketing study
Oppiaine - Lromne - Subject

Kognitiotiede
Tyn laji ja ohjaaja(t) - Arbetets art och handledare Level and instructor Aika - Datum - Month and year Sivumr Sidoantal Number of pages

Pro Gradu; Christina Krause, Markus Kivikangas

Tiivistelm - Referat - Abstract

05-02-2010

46 + 24 ls

Tavoitteet: EEG (elektroenkefalogrammi) -signaali voidaan purkaa eri taajuuksilla vrhteleviin taajuuskomponentteihin. Nm aivojen shkisen vrhtelevn toiminnan taajuuskomponentit muuntuvat eri tavoin riippuen siit, millaisessa kognitiivisessa tilassa ihminen on, tai millaisille ulkoisille rsykkeille hn altistuu. EEG:t voidaan mitata samalla, kun koehenkilt suorittavat erilaisia kognitiivisia tehtvi. Aivokuvantamismenetelmien kyttminen silloin, kun tutkimuksessa kytetyt rsykkeet liittyvt jotenkin markkinointiin, tunnetaan nykyn neuromarkkinointina. Tmn tutkimuksen ensimminen tavoite oli arvioida aivojen shkisen 4-35 hertsin (Hz) vrhtelevn toiminnan muuntumista silloin, kun muistia ja tarkkaavaisuutta kuormitettiin tymuistitehtvn avulla, ja kun tehtvn aikana esitetyt rsykkeet olivat lehdiss esiintyvi mainoksia. Toinen tavoite oli selvitt, miten hyvin mainoksissa esiintyneet brndit (tuotteeseen liitetty nimi tai tuotemerkki) muistettiin 1-2 viikon kuluttua niiden ensimmisest esityskerrasta muistikokeen rsykkein, ja tutkia aivojen shkisen vrhtelevn toiminnan muuntumisen eroja, jotka aiheutuivat i) niiden mainosten esittmisen aikana, joissa hyvin muistetut brndit esiintyivt ja ii) niiden mainosten esittmisen aikana, joissa huonosti muistetut brndit esiintyivt. Menetelmt: Ennen varsinaista tutkimusta tehtiin kaksi behavioraalista pilottitutkimusta koeasetelman toimivuuden varmistamiseksi. Varsinainen EEG-tutkimus koostui kahdesta vaiheesta. Kokeen ensimmisess vaiheessa EEG:t mitattiin samalla, kun koehenkilt suorittivat visuaalista n-back-tehtv. N-back-tehtvn kuului 4 eri muistinkuormitusvaihetta (0, 1, 2 ja 3-back). Toisessa vaiheessa koehenkilt palasivat 1-2 viikon kuluttua suorittamaan kaksi erilaista avustettua ja yhden ei-avustetun mieleenpalauttamistehtvn. Nm tehtvt liittyivt n-back-tehtvn aikana nhdyiss mainoksissa esiintyviin brndeihin. Tutkimukseen osallistui 20 koehenkil. EEG-analyysin tulokset muokattiin aika-taajuus-esityksiksi, jotka kuvaavat tapahtumasidonnaisia aivojen shkisen vrhtelevn toiminnan muuntumisia ajan ja taajuuden funktiona. Tulokset: Aivojen shkinen 4-35 Hz vrhtelev toiminta muuntui, kun muistia ja tarkkaavaisuutta kuormitettiin visuaalisen n-back-tehtvn aikana. Tmn lisksi aivojen shkisen ~13-35 Hz vrhtelevn toiminnan muuntuminen nytti olevan yhteydess hyvin muistettujen brndien (mainoksen, jossa brndi esiintyi) esittmiseen n-back-tehtvn aikana.
Avainsanat Nyckelord - Keywords

Aivojen shkinen vrhtelev toiminta, brndit, EEG, elektroenkefalografia, pitkkestoinen muisti, n-back, tymuisti, neuromarkkinointi
Silytyspaikka - Frvaringsstlle - Where deposited Muita tietoja - vriga uppgifter - Additional information

BRAIN OSCILLATORY RESPONSES DURING A BRANDRELATED WORKING MEMORY TASK: A NEUROMARKETING STUDY
Jussi Palomki

Master's thesis for cognitive science (46 + 24app) Instructors: Prof. Christina M. Krause, M.A. (Psych.) Markus Kivikangas January 2010 Jussi Petteri Palomki

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Working on this thesis was a long process, and in the end I am quite grateful to have finally finished it. Fortunately, the fact that the process was long also meant I learned more than I thought I would. Many people helped me along the way, and acknowledgements and my appreciation are due to all of you. First and foremost I wish to thank my instructors, Professor Christina M. Krause and MA (Psychology) Markus Kivikangas, for both overall support during the working process and the outstanding opportunity to conduct a study in a field as new and exciting as neuromarketing. I am also greatly indebted to Mr. Aleksander Alafuzoff for his constant interest in my constant (silly) questions regarding (among others) EEG signal analysis, and for his knowledge and ability to provide me with accurate answers. This thesis would definitely still be an ongoing process were it not for him. My gratitude also goes to MSc Tero Hakala, for his expert opinions and help, and for MA Sinikka Hiltunen for her comments, knowledge and help in finding appropriate literature concerning behavioural studies of human memory. These were all greatly appreciated! I also, sincerely, wish to thank the entire crew of the 5th floor. Their relentless commenting (N kuvathan on aivan liian pieni!) and support (Mikset oo jo maisteri?) was definitely an inspiration to aim just a bit higher and further still. Furthermore, I wish to thank Mr. Isaac Wooden for his effort in proof-reading and correcting silly mistakes in my written English. Last, but not least, I wish to thank Ms. Eeva Suhonen for her constant support and interest in my work, regardless of the fact I sometimes didn't seem to find my way to the land of Sleep at all. Thank you, everybody! Sincerely, Jussi Palomki, Helsinki, January 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1.2 Short history of neuromarketing 1.3 The current state of neuromarketing research 1.4 Differences between brain imaging methods 1.5 EEG 1.6 Brain oscillations and cognitive processes 1.6.1 Attention 1.6.2 Working memory and long-term memory 1.7 Studying memory using EEG 1.8 Objectives 1

1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 7

2. METHODS
2.1 Pilot experiments 2.2 Experimental structure 2.3 Participants 2.4 Phase one procedures 2.4.1 Recording apparatus 2.4.2 Stimulus generation 2.4.3 Stimulus presentation 2.4.4 Experimental procedure 2.5 Phase two procedures 2.6 EEG data analysis 2.7 Statistical methods

9 9 9 9 9 10 10 12 12 13 15

3. RESULTS
3.1 Behavioural results from phase one 3.1.1 Assessment of subjects' familiarity with the brands 3.1.2 Percentage of incorrect responses and reaction times (RTs) 3.2 Behavioural results from phase two 3.3 EEG results (brain oscillatory responses to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands) 3.4 EEG results (brain oscillatory responses to well and poorly recalled stimulus brands) 3.4.1 Group 1 (well and poorly recalled non-target-stimulus brands) 3.4.2 Group 2 (well and poorly recalled target-stimulus brands)

17

17 17 17 17 18 24 24 25

4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Behavioural level 4.2 Brain oscillatory responses to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands 4.2.1 Theta (~4-8 Hz) frequency range brain oscillations 4.2.2 Alpha (~8-13 Hz) and beta (~13-35 Hz) frequency range brain oscillations 4.3 Brain oscillatory responses during presentation of well and poorly recalled stimulus brands 4.4 Ecological validity 4.5 Future and ethics of neuromarketing

30

30 31 31 32 33 35 36

5. CONCLUSIONS 6. REFERENCES

38

39

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Marketing helps customers discover that their needs can be satisfied by the products and services of others. An important goal for marketing research is to discover which methods of communicating the message (e.g. advertisements and commercials) in marketing campaigns are the most effective. In other words, marketing research aims at making marketing more profitable1. Neuromarketing refers to the use of brain imaging methods for studying the brains responses to marketing-related stimuli such as advertisements, commercials and brands (names or trademarks connected with a product). It aims at gaining further understanding of what actually happens in the brain when people process this type of information. Regardless, a neuromarketing study does not necessarily have to promote any marketed product or service, nor must it help create an advertisement or commercial that will potentially be more profitable (Edwards, 2008; Lee et al., 2007). 1.2 Short history of neuromarketing Traditional methods in marketing and consumer behaviour research have been behavioural by nature. Among these methods are the aided and unaided recall tasks, which test advertisement effectiveness by assessing consumers' memory of previously seen advertising material (American Marketing Association, 2009; Cunningham & Hall & Young, 2006; Krugman, 1965). In an aided recall task, subjects are shown previously seen material and asked if they can recall having seen it before. In an unaided recall task, subjects are asked to report or write down specific things they can recall concerning the material previously seen. Other commonly used explicit methods in marketing research have relied on consumers' self-reports and self-analyses of their own behaviour or reasoning (Mast & Zaltman, 2005). Results based solely on data gathered with the methods above may be misleading and not entirely objective (Deppe et al., 2005; Innes-Ker &
1

For more information and a more specific definition of marketing research, see Malhotra (1993).

