Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218 – 238

www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

End-Permian extinction and volcanism-induced environmental stress:

The Permian–Triassic boundary interval of lower-slope facies
at Chaotian, South China
Yukio Isozaki a,⁎, Noriei Shimizu a , Jianxin Yao b , Zhansheng Ji b , Tetsuo Matsuda c,✠
a
Department of Earth Science and Astronomy, The University of Tokyo, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
b
Geology Institute, Chinese Academy of Geological Science, Baiwangzhong, Beijing 100037, China
c
Kyoei Consulting Corporation, Toyama, Japan

Accepted 30 November 2006

Abstract

In order to reveal environmental changes across the Permo-Triassic boundary (PTB), the detailed lithostratigraphy of the PTB interval is
analyzed at Chaotian in northern Sichuan, China. The studied section is composed of the Changhsingian (Upper Permian) Dalong
Formation and the Induan (Lower Triassic) Feixianguan Formation of a lower-slope facies deposited on the northwestern margin of the
Yangtze carbonate platform. The 12-m-thick interval across the PTB consists mainly of bedded carbonates and mudstone, and is
lithologically divided into 7 units, i.e., Units A to G, in ascending order. The main extinction horizon of Permian taxa is recognized at the
Unit D/E boundary where various fossil metazoans and protists, such as ammonoids, brachiopods, bivalves, conodonts, and radiolarians,
rapidly disappeared or became scarce. The complete disappearance of radiolarians at the Unit D/E boundary emphasizes that the PTB
extinction affected not only various Late Permian benthic and free-swimming metazoans but also planktonic protozoans. The lowest
Induan index conodont Hindeodus parvus first occurs at the base of Unit F, marking the biostratigraphically defined PTB horizon. Unit E
composed of unique bedded marl between the main extinction horizon and the first occurrence of Triassic taxon represents a period of
strong environmental stresses that suppressed productivity both of silica- and carbonate-secreting organisms. By changing their size,
radiolarians reacted most sensitively to the environmental change that already started in the late Changhsingian, appreciably before the final
extinction event. The frequent intercalation of rhyo-dacitic tuff beds, particularly in Unit D and the lower part of Unit E across the main
extinction horizon, suggests that intermittent felsic volcanism and relevant environmental change may have been responsible for the mass
extinction of the Permian taxa and for the prolonged post-extinction lag time before the initial recovery. The frequent ash falls during the
late Changhsingian indicate that the volcanism-induced environmental change had already started earlier than the main extinction. All the
biological production (carbonate, silica, and organic matter) collapsed at the Unit D/E boundary when the environmental stresses may have
passed a critical threshold for maintaining ecological stability. The PTB interval between the extinction and the first appearance of Triassic
taxon at Chaotian is ca. 1.4 m thick, apparently almost eight times thicker than that at the Global Stratotype Section and Point of PTB in
Meishan (19 cm). The Chaotian section, as well as the neighboring Shangsi section in northern Sichuan, may provide a better chance for
high-resolution chemostratigraphic analyses that may allow detection and correlation of subtle environmental changes across the PTB.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Permian–Triassic boundary; Mass extinction; Radiolaria; Environmental stress; Felsic volcanism; South China

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: isozaki@chianti.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp (Y. Isozaki).
✠
Deceased April 23, 2002.

0031-0182/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.11.051
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
1. Introduction
The Permo-Triassic boundary (PTB; ca. 252–253 Ma;
Mundil et al., 2004) marks the most severe mass
extinction in Phanerozoic life history, with a large variety
of marine and terrestrial biota being lost (up to 90% at the
species level; Sepkoski, 1984, 1996). Despite long-term
discussion of various ideas and hypotheses, its cause still
remains unknown (e.g., Erwin et al., 2002; Bottjer, 2004),
although an extraterrestrial cause for the PTB event
appears unlikely (e.g., Isozaki, 2001a; Koeberl et al.,
2002; Farley et al., 2005). Regardless of the ultimate
cause, there is agreement among researchers that large-
scale environmental change, probably of a global scale,
occurred at the PTB and terminated various ecological
habitats as well as Permian biota.
The main source of information on the PTB extinction
event has been the thick, fossiliferous sedimentary
sequences deposited in the Tethyan domain. One of
these sections at Meishan in South China was lately
selected as the Global Stratotype Section and Point
(GSSP) of the PTB (Yin et al., 2001). In the rest of the
world, however, the marine Upper Permian strata are
often incomplete owing to the presence of a remarkable
unconformity, and terrestrial non-marine sequences lack
detailed fossil control for high-resolution correlation of
the PTB horizon. The exceptional and excellent preser-
vation of the continuous PTB interval in South China may
have been probably related to its unique extension-
dominant tectonic setting during the Paleozoic–Mesozoic
transition. More than 50 PTB sections have been
described to date (e.g., Yin et al., 1992), however, com-
plete PTB intervals adequately underpinned by various
index fossils are quite rare even in South China, owing to
the drastic lateral facies change in local basins sensitive to
subtle sea-level fluctuations.
In order to reveal the nature of PTB global envi-
ronmental change, we organized a Japan–China joint
research team in 1997 and conducted detailed stratigra-
phical research focused on the PTB interval in several areas
of South China. We targeted sections of deep slope/basin
facies rather than those of shallow platform carbonates to
ensure complete succession. The marine Upper Permian
rocks in the northern parts of Sichuan province are
characterized by fine-grained bedded sequences of a
relatively deep slope to basinal facies, likely to record
continuous sequence across the PTB without unconformi-
ty and hiatus. The studied section in Chaotian in northern
Sichuan (Fig. 1A) exposes an almost complete succession
of Middle Permian to Lowest Triassic rocks. Isozaki et al.
(2004) reported the general stratigraphic framework of the
Chaotian section that contains a well-exposed PTB
219
interval. Despite its rich paleontological data (Zhao et al.,
1978; Yang et al., 1987) and stratigraphic continuity across
the PTB, not much attention has been paid to the Chaotian
section relating to the mass extinction.
We analyzed litho- and biostratigraphy of the PTB
interval in the Chaotian section in detail in order to
document the putative PTB environmental change re-
sponsible for the greatest mass extinction of the
Phanerozoic. This article describes high-resolution litho-
and biostratigraphy of the PTB interval of the Chaotian
section including the main extinction horizon of the
Permian taxa and that of the first appearance of the Triassic
one. We focused particularly on volcanic tuffs frequently
intercalated in the PTB interval, and on stratigraphic
change in radiolarian density and test size. As radiolarians
were the only zooplanktons that monitored the silica
budget and bioproductivity of surface waters, their
behavior immediately before the crisis at the PTB is
significant in understanding the environmental change
relevant to a possible cause of the PTB mass extinction.
Isozaki, Matsuda, and Yao mapped and logged the
Chaotian section, Ji and Yao studied conodont biostra-
tigraphy, and Shimizu and Isozaki analyzed microscopic
textures and geochemical aspects of the PTB interval
including stratigraphic changes in radiolarian abundance
and test size. Refer to Isozaki et al. (2004) for overview
of the Chaotian section, and to Ji et al. (2007-this issue)
for details of the PTB conodont biostratigraphy.
2. Geologic setting
In the Late Permian and Early Triassic, the South China
craton was isolated from other continental blocks in a low-
latitude area around the equator, forming the eastern
margin of the Paleo-Tethys (Scotese and Langford, 1995).
Throughout most of the Permian period, shallow marine
fossiliferous carbonates accumulated thickly over craton to
form the Yangtze carbonate platform. The eastern half of
Sichuan province corresponds to the northwestern margin
of the Permian Yangtze platform, immediately to the south
of the Qinling–Dabie collisional suture that formed in the
Triassic. The shallow marine carbonate platform developed
extensively in the Middle Permian and early Late Permian
time in the western part of South China craton (Zhu et al.,
1999; Fig. 1B) that directly faced to the eastern Paleo-
Tethys. In the later part of the Late Permian, the platform
shrunk toward south by being replaced by a deeper slope
and basin (Fig. 1C). In northern Sichuan (Fig. 1A), the
Upper Permian (Lopingian) and Lower Triassic (Induan)
consist of less calcareous and more argillaceous/siliceous
fine-grained rocks of a deep-water slope facies. They show
a remarkable contrast with the underlying Maokou
220 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238

