AAHSTO Test Method

Pete Rahn, President
Director, Missouri Department of Transportation
John Horsley, Executive Director

444 North Capitol Street NW, Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001 (202) 624-5800 Fax: (202) 624-5806 www.transportation.org
To the Users of AASHTOs Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 28th Edition: Unfortunately, due to a printing error, some copies of Part 2B of the 28th Edition of AASHTOs Materials Book had pages that were either duplicated or omitted. Attached are replacement pages for those standards that were affected, T 267 through T 279. We sincerely apologize for any inconvenience. AASHTO Publications Staff August 2008
Standard Method of Test for
Determination of Organic Content in Soils by Loss on Ignition

AASHTO Designation: T 267-86 (2004)
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
The Loss on Ignition method for the determination of organic content is most applicable to those materials identified as peats, organic mucks, and soils containing relatively undecayed or undecomposed vegetative matter or fresh plant materials such as wood, roots, grass, or carbonaceous materials such as lignite, coal, etc. This method determines the quantitative oxidation of organic matter in these materials and gives a valid estimate of organic content. The Wet Combustion (T 194) method is recommended when it is desired to determine the humuslike easily oxidized organic material to provide information relating to the suitability of a soil for plant growth. The following applies to all specified limits in this standard: For the purposes of determining conformance with these specifications, an observed value or a calculated value shall be rounded off to the nearest unit in the last right-hand place of figures used in expressing the limiting value, in accordance with ASTM E 29. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.2.
1.3.
2.
2.1.
REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
AASHTO Standards: M 231, Weighing Devices Used in the Testing of Materials T 87, Dry Preparation of Disturbed Soil and Soil-Aggregate Samples for Test T 194, Determination of Organic Matter in Soils by Wet Combustion ASTM Standard: E 29, Using Significant Digits in Test Data to Determine Conformance with Specifications
2.2.
3.
3.1.
APPARATUS
OvenDrying oven capable of maintaining temperatures of 110 5C (230 9F). Gravity, instead of blower convection, may be necessary when drying lightweight material. BalanceThe balance shall have sufficient capacity and conform to M 231, Class G 1. Muffle FurnaceThe furnace shall be capable of maintaining a continuous temperature of 455 10C (833 18F) and have a combustion chamber capable of accommodating the designated container and sample. Pyrometer recorder shall indicate temperature while in use.
3.2. 3.3.
TS-1a
2008 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
T 267-1
AASHTO
3.4.
Crucibles or Evaporating DishesHigh silica, alundum, porcelain, or nickel crucibles of 30- to 50-mL capacity or Coors porcelain evaporating dishes approximately 100-mm top diameter. DesiccatorA desiccator of sufficient size containing an effective desiccant. ContainersSuitable rustproof metal, porcelain, glass or plastic coated containers. Miscellaneous SuppliesAsbestos gloves, tongs, spatulas, etc.
3.5. 3.6. 3.7.
4.
4.1.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
A representative sample with a mass of at least 100 g shall be taken from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing the 2.00-mm (No. 10) sieve which has been obtained in accordance with T 87. Place the sample in a container and dry in the oven at 110 5C (230 9F) to constant mass. Remove the sample from the oven, place in the desiccator and allow to cool. Note 1This sample can be allowed to remain in the oven until ready to proceed with the remainder of the test.
4.2.
5.
5.1.
IGNITION PROCEDURE
Select a sample with a mass of approximately 10 to 40 g, place into tared crucibles or porcelain evaporating dishes, and determine the mass to the nearest 0.01 g. Note 2Sample masses for lightweight materials such as peat may be less than 10 g but should be of sufficient amount to fill the crucible to at least 3/4 depth. A cover may initially be required over the crucible during the initial phase of ignition to decrease the possibility of the sample being blown out from the container.
5.2.
Place the crucible or dish containing the sample into the muffle furnace for six hours at a temperature of 455 10C. Remove the sample from the furnace, place into the desiccator and allow to cool. Remove the cooled sample from the desiccator and determine the mass to the nearest 0.01 g.
5.3.
6.
6.1.
CALCULATION
The organic content shall be expressed as a percentage of the mass of the oven-dried soil and shall be calculated as follows: (1) where: A = mass of crucible or evaporating dish and oven-dried soil, before ignition; B = mass of crucible or evaporating dish and oven-dried soil, after ignition; and C = mass of crucible or evaporating dish, to the nearest 0.01 g.
Percent Organic Matter = A B 100 AC
6.2.
Calculate the percentage of organic content to the nearest 0.1 percent.
TS-1a
T 267-2
AASHTO
Percent Air Voids in Compacted Dense and Open Asphalt Mixtures

AASHTO Designation: T 269-97 (2007) 1 ASTM Designation: D 3203-05
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This method covers determination of the percent air voids in compacted dense and open asphalt mixtures. This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.2.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: T 166, Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Hot Mix Asphalt Using Saturated Surface-Dry Specimens T 209, Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity and Density of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) T 275, Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Bituminous Mixtures Using Paraffin-Coated Specimens T 331, Bulk Specific Gravity and Density of Compacted Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Using Automatic Vacuum Sealing Method ASTM Standards: D 3549, Thickness or Height of Compacted Bituminous Paving Mixture Specimens D 4460, Calculating Precision Limits Where Values are Calculated from Other Test Methods E 1547, Standard Terminology Relating to Industrial and Specialty Chemicals
2.2.
3.
3.1.
TERMINOLOGY
The terms specific gravity and density used in this test method are in accordance with ASTM E 1547. Definitions: air voidsthe pockets of air between the asphalt-coated aggregate particles in a compacted asphalt mixture.
3.2. 3.2.1.
TS-2c
T 269-1
AASHTO
3.2.2.
dense asphalt mixtureasphalt mixtures in which the air voids are less than 10 percent when compacted. open asphalt mixtureasphalt mixtures in which the air voids are 10 percent or more when compacted. For borderline cases, an asphalt mixture shall be designated an open asphalt mixture if the calculated percent air voids, based on either Section 6.1 or 6.2, is 10 percent or more.
3.2.3.
3.2.3.1.
4.
4.1.
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

The percent air voids in an asphalt mixture is used as one of the criteria in the design methods and for evaluation of the compaction achieved on asphalt paving projects.
5.
5.1.
SAMPLING
Samples for testing shall consist of specimens from laboratory-molded mixtures or cores from field-compacted mixtures.
6.
6.1.
PROCEDURE
For dense asphalt mixtures, determine the bulk specific gravity of the compacted mixture either by T 166, T 275 or T 331. Determine the theoretical maximum specific gravity in accordance with T 209 on a comparable asphalt mixture to avoid the influence of differences in gradation, asphalt content, etc. For open asphalt mixtures, determine the density of a regularly shaped specimen of compacted mixture from its dry mass (in grams) and its volume (in cubic centimeters). Obtain the height of the specimen by ASTM D 3549. Measure the diameter of the specimen at four locations, and average the measurements. Calculate the volume of the specimen based on the average height and diameter measurement. Convert the density to bulk specific gravity by dividing by 0.99707 g/cm3 or 997 kg/m3, the density of water at 25C (77F). Determine the theoretical maximum specific gravity in accordance with T 209 on a comparable asphalt mixture to avoid the influence of differences in gradation, asphalt content, etc. For reference purposes, determine both the bulk specific gravity and the theoretical maximum specific gravity on portions of the same sample of compacted asphalt mixture.
6.2.
7.
7.1.
CALCULATIONS
Calculate the percent air voids in a compacted asphalt mixture as follows:
Percent Air Voids = 100(1 A / B )
(1)
where: A = the bulk specific gravity, and B = the theoretical maximum specific gravity. 7.2. Report the percent air voids to one decimal place.
TS-2c
T 269-2
AASHTO
8.
8.1.
PRECISION AND BIAS

The precision of this test method depends on the precision of test methods for bulk specific gravity and theoretical maximum specific gravity. It is computed by a procedure described in ASTM D 4460. Since the computation for percent air voids in Section 7.1 involves the quotient of bulk specific gravity divided by the theoretical maximum specific gravity, the quotient formula is used:
x y = y 2 2 + x 2 2 x y y4
(2)
where: x/y = the standard deviation for determining the precision limits of test results for a standard based on the quotient of two test results from two other standards, x = the mean (average) value of the x standard (bulk specific gravity) test results,
y
x y
= the mean (average) value of the y standard (theoretical maximum specific gravity) test results, = the standard deviation from the precision statement of the x standard, and = the standard deviation from the precision statement of the y standard.
Note 1The x standard (T 166, T 275, or T 331) is used to compute bulk specific gravity, and the y standard (T 209) is used to compute theoretical maximum specific gravity. 8.2. Criteria for judging the acceptability of percent air voids test results that are obtained by using T 275 and T 209 for nonporous aggregates are: Standard Deviation
0.32
Test and Type Index

Single-Operator Precision Multilaboratory Precision
Acceptable Range of Two Results

0.91
8.3.
Criteria for judging the acceptability of percent air voids test results that are obtained by using T 166 and T 209 for nonporous aggregates are: Standard Deviation
0.51 1.09
Test and Type Index

Single-Operator Precision Multilaboratory Precision
Acceptable Range of Two Results

1.44 3.08
APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1.
X1.1.
EXAMPLE CALCULATION OF PRECISION

Assume the following precision data: Bulk Specific Gravity, x When the average x = 2.423 and the standard deviation of x = 0.007.
TS-2c
T 269-3
AASHTO
Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity, y When the average y = 2.523 and the standard deviation of y = 0.004. Then using Equation 2:
x y =
(2.523) (0.007) + (2.423) (0.004) = 0.00316 4 (2.523)

2 2 2 2
(X1.1)
This value is in terms of air voids; therefore, the value should be multiplied by 100 to convert it into a percentage. Therefore:
x y = 0.0032 (100) = 0.32%
(X1.2)
Similar, but not technically identical to ASTM D 3203-05.
TS-2c
T 269-4
AASHTO
Density of Plastic and Hardened Portland Cement Concrete In-Place by Nuclear Methods
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
These methods cover the determination of the density of plastic and hardened concrete in-place by gamma radiation. Two methods are described as follows: Section
7 8
1.2.
Method ADirect Transmission Method BBackscatter
1.3.
The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the preferred standard.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: T 19M/T 19, Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids in Aggregate T 121M/T 121, Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
3.
3.1.