2 Niedenthal, 2002; Wicker, 1969; Wilson & Schooler, 1991; Wilson et al., 1993). For example, often when actual behaviour is observed, little correspondence to the earlier expressed attitudes is found (Wicker, 1969). In response to these problems, marketing-related studies using brain imaging methods were already being conducted in the 1970s and 80s. Although not then referred to as neuromarketing, brain imaging was used in a number of studies where subjects were looking at advertisements in magazines and watching television commercials (e.g. Appel et al., 1979; Krugman, 1971; Weinstein et al., 1980). One basic finding, although somewhat vague by current standards, was in simple terms that commercials that generated more brain activity had a higher probability of being recalled later on (Appel et al., 1979, and later on partly replicated by Weinstein et al. in 1980). Even if such results were not easily applicable to actual marketing, they still provided objective information on how both attention during the viewing of marketing-related material and good memory performance when recalling commercials were reflected in brain activity. 1.3 The current state of neuromarketing research Since the beginning of the 1990s, brain imaging methods have developed substantially. Altogether new methods for imaging the brain and more sophisticated data-analysis (e.g. Makeig, 1993) have appeared. According to Lewis & Bridger (2005), the actual term neuromarketing was introduced in 2002 by professor Ale Smidts. Although still not a commonly used term, it currently stands for a new developing field of marketing taking advantage of various brain imaging methods (see, e.g., De Vico Fallani et al., 2008; Erk et al., 2002; Laybourne & Lewis, 2005; McClure et al., 2004). The most commonly used methods for imaging the brain in neuromarketing studies are functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) (see, e.g., Appel et al., 1979; De Vico Fallani et al., 2008; Erk et al., 2002; Harmon-Jones & Allen, 1998; Krugman, 1971; Laybourne & Lewis, 2005; McClure et al., 2004; Tomarken & Davidson & Henriques, 1990; Rothschild et al., 1988; Simons et al., 2003; Smith & Gevins, 2004; Weinstein et al., 1980; Young, 2002). Among the best known recent studies

3 are those conducted by Erk et al. (2002) and McClure et al. (2004). In the former, fMRI was used to image brain activity while subjects were looking at commercialized objects of high and low socioeconomic status (different types of cars). Brain areas associated with feelings of reward were activated when subjects were looking at objects of high socioeconomic status. In the latter, fMRI was also used while subjects were tasting two different brands of cola-drinks (Pepsi and Coca-Cola). Knowing which brand was being tasted had a big effect on both behavioural preferences and brain responses. 1.4 Differences between brain imaging methods Different brain imaging methods provide different kind of information. In fMRI, brain activity is measured indirectly by measuring the blood flow (the haemodynamic response) to different parts of the brain (e.g. Logothetis et al., 2001). FMRI has a decent spatial resolution and is better suited for studies where importance is placed on knowing what areas in the brain are active when subjects process information, as was the case in the studies mentioned before. In contrast, fMRI is very limited by its temporal resolution. The EEG is a direct measurement of the electrical activity of neurons, characterized by a relatively poor spatial, but superior temporal resolution. It is one of the most suitable brain imaging methods to assess changes in brain activity as a function of time, during, e.g., perception of visually presented stimuli. In other words, EEG can provide highly accurate information about the ongoing brain processes during viewing of advertisements or commercials (as seen in, e.g., Young, 2002). 1.5 EEG Electroencephalography is the measurement and recording of electrical activity produced by firing of neurons in the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. The rhythmic, ongoing macroscopic EEG signal is a rough measure of minor electric currents in the brain, reflecting the sum of activity from a large group of neurons with similar spatial orientations. Use of EEG in brain research in general has been extensive, dating back to findings made by Hans Berger in the 1920s (see Gloor, 1969).

4 The EEG is commonly used to study event-related potentials (ERPs), which are measured brain responses following the presentation of a stimulus. Averaging the ERP results of many trials together yields a clearer picture of the electrical activity taking place when a particular stimulus is presented (see, e.g., Coles & Rugg, 1995). However, EEG can also be used to examine other aspects in brain activity, such as brain oscillations. 1.6 Brain oscillations and cognitive processes Brain electric activity measured by means of EEG reflects brain activity, and changes in the measured EEG signal reflect changes in brain activity. The EEG can be recorded while subjects are participating in different cognitive tasks, such as attending to something or trying to hold information in memory. The continuous EEG signal can be decomposed into oscillatory components at different frequencies, which systematically respond differently to dissimilar stimulation as well as cognitive states (e.g. Basar, 1999, 2005; Bastiaansen et al., 2005; Karrasch et al., 2004, 2006; Krause, 2006; Pesonen et al., 2006, 2007; Rusalova & Kostyunina, 2004). The oscillatory components are often decomposed into ranges defined on the basis of frequency boundaries. The classic ranges include the theta (~4-8 Hz), alpha (~8-13 Hz) and beta (~13-35 Hz). The power of the EEG brain oscillatory responses relates to the amount of neurons (with similar spatial orientations) that discharge at the same time, and the method of eventrelated spectral perturbation (ERSP) allows for measurement of the average time course of relative changes in the power spectra in multiple frequency ranges (Makeig, 1993). It allows inspection of the EEG signal as a function of time and frequency, and is often used to illustrate power changes in brain oscillatory responses to an event in a single matrix known as a time-frequency representation (TFR). There is plenty of evidence that different cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, are associated with distinct brain oscillatory responses ranging from

5 4 Hz to 30 Hz (e.g. Klimesch, 1996, 1997, 1998; Aftanas et al., 2002; Pesonen et al., 2007; Krause et al., 2000a, 2000b). Cognitive tasks such as attending to a stimulus or processing information in working memory are reflected in EEG data as specifiable oscillations in different frequency ranges. 1.6.1 Attention Attention refers to the cognitive process of concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. When a person does not attend to or concentrate on something, or is otherwise idle, there is a notable alpha frequency range power increase (the same happens when a person closes his or her eyes). Similarly, when attention is directed at a stimulus in an experiment accompanied with demands of memory, there is usually a notable alpha power decrease as well as a theta power increase (Klimesch, 1996, 19982). Theta power increase has also been associated with the detection of a target stimulus (Mazaheri & Picton, 2005). Other basic findings also indicate that brain oscillatory alpha frequency range power changes reflect attention and are also correlated with memory performance (Klimesch, 1996, 1997, 1998; Krause et al., 2000; Pesonen et al., 2007). The role of these alpha oscillations in attention has been a key issue in many studies directly or indirectly related to neuromarketing, and there are many neuromarketing studies that concentrate mainly on visual attention and its role in looking at advertisements or watching commercials (e.g. Krugman, 1971; Simons et al., 2003; Smith & Gevins, 2004). For an advertisement or commercial to be consciously processed, it needs to be attended to3, and therefore the objective measurement of attention is of great interest.

Klimesch (1996, 1998) distinguished the alpha-band into lower (~6-10 Hz) and upper (~10-13 Hz) alpha frequency ranges. The tested hypothesis was that a lower alpha frequency range power decrease correlates with attention, an upper alpha frequency range power decrease correlates with semantic memory performance, and a theta frequency power increase correlates with working memory or episodic memory performance. 3 Some advertisements and commercials may unconsciously have an effect on consumers. Such subliminal information processing is, however, beyond the scope of this thesis (see, e.g., Bernat et al., 2001).

6 1.6.2 Working memory and long-term memory Working memory is a theoretical construct for explaining a persons capacity for temporary conscious storage and manipulation of information. There are various models of working memory, and in general it can be seen as a dynamic system of modules including a central executive with slave systems, such as a phonological loop and a visuospatial sketchpad (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974, 2000). Working memory is essential for online information processing and storage, with limited capacity (see Cowan, 2001), required during various cognitive processes, such as reasoning and learning (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974, 2000). It is also closely connected to the cognitive process of attention, as proposed in a model by Cowan (1999). Long-term memory is normally characterized as memory that can store information for an indeterminable period of time. It is typically divided into two major categories known as declarative (consciously available memories) and non-declarative (memory related to the use of ones body or objects) memory (Squire, 1994)4. There are distinguishable elements in the EEG brain oscillatory responses that are associated with working memory and successful encoding of information into long-term memory. Theta frequency range power increase is notable in conditions where working memory is being taxed, and can reflect the encoding of new information (Klimesch, 1998) or possibly the activity of the central executive (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley, 1986; Krause et al., 2006; Sauseng et al., 2005). Long-lasting theta power increase has also been associated with continuous cognitive processing, where active evaluation of different stimuli is required (Pesonen et al., 2007; Krause et al., 2000). Also, taxing the working memory while forcing someone to attend to a visual stimulus causes a longer lasting alpha power decrease as compared to just forcing attention, which indicates a connection between alpha power decreases and increasing demands of memory (Pesonen et al., 2007). Beta frequency range power changes have generally been associated with activities of the motor cortices (Pfurtscheller & Neuper, 1997; Pfurtscheller et al., 1998). Even so, there is an increasing amount of evidence indicating that beta power changes are also associated
4

The further theoretical background of long-term memory is beyond the scope of this thesis. See, e.g., Tulving, 1972 and 1983 for more information.