Fig. 1. Index map of the Chaotian section in northern Sichuan, South China (A), and the Late Permian (Late Wuchiapingian and Late Changhsingian)
paleogeographic maps of the northwestern South China craton (B, C: modified from Zhu et al., 1999). Note the remarkable facies change in northern
Sichuan during the Late Permian, from shallow marine carbonate platform (B: early Late Permian) to deep-water basinal siliceous limestone (C:
Permo-Triassic boundary interval).

Formation of the Guadalupian (Middle Permian) age, as
well as with the coeval platform carbonates, that contain
abundant shallow marine bioclasts.
The Chaotian section is located nearly 20 km to the
north of Guangyuan city, northern Sichuan (Fig. 1A).
Extensive exposures of Middle Permian to Lower Triassic
rocks are observed along the southbound Jialingjiang
river that forms a narrow gorge called Mingyuexia
(Fig. 2A). In the center of the ca. 1-km-long gorge, the
axial part of an E–W trending anticline is observed. The
studied section is on the eastern side of the river and on the
southern limb of the anticline. The occurrence of various
ammonoids and conodonts (Zhao et al., 1978; Yang et al.,
1987) were reported from a section on the northern limb
of the anticline on the western side of the river that is along
a railway track. As the latter is partly covered now, details
cannot be checked, nonetheless, the stratigraphy is by and
large the same on both sides of the anticline.
The Chaotian section, over 200 m in total thickness, is
composed of Middle Permian Maokou Formation,
Upper Permian Wujiaping and Dalong formations, and
lowermost Triassic Feixianguan Formation, in ascending
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
Fig. 2. The Permo-Triassic boundary (PTB) section along the Jialingjiang River at Chaotian, and the rocks of the PTB interval. (A) Distant view of the entire Chaotian section from the western side of
the river. Note a car (a small white dot in a circle) for scale. (B) Close-up view of the PTB interval, showing the horizons of the main extinction of Permian taxa (yellow line) and the first occurrence of
Triassic taxon (red line). (C) Close-up view of the main extinction horizon between Unit D (Dalong Formation) and Unit E (Feixianguan Formation). (D) Close-up view of the horizon of the first
occurrence of Hindeodus parvus (the index conodont of the lowest Triassic) at the base of Unit F. A pen in red oval is for scale.

221
222 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238

order (Figs. 2A and 3). The PTB is located in the all the Permian and Triassic strata are dipping gently to
lowermost part of the Feixianguan Formation (Fig. 2B). the south at 10°–20°. The Permian and Lower Triassic
As on the southern limb of the E–W trending anticline, rocks are composed mostly of well-bedded, fine-grained
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238 223

