Classical Mechanics

( Particles and Biparticles )

Alejandro A. Torassa
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (2011) Buenos Aires, Argentina atorassa@gmail.com

Abstract This paper considers the existence of biparticles and presents a general equation of motion, which can be applied in any non-rotating reference frame (inertial or non-inertial) without the necessity of introducing ctitious forces.

Universal Reference Frame

The universal reference frame S is a reference frame in which the accel eration a of any particle is given by the following equation: a= F m

where F is the net force acting on the particle, and m is the mass of the particle. The universal reference frame S is an inertial reference frame. Therefore, it can be stated that the universal reference frame S is also a non-rotating reference frame.

General Equation of Motion

The general equation of motion for two particles A and B, is as follows: ma mb (ra rb ) = ma mb ( a rb ) r where ma and mb are the masses of particles A and B, ra and rb are the positions of particles A and B relative to a non-rotating reference frame S, ra and rb are the positions of particles A and B relative to the universal reference frame S. If ma mb = mab , (ra rb ) = rab and ( a rb ) = rab , then the above equation r reduces to: mab rab = mab rab The general equation of motion for a system of N particles, is as follows: r mi mj (ri rj ) = mi mj ( i rj )
i j>i i j>i

where mi and mj are the masses of the i-th and j-th particles, ri and rj are the positions of the i-th and j-th particles relative to a non-rotating reference frame S, ri and rj are the positions of the i-th and j-th particles relative to the universal reference frame S. If mi mj = mij , (ri rj ) = rij and ( i rj ) = rij , then the above equation r reduces to: mij rij = mij rij
i j>i i j>i

A system of particles forms a system of biparticles. For example, the system of particles A, B, C and D forms the system of biparticles AB, AC, AD, BC, BD and CD.

Particles and Biparticles

From the general equation of motion for two particles A and B (underlined blue equation) the following equations are obtained:
BIPARTICLE PARTICLE

K I N E M A T I C S

1 2 2 aab

2 = 1 aab 2

aab = aab

aa = aa

1 2 2 aa

2 = 1 aa 2

1 2 2 vab

2 = 1 vab 2

vab = vab

va = va

1 2 2 va

2 = 1 va 2

1 2 2 rab

2 = 1 rab 2

rab = rab

ra = ra

1 2 2 ra

2 = 1 ra 2

K I N E M A T I C S

1 2 2 mab rab

2 = 1 mab rab mab rab = mab rab 2

ma ra = ma ra

1 2 2 ma ra

2 = 1 ma ra 2 D Y N A M I C S

D Y N A M I C S

1 2 2 mab vab

2 = 1 mab vab mab vab = mab vab 2

ma va = ma va

1 2 2 ma va

2 = 1 ma va 2

1 2 2 mab aab

2 = 1 mab aab mab aab = mab aab 2

ma aa = ma aa

1 2 2 ma aa

2 = 1 ma aa 2

BIPARTICLE

PARTICLE

The blue equations are valid in any non-rotating reference frame, since (rab = rab ), (vab = vab ) and (aab = aab ) The red equations are valid in any inertial reference frame, since (aa = aa )

The kinematic equations are obtained from the dynamic equations if we consider that all particles have the same mass. Therefore, the kinematic equations are a special case of the dynamic equations.
The dynamics of particles is obtained from the dynamics of biparticles if we only consider biparticles that have the same particle. For example: If we consider a system of biparticles AB, AC and BC, we have: AB + AC + BC = AB + AC + BC Considering only the biparticles that have particle C, it follows: AC + BC = AC + BC Applying the general equation of motion, we obtain: ma mc (ra rc ) + mb mc (rb rc ) = ma mc ( a rc ) + mb mc ( b rc ) r r Differentiating twice with respect to time, yields: ma mc (aa ac ) + mb mc (ab ac ) = ma mc ( a ac ) + mb mc ( b ac ) a a Dividing by mc , using a reference frame C xed to particle C ( ac = 0 relative to reference frame C ) and assuming that reference frame C is inertial (ac = ac ), we obtain: ma aa + mb ab = ma aa + mb ab Substituting a = F/m and rearranging, nally yields: Fa + Fb = ma aa + mb ab

Equation of Motion
From the general equation of motion it follows that the acceleration aa of a particle A relative to a reference frame S (non-rotating) xed to a particle S, is given by the following equation: aa = Fa Fs ma ms

where Fa is the net force acting on particle A, ma is the mass of particle A, Fs is the net force acting on particle S, and ms is the mass of particle S. In contradiction with Newtons rst and second laws, from the above equation it follows that particle A can have non-zero acceleration even if there is no force acting on particle A, and also that particle A can have zero acceleration (state of rest or of uniform linear motion) even if there is an unbalanced force acting on particle A. On the other hand, from the above equation it also follows that Newtons rst and second laws are valid in the reference frame S only if the net force acting on particle S equals zero. Therefore, the reference frame S is an inertial reference frame only if the net force acting on particle S equals zero.