7 with various cognitive processes, such as demands of memory, attention and language processing (Bastiaansen et al., 2005; Gross et al., 2004; Karrasch et al., 2006; Laufs et al., 2003; Pesonen et al., 2006, 2007). In addition, results have suggested that while watching TV-commercials, longer lasting reduced alpha power and a shift of hemispheric laterality from right (during the onset of the commercial) to left (during the following seconds) correlate with higher probability of correct recognition later on (Rothschild & Hyun, 1990). On the other hand, it is also suggested that the transfer of visual information from working memory to long-term memory takes place primarily in the left hemisphere (Rossiter et al., 2001), and that brain activity at posterior regions of the frontal cortex predicts the strength of long-term memory encoding (Silberstein et al., 2000). 1.7 Studying memory using EEG The EEG can be measured while subjects are performing different cognitive tasks, such as looking at advertisement or watching TV-commercials. Subjects' performance in later on recalling the previously seen material can be assessed, and the results are reflected in the recorded EEG data (e.g. Appel et al., 1979; Rothschild & Hyun, 1990). In addition to methods of assessing performance in recalling previously seen material, there are also experimental paradigms designed specifically for assessing working memory functions. The most widely used paradigms for studies of working memory include the Sternberg memory search task (Sternberg, 1966; also see Krause, 2006) and the n-back task (Kirchner, W.K., 1958; Owen et al., 2005). Between these, the n-back task is particularly well suited for studying brain oscillatory responses to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands. In the n-back task subjects monitor the identity of a stimulus and indicate when the currently presented stimulus is identical with the one presented n trials before. The stimuli during which indication is required are usually referred to as targets, while all the other stimuli are referred to as non-targets. During the n-back task, the more demanding the task

8 is (i.e. the higher the integer n, or the higher the memory load), the more errors are made and the higher the reaction time in responding is. 1.8 Objectives This study had two objectives. The first objective was to assess brain oscillatory responses of the 4 - 35 Hz EEG frequencies to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands, using a visual n-back working memory paradigm with 4 memory load conditions (0, 1, 2 and 3-back) and advertisements printed in newspapers and magazines as stimuli. The second objective was first to find out which brands that appeared in the advertisements were well and poorly recalled, in behavioural aided and unaided recall tasks, 1-2 weeks after the first time the advertisements were presented as stimuli in the n-back task. Thereafter, the objective was to assess the differences in brain oscillatory responses elicited by i) the presentation of the advertisements where the well recalled brands appeared in and by ii) the presentation of the advertisements where the poorly recalled brands appeared in.

To summarize, the outline for this thesis was the merging of multiple aspects in both memory and marketing research (if not for the first time ever, then at least among the first). EEG brain oscillatory responses to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands, and during the presentation of well and poorly recalled advertising-material were assessed.

2. METHODS
2.1 Pilot experiments In order to test the functionality of the experimental paradigm, two pilot experiments were conducted. Detailed methods for both pilot experiments are listed in appendix 1. 2.2 Experimental structure The experiment included two phases. 1) EEG was recorded while subjects took part in a visual n-back task with 4 memory load conditions (0, 1, 2 and 3-back). 2) Subjects returned about 1-2 weeks later to complete two different behavioural aided recall tasks and one unaided recall task concerning the brands they saw in the advertisements during the n-back task. 2.3 Participants Twenty healthy subjects participated in the experiment (mean age = 37 years, SD = 9.73, range = 22-56 years). All subjects were right-handed with normal or corrected vision. None of the subjects reported any neurological or mental disorders. All subjects reported having excellent skills in written English. All subjects were recruited and later on rewarded by PHD Finland inc. 2.4 Phase one procedures 2.4.1 Recording apparatus EEG was recorded using the Biosemi ActiveTwo-system (Biosemi products), a 64-channel active-headcap with pin-type active electrodes (international 10-20 electrode placement), electrode gel (Signa gel by Parker Laboratories) and one EOG (electro oculogram)-

10 electrode placed under the left eye. The sampling-rate was set at 2048 Hz, and the signal referenced to an additional electrode placed on the right side of the nose. 2.4.2 Stimulus generation Over 100 English advertisements printed in newspapers and magazines were received from PHD Finland inc. Advertisements with as moderate an amount of text as possible were used to limit the time subjects need to concentrate on a single advertisement during the experiment (the majority of experiments conducted using an n-back paradigm use stimuli that are not complex, such as letters, simple pictures or words. See Owen et al., 2005 for a meta-analysis of n-back studies). In order to remove advertisements with an excessive amount of text, they were categorised by 3 individuals (classifiers; 2 males (24 and 35 years old) and 1 female (20 years old)) into three groups according to the amount of text on them: 1: little text, 2: some text and 3: a lot of text. 35 different advertisements were found to be the same in the little text-category for all 3 classifiers. 30 advertisements were then selected to be used to form the stimulus pool. The advertisements included brands from the following categories: Beers, pastries, abuseprevention, travel, loans, books, clothing, attractions (e.g. national parks or museums), toys, investing, energy, electronics, online entertainment sites and perfumes. There were 30 different brands in 30 advertisements (see appendix 3 for a list of the brands). 2.4.3 Stimulus presentation Subjects were seated in front of a 17-inch computer monitor located approximately 70 centimetres away. A pad with a green and a red button was given to the subjects to be used as a responding device, and they were instructed to respond using their right hand. Distance between the buttons was 3 centimetres. The visual n-back working memory paradigm with 4 memory load conditions (0, 1, 2 and 3-back) was used. The subjects were instructed to press a button during each stimulus.

11 If the stimulus was a target, subjects pressed the green button. Otherwise, during all the other stimuli (non-targets), they pressed the red button. A stimulus appeared on the screen for as long as either button was pressed, after which it immediately disappeared followed by a black screen for 2 seconds, after which a new stimulus appeared. In the 0-back condition, the target-stimulus was the same predesignated advertisement for all subjects (see figure 1 and appendix 3). Each memory load condition contained 200 trials, and 25 percent of all the trials were target-stimuli. Therefore, during each memory load condition exactly 50 target-stimulus advertisements were presented, and within the remaining 150 trials each non-targetstimulus advertisement was presented 5 times in randomized order. The subjects' responses were monitored, and trials with both correct and incorrect responses were included in the EEG analysis. The order in which the memory load conditions were presented as well as the side of the green and red buttons were counterbalanced between the subjects.
FIGURE 1

Ad. C

(2 sec.)

Ad. A

(2 sec.)

Ad. A

(2 sec.)

Ad. C

(2 sec.)

Ad. B

(2 sec.)

Ad. X

(2 sec.)

Ad. B

Target in 0-back (RED) Target in 1-back (GOLD) Target in 2-back (GREEN) Target in 3-back (BLUE)
Fig. 1: The structure of the n-back task. Four different target- and non-target-stimulus advertisements are illustrated (Ad. A, Ad. B, Ad. C and Ad. X, where Ad. X is a predesignated stimulus advertisement). The stimulus advertisements are labelled by colours denoting the target-stimuli during each memory load condition. A 2-second long black screen followed the presentation of each stimulus. Each memory load condition contained 200 trials, out of which 50 were target-stimuli and 150 were non-target-stimuli.

12 2.4.4 Experimental procedure Subjects were brought into the EEG-laboratory and introduced to the immediate environment. They were given a written explanation of the nature of the study, as well as oral instructions (appendices 4 and 5). Subjects were told to respond as accurately as possible during the n-back task. They were also informed that 1-2 weeks after the EEGmeasurements they would be asked questions regarding the advertisements they were about to see. In order to assess subjects' familiarity with the brands appearing in the stimulus advertisements and to make sure no brand was significantly better recognized, all subjects were given a questionnaire containing all the pictures of the brands to be seen during the experiment. Subjects were then asked to circle a number that best described their familiarity with the brand (1=certainly havent seen, 4=certainly have seen, see appendix 6). EEG electrodes were attached, and thereafter subjects were seated in a sound-proof, electrically shielded room. Subjects were told to blink as little as possible, as well as to sit relaxed and comfortably during the experiment. After each memory load condition the room door was opened, and subjects were given the chance to drink a glass of water and to have a small, up to 5-minutes, break. 2.5 Phase two procedures 19 subjects took part in the second phase of the experiment 1-2 weeks after the EEGmeasurements, and completed the following tasks: Task 1: An unaided recall task, where subjects were to write down all the names of the brands they could recall being advertised during the n-back task (appendix 7, question 2). Task 2: An aided recall task in the form of a list of pictures of the brands that appeared in the advertisements during the n-back task, with an equal number of distracter-brand

13 pictures that didn't appear in the advertisements. Subjects were to circle a number that best described their certainty of having seen that particular brand previously in the first phase of the experiment (1=surely not seen, 2=not sure, 3=surely have seen, see appendix 8). Task 3: An aided recall task completed using a 17-inch computer monitor, located 50 centimetres away from the subject. Subjects were shown all the same advertisements they saw during the n-back task, with the exception of the brand picture having been edited out (along with all the aspects in that advertisement that might have given a clue as to what the brand name was). Subjects were allowed to look at each advertisement for as long as they wanted, after which they were to type down the exact (or as close to as they could) name of the brand being advertised. The following guidelines were used in deciding whether answers provided by the subjects were correct or incorrect: Task 1 guidelines: Near-correct spelling of the brand name was necessary for an answer to be correct. Some errors were accepted (e.g. Cotton USA and USA Cotton were both acceptable, as well as simple misspellings such as Weolia instead of Veolia). If the brand name included two words (e.g. Veolia Environnement), both words needed to be listed. Task 2 guidelines: An answer was correct only if the number 3 was correctly circled (3=surely have seen). Task 3 guidelines: Identical to task 1. 2.6 EEG data-analysis The digitalized EEG data were processed in a MATLAB environment (version 7.7.0.471, R2008b, developed by The Mathworks), using the EEGLAB (version 6.03b) toolbox. The data were filtered using a passband from 1 Hz to 40 Hz and re-sampled to 512 Hz. Manual off-line inspection was first performed to locate and remove clearly visible disturbances in