limestone, siliceous limestone, and mudstone, with
minor amount of marl and fine-grained sandstone,
suggesting a distal sedimentary setting. The occurrence
of gravity-induced slump beds in lower Dalong
Formation and limestone breccia beds (debris flow
deposits) in Feixianguan Formation further indicates
unstable depositional settings, such as a lower slope to
base-of-slope even on a continental shelf that was much
deeper than shallow-water carbonate platforms. The
slope was probably facing to NNE with a land area and
carbonate platform to the south/southwest in west-
central Sichuan (Fig. 1C). As there was another
carbonate platform in southern Shaanxi during the Late
Permian (Lu, 1956; Rui et al., 1984), the northern
Sichuan formed a deep trough-like basin extending in the
NW–SE direction. The scarceness in shallow marine
bioclasts and dominance in deep-water-type fossil
assemblage (ammonoids, conodonts, and radiolarians)
are concordant with such sedimentary characteristics of
the Upper Permian and Lower Triassic rocks at Chaotian.
The Shangsi section about 60 km to the WSW (Fig. 1A)
exposes a stratigraphic package of a similar age range
and facies (e.g., Li et al., 1989; Wignall et al., 1995; Lai
et al., 1996), although the originally described section
was later concealed by a local farmer's house.
The Maokou Formation (over 75 m thick) is com-
posed mostly of thickly bedded, black to dark gray
bioclastic limestone (mostly wackestone) with abundant
fossils including brachiopods, fusulines, rugose corals,
calcareous algae, and conodonts. It is correlated with the
Wordian to Capitanian (upper Guadalupian) in Texas.
The Wujiaping Formation (68 m thick) is composed
mainly of dark-gray limestone, mostly wackestone and
packstone, with chert nodules/lenses. The limestone
yields various fossils including fusulines, smaller
foraminifers, calcareous algae, brachiopods, gastropods,
crinoids, rugose corals, and conodonts. This formation
is correlated with the Wuchiapingian (Early Lopingian).
The Dalong Formation (26 m thick) consists mostly of
black bituminous mudstone (22 m thick) with micritic,
gray limestone at the top (4 m thick). The black mudstone
is bedded, and it intercalates thin (10–20 cm) layers/
lenses of marl. Slump beds occur in the lower half of the
mudstone. The uppermost (2 m thick) part of the
formation comprises gray, micritic limestone rhythmical-
ly bedded in 5–10 cm with nodular surfaces, and
intercalates several beds of felsic tuff (Fig. 4). Both the
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column of the PTB interval at Chaotian with distribution of various fossil groups and contents of representative components (SiO2,
CaO, TOC) by bulk geochemical analysis. Half-tone patterns in the right column display colors of rocks; dark: black, medium: dark gray, white: light gray
(the same legend for Figs. 4, 6 and 7). Bars in the lower diagrams indicate range of measurements with the average. Note the sharp decline in biodiversity
and abundance at the top of Unit D (top of the Dalong Formation) immediately beneath the unique boundary marl (Unit E). Even after the first appearance
of the Triassic conodont, biodiversity remained still low in the overlying units.
mudstone and limestone of the upper parts are rich in
ammonoids, conodonts, and radiolarians (Fig. 3). The
main part of the formation is correlated with the
Wuchiapingian while the uppermost part with the
Changhsingian (Late Lopingian) respectively. Previous
works (Zhao et al., 1978; Yang et al., 1987) described the
above-mentioned main mudstone as belonging to the
Wujiaping Formation based on the ammonoid age,
however, this part is assigned here in the Dalong
Formation according to its mudstone-dominant lithology.
The Wujiaping Formation at its type locality in southern
Shaanxi province is composed mostly of limestone.
The Feixianguan Formation (over 30 m thick)
consists mainly of thinly bedded, light-gray, micritic
limestone. The lowermost 1.4 m is made up of a
distinctive bed of gray to olive-gray, faintly laminated
marl that is unique to this horizon in the Chaotian section
(Figs. 3 and 4). This marl is almost barren of fossils,
except for the basal part that rarely yields small
ammonoids, brachiopods, and bivalves. The marl lacks
calcareous/phosphatic bioclasts or radiolarian tests
observable even in thin section. Thin layers of acidic
tuff, less than 3 cm thick, occur at several horizons. The
overlying limestone is thinly bedded, and partly
interbedded with thin marl. Nearly 15–20 m above the
base of the formation, several matrix-supported lime-
stone breccia beds of debris flow origin occur.
3. Lithology of the PTB interval
In order to check lithologic change across the PTB in
detail, we analyzed fine-scale stratigraphy of a 12-m-
thick interval across the PTB that is exposed along a
small stream on the eastern side of the Jialingjiang River
(Figs. 2A and B). During the field research, we collected
rock samples from all beds (124 beds) of this interval for
analyses, prepared polished slabs for each sample, and
made more than 200 thin sections in total. This interval
is here lithologically subdivided into 7 units, Units A to
G, in ascending order (Fig. 3). Units A–D correspond to
the uppermost Dalong Formation, and Units E–G to the
lowermost Feixianguan Formation, respectively. Here
we describe these units in ascending order. On the basis
of field, microscopic, and geochemical analyses, the
occurrence and distribution of bioclasts and contents of
representative components (SiO2, CaO, and organic
carbon) are summarized in Fig. 3.
224 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
3.1. Unit A
This N0.9-m-thick unit comprises 14 beds (A1–A14),
4–10 cm thick for each bed. Its base is not exposed. It is
mainly composed of black, slightly calcareous mudstone
with radiolarians and shell fragments of bivalves and
gastropods. Large radiolarians (60–90 μm in diameter)
occur abundantly. The silica (SiO2) and carbonate (CaO)
contents of 3 samples (A1, A5, and A9) are 73.7–83.9
and 11.6–22.3 wt.% (on average 77.8, 16.7 wt.%),
respectively (silica and carbonate contents of bulk
powdered sample were analyzed by XRF). The total
organic carbon (TOC) of two samples (A3 and A13) is
1.05 and 3.35 wt.%. Five beds of ca. 5-cm-thick, black
bituminous shale are intercalated. Except for calcareous
bioclasts, coarse grains of sand size are absent.
3.2. Unit B
This 2.8-m-thick unit consists of 35 beds (B1–B35), 5–
14 cm thick for individual beds. It is mainly composed of
black calcareous mudstone that yields abundant ammo-
noids. The silica and carbonate contents of four sam-
ples (B8, B15, B28, and B34) are 53.9–60.1 and 33.4–
39.5 wt.% (on average 56.6, 36.7 wt.%), respectively. The
TOC of two samples (B6 and B28) is 1.06 and 3.57 wt.%.
These rocks are laminated and lack bioturbation. Several
beds of black shale and felsic tuff are intercalated. Bioclasts
range in size from 1 to 10 mm, and include shell fragments
of brachiopods, bivalves, gastropods, ammonoids, and
ostracodes. In addition, radiolarians (40–60 μm in
diameter) occur abundantly. These bioclasts often form
distinct laminae. In addition, beds of black mudstone and
gray tuff are occasionally intercalated. Except for
calcareous bioclasts, coarse grains of sand size are absent.
3.3. Unit C
This 1.4-m-thick unit comprises 9 beds (C1–C9), five
gray limestone beds (10–20 cm thick) and four black
shale beds (5–10 cm thick) (Fig. 4). Limestone is
classified as wackestone enriched with bioclasts (shell
fragments of bivalves, brachiopods, and ammonoids)
that range in size mostly from 2 to 3 mm in length.
Radiolarians (40–50 μm in diameter) occur but are not so
abundant as in Units A and B. These rocks are laminated
and often feature Zoophycus-like, 1- to 2-cm-deep
burrows. The silica and carbonate contents of two
samples (C1 and C7) are 2.6 and 6.7, and 80.2 and
91.7 wt.% (on average 4.7, 86.0 wt.%), respectively. The
TOC of two samples (C6 and C9) is 1.08 and 1.50 wt.%.
Coarse-grained terrigenous clastics are almost absent.
3.4. Unit D
This 2.3-m-thick unit consists of 24 beds (D1–D24),
3–10 cm thick for each bed (Fig. 4). All of the beds are
wavy-bedded gray limestone, except for the 7-cm-thick
bed D1 composed of felsic tuff. Limestone is classified
mostly as lime mudstone with various bioclasts supported
by micritic matrices. A minor amount of wackestone is
partly included. Bioclasts, ca. 5 mm long on average,
include shell fragments of bivalves, gastropods, brachio-
pods, ammonoids, and ostracodes. Radiolarians (50–80
μm in diameter) occur abundantly. Burrows (ca. 1 cm
deep) are often observed. Pyrite (0.1–1 mm in diameter)
occurs ubiquitously throughout Unit D and is mostly
cubic but large framboidal forms up to 5 mm in diameter
occur in D22. The silica and carbonate contents of six
samples (D5, D11, D15, D19, D21, and D24) are 3.7–
11.2 and 82.9–91.2 wt.% (on average 6.8, 90.5 wt.%),
respectively. The TOC of six samples (D3, D11, D19,
D21, D22, and D24) ranges between 0.02 and 0.14 wt.%.
Coarse-grained terrigenous clastics are absent. In addition
to D1, much thinner layers of acidic tuff, less than 5 cm
thick, occur at 6 horizons.
3.5. Unit E
This 1.4-m-thick unit is composed of 20 beds (E0,
E1.5, E1–E18), 5–10 cm thick for each (Fig. 4). It is
composed mostly of gray marl (Fig. 6) with a minor
amount of felsic tuff. Beds are planar in sharp contrast to
the underlying wavy-bedded limestone of Unit D. Marl is
well laminated in sub-millimeter scale. Except small-
sized bivalves and ammonoids, this unit is almost barren
of fossils. Even under the microscope, no radiolarians
were recognized. Bioturbation was not observed. Cubic
pyrite, less than 0.1 mm in diameter, sporadically occurs.
The silica and carbonate contents of two samples (E5 and
E9) are 31.7 and 42.3, and 35.6 and 47.2 wt.% (on average
37.0, 41.4 wt.%), respectively. This unit is enriched with
aluminum (Al2O3: 8.5–10.5 wt.%) and total iron (Fe2O3:
5.7–6.2 wt.%) with respect to the rest of the PTB interval.
The TOC of four samples (E2, E5, E7, and E11) ranges
between 0.06 and 0.60 wt.%. Coarse-grained terrigenous
clastics are absent. Thin layers of felsic tuff, less than 5 cm
thick, occur at 4 horizons and the 3.5-cm-thick bed E1
(TE2) close to the base of Unit E is the thickest.
3.6. Unit F
This 1.7-m-thick unit consists of 14 beds (F1–F14),
ca. 10-cm thick for each, except for over 20-cm-thick F3
and F13 (Fig. 4). All of these beds are composed of
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238 225