The methods described are useful as rapid, nondestructive techniques for the in-place determination of the density of plastic concrete. The backscatter method is also useful for the same purpose on hardened concrete. The fundamental assumptions inherent in the methods are that Compton scattering is the dominant interaction and that the material under test is homogeneous. The methods are suitable for control and acceptance testing during construction, for evaluation subsequent to construction, and for research and development. Test results may be affected by reinforcing steel, by chemical composition, and by sample heterogeneity. Results of tests by the backscatter method may also be affected by the density of underlying material. The backscatter method exhibits spatial bias in that the apparatuss sensitivity to the material under it decreases with distance from the surface of the concrete.
3.2.
3.3.
TS-3c
T 271-1
AASHTO
4.
4.1.
APPARATUS
The system shall consist of the following items. The exact details of construction of the apparatus may vary, but the apparatus as a whole shall satisfy the requirements for system precision stated in Section 10.1. Gamma SourceAn encapsulated and sealed radioisotopic source such as cesium-137. DetectorAny type of gamma detector such as a Geiger-Muller tube, scintillation crystal, or proportional counter. ProbeFor direct transmission measurements, either the gamma source or the detector shall be housed in a probe for inserting in a preformed hole in the material to be tested. The probe shall be marked in increments of 50 mm (2 in.) for tests with probe depths from 50 to 300 mm (2 to 12 in.). The probe shall be so made mechanically that when moved manually to the marked depth desired it would be held securely in position at that depth. Readout Instrumenta suitable scaler or direct readout meter. Gauge HousingThe source, detector, readout instrument and appropriate power supplies shall be in housings of rugged construction that are moisture and dust proof. Reference StandardA block of uniform, unchanging density provided for checking equipment operation, background count, and count rate reproducibility. Guide Plate and Hole-Forming-DeviceFor direct transmission measurements, a guide plate and a device, such as a pin or drill rod, having a nominal diameter equal to slightly larger than the probe, for forming a hole normal to the concrete surface. Calibration Adjustment ContainerA rigid, watertight container, whose minimum inside dimensions are large enough to allow the calibration curve adjustment procedure (Section 5.2) to be followed with no effect of the finite size of the container on the instruments response. The volume of the container shall be established following the procedure outlined in T 19M /T 19. Note 1For backscatter measurements, a container 450 by 450 by 150 mm (18 by 18 by 6 in.) will meet this requirement for most equipment currently available commercially. For 50 mm (2 in.) depth direct transmission measurements, a container 600 by 600 by 100 mm (24 by 24 by 4 in.) will meet this requirement.
4.1.1. 4.1.2.
4.1.3.
4.1.4. 4.1.5.
4.1.6.
4.1.7.
4.1.8.
4.1.9.
ScaleA scale accurate to within 0.2 kg (0.5 lb) of the test load at any point within the range of use. The range of use shall be considered to extend from the mass of the calibration adjustment container empty to the mass of the measure plus the contents at 2600 kg/m3 (160 lb/ft3). Strike-Off BarA straight steel bar or angle 900 mm (36 in.) long.
4.1.10.
5.
5.1.
CALIBRATION
Calibration curves are established by determining the nuclear count rate of each of several materials at different and known densities, plotting the count rate (or count ratio) versus each known density, and placing a curve through the resulting points. The method used in establishing the curve must be the same as will be used in determining the density. The materials used for calibration must be of uniform density.
TS-3c
T 271-2
AASHTO
5.1.1.
Calibration curves are supplied by gauge manufacturers or can be established using blocks of known density or prepared containers of uniform, unchanging material compacted to known densities. Materials considered satisfactory for use in blocks include granite, aluminum, chalk, limestone, and magnesium. Adjusting Calibration CurvesPrior to use, the instruments calibration curve may require an adjustment to compensate for the chemical composition effect. This is recommended whenever a change is made either in the chemical composition of the concrete to be tested or in the testing equipment and is recommended particularly for backscatter method measurements. Determine the necessary adjustments using the same mode of operation and at the same depth (if using direct transmission) as that intended for testing. A recommended procedure for making this adjustment is as follows: Prepare a concrete mix similar in composition to the material to be tested subsequently. Fill the calibration adjustment container with concrete and consolidate to produce a uniform, homogeneous material with approximately the density that will be achieved in the subsequent construction. Strike off the container with a ground glass plate or metal strike-off bar. Note 2Consolidation may be achieved by the procedure used for unit mass testing (T 121M/T 121) or by other methods such as spading the concrete and then dropping the ends of the container alternately on a rigid surface.
5.2.
5.2.1. 5.2.2.
5.2.3.
Determine the mass of the concrete in the container to the nearest 225 g (0.5 lb) and determine the mass density as follows:
W =
Wc V
(1)
where: W = determined mass density of concrete, kg/m3 (lb/ft3); Wc = mass of the concrete in kg (lb); and V = volume of the container, m3 (ft3). Note 3Care must be taken to make the concrete surface flat and flush with the container edges. A 1.6-mm (1/16-in.) average difference between the concrete surface and the container edges will produce a 1.0 percent error in W. 5.2.4. Take three automatically timed direct transmission or backscatter readings with the instrument centered on the surface of the concrete in the container. Rotate the base of the instrument 90 degrees around the vertical axis, with subsequent rotations of 180 and 270 degrees from the original position, and obtain three additional automatically timed counts at each position. The instrument must be centered over the surface of the concrete in each rotated position to prevent edge effects on the instrument reading. Using the applicable calibration curve, determine the density from the average of the 12 counts obtained in Section 5.2.4. Determine the difference between the two density readings obtained in Sections 5.2.3 and 5.2.5. Repeat Sections 5.2.2 through 5.2.6 on two additional concrete mixes of the same proportions. Determine the adjustment factor by averaging the three values obtained in Sections 5.2.6 and 5.2.7. If one of the three values differs from the average by more than 24 kg/m3 (1.5 lb/ft3), discard it as a statistical outlier and recalculate the adjustment factor as the average of the remaining two values. T 271-3 AASHTO
5.2.5.
5.2.6. 5.2.7.
TS-3c
5.2.8.
Use the adjustment factor determined in Section 5.2.7 to plot a corrected count-rate calibration curve which shall be parallel to the original calibration curve and offset by the amount indicated in Section 5.2.7. Alternatively, the value of the adjustment factor shall be attached to the instrument and applied subsequently to all density determinations arrived at from an original (unadjusted) calibration curve. Note 4In some circumstances, e.g., where chemical composition changes are minimal, calibration curve adjustments may be established on permanent, uniform, hardened concrete blocks.
6.
6.1.
STANDARDIZATION
Standardization of equipment on the reference standard is required at the start of each day and whenever test measurements are suspect. Note 5In some older instrument models, count rates are strongly influenced by the ambient temperature and frequent standardization may be necessary.
6.2. 6.3.
Warm-up time shall be in accordance with the manufacturers recommendation. Take at least five readings on the reference standard, or more if recommended by the manufacturer, or take one, four-minute or longer count if the instrument is equipped with automatic standard count storage. If more than one of the individual readings is outside the limit set by Equation 2, repeat the standardization. If the second attempt does not satisfy Equation 2, check the system for a malfunction. If no malfunction is found, establish a new No, by taking the average of a minimum of 10 counts on the reference standard.
N s N o < 1.96 No
6.4.
(2)
where: Ns = count currently measured in checking the instrument operation, and No = average count previously established on the reference standard. Note 6In instruments where the count has been prescaled, that is, divided by a constant factor k before it is displayed, Equation 2 shall be replaced by
N s N o 1.96 N o k 6.4.1.
(3)
If automatic standard count storage is used and the newly established count is outside the limit set by Equation 2, repeat the standardization. If the second attempt does not satisfy Equation 2, check the system for a malfunction. If no malfunction is found, establish a new No, equal to the average count found in Section 6.4.2. If a new No, differs by more than 10 percent from the standard count at which the calibration curve (Section 5.1) was established, recalibrate the instrument.
6.4.2. 6.4.3. 6.5.
TS-3c
T 271-4
AASHTO
METHOD ADIRECT TRANSMISSION

7.
7.1. 7.1.1.
PROCEDURE
Select a test location such that, when the gauge is placed in test position: Any point on the source-detector axis shall be at least 230 mm (9 in.) from any pavement edge or object. Reinforcing steel shall not be present in the volume bounded by the extended probe and the detector tubes. The test location shall contain concrete to a depth 25 mm (1 in.) greater than that to which the probe will be inserted. In concrete overlay projects, this may require removal of the underlying (original) concrete 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.) down over a small area before placement of the overlay. Smooth the surface with a wood float. If necessary, use the guide plate and hole-forming device (Section 4.1.7) to make a hole slightly larger than the probe and perpendicular to the surface. In some concretes, the probe may be inserted directly into the concrete without use of the guide plate and hole-forming device. Insert the probe so that the side of the probe facing the center of the gauge is in intimate contact with the side of the hole. Keep all other radioactive sources at such a distance from the gauge that the readings will not be affected. The recommended minimum distance from other nuclear density gauges is 10 m (30 ft). Use the same warm up time as in standardization. Take automatically timed readings, for a minimum of one minute, and determine the in-place density from the adjusted calibration curve, or, alternatively, determine the in-place density from the unadjusted calibration curve and then apply the calibration adjustment factor (Section 5.2.8). If the instrument has a direct reading display which is not programmed to apply the calibration adjustment factor (Section 5.2.7), correct the displayed density by applying that factor.
7.1.2.
7.1.3.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
METHOD BBACKSCATTER
8.
8.1. 8.1.1.
PROCEDURE
Select a test location such that, when the gauge is placed in test position: Any point on the source-detector axis shall be at least 230 mm (9 in.) from any pavement edge or object. No reinforcing steel with less than 75 mm (3 in.) of concrete cover shall lie directly under the source-detector axis.
Note 7The user may find that certain instrument models and operating modes allow gauges to operate over steel with 38 to 75 mm (1.5 to 3 in.) of concrete cover.
8.1.2.
TS-3c
T 271-5
AASHTO
8.2. 8.2.1. 8.2.2.
Prepare the test site in the following manner: On plastic concrete, smooth the surface with a wood float. On hardened concrete, for best results find as smooth a surface as possible. Remove all loose material. The maximum void beneath the gauge shall not exceed 3 mm (1/8 in.). Use fine sand or other fine material to fill these voids and smooth the surface with a rigid plate or other suitable tool. Seat the gauge firmly. Keep all other radioactive sources at such a distance from the gauge that the readings will not be affected. Use the same warm up time as in standardization. Take automatically timed readings, for a minimum of one minute, and determine the in-place density from the adjusted calibration curve (Section 5.2.8) or, alternatively, determine the in-place density from the unadjusted calibration curve and then apply the calibration adjustment factor. If the instrument has a direct reading display which is not programmed to apply the calibration adjustment factor (Section 5.2.7), correct the displayed density by applying that factor. On lifts less than 75 mm (3 in.) thick, readings may be erroneous if the density of the underlying material differs significantly from that of the concrete being placed. Correction procedures are available for some gauge models.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
9.
9.1. 9.1.1. 9.1.2. 9.1.3. 9.1.4. 9.1.5. 9.1.6. 9.1.7.
REPORT
The report shall include the following: Method (direct transmission or backscatter). Depth of probe, if using direct transmission. Thickness of layer tested. Identification of raw materials. Mix design. Count rate for standardization. Count rate for each test reading and the converted mean density value, or the corrected direct reading density value in kg/m3 (lb/ft3).
10.
10.1.
PRECISION
The precision of the instrument is determined from the slope of the calibration curve and the statistical standard deviation of the count rate, as follows:
P= S
(4)
where:
TS-3c
T 271-6
AASHTO
P S
= precision, kg/m3 (lb/ft3); = standard deviation, cpm; and = slope, cpm/kg/m3 (cpm/lb/ft3).
The slope of the calibration curve is determined at the 2240 kg/m3 (140 lb/ft3) point and the standard deviation is calculated from 10 individual automatically timed readings taken on 2240 80 kg/m3 (140 5 lb/ft3) material. The gauge is not moved after seating for the first count. For a direct reading gauge, the precision, kg/m3 (lb/ft3), is the standard deviation of 10 individual automatically timed density readings. The value of P shall be less than 16 kg/m3 (1.0 lb/ft3) for backscatter and 8 kg/m3 (0.5 lb/ft3) for direct transmission measurements.
ANNEX
A1.
A1.1.
NOTES ON THE NUCLEAR TEST

It should be noted that the volume of concrete represented in the measurements is indeterminate and will vary with the source-detector geometry of the equipment used and with the characteristics of the material tested. In general and with all other conditions constant, the denser the material, the smaller the volume involved in a backscatter measurement. The density so determined is not necessarily the average density within the volume involved in the measurement. Typically, backscatter gauge readings are influenced by 75 to 125 mm (3 to 5 in.) of material; the top 25 mm (1 in.) of the material determines 50 to 70 percent of the measured count rate, and the top 50 mm (2 in.) determine 80 to 95 percent. Where these materials are of uniform density, this characteristic of this method is of no effect. However, reinforcing steel and underlying concrete are both often within the volume in which they may influence gauge readings. Also the extent of the influence of vertical density variations, such as those caused by reinforcing steel, depends on the depth at which the steel is located. The use of cesium-137 and other radioisotope sources in density gauges is regulated by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission or, in agreement states, by state regulatory agencies. The primary objective of these regulations is the use of these materials in a manner safe to the operator, to other workers, and to the general public. While detailed safety procedures are beyond the scope of this method, the originating committee emphasizes its support of these objectives. It strongly recommends that users of this equipment become completely familiar with possible safety hazards and that they establish effective operator instruction and use procedures together with routine safety procedures such as source leak tests, recording and evaluation of film badge data, the use of survey meters, etc., in connection with the operation of this type of equipment. The determination of density by the nuclear means of this method is indirect. The relationship between nuclear gauge count rate and density necessarily is determined by correlation tests on materials at known average densities. Calibration curves established in this manner do not necessarily hold for all concretes because of differences in chemical composition. This effect is particularly significant for backscatter method measurements. Because of these considerations, provisions are included in this method for adjusting calibration curves on a project-by-project basis.
A1.2.
A1.3.
TS-3c
T 271-7
AASHTO
Family of CurvesOne Point Method