14 the data, after which the FastICA (Independent Component Analysis) algorithm (Hyvrinen, A., 1999) was used to remove components caused by artefacts, such as eyemovements. Due to technical difficulties, the data from one subject was excluded from further analysis. Epochs were created from 500 ms before and 2500 ms after each stimulus onset. The time period of -500-0 ms was used as the baseline. Epochs were created separately for targetand non-target-stimuli. Epochs were also created separately for the best 9 (well recalled) and the worst 9 (poorly recalled) recalled stimulus brands (the stimulus advertisements where the brand appeared in), and within these separately for the target- and non-target-stimuli. The stimulus brands used were selected in reference to the results from phase two, by visual inspection (see appendices 2 and 3). These procedures resulted in six different categories of epochs: 1) target-stimuli (50 trials), 2) non-target-stimuli (150 trials), 3) well recalled target-stimulus brands (15 trials), 4) well recalled non-target-stimulus brands (45 trials), 5) poorly recalled target-stimulus brands (15 trials) and 6) poorly recalled non-target-stimulus brands (45 trials). Over 50% of the trials for each epoch category of a subject had to be accepted in order to include the data in further analysis. Thereafter TFRs were calculated separately for each subject and for all epoch categories using a Morlet wavelet (width 8) for EEG frequencies 4-35 Hz as a function of time (-5002500 ms from visual stimulus onset), and referenced to the time period of -500-0 ms. The calculations were performed for each EEG channel separately. As the wavelet transform calculations result in some inaccuracy at border points due to the wavelet analysis method, the initial time window was selected to be longer than the actual time window of interest. While displaying the TFR data, these inaccurate points were omitted and the final illustrations of the data are represented using a time window of -200-2200 ms from stimulus onset. The results were presented as TFRs displaying the mean ERSP-values as a function of time (-200-2200 ms from stimulus onset) and frequency (4-35 Hz) separately for all groups and

15 five electrode positions: Fp1, Fp2, AF3, AF4, F3, F1, Fz, F2, F4, FC3, FC1, FCz, FC2 and FC4 for the frontal position, F7, F5, FT7, FC5, T7, C5, TP7, CP5 and P7 for the left temporal position, F8, F6, FC6, FT8, C6, T8, CP6, TP8 and P8 for the right temporal position, C3, C1, Cz, C2, C4, CP3, CP1, CPz, CP2 and CP4 for the parietal position, and P5, P3, P1, Pz, P2, P4, PO3, POz, PO4, O1, Oz and O2 for the occipital position. Electrodes Fp1, Fp2 and Fpz were used for an additional prefrontal position that was used only in presenting TFRs calculated for the well and poorly recalled stimulus brands. 2.7 Statistical methods The number of incorrect responses and the reaction times (RTs) during the n-back task were recorded for each memory load condition. The statistical significance of the differences in the percentages of incorrect responses and the RTs between the memory load conditions were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with one within-subjects factor, LOAD (four levels: 0-back, 1-back, 2-back and 3-back. The degrees of freedom were adjusted using the Greenhouse-Geisser procedure.). Significance of deviations in the TFRs from baseline power as well as significant differences between TFR groups were assessed using resampling methods (a boostrap method and a permutation test; Efron & Gong, 1983). The significant differences between the following TFR groups were assessed: 1-back vs. 0-back, 2-back vs. 1-back, 3-back vs. 2-back, target-stimuli vs. non-target-stimuli, and well recalled stimulus brands vs. poorly recalled stimulus brands. In order to assess the statistical significance of the observed ERSP responses, a bootstrap method was used. A surrogate baseline power data distribution was constructed by random sampling (with replacement) of the TFR-points of the baseline period of each epoch. Applying this process several hundred times produced a surrogate baseline power distribution whose 2,5th and 97,5th percentiles were then taken as significance thresholds, creating a significance level of 5%.

16 A permutation test was used to assess statistical differences between TFR groups. The TFRs from the compared groups were randomly assigned to two new groups. Group averaged ERSP-values and their differences were calculated in each TFR-point. Applying this process several hundred times produced a power distribution in each TFR-point whose 2,5th and 97,5th percentiles were then taken as significance thresholds, creating a significance level of 5%. (Delorme & Makeig, 2004). All statistical calculations resulted in probability TFRs, which were plotted to display the significance of the ERSP responses per se, and of the differences between TFR groups. Blue colours in the TFRs denote negative ERSP-values and red colours denote positive ERSP-values. Green colour denotes statistically non-significant event-related brain oscillatory power changes.

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3. RESULTS
3.1 Behavioural results from phase one 3.1.1 Assessment of subjects' familiarity with the brands No brand was significantly better recognized prior to the n-back task. 3.1.2 Percentage of incorrect responses and reaction times (RTs) As can be seen in table 1, the percentage of incorrect responses and the RTs increased with increasing memory load. Due to this, the main effect for the factor LOAD was statistically significant on both the percentage of incorrect responses (F(1.854, 35.2) = 68,95, p < .000) and RTs (F(1.35, 25.6) = 20,187, p < .000). Mean percentage of incorrect responses and reaction time (s) for the four different memory load conditions:
TABLE 1 Memory load condition Incorrect responses % (SD) Reaction time (s) (SD) 0-back 0,323 (0,64) 1,136 (0,62) 1-back 1 (0,73) 1,241(1,06) 2-back 3-back 5,9 (3,27) 10,8 (4,1) 2,328 (1,39) 4,269 (3,25)

3.2 Behavioural results from phase two Due to the space required in presenting the results from phase two, they are shown in appendix 2.

18 3.3 EEG results (brain oscillatory responses to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands) As can be seen in figure 2, in all memory load conditions during the presentation of both target- and non-target-stimuli, brain oscillatory responses emerged. Statistically significant (p<.05) mean ERSP-values (mean event-related changes in the power spectra) are displayed for all experimental conditions. These statistically significant brain oscillatory responses during different experimental conditions, elicited by the presentation of targetand non-target-stimuli, will be given closer inspection. Oscillatory responses during the 0-back condition As can be seen in figure 2 (first column), statistically significant long-lasting ~4-8 Hz power increases appeared at ~50-2200 ms after stimulus onset, observed in all electrode positions. These were more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli at ~200510 ms, as can be seen in figure 3 (first column). Statistically significant ~15-20 Hz and ~30-35 Hz power increases appeared at ~1300-2000 ms and ~600-2000 ms, respectively, observed in all electrode positions. As can be seen in figure 2, statistically significant ~8-15 Hz and ~15-20 Hz power decreases appeared at ~100-1500 ms, most prominently observed in the parietal and occipital electrode positions. These were more prominent during the presentation of targetstimuli at ~1000-1500 ms in the parietal electrode positions, as can be seen in figure 3 (first column, third row). Oscillatory responses during the 1-back condition As can be seen in figure 2 (second column), statistically significant long-lasting ~4-8 Hz power increases appeared at ~50-2200 ms after stimulus onset, observed in all electrode positions. These were moderately more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli at ~250-500 ms, as can be seen in figure 3 (second column). Statistically significant ~1520 Hz and ~30-35 Hz power increases appeared at ~1300-2200 ms and ~600-2200 ms,

19 respectively, most prominently observed in the occipital, parietal and left temporal electrode positions. As can be seen in figure 2 (second column), statistically significant ~8-15 Hz and ~15-20 Hz power decreases appeared at ~100-1600 ms, observed in all electrode positions. These were more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli at ~500-1000 ms in the frontal, left temporal and parietal electrode positions, as can be seen figure 3 (second column). The ~8-15 Hz and ~15-20 Hz power decreases were also more prominent during the 1-back condition as compared to 0-back at ~100-1700 ms, most prominently observed in the frontal and right temporal electrode positions, as can be seen in figure 4 (first column). Oscillatory responses during the 2-back condition As can be seen in figure 2 (third column), statistically significant long-lasting ~4-8 Hz power increases appeared at ~50-2200 ms after stimulus onset, observed in all electrode positions. Statistically significant ~30-35 Hz power increases appeared at ~600-2200 ms, observed in all electrode positions. As can be seen in figure 2 (third column), statistically significant ~8-15 Hz and ~15-20 Hz power decreases appeared at ~100-2200 ms, most prominently observed in the parietal, right temporal and occipital electrode positions. These were more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli at ~500-1400 ms in the frontal, left temporal, parietal and right temporal electrode positions, as can be seen in figure 3 (third column). The ~8-15 Hz and ~15-20 Hz power decreases were also more prominent during the 2-back condition as compared to 1-back at ~700-2000 ms, most prominently observed in the parietal electrode positions, as can be seen in figure 4 (second column). Oscillatory responses during the 3-back condition As can be seen in figure 2 (fourth column), statistically significant long-lasting ~4-8 Hz power increases appeared at ~50-2200 ms after stimulus onset, observed in all electrode

20 positions. These were more prominent during the 3-back condition as compared to 2-back at ~1300-2200 ms during the presentation of non-target-stimuli, observed in the frontal, parietal, left- and right temporal electrode positions, as can be seen in figure 4 (third column). Statistically significant ~30-35 Hz power increases appeared at ~600-2200 ms, observed in all electrode positions. As can be seen in figure 2 (fourth column), statistically significant ~8-15 Hz and ~15-30 Hz power decreases appeared at ~100-2200 ms, most prominently observed in the parietal and occipital electrode positions. These were more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli at ~500-2200 ms in all electrode positions, as can be seen in figure 3 (fourth column).