Fig. 4. Detailed stratigraphic column of Units C–F across the Permo-Triassic boundary at Chaotian. Inset is an enlargement of the interval across the
main extinction horizon of Permian taxa. Note the frequent intercalation of felsic tuff, particularly in Unit D and the lower part of Unit E.
226 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
bedded, faintly laminated gray limestone with minor
amount of gray marl and shale. These beds are classified
as lime mudstone. No bioclasts are observed under the
microscope except for rare conodonts. In addition, black
carbonaceous grains, less than 0.1 mm in diameter, are
often concentrated to form a 1-cm-thick dark colored
layer. Lamination is faint and no bioturbation is
recognized. Cubic pyrite ca. 0.2 mm in diameter occurs
ubiquitously. The silica and carbonate contents of four
samples (F1, F4, F9, and F13) are 1.9–13.2 and 77.3–
95.1 wt.% (on average 6.1, 88.1 wt.%), respectively.
The TOC of eight samples (F1, F3, F5, F7, F9, F11, F12,
and F13) ranges between 0.02 and 0.19 wt.%. Coarse-
grained terrigenous clastics are absent.
3.7. Unit G
This N 1.4-m-thick unit comprises 9 beds (G1–G9),
ca. 10-cm thick for each. It consists mainly of bedded,
dark gray limestone with some marl beds. Limestone is
classified in lime mudstone. Except rare conodonts, no
bioclasts were observed even under the microscope but
the limestone contains plenty of black, carbonaceous,
0.1- to 1-mm-long flake-like objects. Lamination is
faint, and no bioturbation developed. The silica and
carbonate contents of three samples (G1, G4, and G8)
are 1.8–3.3 and 92.9–95.9 wt.% (on average 2.7,
93.8 wt.%), respectively. The TOC of four samples (G2,
G4, G6, and G8) ranges between 0.04 and 0.07 wt.%.
Coarse-grained terrigenous clastics are absent.
All of the tuff beds are several centimeters thick and
strongly weathered into soft clay (mostly illite detected
by XRD), but their primary felsic (of rhyolite/dacite
type) composition is proved by the abundant occurrence
of igneous euhedral phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase,
apatite, and zircon (Isozaki et al., 2004). Details of the
felsic tuff beds of the PTB interval in Chaotian will be
reported elsewhere.
4. Biostratigraphy
We newly obtained various mega- and microfossils
from the Chaotian section, and these new data in addition
to those reported by the previous workers (Zhao et al.,
1978; Yang et al., 1987) allowed us to determine the
precise ages of the formations in Chaotian. Fig. 5 lists
representative fossils from the Middle–Upper Permian
and the lowermost Triassic rocks in Chaotian that
include fusulines, brachiopods, bivalves, rugose corals,
ammonoids, and conodonts. According to the lithofa-
cies, the Maokou and Wujiaping formations (carbonates)
are enriched with shallow marine megafossils and their
fragments, such as fusulines, rugose corals, and
calcareous algae, whereas the Dalong Formation (mud-
stone) is replete with remains of relatively deep-water
biota such as radiolarians, conodonts, and ammonoids.
Fossil abundance and diversity are very low in the
Feixianguan Formation (Fig. 3).
The Maokou Formation yields Capitanian (upper
Guadalupian) fusulines (Yabeina, Chusenella), rugose
corals (Waagenophyllum), brachiopods (Neoplicati-
fera), and conodonts (Jinogondolella). The Wujiaping
Formation yields Wuchiapingian (lower Lopingian)
fusulines (Codonofusiella, Reichelina), rugose corals
(Lianshanophyllum, Waagenophyllum), conodonts
(Clarkina), and ammonoids (Araxoceratid).
The Dalong Formation ranges from the upper
Wuchiapingian to upper Changhsingian (Fig. 5). The
lower part of the Dalong Formation yields rare
ammonoids of the Araxoceras–Konglingites Zone
(upper Wuchiapingian). Units A and B of the upper
Dalong Formation (Fig. 3) are characterized by abun-
dant ammonoids of the Pseudostephanites–Tapasha-
nites Zone (lower Changhsingian), whereas Units C, D
by those the Pseudotirolites–Pleuronodoceras Zone
(upper Changhsingian). In terms of conodonts, Unit A,
Unit B, and the lower part of Unit C belong to the
Clarkina changxingensis changxingensis–Clarkina sub-
carinata Zone. The upper part of Unit C and lower Unit
D belong to the Clarkina postwangi–Clarkina sp. B
Zone, and middle–upper Unit D to the Clarkina
taylorae–Clarkina zhejianensis–Clarkina changxingen-
sis yini Zone, respectively. See Ji et al. (2007-this issue)
for details of conodonts. Radiolarians, mostly spherical
forms, occur abundantly from the Dalong Formation
(Units A–D) but they are not diagnostic for dating. The
pattern of radiolarian occurrence in the PTB interval is
later discussed separately.
The Feixianguan Formation ranges from the upper-
most Changhsingian to lower Induan. This formation is
almost barren of fossils except for small ammonoids,
brachiopods, and bivalves from the lower Unit E and rare
conodonts from limestone in higher horizons (Units F,
G) (Figs. 3 and 5). The mudstone in the lowermost part of
the formation (E1.5) yields the latest Changhsingian
ammonoid Hypophiceras together with Huananoceras
and Pleuronodoceras. This ammonoid assemblage
uniquely characterizes the topmost Changhsingian
horizon in major PTB sections in China (Yang et al.,
1996). The limestone of Unit F and lower Unit G belong
to the Hindeodus parvus (conodont) Zone, and the upper
Unit G to the Isarcicella Zone, respectively (Figs. 3 and
5). The H. parvus Zone (defined by the occurrence of H.
parvus without accompanying Isarcicella isarcica) is
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
Fig. 5. List of the Permian and Triassic fossils from the Chaotian section (compiled from Zhao et al., 1978; Yang et al., 1987; Isozaki et al., 2004, this study) fossil zones, and their ages.