AASHTO Designation: T 272-04
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
These methods of tests are for the rapid determination of the maximum density and optimum moisture content of a soil sample utilizing a family of curves and a one-point determination. One-point determinations are made by compacting the soil in a mold of a given size with a 2.5-kg (5.5-lb) rammer dropped from a height of 305 mm (12 in.). Four alternate procedures are provided as follows: Method AA 101.6-mm (4-in.) mold; soil material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve. Sections 5 and 6. Method BA 152.4-mm (6-in.) mold; soil material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve. Sections 7 and 8. Method CA 101.6-mm (4-in.) mold; soil material passing a 19.0-mm (3/4 in.) sieve. Sections 9 and 10. Method DA 152.4-mm (6-in.) mold; soil material passing a 19.0-mm (3/4 in.) sieve. Sections 11 and 12. The methods described herein correspond to the methods in T 99 and must be chosen accordingly; i.e., when moisture-density relationships as determined by Method C of T 99 are used to form the family of curves, then Method C described in this procedure must be used for the one-point determination (Note 1). Note 1Direct reference to T 99 is made throughout these test methods and most terminology, apparatus and procedures are the same.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
In addition, the concepts described herein are applicable to one-point determinations and moisture-density relationships as specified in T 180 with appropriate apparatus and method used as required. The following applies to all specified limits in this standard: For the purposes of determining conformance with these specifications, an observed value or a calculated value shall be rounded off to the nearest unit in the last right-hand place of figures used in expressing the limiting value, in accordance with the rounding-off method of ASTM E 29. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.5.
1.6.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: T 19M/T 19, Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids in Aggregate T 99, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 2.5-kg (5.5-lb) Rammer and a 305-mm (12-in.) Drop
TS-1b
T 272-1
AASHTO
T 180, Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 4.54-kg (10-lb) Rammer and a 457-mm (18-in.) Drop 2.2. ASTM Standards: E 29, Using Significant Digits in Test Data to Determine Conformance with Specifications
3.
3.1.
DEFINITION
A family of curves is a group of typical soil moisture-density relationships determined using T 99, which reveal certain similarities and trend characteristic of the soil type and source. Soils sampled from one source will have many different moisture-density curves, but if a group of these curves are plotted together certain relationships usually become apparent. In general it will be found that higher unit mass soils assume steeper slopes with maximum dry densities at lower optimum moisture contents, while the lower unit mass soils assume flatter more gently sloped curves with higher optimum moisture contents (Figure 1).
Figure 1Example of Curves
TS-1b
T 272-2
AASHTO
4.
4.1.
APPARATUS
See T 99, Section 3.
METHOD A
5.
5.1.
SAMPLE
6.
6.1.
PROCEDURE
Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with sufficient water to dampen approximately four percentage points below optimum moisture content. Greater accuracy in the determination of the maximum density will result as the moisture content used approaches optimum moisture content. Moisture content of the sample should never exceed the optimum water content. Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 101.6-mm (4-in.) mold (with collar attached) in three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125 mm (5 in.). Compact each layer by 25 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer dropping free from a height of 305 mm (12 in.) above the elevation of the soil when a sleeve-type rammer is used, or from 305 mm (12 in.) above the approximate elevation of compacted soil when a stationary mounted type of rammer is used. During compaction, the mold shall rest firmly on a dense, uniform, rigid and stable foundation (Note 2). Note 2Each of the following has been found to be a satisfactory base on which to rest the mold during compaction of the soil: a block of concrete, with a mass not less than 91 kg (200 lb) supported by a relatively stable foundation; a sound concrete floor; and for field application, such surfaces as are found in concrete box culverts, bridges, and pavements.
6.2.
6.2.1.
Following compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mold by means of the straightedge, and determine the mass of the mold and moist soil in kilograms to the nearest 5 grams, or determine the mass in pounds to the nearest 0.01 pounds. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99 and masses recorded in kilograms, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 1060, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter, of compacted soil. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99 and masses recorded in pounds, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 30, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in pounds per cubic foot, of compacted soil. For used molds out of tolerance by no more than 50 percent (T 99), use the factor for the mold as determined in accordance with T 19M/T 19. Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the center. Take a representative sample of the material from one of the cut faces, determine the mass immediately, and dry in an oven at 110 5C (230 9F), for at least 12 hours, or to a constant mass to determine the moisture content. The moisture sample shall have a mass not less than 100 grams.
6.3.
TS-1b
T 272-3
AASHTO
METHOD B
7.
7.1.
SAMPLE
Select the representative sample in accordance with Section 5, except that it shall have a mass of approximately 7 kg (16 lb).
8.
8.1.
PROCEDURE
Follow the same procedure as described for Method A in Section 6, except for the following: Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 152.4-mm (6-in.) mold (with collar attached) in three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125 mm (5-in.), each layer being compacted by 56 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99, and masses recorded in kilograms, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 471, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter of compacted soil. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99, and masses recorded in pounds, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 13.33, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in pounds per cubic foot, of the compacted soil. For used molds out of tolerance by no more than 50 percent (T 99), use the factor for the mold as determined in accordance with T 19M/T 19.
METHOD C
9.
9.1.
SAMPLE
If the soil sample is damp when received from the field, dry it until it becomes friable under a trowel. Drying may be in air or by use of a drying apparatus such that the temperature does not exceed 60C (140F). Then thoroughly break up the aggregations in such a manner as to avoid reducing the natural size of individual particles. Sieve an adequate quantity of the representative pulverized soil over the 19.0-mm sieve. Discard the coarse material, if any, retained on the 19.0-mm sieve (Note 3). Note 3The use of a replacement method, where the oversized particles are replaced with finer particles to maintain the same percentage of coarse material, is not considered appropriate to compute the maximum density.
9.2.
9.3.
Select a representative sample having a mass of approximately 5 kg (12 lb) or more of the soil prepared as described in Sections 9.1 and 9.2.
10.
10.1.
PROCEDURE
Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with sufficient water to dampen it to approximately four percentage points below optimum moisture content. Greater accuracy in the determination of the maximum density will result as the moisture content used approaches the optimum moisture content.
TS-1b
T 272-4
AASHTO
10.2.
Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 101.6-mm (4-in.) mold (with collar attached) in three approximately equal layers to give total compacted depth of about 125 mm (5 in.). Compact each layer by 25 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer dropping free from a height of 305 mm (12 in.) above the elevation of the soil when a sleeve-type rammer is used or from 305 mm (12 in.) above the approximate elevation of each finely compacted layer when a stationary mounted type rammer is used. During compaction, the mold shall rest firmly on a dense, uniform, rigid and stable foundation (Note 2). Following compaction, remove the extension collar and carefully trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mold by means of the straightedge. Holes developed in the surface by removal of coarse material shall be patched with smaller size material. Determine the mass of the mold and moist soil in kilograms to the nearest 5 g, or determine the mass in pounds to the nearest 0.01 pounds. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99 and masses recorded in kilograms, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 1060, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter of compacted soil. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99 and masses recorded in pounds, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 30, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in pounds per cubic foot, of compacted soil. For used molds out of tolerance by no more than 50 percent (T 99), use the factor for the mold as determined in accordance with Section 8 (Calibration of Measure) of T 19M/T 19. Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the center. Take a representative sample of the material from one of the cut faces, determine the mass immediately and dry to a constant mass using a drying apparatus described in T 99 to determine the moisture content. The moisture sample shall have a mass no less than 500 g.
10.2.1.
10.3.
METHOD D
11.
11.1.
SAMPLE
Select the representative sample in accordance with Section 9.3 except that it shall have a mass of approximately 11 kg (25 lb).
12.
12.1.
PROCEDURE
Follow the same procedure as described for Method C in Section 10, except for the following: Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 152.4-mm (6-in.) mold (with collar attached) in three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125 mm (5 in.), each layer being compacted by 56 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99, and masses recorded in kilograms, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 471, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter, of compacted soil. For molds conforming to tolerances given in T 99, and masses recorded in pounds, multiply the mass of the compacted specimen and the mold, minus the mass of the mold, by 13.33, and record the result as the wet density, W1, in pounds per cubic foot, of the compacted soil. For used molds out of tolerance by no more than 50 percent (T 99, use the factor for the mold as determined in accordance with Section 8 (Calibration of Measure) of T 19M/T 19.
TS-1b
T 272-5
AASHTO
CALCULATIONS AND REPORT

13.
13.1.
CALCULATIONS
14.
14.1.
MAXIMUM DENSITY AND OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

The calculations in Section 13.1 shall be made to determine the moisture content and corresponding oven-dry mass (density) in kilograms per cubic meter (pounds per cubic foot) of the compacted specimen. The dry density (unit mass) of the soil shall be plotted as ordinate and the corresponding moisture content as the abscissa to define one-point within or on the family of curves (Figure 1). If the one-point falls on one of the curves in the family of curves the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content defined by that curve shall be used (Note 4). If the one-point falls within the family but not on a curve, a new curve shall be drawn through the plotted one-point parallel and in character with the nearest existing curve in the family of curves. The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content as defined by the new curve shall be used (Note 4). Note 4If the one-point plotted within or on the family of curves does not fall in the 80 to 100 percent of optimum moisture range, compact another specimen, using the same material, at an adjusted moisture content that will place the one-point within this range.
14.2.
14.3.
14.3.1.
If the family of curves is such that the profile of a new curve to be drawn through a one-point is not well defined or in any way questionable, then a full moisture-density relationship shall be made for the soil in question to correctly define the new curve and verify the applicability of the family of curves (Note 5). Note 5New curves drawn through plotted one-point determinations shall not become a permanent part of the family of curves until verified by a full moisture-density relationship.
15.
15.1. 15.1.1. 15.1.2. 15.1.3. 15.1.4.
REPORT
The report shall include the following: The method used (Method A, B, C, or D). The optimum moisture content as a percentage to the nearest whole number. The maximum density to the nearest 0.5 kg/m3 (1.0 lb/ft3). In Methods C and D indicate if the material retained on the 19.0-mm sieve was removed or replaced. Type of face if other than 50.8-mm (2-in.) circular.
15.1.5.
TS-1b
T 272-6
AASHTO
Note 6Inherent variability of soils places limitations on this method of test. The person using this test method must realize this and become thoroughly familiar with the material being tested. Knowledge of the AASHTO Soil Classification System and ability to recognize the gradation of soils are requirements for this work.
APPENDIXDEVELOPING A MOISTURE-DENSITY FAMILY OF CURVES