21

22

23

24 3.4 EEG results (brain oscillatory responses to well and poorly recalled stimulus brands) As can be seen in figures 5 and 6, in all memory load conditions during the presentation of target- and non-target-stimuli, brain oscillatory responses emerged. Statistically significant (p<.05) mean ERSP-values are displayed for all experimental conditions, separately for two groups: brain oscillatory responses during the presentation of well and poorly recalled non-target-stimulus brands (Group 1, figure 5), and during the presentation of well and poorly recalled target-stimulus brands (Group 2, figure 6) . The statistically significant differences between well and poorly recalled stimulus brands in both groups (figure 7) will be given closer inspection. 3.4.1 Group 1 (well and poorly recalled non-target-stimulus brands) Oscillatory responses during the 0-back condition As can be seen in figure 7 (first column), statistically significant ~4-12 Hz power increases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~15001800 ms after stimulus onset, most prominently observed in the prefrontal, frontal, left temporal and parietal electrode positions. Statistically significant ~25-30 Hz power decreases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~0-1500 ms, observed in the prefrontal electrode positions. Oscillatory responses during the 1-back condition No statistically significant brain oscillatory responses were observed.

25 Oscillatory responses during the 2-back condition As can be seen in figure 7 (third column), statistically significant ~25-35 Hz power decreases were moderately more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~1350-2000 ms after stimulus onset, observed in the left temporal electrode positions. Oscillatory responses during the 3-back condition As can be seen in figure 7 (fourth column), statistically significant ~4-15 Hz power increases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~1700-2200 ms after stimulus onset, observed in the prefrontal and left temporal electrode positions. Statistically significant ~20-35 Hz power increases were slightly more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~100-2000 ms, observed in the prefrontal, frontal, parietal, right temporal and occipital electrode positions. 3.4.2 Group 2 (well and poorly recalled target-stimulus brands) Oscillatory responses during the 0-back condition During the 0-back condition, the target-stimulus was always the same predesignated advertisement (see 2.4.3). Therefore the distinction between well and poorly recalled target stimulus brands couldn't be made for the 0-back condition. Oscillatory responses during the 1-back condition As can be seen in figure 7 (second column), statistically significant ~25-35 Hz power decreases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~0-2000 ms after stimulus onset, most prominently observed in the parietal, right temporal and occipital electrode positions.

26 Oscillatory responses during the 2-back condition As can be seen in figure 7 (third column), statistically significant ~10-15 Hz power increases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~400-1300 ms after stimulus onset, observed in the prefrontal electrode positions. Statistically significant ~15-30 Hz power decreases were somewhat more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~0-2000 ms, observed in the left temporal, right temporal and occipital electrode positions. Oscillatory responses during the 3-back condition As can be seen in figure 7 (fourth column), statistically significant ~20-25 Hz power increases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~0-2000 ms after stimulus onset, most prominently observed in the prefrontal electrode positions. Statistically significant ~10-15 Hz power decreases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands at ~1300-1700 ms, most prominently observed in the prefrontal electrode positions.

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4. DISCUSSION
In the current study, brain oscillatory responses of the 4-35 Hz EEG frequencies to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands were assessed, using a visual n-back working memory paradigm with advertisements printed in newspapers and magazines as stimuli. In addition, it was discovered which brands that appeared in the advertisements presented as stimuli were well and poorly recalled, in aided and unaided recall tasks, 1-2 weeks after the n-back task. Thereafter differences in brain oscillatory responses elicited i) by the presentation of the well recalled stimulus brands and ii) by the presentation of the poorly recalled stimulus brands were also assessed. In addition, behavioural n-back task performance and reaction time data were recorded and analyzed. The experimental design allowed for assessing brain oscillatory responses, both to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands and during the presentation of well and poorly recalled advertising material. The study was one of the first of its kind (conducted using nback) in the field of neuromarketing, and therefore exploratory by nature. As the current study combined multiple aspects in both memory and marketing research, the results in respect to these aspects will be discussed separately. 4.1 Behavioural level As expected, both the percentage of incorrect responses (PIRs) and reaction times (RTs) during the n-back task increased considerably with increasing memory load. This can also be seen to reflect the limited capacity of working memory (see, e.g., Cowan, 2001). In the current study, subjects were informed prior to the n-back task that 1-2 weeks after the EEG-measurements they would be asked questions regarding the advertisements they were about to see. Since subjects were not informed of what specific aspects regarding the advertisements would be inquired about, they might have attempted to concentrate on as many aspects as possible. Consequently, it is reasonable to presume this had some effect on the extent of attention required during the n-back task, which might also have been

31 reflected in the PIRs and RTs. To that end, the n-back task version used in the current study can conceivably be regarded as a working memory task especially demanding on both memory and attention (also see Cowan, 1999). However, the effect of subjects' knowledge that questions regarding the advertisements would be asked later on their approach to the n-back task was not ascertained, and it is a possible question for further research. 4.2 Brain oscillatory responses to varying degrees of memory and attentional demands 4.2.1 Theta (~4-8 Hz) frequency range brain oscillations In all memory load conditions during the presentation of both target- and non-targetstimuli, long-lasting theta frequency range power increases emerged. This observation is in line with previous reports, where similar long-lasting theta power increases were observed during a visual n-back task in all memory load conditions (Krause et al., 2000; Pesonen et al., 2007). Theta power increases have been suggested to reflect the activity of the central executive (Krause et al., 2006; Sauseng et al., 2005), or to be associated with increased task demands in cognitive performance (Klimesch, 1999). The observed long-lasting theta power increases in the current study might therefore reflect a cortical correlate for working memory in general, where constant active evaluation of varying stimuli during the performance of the n-back task requires dynamic links in integrating information (Basar, 2005; Krause et al., 2000; Pesonen et al., 2006). In the current study, during the 0-back memory load condition, early (at ~200 ms after stimulus onset) appearing theta frequency range power increases were more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli, as compared to non-target-stimuli. This observation is supported by the assumption that theta power increases reflect target stimulus detection (Mazaheri & Picton, 2005). The same was, however, not observed to the same extent during any other memory load condition. These observed theta power

32 increases might therefore reflect a difference between detecting a predesignated targetstimulus during the 0-back condition and detecting a target-stimulus during n-back conditions with a higher memory load (1, 2 and 3-back). Late (at ~1500 ms after stimulus onset) appearing theta frequency range power increases were more prominent during the presentation of non-target-stimuli in the 3-back condition, as compared to 2-back. This could reflect a bigger difference in task difficulty between these two memory load conditions (in contrast to 2-back versus 1-back, or 1-back versus 0back) in general. Interestingly, the same was not observed during the presentation of target-stimuli, which could indicate that these theta power increases during the 3-back condition reflect increased task demands in constant active stimulus processing rather than actual detection and/or recognition of the target-stimulus. 4.2.2 Alpha (~8-13 Hz) and beta (~13-35 Hz) frequency range brain oscillations In all memory load conditions during the presentation of both target and non-target-stimuli, alpha and beta frequency range power decreases emerged. This observation is in line with previous reports, where similar alpha and beta power decreases were observed during the same memory load conditions (Pesonen et al., 2007). Alpha power decreases have been shown to reflect both memory processes and attentional demands (Klimesch, 1996, 1997; Krause et al., 2000; Pesonen et al., 2007; Simons et al., 2003; Smith & Gevins, 2004), or general alertness (e.g. Klimesch, 1998). In the current study, there was some indication that the duration of the alpha power decreases increased as a function of memory load, which is in line with some previous reports (e.g. Pesonen et al., 2007; Krause et al., 2000). This could indicate that longer-lasting alpha power decreases are connected to increasing demands of memory. Beta power responses have generally been associated with activities of the motor cortices (Pfurtscheller & Neuper, 1997; Pfurtscheller et al., 1998). Some of the beta power decreases observed in the current study could be associated with the preparation of the motor response to the n-back task, and therefore reflect activity in the motor cortices, to

33 some extent (which could also have been reflected in the higher RTs during the 2- and 3back memory load conditions). There is, nevertheless, an increasing amount of evidence that beta power decreases (and increases; Laufs et al., 2003) are also associated with working memory, attentional (Gross et al., 2004; Karrasch et al., 2006; Laufs et al., 2003; Pesonen et al., 2006, 2007) and language (Bastiaansen et al., 2005) processes as well. In the current study there was clear evidence that both alpha and beta frequency range power decreases were more prominent during the presentation of target-stimuli, as compared to non-target-stimuli. This observation reflects the difference in cognitive processing between the two types of stimuli, and is also in line with a report by Pesonen et al. (2006), where similar observations were made during a visual n-back task. In the current study, the observation was most prominent during the 2- and 3-back conditions. Based on these findings it seems possible that alpha and beta power decreases might also reflect the difference between stimulus detection and/or recognition (during the presentation of target-stimuli) and active stimulus processing (during the presentation of non-target-stimuli). It should be noted that during most memory load conditions there was no clear distinction between observed responses in the alpha (~8-13 Hz) and the beta (~13-35 Hz) ranges. In other words, some brain oscillatory responses observed in these ranges could have been called either alpha or beta, or even both. From the results of this study I conclude that the cognitive processes of memory and attention (as required during performing a visual nback task) are reflected in complex brain oscillatory responses at frequencies ranging from 4 to 35 Hz. 4.3 Brain oscillatory responses during presentation of well and poorly recalled stimulus brands The most significant observations in brain oscillatory responses during the presentation of well and poorly recalled stimulus brands were made in the beta frequency range. On the one hand, beta frequency range (~13-20 Hz and ~25-35 Hz) power increases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled target-stimulus brands in the 2-back and