227
228 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
generally regarded as the lowermost zone of the Triassic
(Yin et al., 2001). Radiolarians are completely absent in
the Feixianguan Formation. The occurrence of Ophi-
ceras sp. was previously reported from the basal
Feixianguan Formation on the northern limb of the
anticline (Yang et al., 1987), however, its precise horizon
can hardly be checked because it is covered, and this
needs further re-evaluation.
Above-mentioned fossil data clearly indicate that the
main extinction of the Permian biota occurred at the Unit
D/Unit E boundary, i.e., the boundary between the
Dalong Formation and Feixianguan Formation, whereas
the radiation of the Triassic biota started from the base of
Unit F (Figs. 3, 4 and 5).
Fig. 6 illustrates detailed stratigraphic distribution of
the critical fossils for assigning the PTB interval, i.e.,
ammonoids and conodonts, from Unit C to Unit G
across the PTB. Most of the Changhsingian ammonoids
and conodonts show their final occurrence in the bed
D24 (the top of Unit D) except for some holdover taxa.
On the other hand, the first bona fide Triassic taxon H.
parvus appeared for the first time in the bed F1 (the base
of Unit F). Although uncertainty remains in the middle
to upper parts of Unit E, the PTB horizon surely exists
somewhere in the lowermost Feixianguan Formation in
the Chaotian section. The horizon of the first occurrence
(FO) of H. parvus at Chaotian probably corresponds to
the first appearance datum (FAD) of the taxon that is
generally used as the key criterion to identify the PTB in
many sections (e.g., Yin et al., 2001). Thus, Unit E
between the main extinction horizon and that of the first
occurrence of H. parvus may represents a transitional
interval that probably experienced a unique stressful
period to various biota of a global context across the
PTB (Figs. 3, 5 and 6).
5. Changes in radiolarian population and size
In order to clarify the stratigraphic change of
plankton productivity across the PTB, radiolarian
occurrence was examined in terms of their population
and test (siliceous skeleton) size. By observing more
than 200 thin sections (aligned perpendicular to the
bedding) from the study interval across the PTB, we
counted the number of radiolarian individuals per ar-
ea and measured their average diameter. For popula-
tions, radiolarian numbers were counted in a domain of
3–5 mm2 of each sample and standardized per cm2. For
size, the diameter of each radiolarian test (mostly
spherical) was measured for at least 100 individuals in
each sample. The average diameter of radiolarian test
and standard deviation were calculated using the
analytical method for sandstone grains in thin section
(Friedman, 1958). Fig. 7 illustrates stratigraphic changes
in radiolarian population and test size in the PTB inter-
val at Chaotian.
In terms of radiolarian populations, the study interval
can be divided into three segments, i.e., Units A, B,
Units C, D, and Units E to G, separated by two steps of
sharp decline (Fig. 7). In Units A and B, the average
population of radiolarians is 2900–3200 individuals per
cm2, while in Units C and D it declines to almost half at
1300–1500 per cm2. Across the Unit D/E boundary,
radiolarians disappeared completely. The disappearance
of radiolarians was abrupt as populations were almost
constant in the underlying Unit D. Thus, the Unit D/E
boundary represents the major extinction level of
Permian radiolarians as well as other fossil groups
such as ammonoids and conodonts (Figs. 3, 5 and 6)).
As no radiolarians occur in Units E to G, measure-
ment was provided solely for Units A–D. In all
measured samples, radiolarian sizes (diameter of
spherical test) show normal distributions with standard
deviations mostly between 11 and 19 μm. This indicates
that no mixing has occurred between plural radiolarian
faunas with different test sizes, and that the mean value
represents an average size of radiolarians in each
sample. As shown in Fig. 7, there is a clear stratigraphic
change in radiolarian size in the study interval. In Unit
A, the average radiolarian size declined by nearly 30%
gradually from 80 μm, and in Units B and C the average
values stayed almost constant at around 50 μm. In Unit
D on the other hand, the average values increased
gradually again up to 80 μm, and stayed constant in the
topmost 1-m-thick interval (beds D21–24) immediately
before their final occurrence.
6. Discussion
6.1. Change in sedimentary regime across the PTB
There are two remarkable lithologic changes in the
Upper Permian at Chaotian, i.e., (1) the transition from
the terrigenous mudstone-dominant (Units A, B) to the
carbonate-dominant facies (Units C–G), and (2) the
intercalation of unique marl beds (Unit E) within the
carbonate-dominant facies. The first one was probably
linked to local tectonics with respect to slope/basin
geometry, whereas the second one may have reflected a
global environmental change in biosphere thus appears
more important in the PTB study.
After the long-term deposition of black terrigenous
mudstone of the Dalong Formation (including Units A,
B) during the late Wuchiapingian and most of
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
Fig. 6. Stratigraphic distribution of diagnostic conodonts and ammonoids in identifying the PTB horizon in the Chaotian section (modified from Isozaki et al., 2004). Note the frequent occurrence of
ammonoid and conodonts in Units C and D in a clear contrast with almost barren Units E and F. Thin beds of felsic tuff (☆) are concentrated in Unit D and the lower half of Unit E.

229
230 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238

Fig. 7. Secular change in radiolarian density and test diameter in the uppermost Permian at the section. Left: secular change in radiolarian population;
Right: secular change in radiolarian test size (diameter). Note the discordant behaviors between population and size.