Bibliography
A. Einstein, Relativity: The Special and General Theory. E. Mach, The Science of Mechanics. R. Resnick and D. Halliday, Physics. J. Kane and M. Sternheim, Physics. H. Goldstein, Classical Mechanics. L. Landau and E. Lifshitz, Mechanics.

Appendix Transformations
The universal reference frame S is an inertial reference frame. Any inertial reference frame is a non-rotating reference frame. Any central reference frame S cm (reference frame xed to the center of mass of a system of particles) is a non-rotating reference frame. A change of coordinates x, y, z, t from a reference frame S (non-rotating) to coordinates x , y , z , t from another reference frame S (non-rotating) whose origin O has coordinates xo , yo , zo measured from reference frame S, can be carried out by means of the following equations: x = x xo y = y yo z = z zo t =t From the above equations, the transformation of position, velocity and acceleration from reference frame S to reference frame S may be carried out, and expressed in vector form as follows: r = r ro v = v vo a = a ao where ro , vo and ao are the position, velocity and acceleration respectively, of reference frame S relative to reference frame S. 6

Definitions
Particles Mass Vector position Vector velocity Vector acceleration Scalar position Scalar velocity Scalar acceleration Work Mi = i mi Ri = i mi ri /Mi Vi = i mi vi /Mi Ai = i mi ai /Mi
1 Ri = i 2 mi ri2 /Mi 1 Vi = i 2 mi vi2 /Mi

Biparticles Mij = i j>i mij Rij = i j>i mij rij /Mij Vij = i j>i mij vij /Mij Aij = i j>i mij aij /Mij
1 2 Rij = i j>i 2 mij rij /Mij 2 Vij = i j>i 1 mij vij /Mij 2 2 Aij = i j>i 1 mij aij /Mij 2

Ai = i 1 mi ai2 /Mi 2 Wi = i Wi = mi ai dri i 1 mi vi2 2

Wij = i j>i

mij aij drij

1 2 Wij = i j>i 2 mij vij

Relations
Mij Rij = Mi2 Ri 1 Ri2 2
1 Mij Vij = Mi2 Vi 2 Vi2 1 Mij Aij = Mi2 Ai 2 Ai2

If Mi2 /Mij = k, then the above equations relative to the central reference frame S cm reduces to:
cm Rij = k Ricm cm Vij = k Vicm cm Aij = k Aicm

Principles

The positions, velocities and accelerations (vector and scalar) of a system of biparticles are invariant under transformations between non-rotating reference frames.
cm Rij = Rij = Rij = Rij cm Vij = Vij = Vij = Vij cm Aij = Aij = Aij = Aij cm Rij = Rij = Rij = Rij cm Vij = Vij = Vij = Vij cm Aij = Aij = Aij = Aij

From this principle it follows that the acceleration aa of a particle A relative to a non-rotating reference frame S xed to a particle S, is given by the following equation: aa = Fa Fs ma ms

where Fa is the net force acting on particle A, ma is the mass of particle A, Fs is the net force acting on particle S, and ms is the mass of particle S.

The accelerations (vector and scalar) of a system of particles are invariant under transformations between inertial reference frames.
Ai = Ai = Ai Ai = Ai = Ai

From this principle it follows that the acceleration aa of a particle A relative to an inertial reference frame S, is given by the following equation: aa = Fa ma

where Fa is the net force acting on particle A, and ma is the mass of particle A. 8

Work and Force

The work Wij done by the forces acting on a system of biparticles relative to a non-rotating reference frame, is given by: Wij =
i j>i

mi mj

Fi F j mi mj

d (ri rj )

The work Wi done by the forces acting on a system of particles relative to the central reference frame, is given by: Wi =
i

Fi dri

The work Wi done by the forces acting on a system of particles relative to an inertial reference frame, is given by: Wi =
i

Fi dri

Conservation of Kinetic Energy

If the forces acting on a system of particles do not perform work relative to the central reference frame, then the kinetic energy of the system of particles is conserved relative to the central reference frame. If the kinetic energy of the system of particles is conserved relative to the central reference frame, then the kinetic energy of the system of biparticles is conserved relative to any non-rotating reference frame. If the forces acting on the system of particles do not perform work relative to an inertial reference frame, then the kinetic energy and linear momentum (magnitude) of the system of particles are conserved relative to the inertial reference frame; even if Newtons third law were not valid. 9