The purpose of the family of curves is to represent the average moisture-density characteristics of the material. The family must, therefore, be based on moisture-density relationships that adequately represent the entire mass range and all types of material for which the family is to be used. It may be that particular soil types have moisture-density relationships that differ considerably and cannot be represented on one general family of curves; in this case, a separate family may be developed. Also, moisture-density relationships for material of widely varying geologic origins should be carefully examined to determine if separate families are required. When a small number of moisture-density relationships are being used to develop a family of curves, plot the point representing the maximum density and optimum moisture content for each relationship on a single sheet of graph paper. Draw a smooth curve as close as possible to connect all the points. This line will define the maximum density and optimum moisture content of the material represented by this family of curves. At 1-kg (2-lb) increments, draw moisture-density curves with slopes similar to the slopes of the original moisture-density relationships. Slopes should gradually steepen going from low to high maximum density material. When a great number of moisture-density relationships are available, the above procedure can be modified by using average values. Tabulate the maximum density, optimum moisture content, and slope for all moisture-density relationships in each 1-kg (2-lb) increment of density. Average the maximum densities and optimum moisture contents for each increment and plot these values. As before, draw a smooth curve as close as possible to connect all the points. Determine the average slope for each increment, and at each 1-kg (2-lb) increment draw a moisture-density curve using this average slope value. A computer may be used to accomplish this work. The accuracy of a family of curves can be checked by comparing the maximum density and optimum moisture content from an individual moisture-density relationship with that obtained using the One-Point Method and family of curves. A point representing 80 percent of optimum moisture content is taken from the individual moisture-density relationship and used as described in the One-Point Method to determine the maximum density and optimum moisture content from the family of curves. These values are compared with the values from the individual moisturedensity relationship. The difference represents the maximum variance expected when the OnePoint Method and family of curves are used for material represented by that individual moisturedensity relationship. This comparison should be made for all types of material over the mass range of the family. Based on these results some adjustments may be necessary to the family and/or it may be recognized that the family is not applicable to some types of material. Families based on relatively few moisture-density relationships will generally require the closest scrutiny since it can be expected that a larger number of relationships will give better average conditions.
TS-1b
T 272-7
AASHTO
Soil Suction
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This method covers the procedure for determining total soil suction force using thermocouple psychrometers. Also, the test results of this method are to be used in conjunction with T 258. The thermocouple psychrometer measures the relative humidity in the soil by a technique called Peltier cooling. By causing a small direct current of approximately four to eight milliamperes to flow through the thermocouple junction for approximately 15 seconds in the correct direction, this junction will cool and water will condense on it when the dewpoint temperature is reached. Condensation of this water inhibits further cooling of the junction and the voltage difference developed between the thermocouple and the reference junctions can be measured using a microvoltmeter. With proper calibration, the thermocouple psychrometer output in microvolts can be coverted directly to soil suction in convenient units of pressure. Typical thermocouple psychrometer output voltages vary from less than one microvolt for relative humidities close to 100 percent or total soil suction less than 95.76 kPa (1 tsf) to about 25 microvolts for relative humidities of about 95 percent or total soil suctions of about 5746 kPa (60 tsf). The following applies to all specified limits in this standard: For the purposes of determining conformance with these specifications, an observed value or a calculated value shall be rounded off to the nearest unit in the last right-hand place of figures used in expressing the limiting value, in accordance with ASTM E 29. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: T 207, Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils T 233, Density of Soil In-Place by Block, Chunk, or Core Sampling T 258, Determining Expansive Soils ASTM Standards: E 29, Using Significant Digits in Test Data to Determine Conformance with Specifications
2.2.
3.
3.1.
DEFINITIONS
matrix suctionthe matrix suction is the result of clay mineral surface attractive forces for water and cations (i.e., ion hydration) and the surface tension effects of water in soil. The matrix suction is both water content and surcharge pressure dependent.
TS-1a
T 273-1
AASHTO
3.2.
osmotic suctionthe osmotic suction arises from the presence of soluble salts in the pore water of the soil and is the result of the difference in the ion concentration between the pore water and the clay particles double-layer water. Osmotic suction is independent of water content and surcharge pressure. soil suctionsoil suction is a quantity that can be used to characterize the effect of moisture on the volume and strength properties of soils; that is, soil suction quantitatively describes the interaction between soil particles and water, which determines the physical behavior of the soil mass. Soil suction, expressed in units of pressure, is a measure of the pulling force exerted on water by the soil mass. total soil suctiontotal soil suction, as determined by this method of test, is the force responsible for soil water retention, and is the sum of the matrix and osmotic components.
3.3.
3.4.
4.
4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4.
APPARATUS
MicrovoltmeterMinimum range of 30 microvolts and readable to the nearest 0.01 microvolt. MilliammeterMinimum range 0-25 milliammeters. Thermocouple PsychrometersWESCOR Model PT 51-10, or equal. Polystyrene Thermal ContainersChest or box insulated with at least 38.1 mm (1.5 in.) of foamed polystyrene. One container approximately 304.8 mm by 304.8 mm by 381 mm (12 in. by 12 in. by 15 in.) will accommodate six samples. Sample Containers0.5 L (1-pint) metal sample containers with interior coated with melted wax to prevent corrosion. One-half liter paint cans are satisfactory. Rubber StoppersSize 131/2 rubber stoppers with an approximately 6-mm (0.25-in.) diameter hole through the center. Electrical SuppliesSwitch box, selector switches, electrical connectors, two 1.5-volt dry cell batteries, and 1 K ohm variable potentiometer. Calibration StandardsMinimum of three WESCOR Osmolality Standards (290, 1000, and 1800 mOs/kg) (Note 1). Standard Sodium Chloride solutions of various molalities may be prepared in the laboratory. Stopwatch. Tare Containers. Specimen Cutting Equipmentwire saw, knife, bandsaw, etc. BalanceThe balance shall have sufficient capacity, be readable to 0.1 percent of the sample mass, or better, and conform to the requirements of M 231. Note 1mOs/kg is the abbreviation for milliosmos per kilogram.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.
4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12.
TS-1a
T 273-2
AASHTO
5.
5.1.
ASSEMBLING EQUIPMENT
The assembled apparatus is as shown in Figure 1. The apparatus should be assembled to accommodate multiple samples to be tested simultaneously. The wiring diagram shown in Figure 2 permits the testing of twelve samples simultaneously by utilizing a 12-position selector switch.
Figure 1Soil Suction Apparatus
Figure 2Wiring Diagram for Soil Suction Apparatus 5.2. The thermocouple psychrometer wires are fed through an approximately 12-mm (0.5-in.) diameter hole in the center of the thermal container cover. The thermocouple psychrometer wires are then
TS-1a
T 273-3
AASHTO
fed through the hole in the rubber stoppers so the psychrometer tips extend approximately 25 mm (1 in.) from the bottom (small diameter end) of the stopper. The protective sheathing around the psychrometer tip must form an airtight seal in the hole in the rubber stopper. 5.3. 5.4. The milliammeter, dry-cell batteries, and the variable potentiometer form the cooling circuit. The electrical connectors are affixed to the psychrometer wires for easy connection to the switch box. The switches are wired so that the output voltages (temperature and soil suction) can be monitored on each of the psychrometers in turn. The rubber stoppers are placed in the metal sample containers which are placed in the thermal containers to minimize temperature variations. The temperature inside the thermal container is monitored by a thermometer placed through the container cover. The equipment should be kept in a room where ambient temperature variations are minimal.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
6.
6.1.
CALIBRATION OF EQUIPMENT
Place a small piece of filter paper (type and grade variable) in the bottom of each sample container along with 3 mL of the calibration standard. A minimum of three calibration standard concentrations should be used to adequately define the calibration line (i.e., 290, 1000, and 1800 mOs/kg). Seal the sample containers, containing the standards, with the rubber stopper psychrometers installed and place them in the thermal containers. Allow the temperature to come to equilibrium, which requires approximately 24 hours. After the temperature has come to equilibrium, begin taking temperature (millivolt) and soil suction (microvolt) output readings at least three times per day until the output readings stabilize. A cooling current of 8 mA is applied to the psychrometer for 15 seconds prior to reading the soil suction output reading. Time to stabilization varies with concentrations of the calibration standard but will generally be in the range of seven to ten days. Obtain at least three stable output readings on each standard. Perform the following calculations on the average of the three readings. Convert the thermocouple voltage output (millivolts) to temperature (C), using the equation in Section 9.1. Convert the psychrometer (soil suction) voltage output, ET (microvolts) to the equivalent output at the calibration temperature of 25C, E25, using the equation in Section 9.2. Calculate the equivalent moisture retention force or suction according to one of the following: SI Units: Multiply each concentration by 2.509 (i.e., 1800 mOs/kg 2.509 = 4516 kPa). U.S. Customary Units: Multiply each concentration by 2.62 102 (i.e., 1800 mOs/kg 0.0262 = 47.2 tsf).
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6.4.3.
TS-1a
T 273-4
AASHTO
6.5.
Plot the calibration curve for each psychrometer using E25 (microvolts) as the abscissa and the soil suction, , kPa (tsf), for each calibration standard as the ordinate. Typical thermocouple psychrometer calibration curves (Figure 3) are linear and can be expressed using the following equation:
Soil Suction, , kPa (or tsf ) = mE25 n,
(1)
where: m = Slope of the calibration curve, and n = y-intercept of the calibration curve. The slope of the calibration curve will always be positive and the y-intercept should be equal to or less than zero. The calibration curve is good for the useful life of the thermocouple psychrometer; however, under normal use, an annual check of the calibration by at least one point will assure that the equipment is operating properly.
Figure 3Typical Thermocouple Psychrometer Calibration Line
TS-1a
T 273-5
AASHTO
7.
7.1.
SAMPLING
Undisturbed samples shall be obtained, sealed, and protected in accordance with T 207.
8.
8.1. 8.2.
TEST PROCEDURE
Set up apparatus according to Section 5. Cut the sample selected for testing into nine (9) cubes approximately 38.1 mm by 38.1 mm (1.5 in. by 1.5 in.). Place two of the specimens directly into the metal sample containers, seal with the rubber stoppers containing the thermocouple psychrometers, and place in the thermal containers. These two specimens represent the natural conditions of the soil. The remaining seven specimens, depending on their natural water contents, are either wetted with varying amounts of distilled water or dried at room temperature for varying lengths of time to establish a range of water content conditions. For example, consider a soil that appears relatively dry (i.e., well below the plastic limit); to establish the necessary water content range, three of the specimens should be dried at room temperature (i.e., one, two, and four hours, respectively, would be reasonable times) and the remaining four specimens should be wetted with distilled water (i.e., 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 mL, respectively, would be reasonable amounts). Place the specimen to be wetted into the metal sample containers; add varying amounts of water to the specimens as described above. Immediately seal the wetted specimens with the rubber stoppers containing the thermocouple psychrometers and place them in the thermal containers. Allow the remaining specimens to dry at room temperature for varying lengths of time as described above. Place each dried specimen into the metal sample container and seal with a rubber stopper containing a thermocouple psychrometer and place in the thermal container. Allow the specimens to come to equilibrium in the sealed containers. Temperature equilibrium is attained within a few hours after placing the cover of the thermal container. Equilibrium of the relative humidity of the air measured by the psychrometer and the relative humidity in the soil specimen is usually obtained within 48 to 72 hours. Using the appropriate switch, read and record the temperature output of the thermocouple psychrometer in millivolts. Change the switch from thermocouple to psychrometer, set the meter to zero, apply a cooling current of approximately 8 mA for 15 seconds, read and record the psychrometer output in microvolts. The cooling currents and times should be identical to those used to determine the calibration curves. Repeat Sections 8.6 and 8.7 for each of the thermocouple psychrometers in the equipment setup. After the readings are completed, remove the specimens from the containers. Determine the dry density (volume displacement method) and the water content of each specimen in accordance with T 233. (A suggested data sheet that assures correct collection of the required data is shown in Figure 4.)
8.3.
8.4.
8.4.1.
8.4.2.
8.5.
8.6.
8.7.
8.8. 8.9.
TS-1a
T 273-6
AASHTO
Soil Suction
Water Content
Weight-Volume Relations
TS-1a T 273-7 AASHTO
Soil, Suction, Water Content, and Specific Volume

Project ______________________________________________ Boring/Sample/Depth ______________________________________________________ Date ________________________________ Psychrometer No. Sample Container No. Water Content Increment (0, +, ) Thermocouple Output Psychrometer Output Soil Suction, kPa Tare No. Tare Plus Wet Soil Mass in Grams Tare Plus Dry Soil Water Tare Dry Soil Water Content, Percent Test Temperature of Water, C Wet Soil and Wax in Air Mass in Grams Wet Soil Wax Wet Soil and Wax in Water Dry Soil Specific Gravity of Soil Wet Soil and Wax Volume in cm3 Wax Wet Soil Dry Soil = Ms /Gs Density g/cm3 Wet Density = (M/V) Dry Density = (Ms /V) V Vs w d VT Ms Gs M Ms w Mw , Millivolts T, C E, Microvolts E25, Microvolts
Specific Volume = 1/d
Figure 4Suggested Data Sheet for Collection of Soil Suction Data
9.
9.1.
DATA REDUCTION AND INTERPRETATION