Changhsingian time, the deposition of carbonate started
at the base of Unit C, as marked by a sharp increase of
CaO mirrored in a decline of SiO2 (Fig. 3). From Unit C
to Unit D, the bedding mode changed from planar to
wavy/nodular one, and TOC drops rapidly in Unit D by
more than one order of magnitude (Fig. 3). These
observations suggest that the sedimentary environment
at Chaotian has started to shift to a shallower, more
oxygenated, and more pelagic setting during the late
Changhsingian. The upsection increase in fossil abun-
dance (ammonoids, conodonts, and other fossils; Fig. 3)
supports this trend. Within Unit D, the lithology and
rhythm of bedding are almost constant (Fig. 4), and the
ammonoid and conodont faunal compositions remained
uniform in the middle–upper part of the unit (Fig. 6).
The radiolarian population also stayed constant in Unit
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
D (Fig. 7). The deposition of bedded limestone and
biological production likely continued almost until the
final moment of the Changhsingian.
At the top of Unit D, in turn, most of the Permian
fossils, including ammonoids, conodonts, radiolarians,
and other invertebrates, disappeared very abruptly.
Immediately above Unit D, bedded marl (Unit E)
appeared for the first time in the Chaotian section,
marking a sharp break in continuous deposition of
limestone and fossil abundance/lineage (Fig. 2C). In the
Chaotian section, the occurrence of bedded marl is
restricted to the PTB interval; i.e., mostly in Unit E and
partly in Units F and G (Fig. 4). The average bulk
chemical composition of Unit E shows less calcareous
but more argillaceous nature with respect to the
neighboring limestone, and its TOC records the lowest
in the Chaotian section (Fig. 3). In addition, high
concentration of Al and Fe is another unique geochem-
ical signal of Unit E that may imply the apparent
abundance due to a lesser amount of carbonate or extra
input of Al–Fe-enriched material, such as volcanic ash or
volcaniclastics. These geochemical characteristics high-
light the uniqueness of Unit E in the carbonate-dominant
facies across the PTB at Chaotian.
Unit E is free from burrowing and almost barren of
mega-/microfossils, except for the lowermost black
shale with tiny ammonoids and brachiopods. As the
base of Unit E corresponds to the main extinction ho-
rizon of various Permian taxa, this unique marl re-
presents an interval that recorded a highly stressful
period immediately after a drastic environmental change
in the latest Changhsingian, in particular, the appearance
and persistence of a harsh condition that has driven the
main extinction. It is noteworthy that the rare ammo-
noids and brachiopods from the basal Unit E are all
small-sized (Fig. 6) with respect to those from Unit D
immediately below. This may imply the post-extinction
“Lilliput effect” (Urbanek, 1993; Twitchett, 2006), as
dwarfism in marine community generally reflects the
appearance of a strong environmental stress. The rapid
decrease in CaO content (Fig. 3) further indicates that
the bioproductivity of other metazoans forming carbon-
ate skeleton was also sharply reduced at the Unit D/E
boundary. In addition, the sharp disappearance of
radiolarians occurred at the top of Unit D (Fig. 7).
Thus at the time of Unit D/E boundary, production of
both major carbonate-stabilizing benthos/nekton and
silica-stabilizing plankton (radiolarians) was all sup-
pressed remarkably. Changes in seawater temperature,
redox, acidity, etc., and/or shortage in nutrients are
possible drivers, however, it is difficult to specify the
critical cause.
231
At the Unit E/F boundary, the lithology changed from
the topmost marl (E18) back to the bedded limestone (F1)
from where H. parvus (the index taxon for the lowest
Triassic) first appeared. Units F and G comprise bedded
micritic limestone but completely lack radiolarians and
calcareous bioclasts. The re-appearance of limestone
indicates that the marine carbonate production, once
aborted at the Unit D/E boundary, had revived by certain
organism after the suppressed interval. Under the
microscope, no bioclasts were identified in the fine-
grained micritic limestone of Units F and G, and, there-
fore, the origin of carbonates is not identified at present.
Nonetheless, coccoid calci-spherules produced by cya-
nobacteria, a common member of post-extinction disaster
community, may be a candidate for such post-extinction
carbonates (Wignall et al., 1995). In the form of
anachronistic (Precambrian-like) calcimicrobialite, the
development of a disaster community was documented
in the H. parvus and I. isarcica zones of various shallow
marine PTB sections (Sano and Nakashima, 1997; Baud
et al., 1997; Kershaw et al., 1999; Lehrmann et al., 2003;
Ezaki et al., 2003). The lower slope facies at Chaotian was
too deep to grow in situ microbialite/stromatolite, but this
environment could receive lime mud derived from the
coeval shallow platforms. Units F, G presumably rep-
resent lateral equivalents of the shallow marine calcimi-
crobialite, and the microscopic grainy/flaky organic
material identified in Units F, G were likewise derived
from cyanobacterial mat flourished in shallow-water
carbonate ramps. Calcareous components of Unit E may
have also derived from shallow-marine calcimicrobialite
formed by pioneer cyanobacteria that appeared prior to H.
parvus. The PTB calcimicrobialite often started to deposit
before the first appearance of H. parvus, e.g., in
Panthalassa, South China, and Oman. In addition to the
bivalve Claraia, the occurrence of a peculiar brachiopod
Lingula (Fig. 5) further supports the existence of such a
disaster fauna (Rodland and Bottjer, 2001) as pointed out
by Isozaki et al. (2004). Although still in a post-extinction
harsh condition, the severe environmental stresses that
appeared at the top of Unit D may have been partly eased
by the time of Unit E/F boundary. In a sharp contrast to
calcareous biota, radiolarians could not recover at all in
the early Induan (Fig. 7), suggesting that the environment
had still remained in a survival phase, i.e., a harsh
condition that not yet allowed the revival of many groups
of organisms except the disaster community.
The lithologic change across the PTB in the Shangsi
section about 60 km to the WSW (Fig. 1A; Li et al.,
1989; Wignall et al., 1995; Lai et al., 1996) appears
quite similar to that in Chaotian, thus above-described
stratigraphic change in environmental regime across the
232 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
PTB was more or less the same throughout the northern
Sichuan along the northwestern continental margin of
South China that directly faced the Paleo-Tethys.
6.2. Radiolarian response
Among all the fossil organisms from Chaotian,
radiolarians reacted most sensitively to the putative
environmental change across the PTB. They occur
abundantly and ubiquitously throughout the Upper
Changhsingian regardless of lithofacies, however, they
disappeared suddenly at the Unit D/E boundary, and
became completely barren in Units E–G (Fig. 7). This
indicates that radiolarians, a major plankton group of the
Paleozoic, suffered the PTB environmental change very
badly, and that silica-stabilization in the low-latitude
Paleo-Tethys has run into a crash. The extinction of the
Permian radiolarians at the PTB was recognized in
Panthalassa, particularly in the tropical domains and the
northern hemisphere (Isozaki, 1994, 1997; Kozur, 1998;
Yao and Kuwahara, 1999; Ezaki and Yao, 2000; Feng
et al., 2000; Xia et al., 2004). This phenomenon is
probably of global scale except for the partly survival in
the Southern Hemisphere (Takemura et al., 2003).
Their behavior immediately before the extinction at
the Unit D/E boundary is of particular interests. First,
the radiolarian population changed in two acute steps in
the Upper Changhsingian in Chaotian, i.e., at the Unit B/
C boundary and at the Unit D/E boundary (Fig. 7). At
the Unit B/C boundary, radiolarian population suddenly
decreased to a half, whereas at the Unit D/E boundary all
radiolarians became extinct. Concerning the first de-
cline, there are two possible explanations; i.e., 1)
radiolarian productivity per se declined to a half, and
2) radiolarian productivity was constant but accumula-
tion rate of other material doubled to apparently dilute
radiolarian population. As described above, the Unit B/
C boundary accommodates a sharp lithologic change
from mudstone to limestone probably with a change in
sedimentation rate as well as the composition. The
population shows quite stable attitude not only within
Units A, B and within Units C, D, but also in the vicinity
of the Unit B/C boundary, suggesting that the radiolarian