34 3-back memory load conditions. On the other hand, beta frequency range (~25-35 Hz) power decreases were more prominent during the presentation of well recalled targetstimulus brands in the 1-back, and to some extent, the 2-back memory load conditions. Beta frequency range (~25-30 Hz) power decreases were also more prominent during the presentation of well recalled non-target-stimulus brands in the 0-back memory load condition. Previous reports have indicated that both beta range power increases (e.g. Laufs et al., 2003) and decreases (e.g. Pesonen et al., 2006, 2007; Karrasch et al., 2006; Krause et al., 2000) are associated with memory and attentional processes. More prominent beta frequency range power changes during the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands could therefore have reflected a more efficient use of these cognitive processes, which in turn could have resulted in subjects' better performance in recalling those particular brands. Nevertheless, for this assumption to be more plausible, the association of beta range power changes with good memory performance in aided and unaided-recall tasks requires further research. Use of the additional prefrontal electrode positions was motivated by the results of a study by Silberstein et al. (2000), where brain activity in the prefrontal brain areas was shown to correlate with better recognition of previously shown material (Silberstein et al., 2000). In the current study, the presentation of well recalled stimulus brands elicited a significant wide range of more prominent brain oscillatory ~13-35 Hz responses (both power increases and decreases), as compared to the presentation of poorly recalled stimulus brands. These responses also appeared to be somewhat more prominent in the prefrontal electrode positions. This finding might provide further evidence for a connection between good memory (recognition) performance and prefrontal brain activity. Notwithstanding, further research is suggested for studying this connection more thoroughly. As a general observation, the statistically significant differences in brain oscillatory responses between the presentation of well and poorly recalled stimulus brands were more prominent during the presentation of the stimulus brands as target-stimuli. This might have resulted from the fewer number of target-stimulus trials (as compared to the number of

35 non-target-stimulus trials) in each n-back memory load condition, yielding a possibly insufficient sample-size. Overall, these results can be considered inconclusive, to some extent. Still, they present some potential insight into the brain oscillatory responses associated with better memory performance in aided and unaided brand-recall tasks. I suggest that beta frequency range (~13-35 Hz) power increases and decreases might reflect better encoding of brand-related information in the corresponding stimulus advertisements. It should be noted that the tasks used in assessing how well subjects recalled the brands in phase two of the experiment differ both qualitatively and cognitively. In tasks 1 (unaided recall) and 3 (aided recall) subjects tried to recall the specific brand names that appeared in the first phase of the experiment. In task 2 (aided recall) subjects indicated whether they recognized a certain brand picture. In the current study, these cognitive processes of recalling and recognizing were not analysed separately, even though they can be considered to be very different from one another. It is unclear whether more prominent differences in brain oscillatory responses between the presentation of well and poorly recalled stimulus brands would have been observed if, e.g., only the results from tasks 1 and 3 (where subjects were recalling brands) were included in the analyses. This is also a possible question for further neuromarketing-related research. Furthermore, in phase two of the experiment, subjects had considerably more success in the aided recall tasks (tasks 2 and 3), as compared to the unaided recall-task (task 1). Separate analysis of results from both aided and unaided recall-tasks is also suggested for further research. 4.4 Ecological validity In contrast to some other neuromarketing studies, the purpose of this study was not to conduct an experiment well suited for marketing purposes. As n-back tasks with advertisements as stimuli have not, to my knowledge, been used before in neuromarketing, it provided an interesting exploratory experimental setup.

36 It is obvious that subjects undergoing a visual n-back task with advertisements as stimuli is not the way they normally come in contact with said advertisements. The purpose of this study was not to create an ecologically valid environment for looking at advertisements. As it is, neuromarketing studies are still quite rare (especially in Finland) and every welldesigned attempt to bring marketing and brain imaging together can be considered a valid effort, especially if little by little more ecological validity can be gained. In essence this could mean that, at some point in time, a paradigm allowing "real-life interaction" between subjects and advertisements or commercials might be designed. Considering the results from the current study, knowledge that beta frequency (~13-35 Hz) range oscillatory responses are somehow associated with good memory performance in brand-recall does not produce a means for developing more profitable advertisements. The speculations on how it could be done are also beyond the scope of this thesis. 4.5 Future and ethics of neuromarketing Scientific results that procure a means for a company to gain marketable information are easy for any company to exploit. Studies fitting these exact goals (i.e. studies working solely for the benefit of a company, product or brand) are still rare. Yet, studying how the brain deals with various stimuli used in marketing can help gain results that commercial enterprises can use in creating more effective marketing campaigns. Such campaigns will, in turn, provide higher sales-rates for the products they are marketing5. If the future of neuromarketing is to be bright, the methods of data gathering and analysis need to be cost-effective. At the moment this excludes methods such as fMRI due to high financial expenses of its use. Be that as it may, as the current study demonstrated, results can be obtained with less financially costly methods such as EEG. It might only be a matter of time until we see people walking around in any given city, looking at billboards and other advertisements whilst subtle equipment records their neural responses. Nevertheless, we are quite far away from designing the ultimate buy-button triggering shopping behaviour in unsuspecting customers.

It is worth mentioning that agencies providing neuroimaging solutions to commercial marketing instances do already exist and are very likely to grow in numbers (N. Lee et al., 2007. Also see Young, 2002.).

37 From an ethical point of view, the main difference between methods used in traditional marketing and neuromarketing (as applied in practice) is that the former attempt to affect consumer's behaviour through recognized means, and the latter attempt to trigger buying behaviour in consumers through knowledge of how the brain functions. It can be said that through the means of neuromarketing, consumers might end up being set up to encounter products and services they dont necessarily need, but nevertheless feel like buying (see Wilson et al., 2008 for a good review and analysis of ethics in neuromarketing). Although the ethical issues connected to neuromarketing are worth mentioning, the current study faces no ethical questions. The results were never meant to be used for marketing purposes and therefore the further ethical implications of neuromarketing are beyond the scope of this thesis.

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5. CONCLUSIONS
Brain oscillatory responses of the 4 - 35 Hz EEG frequencies are modulated by increasing degrees of memory and attentional demands, during a visual n-back task. The witnessed differences in brain oscillatory responses are suggested to reflect the difference in cognitive processing both between different memory load conditions and in responding to non-target and target-stimuli. Brain oscillatory EEG power decreases and increases in the beta (~13-35 Hz) frequency are connected to good memory performance in aided and unaided brand-recall tasks. These power decreases and increases are suggested to reflect better encoding of brand-related information in the corresponding stimulus advertisements.

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Gross, J., Schmitz, F., Schnitzler, K., Shapiro, K., Hommel, B., Schnitzler, A., 2004. Modulation of long-range neural synchrony reflects temporal limitations of visual attention in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101:35, 13050-13055. Harmon-Jones, E., Allen J.J.B., 1998. Anger and frontal brain activity: EEG asymmetry consistent with approach motivation despite negative affective valence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74:5, 1310-1316. Hyvrinen, A., 1999. Fast and robust fixed-point algorithms for independent component analysis. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 10:3, 626-634.

42 Innes-Ker, ., Niedenthal, P.M., 2002. Emotion concepts and emotional states in social judgment and categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83:4, 804816. Karrasch, M., Laine, M., Rapinoja, P., Krause, C.M., 2004. Effects of normal aging on event-related desynchronization/synchronization during a memory task in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 366, 18-23. Karrasch, M., Laine, M., Rinne, J.O., Rapinoja, P., Sinerv, E., Krause, C.M., 2006. Brain oscillatory reponses to an auditory-verbal working memory task in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's diease. International Journal of Psychophysiolgy, 59, 168178. Kirchner, W.K., 1958. Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55:4, 352-358. Klimesch, W., Schimke, H., Doppelmayr, M., Ripper, B., Schwaiger J., Pfurtscheller, G., 1996. Event-related desynchronization (ERD) and the Dm effect: Does alpha desynchronization during encoding predict later recall performance? International Journal of Psychophysiology, 24, 47-60. Klimesch, W., 1997. EEG-alpha rhythms and memory processes. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 2, 319-340. Klimesch, W., 1999. EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis. Brain Research Reviews, 29, 169-195. Krause, C.M., Sillanmki, L., Koivisto, M., Saarela, C., Hggqvist, A., Laine, M., Hmlinen, H., 2000. The effects of memory load on event-related EEG desynchronizaion and synchronization. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111, 2071-2078.