Convert the thermocouple voltage output (millivolts) to temperature (C) using the following equation:
T , C = Output in Millivolts 0.0395 Millivolts C
(2)
9.2.
Convert the psychrometer voltage output, E (microvolts) to the equivalent output at the calibration temperature of 25C, E25, using the following equation:
E 25 = E 0.325 + 0.027T
(3)
9.3.
Determine the Soil Suction, , of each individual specimen by entering the respective psychrometer calibration curve with E25 and reading the corresponding soil suction. The soil suction may also be calculated using the respective psychrometer calibration equation (Section 6). Plot the soil suction (ordinate, log scale) versus the water content (abscissa) on a semilog plot to establish the log soil suction versus water content relationship, Figure 5, which is linear and can be expressed using the following equation:
log = A Bw,
9.4.
(4)
where: A = y-intercept; B = slope; and w = water content, percent.
TS-1a
T 273-8
AASHTO
Figure 5Typical Soil Suction vs. Water Content All of the data points are used to establish the w relationship. The points representing natural conditions should be identified on the plot. If some variation occurs at the upper or lower end of the curve because the limits of the measurement range are approached, the data points between soil suction values of 200 kPa (2 tsf) and 2000 kPa (20 tsf) should be used to establish the w relationship. The slope, B, of the line is determined by calculating the inverse of the change in water content over one cycle of the log scale. The intercept, A, is calculated by applying the equation log = A Bw, at a soil suction equal to 100 kPa (1 tsf) and solving for A. Determine the specific volume of each specimen which is the inverse of its dry density. Plot the specific volume of each specimen (ordinate) versus its water content (abscissa), Figure 6.
9.4.1.
9.4.2.
9.4.3.
9.5.
TS-1a
T 273-9
AASHTO
Figure 6Typical Specific Volume vs. Water Content Determine the volumetric compressibility factor, , of the soil which is the slope of the specific volume versus water content curve. The volumetric compressibility factor relates the change in volume to a corresponding change in water content. Occasionally, the slope of the curve may indicate an greater than one, in which case should be taken as one since the compressibility factor cannot be greater than one.
9.6.
TS-1a
T 273-10
AASHTO
Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Using Paraffin-Coated Specimens
AASHTO Designation: T 275-07
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This method of test covers the determination of bulk specific gravity of specimens of compacted hot mix asphalt (HMA). Definition: Bulk Specific Gravity (of solids)the ratio of the mass in air of a unit volume of a permeable material (including both permeable and impermeable voids normal to the material) at a stated temperature to the mass in air of equal density of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature. The form of the expression shall be: Bulk specific gravity at x, yC where: x = temperature of the material, and y = temperature of the water. This method should be used with samples that contain open or interconnecting voids or absorb more than 2.0 percent of water by volume, as determined by T 166. The bulk specific gravity of the compacted HMA may be used in calculating the unit mass of the mixture.
1.2. 1.2.1.
1.3.
1.4.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: M 231, Weighing Devices Used in the Testing of Materials T 166, Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Hot Mix Asphalt Using Saturated Surface-Dry Specimens
3.
3.1.
TEST SPECIMENS
Test specimens may be either laboratory-compacted HMA or sampled from HMA pavements. The mixtures may be surface or wearing course, binder or leveling course, or hot mix base. Size of SpecimensIt is recommended that: (1) the diameter of cylindrically compacted or cored specimens, or the length of the sides of sawed specimens, be at least equal to four times the
3.2.
TS-2c
T 275-1
AASHTO
maximum size of the aggregate; and (2) the thickness of specimens be at least one and one-half times the maximum size of the aggregate. 3.3. Specimens shall be taken from pavements with a core drill, diamond or carborundum saw, or by other suitable means. Care shall be taken to avoid distortion, bending, or cracking of specimens during and after the removal from pavement or mold. Specimens shall be stored in a safe, cool place. Specimens shall be free from foreign materials such as seal coat, tack coat, foundation material, soil, paper, or foil. If desired, specimens may be separated from other pavement layers by sawing or other suitable means.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
METHOD A
4.
4.1.
APPARATUS
BalanceThe balance shall have sufficient capacity, be readable to 0.1 percent of the sample mass or better, and conform to the requirements of M 231. The balance shall be equipped with a suitable suspension apparatus and holder to permit weighing the specimen while suspended from the center of the scale pan of the balance. Suspension ApparatusThe wire suspending the container shall be the smallest practical size to minimize any possible effects of a variable immersed length. The suspension apparatus shall be constructed to enable the container to be immersed to a depth sufficient to cover it and the test sample during weighing. Water BathFor immersing the specimen in water while suspended under the balance, equipped with an overflow outlet for maintaining a constant water level, and thermostatically controlled so as to maintain the bath at 250.5C (770.9F).
4.2.
4.3.
5.
5.1.
PROCEDURE
Mass of Uncoated SpecimensWeigh the specimen after it has been dried to a constant mass. Designate this mass as A. Constant mass shall be defined as the mass at which further drying at 52 3C (125 5F) does not alter the mass 0.05 percent. The sample shall initially be dried overnight at 52 3C (125 5F) and then weighed at 2-h drying intervals. Mass of Coated Specimen in AirCoat the test specimen on all surfaces with melted paraffin sufficiently thick to seal all surface voids. Allow the coating to cool in air at room temperature at 25 5C (77 9F) for at least 30 min and then weigh the specimen. Designate this mass as D. Note 1If it is desired to utilize the specimen for further tests that require the removal of the paraffin coating, the specimen may be dusted with powdered talc prior to coating. Note 2Application of the paraffin may be accomplished by chilling the specimen in a refrigerating unit to a temperature of approximately 4.5C (40F) for at least 30 min and then dipping the specimen in warm paraffin (5.5C (10F) above the melting point). It may be necessary to brush the surface of the paraffin with added hot paraffin in order to fill any pinpoint holes.
5.2.
TS-2c
T 275-2
AASHTO
5.3.
Mass of Coated Specimen in WaterWeigh the coated specimen in a water bath at 25 1C (77 1.8F). Designate this mass as E. Specific Gravity of ParaffinDetermine the specific gravity of the paraffin at 25 1C (77 1.8F), if unknown, and designate this value as F.
5.4.
6.
6.1.
CALCULATION
Calculate the bulk specific gravity of the specimen as follows: round and report the value to the nearest three decimal places.
Bulk Specific Gravity = A D A D E F
(1)
where: A = D = E = F =
mass of the dry specimen in air, g; mass of the dry specimen plus paraffin coating in air, g; mass of the dry specimen plus paraffin coating in water, g; and specific gravity of the paraffin at 25 1C (77 1.8F).
METHOD B
7.
7.1.
APPARATUS
BalanceThe balance shall have sufficient capacity, be readable to 0.1 percent of the sample mass, or better, and conform to the requirements of M 231. Water BathThermostatically controlled, so as to maintain the bath at 25 0.5C (77 0.9F). ThermometerASTM 17C (17F), having a range of 19 to 27C (66 to 80F), graduated in 0.1C (0.2F) subdivisions. Volumeter 1Calibrated to 1200 mL or appropriate capacity depending on the size of the test sample. The volumeter shall have a tapered lid with a capillary bore.
7.2. 7.3.
7.4.
8.
8.1.
PROCEDURE
Dry the specimen to a constant mass (See Section 5.1). Cool the specimen to room temperature at 25 5C (77 9F), and record the dry mass. Designate this mass as C. Coat the specimen on all surfaces with melted paraffin until sufficiently thick to seal all surface voids. Allow the coating to cool in air at 25 0.5C (77 0.9F) for at least 30 min, and then weigh the specimen (Notes 1 and 2). Designate this mass as C. Fill a calibrated volumeter with distilled water at 251C (771.8F), and weigh the volumeter. Designate this mass as D.
8.2.
8.3.
TS-2c
T 275-3
AASHTO
8.4.
Place the coated specimen into the volumeter and cover the volumeter, making certain that some water escapes through the capillary bore in the tapered lid. Wipe the outside of the volumeter dry with a dry absorbent cloth and weigh the volumeter and its contents. Designate this mass as E. Determine the specific gravity of the paraffin at 251C (771.8F), if unknown, and designate this value as F.
8.5.
9.
9.1.
CALCULATIONS
Calculate the bulk specific gravity of the specimen as follows: round and report the value to the nearest three decimal places.
Bulk Specific Gravity = A C A D E C + F
(2)
where: A = C = D = E = F
mass of the dry specimen in air, g mass of the dry specimen plus paraffin coating in air, g mass of the volumeter filled with water at 251C (771.8F), g mass of the volumeter filled with the paraffin-coated specimen and water at 251C (771.8F), g, and = specific gravity of the paraffin at 251C (771.8F).
10.
10.1.
PRECISION
Duplicate specific gravity results by the same operator should not be considered suspect unless they differ by more than 0.02.
Aluminum volumeters of different sizes are available from Pine Instrument Co., 101 Industrial Drive, Grove City, PA 16127; and Rainhart Co., 604 Williams St., Austin, TX 78765.
TS-2c
T 275-4
AASHTO
Developing Early-Age Compression Test Values and Projecting Later-Age Strengths

AASHTO Designation: T 276-97 (2005) ASTM Designation: C 918-93
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This test method covers a procedure for making, curing, and testing specimens of concrete stored under conditions intended to measure the maturity as it relates to strength gain in the concrete. This test method also covers a procedure for using the results of early-age compressive-strength values to project potential strength of concrete at later ages. The values stated in inchpound units are to be regarded as the standard. This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.2.
1.3. 1.4.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: M 205M/M 205, Molds for Forming Concrete Test Cylinders Vertically R 39, Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory T 22, Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens T 23, Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field T 141, Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete T 231, Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
3.
3.1. 3.1.1.
TERMINOLOGY
Descriptions of Terms Specific to This Standard: degree-hoursthe age of a concrete cylinder in hours multiplied by the weighted average ambient temperature of that specimen. Degree-hours are obtained by dividing the age into suitable time intervals and the average ambient temperature during that interval. (See Section X1.3.3.) equation developmentA prediction equation developed by performing compressive strength tests at various ages, computing the corresponding maturities at the ages, and plotting the compressive strength as a function of the logarithm of maturity. A best-fit line is drawn through the data and the equation of this line is the prediction equation. T 276-1 AASHTO
3.1.2.
TS-3c
3.1.3.
line of predictionThe line that represents the relationship between the logarithm of the maturity of compressive strength specimens and the strength of those specimens. maturityA measure to describe and to account for the combined effects of age and temperature on the strength of concrete. Maturity is expressed in degree-hours. prediction equationThe equation, representing the lines of prediction, that is used to predict the potential strength of portland-cement concrete from tests on compressive strength specimens at an early age. The general form of the prediction equation is:
S M = S m + b ( log M log m )
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
3.1.5.1.
(1)
where: SM = Sm = b = M = m =
predicted potential strength of maturity, M; measured compressive strength at maturity, m; slope of the prediction line; degree-hours of maturity under standard conditions; and degree-hours of maturity of the specimen at time of early test.
4.
4.1.
SUMMARY OF TEST OF METHOD

This test method utilizes conventional curing with testing at not less than 24 hours. Storage during curing is as required by R 39 or T 23 with a recording thermometer added to continually monitor the temperature immediately surrounding the specimens. This test method also presents procedures for development of strength, age, and temperature data required to develop an equation for projecting later-age strengths from these early tests.
4.2.
5.
5.1.

This test method provides, for a particular combination of materials at the earliest practical time, an indication of the potential strength of the concrete. It also provides information on the variability of the production process for use in process control. Correlation between early age strength of test specimens and strength at some later age achieved by conventional curing methods depends upon the materials comprising the concrete and the specific procedure employed. Any strength value provided by companion specimens, no matter how obtained, has a dubious relation to the actual strength of the concrete in place in the structure, and has value only as an indicator of a probability that the desired load-bearing capability has been or can be obtained in the structure by use of a particular formulation. There is, therefore, no fundamental reason why the early strength obtained from this test method cannot be used in the design and evaluation of concrete strengths in the same way conventional 28-day strengths have been used in the past, with suitable changes in the expected numbers used to describe strength values. However, since the practice of using strength values obtained from standard curing cylinders at 28 days is long established and widespread, it is recognized that many people will wish to use the results of strength tests on specimens cured by this procedure to make predictions of strength that might be obtained at later ages. Such predictions should be limited to concretes using the same materials as those used for establishing the correlation. Note 1Confidence intervals developed in accordance with Appendix X1.3.4 are helpful in evaluating predictions.
5.2.
TS-3c
T 276-2
AASHTO
6.
6.1.
APPARATUS
Equipment and Small Toolsfor fabricating specimens and measuring plastic concrete characteristics shall conform to the applicable requirements of R 39 or T 23. Moldsfor specimens, shall conform to the requirements for cylinder molds in M 205M/M 205. Recording thermometer 1to record accurately within 1.8F (1C) the temperature surrounding the specimens during curing.
6.2. 6.3.
7.
7.1.
SAMPLING
Sample and test the concrete in accordance with R 39, T 23, or T 141.
8.
8.1.
EARLY-AGE STRENGTH PROCEDURE