production was almost constant throughout the late
Changhsingian. Thus the second option for a higher
sedimentation rate mainly by carbonate mud appears
likely.
At the Unit D/E boundary, radiolarians totally
disappeared, and never returned at least in the lower
Induan interval at Chaotian. This suggests that a crucial
condition developed over the continental shelf in
Sichuan at the end of Changhsingian, although some
Permian ammonoids survived the crisis. Radiolarians
were likely less tolerant to this environmental change in
the latest Changhsingian. As radiolarians were the main
plankton group in the Permian ocean, their extinction
may have led cascaded extinction of various higher
predator taxa in the marine food web.
On the other hand, the stratigraphic change in
radiolarian size within the upper Changhsingian demon-
strates an independent pattern from their population
(Fig. 7). The average size decreased from Unit A to Unit
B, stayed almost constant throughout Units B and C, and
increased again within Unit D. The radiolarian size
changed considerably within the same lithology (e.g., in
Unit A and Unit D), whereas they stayed constant
regardless of the drastic lithologic change (across the Unit
B/C boundary). Thus the radiolarian size changed
independently on the facies change, therefore, their size
was controlled by other factor(s). It is noteworthy that
their size increased from 50 to 80 μm, i.e., almost doubled,
immediately before their total disappearance. The similar
pattern was also confirmed in the topmost 1.5-m-thick
interval at Shangsi (unpublished data), therefore, this size
increase prior to their abrupt disappearance is a common
phenomenon in the northwestern continental shelf in
South China and was probably related with the
environmental change that drove the main extinction
event at the Unit D/E boundary.
For modern radiolarians, it is generally regarded that
their average size changes according to various factors
of seawater, e.g., temperature, salinity, dissolved
oxygen, dissolved silica, and other nutrients (e.g.,
Anderson, 1983). It has been proposed that larger
radiolarians tend to dominate in cool waters of high-
latitude or deep seas (Anderson, 1983; Granlund, 1986);
however, the critical factors and physiological mechan-
isms controlling radiolarian size have not yet been fully
clarified (Kozo Takahashi, personal communication).
Oceanic upwelling of deep-water enriched with nutri-
ents, such as nitrates, phosphates, and silica, may
enhance the growth of test as well as soft tissue (e.g.,
Yamashita et al., 2002), and this may explain the
putative tendency of larger-sized radiolarians in high-
latitude and deep seas. Concerning the Late Permian to
Early Triassic interval, however, sea level was generally
rising due to global warming (Hallam and Wignall,
1999). Thus, in order to explain the possible enhance-
ment of upwelling coupled with nutrient supply, a short-
term cooling is needed during the long-term warming
period. On the other hand, the sharp drop in TOC across
the Unit C/D boundary may indicate that ventilation
became more efficient to enlarge the radiolarian size.
Although there are still many uncertainties in their
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
response to environmental factors (Lazarus, 2005),
radiolarians did respond to a certain change in the
environment in a more sensitive way than other
organisms. It is emphasized here that a certain change
in environment started in the late Changhsingian
apparently prior to the main extinction event, and this
will be further discussed in connection with volcanism
in the next section.
6.3. Volcanic stress
The concentrated occurrence of many felsic tuff beds
in the PTB interval of Chaotian suggests a possible link
to the causal process of the extinction (Isozaki et al.,
2004). In particular, 21 fine-grained tuff beds of
centimeter scale occur in the 12-m-thick PTB interval.
Their distribution is not random but, rather, concentrat-
ed, e.g., as in a 3-m-thick interval (Unit D and the lower
half of Unit E) in which 11 tuff beds (TD1–7, TE1–4)
are recognized (Fig. 4). Nine (TD1–7, TE1, 2) of these
11 definitely belong to the Upper Changhsingian,
whereas the remaining two (TE3, TE4) are not precisely
dated biostratigraphically (Fig. 6). Given the relatively
higher sedimentation rate of Unit D, the concentration is
even more significant, highlighting the frequency of ash
fall events at the end of the Changhsingian (Fig. 8).
Around the main extinction horizon, in particular, three
tuff beds (TD7, TE1, and TE2) occur within a 10-cm-
thick interval (inset in Fig. 4). An apparent accumulated
thickness of these 11 tuff beds in Units D and E attains
20 cm. These indicate that rhyodacitic volcanism was
active nearby, and that northern Sichuan often experi-
enced ash falls at the conclusion of the Permian. This
further implies that the frequent eruptions of felsic
volcanoes may have played a certain role in environ-
mental change relevant to the mass extinction at the end
of Permian. Similar occurrences of felsic tuff beds
around the PTB horizon were reported from more than
50 localities in South China (e.g., Yin et al., 1992).
Thus, South China as a whole was likely covered
extensively and frequently by felsic ash beds around the
PTB time, although the source volcanic domain has not
been identified yet. In order to document the extent and
derivation of the volcanism, precise horizons and
frequency of the tuff beds in other PTB sections should
be checked in detail with reference to the PTB interval in
Chaotian.
In addition to their frequent occurrence, particularly
significant in Chaotian is the timing of onset of the series
of ash fall beds. The tuff bed TD1, marking the start of
the frequent ash fall events (Fig. 8), occurs at the base of
Unit D, ca. 2.3 m below the main extinction horizon at
233
the top of Unit D (Fig. 4). This does not necessarily mean
that the volcanism had nothing to do with the extinction;
instead, it suggests that a volcanism-related environ-
mental change started prior to the extinction event. In
Unit D, no apparent change in faunal composition is
detected except for the change in radiolarian size. This
may indicate that a certain environmental change had
already appeared and accumulated during the intermit-
tent ash falls (TD1–6) but not yet reached to a condition
critical to maintain the ecological stability (Stage I with
precursory environmental stress; Fig. 8). Among various
organisms, radiolarians were probably one of the
organisms too sensitive to ignore a subtle change in
environment. The late Changhsingian felsic volcanism,
owing to its highly viscous nature, should have been
quite violent in eruption, much more violent than those
of basalts in general. This may have driven a short-term
cooling event by explosive eruptions and resultant
sunlight blocking with aerosols in stratosphere. When
the environmental change proceeded to cross the thres-
hold at the top of Unit D (Stage II with the strongest
environmental stress), other organisms finally got in-
volved, the whole ecological system collapse, and the
main extinction occurred.
The post-extinction delayed recovery also may have
been related to the prolonged felsic volcanism (TE3–5)
after the main extinction. Even in the survival stage, a
slight enhancement in environment, that has led the first
occurrence of Triassic index conodont H. parvus and the
revival of carbonate sedimentation, started at the base of
Unit F, clearly after the last ash fall of the event in the
upper Unit E (TE5) (Fig. 8). This interval under slightly
lesser stress (Stage III) allowed biological carbonate
mineralization again. Radiolarians, too vulnerable to a
certain stress or too much damaged by the end-
Changhsingian crisis, unlikely could recover during
this stage.
A possible cause-and-effect link between large-scale
volcanism and the PTB mass extinction has been
discussed by many, but most of the discussion to date
has focused on the apparently synchronous Siberian
continental flood basalt eruption (e.g., Campbell et al.,
1992; Renne et al., 1995; Racki and Wignall, 2005). On
the other hand, various lines of evidence from South
China and Japan suggest that the volcanism associated
with the mass extinction event was not of mafic but,
rather, of felsic nature (e.g., Yin et al., 1992; Kozur,
1998; Isozaki, 2001b; Isozaki et al., 2004). Before
making interpretations based solely on apparent age
coincidence, we once again need to check the character
of the PTB volcanism per se with special reference
to the frequent felsic ash fall events in the late
234 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238