43 Krause, C.M., Viemer, V., Rosenqvist, A., Sillanmki, L., strm, T., 2000. Relative electroencephalographic desynchronization and synchronization in humans to emotional film content: an analysis of the 4-6, 6-8 and 10-12 Hz frequency bands. Neuroscience Letters 286, 9-12. Krause, C.M., 2006. Cognition- and memory-related ERD/ERS responses in the auditory stimulus modality. Progress in Brain Research, 159, 201-211. Krugman., H.E., 1965. The impact of television advertising: learning without involvement. Public Opinion Quarterly, 29, 349-356. Krugman, H.E., 1971. Brain wave measures of media involvement. Journal of Advertising Research, 11, 3-9. Laufs, H., Krakow, K., Sterzer, P., Eger, E., Beyerle, A., Salek-Haddadi, A., Kleinschmidt, A., 2003. Electroencephalographic signatures of attentional and cognitive default models in spontaneous brain activity fluctuations at rest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100:19, 11053-11058. Laybourne, P., Lewis, D., 2005. Neuromarketing: the future of consumer research? Admap Magazine, 461, 28-30. Lee, N., Broderick, A.J., Chamberlain, L., 2007. What is neuromarketing? A discussion and agenda for future research. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 63, 199-204. Lewis, D., Bridger, D., 2005. Market researchers make increasing use of brain imaging. Advances in Clinical Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, 5:3, 36-37. Logothetis, N.K., Pauls, J., Augath, M., Trinath, T., Oeltermann, A., 2001. Neurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal. Nature, 412, 150-157.

44 Makeig, S., 1993. Auditory event-related dynamics of the EEG spectrum and effects of exposure to tones. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 86, 283-293. Malhotra, N.K., 1992. Shifting perspective on the shifting paradigm in marketing research: A new paradigm in marketing research. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 20:4, 379-387. Mast, F.W., Zaltman, G., 2005. A behavioral window on the mind of the market: An application of the response time paradigm. Brain Research Bulletin, 67, 422-427. Mazaheri, A., Picton, T.W., 2005. EEG spectral dynamics during discrimination of auditory and visual targets. Cognitive Brain Research, 24:1, 81-96. Owen, A.M., McMillan, K.M., Laird, A.R., Bullmore, E., 2005. N-back working memory paradigm: A meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 46-59. Pesonen, M., Haarala Bjrnberg, C., Hmlinen, H., Krause, C.M., 2006. Brain oscillatory 1-30 Hz EEG ERD/ERS responses during the different stages ofan auditory memory search task. Neuroscience Letters, 399, 45-50. Pesonen, M., Hmlinen, H., Krause, C.M., 2007. Brain oscillatory 4-30 Hz responses during a visual n-back memory task with varying memory load. Brain Research, 1138, 171-177. Pfurtscheller, G., Neuper, C., 1997. Motor imagery activates primary sensorimotor area in humans. Neuroscience Letters, 239:2-3, 65-68. Pfurtscheller, G., Zalaudek, K., Neuper, C., 1998. Event-related beta synchronization after wrist, finger and thumb movement. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Electromyography and Motor Control, 109:2, 154-160.

45 Rossiter, J.R., Silberstein, R.B, 2001. Brain-imaging detection of visual scene encoding in long-term memory for TV commercials. Journal of Advertising Research, 41, 13-21. Rothschild, M.L., Hyun, Y.J., Reeves, B., Thorson, E., Goldstein, R., 1988. Hemispherically lateralized EEG as a response to television commercials. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 185-198. Rothschild, M.L., Hyun, Y.J., 1990. Predicting memory for components of TV commercials from EEG. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 472-478. Rusalova, M.N., Kostyunina, M.B., 2004. Spectral correlation studies of emotional states in humans. Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology, 34:8, 803-808. Sauseng, P., Klimesch, W., Schabus, M., Doppelmayr, M., 2005. Fronto-parietal EEG coherence in theta and upper alpha reflect central executive functions of working memory. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 57:2, 97-103. Silberstein, R.B., Harris, P.G., Nield, G.A., Pipingas, A., 2000. Frontal steady-state potential changes predict long-term recognition memory performance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 39, 79-85. Simons, R.F., Detenber, B.H., Cuthbert, B.N., Schwarts, D.D., Reiss, J.E., 2003. Attention to television: Alpha power and its relation to image motion and emotional content. Media Psychology, 5, 283-301. Smith, M.E., Gevins, A., 2004. Attention and brain activity while watching television: components of viewer engatement. Media Psychology, 6, 285-305. Sternberg, S., 1966. High-speed scanning in human memory. Science, New Series, 153:3736, 652-654.

46 Tomarke, A.J., Davidson, R.J., Henriques, J.B., 1990. Resting frontal brain asymmetry predicts affective responses to films. Journal of Personalit and Social Psychology, 59:4, 791-801. Tulving, E., 1972. Episodic and semantic memory. In Tulving, E., Donaldson, W., (Eds.). Organization of Memory, 381-403. New York: Academic Press. Tulving, E., 1983. Elements of Episodic Memory. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Weinstein, S., Appel, V., Weinstein, C., 1980. Brain-activity responses to magazine and television advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 20:3, 57-62. Wicker, A.W., 1969. Attitudes versus actions: the relationship of verbal and overt behavioral responses to attitude objects. Journal of Social Issues, 25, 41-78. Wilson, T.D., Schooler, J.W., 1991. Thinking too much: introspection can reduce the quality of preferences and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60:2, 181-192. Wilson, T.D., Lisle, D.J., Schooler, J.W., Hodges, S.D., Klaaren, K.J., LaFleur, S.J., 1993. Introspecting about reasons can reduce post-choice satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19:3, 331-339. Wilson, M.R, Gaines, J., Ronald, P.H., 2008. Neuromarketing and consumer free will. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 42:3, 389-410. Young, C., 2002. Brain waves, Picture Sorts, and branding moments. Journal of Advertising Research, 42, 42-53.

47

APPENDIX 1 PRELIMINARY PILOT STUDIES

1. Methods (first pilot study) 1.1 Experimental structure Subjects took part in a visual n-back task with 4 conditions (0, 1, 2 and 3-back). After the experiment, they filled a questionnaire (appendix 7) regarding the advertisements they saw. They were asked to spontaneously list as many things (pictures, colours, etc.) they could recall concerning the advertisements, list the names of the brands they could remember seeing in the advertisements, write down a short description about the advertisement they thought was the best, and report all positive and negative feelings any advertisement had caused. 1.1.2 Participants 3 subjects (2 male (21 and 25 years old), 1 female (20 years old)) participated in the pilotexperiment. No reward was paid to any subject. 1.1.3 Stimulus generation and presentation The stimuli and the visual n-back task used were identical to the ones used during the actual EEG-experiment. Subjects were seated in front of a 19-inch computer monitor (approximately 50 centimetres away). A standard computer keyboard (Finnish layout) was used with the left and right CTRL-buttons labelled and coloured as GREEN and RED.

48 1.1.4 Experimental procedure Subjects were brought into a silent test room and given a written explanation of the nature of the study, as well as oral instructions. After each memory load condition subjects were given a chance to have a short, up to 5-minutes, break. 1.2 Results The experimental setup and the version of the n-back-paradigm worked well and there were no complications during the experiment. The overall durations of the experiment for each subject were 42, 30, and 56 minutes. The number of errors during the memory load conditions seemed to increase with increasing memory load. 1.3 Conclusion The results indicated that the experimental structure was working, and we proceeded to conducting a second pilot experiment in order to collect some preliminary data for analyzing. 2. Methods (second pilot study) 2.1 Experimental structure The second pilot experiment included two phases. 1) Subjects took part in a visual n-back task with 4 memory load conditions (0, 1, 2 and 3-back). After the n-back task, they filled a questionnaire with unaided recall tasks (appendix 7) regarding the advertisements they saw. 2) Subjects returned about 2-3 weeks later and filled the same questionnaire used in the first phase, and underwent an advertisement-recognition task.

49 2.2 Phase one procedures 2.2.1 Participants 9 subjects (mean age = 25 years, SD = 4.12, range = 21-35 years) took part in the experiment. No reward was paid to any subject. 2.2.2 Stimulus generation and presentation Identical to the first pilot study. 2.2.3 Experimental procedure Subjects were brought into a silent test room and given a written explanation of the nature of the study, as well as oral instructions. After each memory load condition subjects were given a chance to have a short, up to 5-minutes, break. After undergoing all the memory load conditions, subjects filled the same questionnaire used in the first pilot study. 2.3 Phase two procedures 2.3.1 Experimental procedure All subjects took part in the second phase of the experiment 2-3 weeks later. First, they filled the same questionnaire as they did at the end of the first phase. Second, they were shown the same 30 advertisements used as stimuli in the n-back task, along with 30 new ones, in a randomized order from a 19-inch computer monitor. During each advertisement, the subjects were to indicate if they thought they had seen it before.

50 2.3.2 Statistical methods The number of incorrect responses and reaction times (RTs) during the n-back task were recorded for each memory load condition. The statistical significance of the percentages of incorrect responses and differences in the RTs between the memory load conditions were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with one withinsubjects factor, LOAD (four levels: 0-back, 1-back, 2-back and 3-back. 2.4 Results The percentage of incorrect responses increased with increasing memory load. The same was not observed for the RTs. Due to this, the main effect for the factor LOAD was statistically significant on the percentage of incorrect responses (F(1, 8) = 11.98, p < .02), but not on RTs (F(1, 8) = 5.03, p < .055). 2.5 Conclusions The results indicated that the experimental structure was working well enough, and we proceeded to conducting the actual EEG-experiment. Due to highly inconclusive results from phase two, some major alterations to the phase two experimental procedure were made. The final experimental structure and procedures are listed in the methods-chapter of this thesis.