Mold and cure the specimens in accordance with R 39 or T 23. Continue curing for at least 24 hours. Maintain a record of the temperature immediately surrounding the specimens during curing. Capping and TestingAfter 24 hours, remove the specimens from the molds as soon as practical. Cap the specimens in accordance with T 231. When specimens are capped in accordance with T 231, the capping material shall develop at the age of 30 minutes a strength equal to or greater than the strength of the cylinders to be tested. Do not test specimens until 30 minutes after capping. Test the cylinder for strength in accordance with T 22 at the age of 24 hours or more. Note the exact age (hours) at the time of the test. The age of the cylinder is measured from the time of molding. The maturity, m, of the early-age test specimen is the age in hours at time of test multiplied by the average weighted temperature of the air surrounding the specimen. (See Section 3.1.1.) When the data representing the compressive strength and the maturity, m, as developed in Sections 8.4 and 8.5 are to be used to predict the potential strength of the concrete at some later age, derive the predicted strength by using the equation in Section 3.1.5.1.
8.2. 8.3.
8.3.1.
8.3.2. 8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
9.
9.1.
PROCEDURE FOR DEVELOPING STRENGTH-MATURITY RELATIONSHIP

Develop compressive strength data for different ages of tests, and the corresponding maturity values in the laboratory to determine the prediction equation for each mixture to be used. These data shall include tests at age 24 hours, and 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. If the age for which projected strength is to be determined exceeds 28 days, the data shall include tests at the desired age. Tests at each age will be the compressive strength determined by averaging the strength obtained from a minimum of two cylinders.
TS-3c
T 276-3
AASHTO
9.1.1.
Field data may also be used, provided it furnishes all of the information in Section 9.1 and the specimens are cured as required for checking the adequacy of laboratory mixture proportions. (See T 23.) Prepare a sheet of semilog graph paper, 2 cycle by 70 divisions. Number the 1-in. divisions in 1000-psi increments (y-axis). The logarithmic scale will represent maturity, in degree-hours, at time of test (x-axis). Plot each of the strength values as developed in Section 9.1 versus the maturity for each age of the test. Draw a best-fitting straight line through the plotted points making sure that the line passes through the point that represents the 28-day maturity versus strength. Should this procedure be used to project strengths at an age other than 28 days, the best-fitting straight line should pass through the point that represents the maturity versus strength plot for the desired prediction age. If the data plotted in Section 9.3 do not lend themselves to a best-fitting straight line, then draw a straight line connecting the 28-day, or other later age, strength versus maturity point with the best fit between the strength versus maturity point representing the 24-hour and 3-day test values. Note 2If it is desired to check the accuracy of the first estimate made of the slope of the line of prediction, b, companion specimens to those for testing at an early age may be fabricated and cured in accordance with T 23 for checking the adequacy of laboratory mixture proportions and tested at 28 days. The value of b may be re-estimated by use of the equation:
b = ( S Sm
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
( log M log m ) )
(2)
where: = indicating that the values are to be added; S = measured compression strength at maturity, M; and Sm = measured compression strength at maturity, m. 9.5. Determine the value, b, from the line thus plotted as in Section 3.1.5.1. The slope, b, of this line is the vertical distance in units of stress between the intercept on the 10000-degree hours line and the intercept on the 100000-degree hours line. Use the constant, b, and the equation in Section 3.1.5.1 to calculate the projected strength of portland-cement concrete.
9.6.
10.
10.1.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
Use of the results from this test method in the prediction of specification compliance of strengths at later ages must be applied with some caution because strength requirements in existing specifications and codes are not based upon early testing. As stated in Section 12, the variability of the test method is the same or less than that of traditional test methods. Thus, results can be used in rapid assessment of variability for process control and signaling the need for indicated adjustments. On the other hand, the magnitude of the strength values obtained is influenced by the specific combination of materials so that the use of the results from either conventional tests at any arbitrary age or those from this test method must be supported by experience or correlations developed by the specific agency for the existing local conditions and materials. Factors influencing relationships between measured strengths and those of concrete in place are no different from those affecting conventional strength tests.
TS-3c
T 276-4
AASHTO
11.
11.1. 11.1.1. 11.1.2. 11.1.3. 11.1.4. 11.1.5. 11.1.6. 11.1.7. 11.1.8. 11.1.9. 11.1.10. 11.2.
REPORT
The laboratory report shall include the following: Identification number of test cylinder; Diameter (and length, if not standard) of test cylinder, in inches or millimeters; Cross-sectional area of test cylinder, in square inches or square centimeters; Maximum load in pounds-force or newtons; Compressive strength calculated to the nearest 10 psi (0.1 MPa); Type of fracture, if other than the usual cone; Age of specimens at the time of test; Initial mix temperature to the nearest 2F or 1C; Temperature records; and Method of transportation used for shipping the specimens to the laboratory. If the data developed in accordance with Section 8.2 and reported in accordance with Section 11.1 are used to predict potential strength, then the report shall include the following: The maturity of the early test specimens, m (calculated to the nearest degree-hour); The age projected to days; and The projected (predicted) strength (calculated to the nearest 10 psi (0.1 MPa)).
11.2.1. 11.2.2. 11.2.3.
12.
12.1. 12.1.1.
PRECISION AND BIAS

Precision: The single laboratory coefficient of variation has been determined as 3.6 percent for a pair of cylinders cast from the same batch. Therefore, results of two properly conducted strength tests by the same laboratory on two individual cylinders made with the same materials should not differ by more than 10 percent of their average. The single-laboratory, multiday coefficient of variation has been determined as 8.7 percent for the average of pairs of cylinders cast from single batches mixed on two days. Therefore, results of two properly conducted strength tests, each consisting of the average of two cylinders from the same batch made in the same laboratory on the same materials, should not differ by more than 25 percent of their average.
12.1.2.
TS-3c
T 276-5
AASHTO
12.2.
BiasThis test method has no determinable bias as the values obtained can only be defined in terms of this test method.
APPENDIX
X1.
X1.1.
EXAMPLE OF USE
GeneralThis method utilizes conventional curing, with testing at not less than 24 hours. Sampling and preparation of compressive strength specimens are to be in accordance with R 39, T 23, or T 141. Storage during curing is as required by R 39 or T 23 with a recording thermometer added to continually monitor the ambient temperature immediately surrounding the specimens. While there are many instruments available for this purpose, one which has been found suitable is a Model 615 Dry Stylus Recording Thermometer manufactured by the Pacific Transducer Corp., 2301 Federal Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90064. Testing is in accordance with T 22. Strength Versus Maturity Relationship: To firmly establish the relationship of strength versus maturity, it is desirable to produce concrete made from the actual components, including admixtures, to be used in work. While field data may be used, the initial data will normally originate in the laboratory before field production begins. Compressive strength specimens will, therefore, normally be made and cured in the laboratory and tested at ages 24 hours, 3 days, 7 days, 14 days, and 28 days. It is suggested that a minimum of 14 cylinders be made and cured in accordance with R 39. Example DataAn example of age-strength data obtained from these cylinders may be as follows: Age (No. of Cylinders)
24 h (2) 3 days (2) 7 days (2) 14 days (2) 28 days (6)
X1.2. X1.2.1.
X1.2.1.1.
Average Strength, psi

1370 2484 3157 3714 4247
X1.2.1.2.
Maturity (as defined in Section 3.1.4) is determined by obtaining the product of age in hours and the average weighted temperature of the concrete. Degree-hours may be calculated from the temperature history by dividing the age into suitable time intervals and summing the product of the time interval and the corresponding average temperature for each interval. The concrete temperature may be assumed to equal the ambient air temperature immediately surrounding the specimen. Since the concretes are produced, cured, and tested in the laboratory, a record of the curing temperature will be available. Typical curing temperatures may be 71F (21C) prior to stripping the molds, and a constant 73F (23C) thereafter. In this case, the maturity at the various ages can be calculated as follows:
X1.2.1.3.
TS-3c
T 276-6
AASHTO
Age
2 days 6 days 13 days 27 days
+ + + +
Temperature
24 h 71F 24 h 73F 24 h 71F 24 h 73F 24 h 71F 24 h 73F 24 h 71F 24 h 73F 24 h 71F
=
= = = = =
Maturity
1704Fh 5208Fh 12216Fh 24480Fh 49008Fh
Note X1Developmental work used the Fahrenheit scale; however, the Celsius scale may be used provided the equation development (as defined in Section 3.1.2) and the maturity of the test specimens is determined using degrees Celsius.
Figure X1.1Strength Versus Maturity Relationship X1.2.2. Prepare a sheet of semilog graph paper, 2 cycles by 70 divisions, by numbering the 1-in. divisions along the y-axis in 1000-psi increments. The logarithmic scale on the x-axis will represent maturity in degree-hours, with the first cycle representing a range of maturity values from 1000 to 10000Fh and the second cycle from 10000 to 100000Fh. The typical data shown in Sections X1.2.1.1 and X1.2.1.3 can be plotted on this graph paper as shown in Figure X1.1. Using the point plotted as the 28-day strength versus maturity as a pivot point, draw a straight line through the other points. Ideally these points should be such that a straight line will pass through them. However, since all the factors that influence the maturity cannot be measured, a best-fitting
X1.2.3.
TS-3c
T 276-7
AASHTO
straight line is drawn through the points, making sure that it passes through the point representing the 28-day strength versus maturity. This straight line is extended to 100000Fh maturity. X1.2.4. This line then represents the relationship between maturity and strength for this particular concrete. This relationship can be expressed in the form of the equation of the straight line drawn as:
S M = S m + b ( log M log m )
(X1.1)
X1.2.4.1.
The value b is the slope of this line of prediction and is the vertical distance between where the line intersects 10000Fh of maturity and 100000Fh of maturity. For this particular example, b = 1950. Any concrete produced from the materials and batch proportions that are used to develop the line of prediction would have the same strengthmaturity relationship. The development data in Section X1.2.1.3 may be developed using degrees Celsius instead of degrees Fahrenheit. If degrees Celsius are used, the semilog graph paper required in Section X1.2.2 will be 3 cycles by 70 divisions. The logarithmic scale on the x-axis will represent maturity in degree-hours, with the first cycle representing a range of maturity values from 100 to 1000Ch, the second cycle from 1000 to 10000Ch, and the third cycle from 10000 to 100000Ch. The value b is the slope of this line of prediction and is the vertical distance in units of stress between where the line intersects 10000Ch of maturity and 100000Ch of maturity. Field Application: To use the prediction equation in the field, sample the concrete in accordance with T 141. Mold and cure at least two specimens in accordance with Method T 23. Continue curing for at least 24 hours. Maintain an accurate record of the ambient temperature immediately surrounding the specimens during the curing period. As soon as practical after the minimum 24-hour curing period, remove the specimens from the molds and prepare for testing in accordance with T 22. Note the exact age (hours) at the time of test. Use this age, together with the record of curing temperature, to determine the maturity, m, at time of test. Report the early compressive strength, Sm, as the average of the cylinders tested. It is now possible to solve the equation for a predicted compressive strength, SM, at a given maturity, M. As an example: Compressive strength specimens fabricated in the field are cured for 24 hours under standard conditions at the job site. From the temperature record maintained in the curing facility we find that the time temperature variations are as follows: 0 to 3 h 70F 3 to 8 h steady increase from 70 to 75F 8 to 24 h reasonably consistent at 77F By the time the cylinders are removed from the molds, capped, and the cap cured, another two hours passes. The cylinders are stored at 73F (23C) during these two hours. The maturity at test age 26 hours is, therefore, the summation of the maturity for each of these increments:
X1.2.4.2.
X1.2.5.
X1.2.5.1.
X1.3. X1.3.1.
X1.3.2.
X1.3.3. X1.3.3.1.
X1.3.3.2.
TS-3c
T 276-8
AASHTO
3 h at 70F 5 h at 72.5F 16 h at 77F 2 h at 73F Total maturity X1.3.3.3. X1.3.3.4.
= = = = =
210Fh 362.5Fh 1232Fh 146Fh 1950.5Fh
The average compressive strength of three specimens at this maturity is 1427 psi. The predicted potential 28-day strength is calculated as:
S M = S m + b (log M log m) S M = 1427 + 1950 (log 50000 log 1950.5) S M = 1427 + 1950 ( 4.699 3.290) S M = 1427 + 2747 S M = 4174 psi
(X1.2) (X1.3) (X1.4) (X1.5) (X1.6)
The equation would predict, therefore, that had the compressive strength specimens been conventionally cured for the full 28 days, their strength would have approximated 4174 psi when broken at 28 days. X1.3.4. It may be desirable to develop a one-sided confidence interval to be used in the acceptance decision. Usually such a confidence interval could be developed at a 90 percent confidence level and the decision would be to accept the material as conforming to specification requirements when:
S M > ( LL + K )
(X1.7)
where: SM LL K 1.645 S28 n
= = = =
predicted 28-day strength; specified lower limit, specifically, 28-day strength; 1.645 (SM S28)2/2n; confidence coefficient for a five percent probability of accepting material with a strength below LL; = measured 28-day strength; and = number of paired (SM and S28) values used in the analysis.
A dry stylus recording thermometer, model 615, available from the Pacific Thermometer Corp., 2301 Federal Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90064, has been found satisfactory.
TS-3c
T 276-9
AASHTO
Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration

AASHTO Designation: T 277-07 ASTM Designation: C 1202-05
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This test method covers the determination of the electrical conductance of concrete to provide a rapid indication of its resistance to the penetration of chloride ions. This test method is applicable to types of concrete where correlations have been established between this test procedure and long-term chloride ponding procedures such as those described in T 259. Examples of such correlations are discussed in References (15). 1 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.2. 1.3.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: R 39, Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory T 23, Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field T 24M/T 24, Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete T 259, Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration ASTM Standard: C 670, Practice for Preparing Precision and Bias Statements for Test Methods for Construction Purposes
2.2.
3.
3.1.
SUMMARY OF TEST METHOD

This test method consists of monitoring the amount of electrical current passing through 50-mm (2-in.) thick slices of 100-mm (4-in.) nominal diameter cores or cylinders during a six-hour period. A potential difference of 60 V dc is maintained across the ends of the specimen, one of which is immersed in a sodium chloride solution, the other in a sodium hydroxide solution. The total charge passed, in coulombs, has been found to be related to the resistance of the specimen to chloride ion penetration.
TS-3c
T 277-1
AASHTO
4.
4.1.

This test method covers the laboratory evaluation of the electrical conductance of concrete samples to provide a rapid indication of their resistance to chloride ion penetration. In most cases the electrical conductance results have shown good correlation with chloride ponding tests, such as T 259, on companion slabs cast from the same concrete mixtures (References 15). This test method is suitable for evaluation of materials and material proportions for design purposes and research and development. The numerical results (total charge passed, in coulombs) from this test method must be used with caution, especially in applications such as quality control and acceptance testing. The qualitative terms in the right-hand column of Table 1 should be used in most cases unless otherwise noted by the specifying agency.
4.2.
4.3.
Table 1Chloride Ion Penetrability Based on Charge Passed Charge Passed (Coulombs)
>4000 >20004000 >10002000 1001000 <100
Chloride Ion Penetrability

High Moderate Low Very low Negligible
4.4.
Care should be taken in interpreting results of this test when it is used on surface-treated concretes, for example, concretes treated with penetrating sealers. The results from this test on some such concretes indicate low resistance to chloride ion penetration, while 90-day chloride ponding tests on companion slabs show a higher resistance. The details of the test method apply to 100-mm (4 in.) nominal diameter specimens. This includes specimens with actual diameters ranging from 95 mm (3.75 in.) to 100 mm (4 in.). Other specimen diameters may be tested with appropriate changes in the applied voltage cell design. (See Section 7.5 and Figure 1.) For specimen diameters other than 95 mm (3.75 in.), the test result value for total charge passed must be adjusted following the procedure in Section 11.2. For specimens with diameters less than 95 mm (3.75 in.), particular care must be taken in coating and mounting the specimens to ensure that the conductive solutions are able to contact the entire end areas during the test. Sample age may have significant effects on the test results, depending on the type of concrete and the curing procedure. Most concretes, if properly cured, become progressively and significantly less permeable with time.
4.5.
4.5.1.
4.6.
TS-3c
T 277-2
AASHTO
Equivalents
Item 1.A 1.B 2 3 4 5 6 Qty. 1 1 4 2 2 2 2 Nomenclature Cell Block End Shim, Brass Screen, Brass Wire, Copper Terminal Banana Plug Specification DMMA Sheet 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) THK 0.85 mm (No. 20) mesh. A diameter 14, Solid Nylclad 12-10-1/4 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) male insulated
Figure 1Applied Voltage Cell (Construction Drawing)
TS-3c
T 277-3
AASHTO
5.
5.1.
INTERFERENCES
This test method can produce misleading results when calcium nitrite has been admixed into a concrete. The results from this test on some such concretes indicate higher coulomb values, that is, lower resistance to chloride ion penetration, than from tests on identical concrete mixtures (controls) without calcium nitrite. However, long-term chloride ponding tests indicate the concretes with calcium nitrite were at least as resistant to chloride ion penetration as the control mixtures. Note 1Other admixtures might affect results of this test similarly. Long-term ponding tests are recommended if an admixture effect is suspected.
5.2.
Since the test results are a function of the electrical resistance of the specimen, the presence of reinforcing steel or other embedded electrically conductive materials may have a significant effect. The test is not valid for specimens containing reinforcing steel positioned longitudinally, that is, providing a continuous electrical path between the two ends of the specimen.
6.
6.1.
APPARATUS
Vacuum Saturation Apparatus: (See Figure 2 for example.)
Figure 2Vacuum Saturation Apparatus 6.1.1. Separatory Funnelor other sealable, bottom-draining container with a minimum capacity of 500 mL. Beaker (1000 mL or larger) or other containerCapable of holding concrete specimen(s) and water and of fitting into vacuum desiccator. (See Section 6.1.3.) Vacuum Desiccator250-mm (9.8-in.) inside diameter or larger. Desiccator must allow two hose connections, through rubber stopper and sleeve or through rubber stopper only. Each connection must be equipped with a stopcock. Vacuum PumpCapable of maintaining a pressure of less than 6650 Pa (50 mm Hg) in dessicator.
6.1.2.
6.1.3.
6.1.4.
TS-3c
T 277-4
AASHTO
Note 2Since vacuum will be drawn over water, pump should be protected with a water trap, or pump oil should be changed after each operation. 6.1.5. Vacuum Gauge or ManometerAccurate to 665 Pa (5 mm Hg) over range 0 to 13300 Pa (0 to 100 mm Hg) pressure. Coating Apparatus and Materials: CoatingRapid setting, electrically nonconductive, capable of sealing side surface of concrete cores. Balance or Scale, Paper Cups, Wooden Spatulas, and Disposable BrushesFor mixing and applying coating. Specimen-Sizing Equipment (not required if samples are cast to final specimen size). Movable Bed Water-Cooled Diamond Saw or Silicon Carbide Saw.
6.2. 6.2.1.
6.2.2.
6.3. 6.3.1.
7.
7.1.
REAGENTS, MATERIALS, AND TEST CELL

Specimen-Cell SealantCapable of sealing concrete to polymethylmethacrylate, for example, Plexiglas, against water and dilute sodium hydroxide and sodium chloride solutions at temperatures up to 90C (200F); examples include RTV silicone rubbers, silicone rubber caulkings, other synthetic rubber sealants, silicone greases, and rubber gaskets. Sodium Chloride Solution3.0 percent by mass (reagent grade) in distilled water. Sodium Hydroxide Solution0.3 Normal (reagent grade) in distilled water. WarningBefore using NaOH, review: (1) the safety precautions for using NaOH; (2) first aid for burns; and (3) the emergency response to spills, as described in the manufacturers Material Safety Data Sheet or other reliable safety literature. NaOH can cause very severe burns and injury to unprotected skin and eyes. Suitable personal protective equipment should always be used. These should include full-face shields, rubber aprons, and gloves impervious to NaOH. Gloves should be checked periodically for pin holes. Filter Papers90 mm (No. 2) diameter (not required if rubber gasket is used for sealant (Section 7.1) or if sealant can be applied without overflowing from shim onto mesh). Applied Voltage Cell (Figures 1 and 3)Two symmetric polymethylmethacrylate chambers, each containing electrically conductive mesh and external connectors. One design in common use is shown in Figures 1 and 3. However, other designs are acceptable, provided that overall dimensions (including dimensions of the fluid reservoir) are the same as shown in Figure 1 and width of the screen and shims are as shown.
7.2. 7.3. 7.3.1.
7.4.
7.5.
TS-3c
T 277-5
AASHTO
Figure 3Applied Voltage Cell-Face View 7.6. 7.7. Temperature Measuring Device (optional)0 to 120C (30 to 250F) range. Voltage Application and Data Readout ApparatusCapable of holding 60 0.1 V dc across applied voltage cell over entire range of currents and of displaying voltage accurate to 0.1 V and current to 1 mA. Apparatus listed in Sections 7.7.1 through 7.7.5 is a possible system meeting this requirement. VoltmeterDigital (DVM), 3 digit, minimum 0-99.9 V range, rated accuracy 0.1 percent. VoltmeterDigital (DVM), 41/2 digit, 0-200 mV range, rated accuracy 0.1 percent. Shunt Resistor100 mV, 10A rating, tolerance 0.1 percent. Alternatively, a 0.01 resistor, tolerance 0.1 percent, may be used, but care must be taken to establish very low resistance connections. Constant Voltage Power Supply0-80 V dc, 0-2 A, capable of holding voltage constant at 60 0.1 V over entire range of currents. CableTwo conductor, 1.6 mm (No. 14), insulated, 600 V.
7.7.1. 7.7.2. 7.7.3.
7.7.4.
7.7.5.
8.
8.1.
TEST SPECIMENS
Sample preparation and selection depends on the purpose of the test. For evaluation of materials or their proportions, samples may be (a) cores from test slabs or from large diameter cylinders or (b) 100-mm (4-in.) diameter cast cylinders. For evaluation of structures, samples may be (a) cores from the structure or (b) 100-mm (4-in.) diameter cylinders cast and cured at the field site. Coring shall be done with a drilling rig equipped with a 100-mm (4-in.) diameter diamond-dressed core bit. Select and core samples following procedures in T 24M/T 24. Cylinders cast in the laboratory shall be prepared following procedures in R 39. Unless specified otherwise, moist cure test specimens for 56 days prior to the start of specimen preparation (Note 3). When cylinders are cast in the field to evaluate a structure, care must be taken that the cylinders receive the same treatment as the structure, for example, similar degree of consolidation, curing, and temperature history during curing.
TS-3c
T 277-6
AASHTO
Note 3This test method has been used with various test durations and curing regimens to meet agency guidelines or specifications. Care should be exercised when comparing results obtained from specimens subjected to differing conditions. Note 4The maximum allowable aggregate size has not been established for this test. Users have indicated that test repeatability is satisfactory on specimens from the same concrete batch for aggregates up to 25.0-mm (1-in.) nominal maximum size. 8.2. Transport the cores or field-cured cylinders to the laboratory in sealed (tied) plastic bags. If specimens must be shipped, they should be packed to be properly protected from freezing and damage in transit or storage. Using the water-cooled diamond saw or silicon carbide saw, cut a 50 3 mm (2 0.125 in.) slice from the top of the core or cylinder, with the cut parallel to the top of the core. This slice will be the test specimen. Use a belt sander to remove any burrs on the end of the specimen. Special processing is necessary for core samples where the surface has been modified, for example, by texturing or by applying curing compounds, sealers, or other surface treatments, and where the intent of the test is not to include the effect of the modifications. In those cases, the modified portion of the core shall be removed and the subsequent 50 3 mm (2 0.125 in.) slice shall be used for the test.
8.3.
8.4.
9.
9.1.
CONDITIONING
Vigorously boil a liter or more of tapwater in a large sealable container. Remove container from heat, cap tightly, and allow water to cool to ambient temperature. Allow specimen prepared in Section 8 to surface dry in air for at least one hour. Prepare approximately 10 g (0.5 oz) of rapid setting coating and brush onto the side surface of specimen. Place the sample on a suitable support while coating to ensure complete coating of sides. Allow coating to cure according to the manufacturers instructions. The coating should be allowed to cure until it is no longer sticky to the touch. Fill any apparent holes in the coating and allow additional curing time, as necessary. Place specimen in beaker or other container (Section 6.1.2), then place container in vacuum desiccator. Alternatively, place specimen directly in vacuum desiccator. Both end faces of specimen must be exposed. Seal desiccator and start vacuum pump. Pressure should decrease to less than 6650 Pa (50 mm Hg) within a few minutes. Maintain vacuum for three hours. Fill separatory funnel or other container (Section 6.1.1) with the de-aerated water prepared in Section 9.1. With vacuum pump still running, open water stopcock and drain sufficient water into beaker or container to cover specimen. (Do not allow air to enter desiccator through this stopcock.) Close water stopcock and allow vacuum pump to run for one additional hour. Close vacuum line stopcock, then turn off pump. (Change pump oil if a water trap is not being used.) Turn vacuum line stopcock to allow air to re-enter desiccator. Soak specimen under water (the water used in Sections 9.4 through 9.6) in the beaker for 18 2 hours.
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5. 9.6.
9.7.
TS-3c
T 277-7
AASHTO
10.
10.1.
PROCEDURE
Remove specimen from water, blot off excess water, and transfer specimen to a sealed can or other container, which will maintain the specimen in 95 percent or higher relative humidity. Specimen mounting (all sealants other than rubber gaskets: use Section 10.2.2 or Section 10.2.3, as appropriate): If using two-part specimen-cell sealant, prepare approximately 20 to 40 g (0.7 to 1.4 oz). Low-Viscosity, Specimen-Cell SealantIf filter paper is necessary, center filter paper over one screen of the applied voltage cell. Trowel sealant over brass shims adjacent to applied voltage cell body. Carefully remove filter paper. Press specimen onto screen; remove or smooth excess sealant that has flowed out of specimen-cell boundary. High-Viscosity, Specimen-Cell SealantSet specimen onto screen. Apply sealant around specimen-cell boundary. Cover exposed face of specimen with an impermeable material such as rubber or plastic sheeting. Place rubber stopper in cell filling hole to restrict moisture movement. Allow sealant to cure per manufacturers instructions. Repeat steps in Sections 10.2.2 (or 10.2.3) and 10.2.4 on second half of cell. (Specimen in applied voltage cell now appears as shown in Figure 4.) Specimen Mounting (Rubber Gasket Alternative)Place a 100-mm (4-in.) outside diameter by 75-mm (3-in.) inside diameter by 6-mm (0.25-in.) circular vulcanized rubber gasket in each half of the test cell. Insert sample and clamp the two halves of the test cell together to seal.
10.2.
10.2.1. 10.2.2.
10.2.3.
10.2.4.
10.2.5.
10.3.
Figure 4Specimen Ready for Test 10.4. Fill the side of the cell containing the top surface of the specimen with 3.0 percent NaCl solution. (That side of the cell will be connected to the negative terminal of the power supply
TS-3c
T 277-8
AASHTO
in Section 10.5.) Fill the other side of the cell (which will be connected to the positive terminal of the power supply) with 0.3 Normal NaOH solution. 10.5. Attach lead wires to cell banana posts. Make electrical connections to voltage application and data readout apparatus as appropriate: for example, for systems listed in Sections 7.7.1 through 7.7.5, connect as shown in Figure 5. Turn power supply on, set to 60.0 0.1 V, and record initial current reading. Temperatures of the specimen, applied voltage cell, and solutions shall be 20 to 25C (68 to 77F) at the time the test is initiated, that is, when the power supply is turned on.
Figure 5Electrical Block Diagram (example) 10.6. During the test, the air temperature around the specimens shall be maintained in the range of 20 to 25C (68 to 77F). Read and record current at least every 30 minutes. If a voltmeter is being used in combination with a shunt resistor for the current reading (Figure 5), use appropriate scale factors to convert voltage reading to amperes. Each half of the test cell must remain filled with the appropriate solution for the entire period of the test. Note 5During the test, the temperature of the solutions should not be allowed to exceed 90C (190F) in order to avoid damage to the cell and to avoid boiling off the solutions. Although it is not a requirement of the method, the temperature of the solutions can be monitored with thermocouples installed through the 3-mm (0.125-in.) venthole in the top of the cell. High temperatures occur only for highly penetrable concretes. If a test of a 50-mm (2-in.) thick specimen is terminated because of high temperatures, this should be noted in the report, along with the time of termination, and the concrete rated as having very high chloride ion penetrability. (See Section 12.1.9.) 10.8. 10.9. Terminate test after six hours, except as discussed in Note 5. Remove specimen. Rinse cell thoroughly in tap water; strip out and discard residual sealant.
10.7.
TS-3c
T 277-9
AASHTO
11.
11.1.
CALCULATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