Fig. 8. Schematic summary diagram showing the frequent ash fall event and bioproductivity collapse around the P TB at Chaotian. Not to scale.
Letters I, II, and III represent stages of environmental stress; I: precursory stage, II: the most stressful stage, and III: survival stage with slightly lesser
stress. The boundary marl (Unit E) corresponds to the stage II when all biomineralization of carbonate and silica was suppressed. Note that the
volcanic influence appeared much earlier than the main extinction, and that the extinction occurred in the middle of the intermittent volcanism. The
revival of carbonate production started clearly after the frequent volcanic event ceased.

Changhsingian prior to the main end-Permian extinction
event. Isozaki (2001b, 2007) discussed mantle plume-
related volcanism, not of basaltic but of felsic, alkaline
nature, in conjunction with the PTB.
6.4. Correlation with Shangsi and Meishan PTB
sections
On the basis of the new stratigraphic data in this
study, we try to correlate and compare the Chaotian
section with other two representative PTB sections in
South China, i.e., Shangsi section in Sichuan (Li et al.,
1989; Lai et al., 1996; Nicoll et al., 2002) and the
Meishan section in Zhejiang (Jin et al., 2000; Yin et al.,
2001) (Fig. 1A). The Shangsi section, located in the
vicinity of Chaotian, naturally had a similar depositional
setting of a lower slope facies in general. The Meishan
section, known as the GSSP of the PTB, represents an
upper slope facies, relatively shallower than the
Chaotian and Shangsi sections. All three PTB sections
were properly dated by several index fossils; e.g., upper
Changhsingian ammonoids of the Pseudotirolites–
Pleuronodoceras Zone and the Hypophiceras Zone,
lower Induan conodonts of the H. parvus Zone and the
I. isarcica Zone in ascending order.
Fig. 9 shows a correlation diagram of the PTB
interval (between the main extinction horizon of the
Permian taxa and the first occurrence of I. isarcica) of
the three sections. The baseline for correlation is set at
the main extinction horizon that corresponds to the top
of the last limestone of the Permian, and some tie-lines
between columns show the horizons of the last Permian
ammonoid (Hypophiceras) and the first Triassic index
conodonts (H. parvus and I. isarcica). An obvious
difference in thickness of each fossil zone is easily
recognized between the sections, in particular between
the Meishan and the rest two in Sichuan. Concerning
these three stratigraphic intervals, the Shangsi section
 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238 235

Fig. 9. Correlation of the PTB interval between the deeper lower slope facies (Chaotian, Shangsi sections in Sichuan) and the shallower upper slope
facies (Meishan section, Zhejian). Stratigraphic columns, fossil data, and radiometric ages of the Shangsi and Meishan sections are compiled from Li
et al. (1989), Lai et al. (1996), Nicoll et al. (2002), Mundil et al. (2004), and Yin et al. (2001).

always possesses the greatest thickness, whereas the
Meishan the smallest. For example, thickness of the
Hypophiceras Zone varies from 11 cm at Meishan to
55 cm at Shangsi; that of the H. parvus Zone (between
the first occurrence of H. parvus and that of I. isarcica)
from 8 cm at Meishan to 410 cm in Chaotian or to
398 cm in Shangsi. The interval between the above-
mentioned two zones (between the last occurrence of
Hypophiceras and the first occurrence of H. parvus)
also varies in thickness from 8 cm at Meishan to 380 cm
at Shangsi or to 133 cm at Chaotian. Thus, in the
Permian–Triassic interval, the Shangsi and Chaotian
section are apparently 20 to 30 times thicker than the
Meishan section.
On the other hand, a similarity exists between the
Shangsi and Chaotian sections, probably reflecting the
similar sedimentary setting in the northwestern conti-
nental margin of South China. Also in terms of rock type,
a clear contrast exists between the two sections in
Sichuan and the Meishan; the former is characterized by
bedded marl and limestone in the lower Induan, whereas
the latter by monotonous mudstone. Thus the Meishan
section is lithostratigraphically distinct, both in rock type
and thickness, from those of the two sections in Sichuan.
If this apparent correlation is valid, the thickness of
the PTB interval between the horizons of main
extinction and that of the first Triassic taxon differs
considerably between the Meishan and Chaotian/
Shangsi sections; the former (19 cm) is thinner than
the latter (145, 435 cm) by one order of magnitude, as
preliminarily emphasized by Isozaki et al. (2004). This
contrast may suggest that the Meishan section is highly
condensed or even bearing unrecognized hiatus across
the PTB (although it is currently accepted as GSSP), and
that the PTB interval is likely preserved in a greater
thickness thus potentially more complete at Chaotian/
236 Y. Isozaki et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252 (2007) 218–238
Shangsi. The assignment of this apparent contrast in
thickness is highly dependent on the identification of
horizons of the first occurrence of the lowermost Induan
index conodonts, such as H. parvus and I. isarcica,
although both taxa occur rarely from the Chaotian and
Shangsi sections (Nicoll et al., 2002; Ji et al., 2007-this
issue). If the first occurrences of these two taxa do not
necessarily correspond to their first appearance owing to
the Signor–Lipps effect, the above-mentioned correla-
tion and thickness contrast needs considerable amend-
ment. Rare and isolated occurrence of “Ophiceras” from
Bed 28c at Shangsi (Lai et al. (1996) below the FO of H.
parvus also needs careful re-evaluation. Nonetheless,
between the two sections in Sichuan, the thickness of the
three intervals (Hypophiceras Zone, H. parvus Zone,
and the interval between them) appears close to
proportional (Fig. 9), supporting the essentially greater
thickness in northern Sichuan. In addition, Ji et al.
(2007-this issue) emphasized the predominant occur-
rence of conodont C. taylorae from Unit D, whereas it is
absent in the Changxing Formation (Bed 24 and below)
at Meishan. This further suggests that a missing interval
may exist also in the uppermost Changxing limestone
immediately below the PTB clay/marl units at Meishan.
This kind of conundrum in biostratigraphic correla-
tion cannot be solved solely based on the occurrence of
rare fossils per se, and needs independent check
utilizing other approaches. The preservation of possibly
thick PTB interval in northern Sichuan offers an
opportunity for high-resolution chemostratigraphic
analysis focused on examining detailed correlation and
detecting subtle environmental changes across the PTB.
We are currently analyzing stable carbon isotope
stratigraphy of the two sections in Sichuan, and the
results will be reported elsewhere.
7. Conclusions
The present stratigraphical study at Chaotian in
northern Sichuan identified a PTB interval (ca. 1.4-m-
thick marl) between the main extinction horizon of the
Changhsingian taxa and the first occurrence horizon of the
Induan index conodont. Radiolarians disappeared abrupt-
ly together with ammonoids, bivalves, and conodonts at
the top of the youngest Permian limestone. This indicates
that the PTB extinction terminated not only various Late
Permian benthic/nektonic metazoans forming calcareous
skeletons but also silica-stabilizing planktonic protozo-
ans, and that marine productivity in total declined sharply.
Radiolarians reacted most sensitively to the environmen-
tal change that already started in the late Changhsingian
well before the final extinction event. The unique
boundary marl (Unit E) probably represents a period of
the strongest environmental stresses that suppressed
productivity both of silica- and carbonate-secreting
organisms. The unusually concentrated occurrence of 21
felsic tuff beds, seven of them particularly in the
uppermost Changhsingian immediately below the main
extinction horizon, suggests that the frequent felsic
volcanisms may have been responsible for the great
biodiversity loss at the end of Permian and prolonged
post-extinction lag before the initial Triassic recovery. The
PTB boundary interval at Chaotian is apparently thicker
than the equivalent section in the Meishan GSSP by
almost one order of magnitude; therefore, it is likely to be
superior for detailed chemostratigraphic analyses that will
allow detection of subtle environmental changes across
the PTB and high-resolution correlations with other PTB
sections.
Acknowledgments
We greatly appreciate Harutaka Sakai, Tomomi
Kubo, Hiroshi Nishi, Hodaka Kawahata, and Masao
Takano for their help in fieldwork, Hisayoshi Igo,
Guifang Liu, Kozo Takahashi, and Lipei Zhan for
comments on fusulines, ammonoids, radiolarians, and
brachiopods, Akihito Kuno, Motoyuki Matsuo, and
Hideyoshi Yoshioka for geochemical measurements.
Thomas Algeo, Ian Metcalfe, Micha Horacek, and
Chunjiang Wang provided constructive reviews to the
manuscript. Brian F. Windley checked the language.
This research was supported by Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (project nos. 12573011 and
16204040) and by National Nature Science Foundation
of China (project nos. 40502004 and 49972014).
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