51

APPENDIX 2
FIGURE 8

52 Fig. 8: Results from the second phase of the experiment. The y-axis represents the brand names, and the x-axis represents the amount of subjects that recalled a particular brand. The colours of the bars represent the three different aided and unaided recall-tasks (descriptions shown on the right side). The stimulus brands used as the well and poorly recalled ones were selected in reference to the results shown, by visual inspection. As can be seen in figure 8, the number of subjects that recalled a particular brand was considerably lower for task 1 (unaided recall).

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APPENDIX 3
List of all the brand names (product category in brackets) Alliance Leicester (investing) ASDA (pastries) Barclays (travel) Bombardier (beers) Brains / SA (beers) Brastemp (electronics) Choccywoccydoodah (pastries) Cotton USA (clothing) Electric (electronics) Eurostar (travel) Fifi and the Flowertots (toys) For Dummies (books) Funeral Home (perfumes) Gabriela (abuse prevention) Haute Garonne / Tourisme33 (travel) Kingsmill (pastries) Marstons Pedigree (beers, predesignated target-stimulus brand during the 0-back memory load condition) Mcvities (pastries) Playpark (online entertainment site) Sainsburys (pastries) Sequoia National Park (attraction) Tesco (pastries) The Cake Shop (pastries) TP Toys (toys) Tubman Museum (attraction) TVA (electronics) Uralkali (investing) Veolia Environnement (energy) Warburtons (pastries) Weight Watchers (pastries) The best 9 recalled brands Barclays Weight Watchers For Dummies The Cake Shop Cotton USA ASDA Sainsburys Fifi and the Flowertots Sequoia National Park

54 The worst 9 recalled brands Brastemp Electric Gabriela Playpark Haute Garonne / Tourisme33 Funeral Home Choccywoccydoodah TVA Warburtons

It should be noted that the brand Marstons pedigree was not selected as one of the well recalled stimulus brands, as it was used as the predesignated target-stimulus in the 0-back memory load condition. Therefore the number of times it was presented as a stimulus was significantly higher as compared to other well recalled stimulus brands.

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APPENDIX 4
Koehenkiltiedote (EEG) Tutkimuksessa selvitetn sit, miten lehtimainosten katselu ilmenee aivojen toiminnassa. Tutkimusmenetelmn kytetn elektroenkefalografiaa (EEG). EEG-tutkimuksessa phn asetetaan elektrodeja, jotka mittaavat kallon ja pnahan lpi vlittyv aivojen tuottamaa shkist toimintaa. EEG:n mittaamiseen ei liity minknlaisia riskitekijit. Tss kokeessa tulet nkemn ulkomaalaisia lehtimainoksia. Kokeessa on nelj noin 15 minuutin pituista vaihetta, joiden vliss voit halutessasi pit muutaman minuutin pituisen tauon. Tulemme kysymn sinulta asioita mainosten sisllist noin viikon kuluttua kokeesta. _________________________________________________________________________ Kokeen nelj vaihetta ovat seuraavanlaiset (PYRI VASTAAMAAN MAHDOLLISIMMAN VIRHEETTMSTI): Vaihe 1 (0-back) 1. Ennen kokeen alkua sinulle esitetn yksi mainos, joka on tarkoitus pit mieless. Tmn jlkeen varsinainen koe alkaa. 2. Tulet nyt nkemn erilaisia lehtimainoksia. Aina kun net alussa esitetyn mainoksen, paina VIHRE nappia. Aina kun net mink tahansa muun mainoksen, paina PUNAISTA nappia. Jokaisen mainoksen kohdalla painetaan siis jompaakumpaa nappia. 3. Painettuasia nappia mainoksen kohdalla kyseinen mainos katoaa ja tilalle tulee 2 sekunnin ajaksi musta ruutu, jonka jlkeen seuraava mainos ilmestyy ruudulle. 4. Voit painaa nappia heti kun haluat. Muista kuitenkin, ett kokeen lopussa sinulta tullaan kysymn asioita mainosten sisllist. Vaihe 2 (1-back) 1. Tulet nkemn samoja lehtimainoksia kuin edell, eik sinulle esitet ennen koetta mitn yksittist mainosta. 2. Aina kun net mink tahansa mainoksen esitettyn kaksi kertaa perkkin (tai useammin), paina VIHRE nappia. Muiden mainosten kohdalla paina PUNAISTA nappia. 3. ESIMERKKI (alleviivaus kuvastaa mainosta, jonka kohdalla painetaan VIHRE nappia): 123366497555666 4. Muuten samat ohjeet kuin vaiheessa 1.

56 Vaihe 3 (2-back) 1. Aina kun net mink tahansa mainoksen esiintyvn uudestaan siten, ett vliss oli yksi mik tahansa mainos, paina VIHRE nappia. Muiden mainosten kohdalla paina PUNAISTA nappia. 2. ESIMERKKI (alleviivaus kuvastaa mainosta, jonka kohdalla painetaan VIHRE nappia): 34339145458832333 3. Muuten samat ohjeet kuin vaiheissa 1-2. Vaihe 4 (3-back) 1. Aina kun net mink tahansa mainoksen esiintyvn uudestaan siten, ett vliss oli kaksi muuta mainosta, paina VIHRE nappia. Muiden mainosten kohdalla paina PUNAISTA nappia. 2. ESIMERKKI (alleviivaus kuvastaa mainosta, jonka kohdalla painetaan VIHRE nappia): 1231987487551231 3. Muuten samat ohjeet kuin vaiheissa 1-3. PYRI VASTAAMAAN MAHDOLLISIMMAN VIRHEETTMSTI! Muista ottaa rannekello sek suuret pn alueen korut pois tutkimuksen ajaksi sek jtt GSM-puhelin suljettuna rekisterintihuoneen ulkopuolelle. Istu mukavasti ja vlt liikkeit, lihasten jnnittmist sek silmien rpyttely. Lisksi on trke, ett pidt silmt auki koko kokeen ajan. Olen ymmrtnyt edell lukemani tekstin ja suostun vapaaehtoisesti koehenkilksi EEGtutkimukseen. Olen saanut esitt kokeenjohtajalle kysymyksi liittyen kokeeseen ja niihin on vastattu. Helsingiss, ______ / ______ 200__ __________________________________________

__________________________________________ nimen selvennys

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APPENDIX 5 KOKEENJOHTAJA TYTT:

1. Koehenkiln numero:______________________________________ 2. Tutkimuspiv ja kellonaika:________________________________ 3. Muuta huomioitavaa ja rekisterinnin aikana tapahtuvaa: _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________

58

TAUSTATIETOLOMAKE

1. Koehenkiln nimi:________________________________________ 2. Osoite: _________________________________________________ 3. Puhelin: ________________________________________________ 4. Shkposti: _____________________________________________ 5. Syntymaika: ____________________________________________ 6. Nk: normaali ( ), korjattu normaaliksi ( ), huono ( ) 7. Neurologisia tai psyykkisi sairauksia (aivovamma, MS, epilepsia, aivoverenkiertohiriit, masennus jne.): ________________________ _________________________________________________________ 8. Oletko oikeaktinen ( ), vasenktinen ( ) vai molempiktinen ( ) 9. Muuta listtv: _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________

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Koulutukseen ja kielitaitoon liittyvt kysymykset 10. Peruskoulutus: Korkeakoulututkinto ( ) Jos, niin mik? _________________________________________________________ Paine _________________________________________________________ Sivuaineet _________________________________________________________ Valmistumisvuosi _________________________________________________________ Muu tutkinto ( ) Jos, niin mik? _________________________________________________________ Valmistumisvuosi _________________________________________________________ 11.idinkieli:______________________________________________ 12. Luetun englannin kielen ymmrtminen: huono ( ), keskinkertainen ( ), hyv ( ), erinomainen ( ) 13. Kuullun englannin kielen ymmrtminen: huono ( ), keskinkertainen ( ), hyv ( ), erinomainen ( )

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14. Kuinka vsyneeksi tunnet itsesi nyt (ennen koetta)? Laita rasti sopivaan kohtaan asteikolla 0=erittin vsynyt, 10=erittin pirte. 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------- 10

15. Kuinka vsyneeksi tunnet itsesi nyt (kokeen jlkeen)? Laita rasti sopivaan kohtaan asteikolla 0=erittin vsynyt, 10=erittin pirte. 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------- 10

KIITOS OSALLISTUMISESTASI!

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APPENDIX 6
Muistatko aikaisemmin nhneesi alla listattuja brndej? 1 = olen varma, ett en ole nhnyt, 4 = olen varmasti nhnyt. Ympyri paras vaihtoehto.

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APPENDIX 7
1. MIT ASIOITA MUISTAT NKEMISTSI MAINOKSISTA? LISTAA HELPOITEN MIELEEN TULEVAT ASIAT. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

2. LUETTELE KAIKKI BRNDIT, JOITA MUISTAT MAINOKSISSA MAINOSTETUN. _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 3. MIST MAINOKSESTA PIDIT ENITEN? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 4. MIST MAINOKSESTA PIDIT VHITEN?

______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

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APPENDIX 8
Mitk seuraavista brndeist muistat nhneesi kokeessa? Ympyri paras vaihtoehto (1=en muista nhneeni, 2=en osaa sanoa, 3=muistan nhneeni).

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