Plot current (in amperes) versus time (in seconds). Draw a smooth curve through the data, and integrate the area underneath the curve in order to obtain the ampere-seconds, or coulombs, of charge passed during the six-hour test period. (See Note 6.) Alternatively, use automatic data processing equipment to perform the integration during or after the test and to display the coulomb value. The total charge passed is a measure of the electrical conductance of the concrete during the period of the test. Note 6Sample CalculationIf the current is recorded at 30-minute intervals, the following formula, based on the trapezoidal rule, can be used with an electronic calculator to perform the integration:
Q = 900 ( I 0 + 2 I 30 + 2 I 60 + 2 I 300 + 2 I 330 + I 360 )
(1)
where: Q = charge passed (coulombs), I0 = current (amperes) immediately after voltage is applied, and It = current (amperes) at t min after voltage is applied. 11.2. If the specimen diameter is other than 95 mm (3.75 in.), the value for total charge passed established in Section 11.1 must be adjusted. The adjustment is made by multiplying the value established in Section 11.1 by the ratio of the cross-sectional areas of the standard and the actual specimens. That is:
3.75 Qs =Qx x
2
(2)
where: Qs = charge passed (coulombs) through a 95-mm (3.75-in.) diameter specimen, Qx = charge passed (coulombs) through x mm (in.) diameter specimen, and x = diameter mm (in.) of the nonstandard specimen. 11.3. Use Table 1 to evaluate the test results. These values were developed from data on slices of cores taken from laboratory slabs prepared from various types of concretes. Factors which are known to affect chloride ion penetration include: water-cement ratio, the presence of polymeric admixtures, sample age, air-void system, aggregate type, degree of consolidation, and type of curing.
11.3.1.
12.
12.1. 12.1.1. 12.1.2. 12.1.3. 12.1.4.
REPORT
Report the following, if known: Source of core or cylinder, in terms of the particular location the core or cylinder represents. Identification number of core or cylinder and specimen. Location of specimen within core or cylinder. Type of concrete, including binder type, watercement ratio, and other relevant data supplied with samples.
TS-3c
T 277-10
AASHTO
12.1.5.
Description of specimen, including presence and location of reinforcing steel, presence and thickness of overlay, and presence and thickness of surface treatment. Curing history of specimen. Unusual specimen preparation, for example, removal of surface treatment. Test results, reported as the total charge passed over the test period (adjusted per Section 11.2), and The qualitative chloride ion penetrability equivalent to the calculated charge passed (from Table 1).
12.1.6. 12.1.7. 12.1.8.
12.1.9.
13.
13.1. 13.1.1.
PRECISION AND BIAS2

Precision: Single-Operator PrecisionThe single operator coefficient of variation of a single test result has been found to be 12.3 percent (Note 7). Therefore, the results of two properly conducted tests by the same operator on concrete samples from the same batch and of the same diameter should not differ by more than 42 percent (Note 7). Multilaboratory PrecisionThe multilaboratory coefficient of variation of a single test result has been found to be 18.0 percent (Note 7). Therefore results of two properly conducted tests in different laboratories on the same material should not differ by more than 51 percent (Note 7). The average of three test results in two different laboratories should not differ by more than 42 percent (Note 8). Note 7These numbers represent, respectively, the (1s percent) and (d2s percent) limits as described in ASTM C 670. The precision statements are based on the variations in tests on three different concretes, each tested in triplicate in 11 laboratories. All specimens had the same actual diameters, but lengths varied within the range 50 3 mm (2 0.125 in.). Note 8Although the test method does not require the reporting of more than one test result, testing of replicate specimens is usually desirable. The precision statement for the averages of three results is given since laboratories frequently will run this number of specimens. When averages of three results are established in each laboratory, the multilaboratory coefficient of variation SML is calculated as: SML = Square Root of (S 2WL / 3) + S 2BL where: S 2WL = within-laboratory variance and S 2BL = between-laboratory variance The percentage cited represents the (d2s%) limit based on the value for the multilaboratory coefficient of variation. (3)
13.1.2.
13.2.
BiasThe procedure of this test method for measuring the resistance of concrete to chloride ion penetration has no bias because the value of this resistance can be defined only in terms of a test method.
TS-3c
T 277-11
AASHTO
14.
14.1.
KEYWORDS
Chloride content; corrosion; deicing chemicals; resistance-chloride penetration.
15.
15.1.
REFERENCES
Whiting, D. Rapid Determination of the Chloride Permeability of Concrete. Final Report No. FHWA/RD-81/119. Federal Highway Administration, NTIS No. PB 82140724, August 1981. Whiting, D. Permeability of Selected Concrete. Permeability of Concrete. SP-108, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1988, pp. 195222. Whiting, D., and W. Dziedzic. Resistance to Chloride Infiltration of Superplasticized Concrete as Compared with Currently Used Concrete Overlay Systems. Final Report No. FHWA/OH-89/009. Construction Technology Laboratories, May 1989. Berke, N. S., D. W. Pfeifer, and T. G. Weil. Protection Against Chloride-Induced Corrosion. Concrete International. Vol. 10, No. 12, December 1988, pp. 4555. Ozyildirim, C., and W. J. Halstead. Use of Admixtures to Attain Low Permeability Concretes. Final Report No. FHWA/VA-88-R11. Virginia Transportation Research Council, NTIS No. PB 88201264, February 1988.
15.2.
15.3.
15.4.
15.5.
1 2
The numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of this standard. Supporting data have been filed at ASTM headquarters (100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 194282959) and may be obtained by requesting RR: C-9-1004.
TS-3c
T 277-12
AASHTO
Surface Frictional Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester

AASHTO Designation: T 278-90 (2007) 1 ASTM Designation: E 303-93 (2003)
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This method covers the procedure for measuring surface frictional properties using the British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester. A method for calibration of the tester is included in the Annex. The British Pendulum Tester is a dynamic pendulum impact-type tester used to measure the energy loss when a rubber slider edge is propelled over a test surface. The tester is used for laboratory as well as field tests on flat surfaces, and for polish value measurements on curved laboratory specimens from accelerated polishing wheel tests. The value measured, British Pendulum (Tester) Number, BPN, for flat surfaces and polish values for accelerated polishing wheel specimens, represents the frictional properties obtained with the apparatus and procedures stated herein, and does not necessarily agree or correlate with other slipperiness measuring equipment results. This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to consult and establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
2.
2.1.
REFERENCED DOCUMENT
AASHTO Standard: M 261, Standard Tire for Pavement Frictional-Property Tests ASTM Standard: E 501, Specification for Standard Rib Tire for Pavement Skid Resistant Tests Other Documents: Development and Performance of Portable Skid-Resistance Tester, Giles, C. G., Sabey, Barbara E., and Carden, K. W. F., Road Research Technical Paper No. 66, Road Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, England, 1964
2.2.
2.3.
TS-5a
T 278-1
AASHTO
3.
3.1.
SUMMARY OF METHOD
This method consists of using a pendulum-type tester with a standard rubber slider to determine the frictional properties of a test surface. The test surface is cleaned and thoroughly wetted prior to testing. The pendulum slider is positioned to barely come in contact with the test surface prior to conducting the test. The pendulum is raised to a locked position, then released, thus allowing the slider to make contact with the test surface. A drag pointer indicates the BPN. The greater the friction number between the slider and the test surface, the more the swing is retarded, and the larger the BPN reading. Four pendulum swings are made on each test surface for natural rubber or five swings for M 261 rubber.
3.2. 3.3.
3.4.
4.
4.1.

This method provides a measure of a frictional property, microtexture, of surfaces, either in the field or in the laboratory. This method may be used to determine the relative effects of various polishing techniques on materials or material combinations. The values measured in accordance with this method do not necessarily agree or directly correlate with those obtained utilizing other methods of determining friction properties or skid resistance. Note 1BPN and polish values from similar types of surfaces will not be numerically equal, primarily because of the differences in slide length and surface shape. Theoretical correction of the polish values to obtain numerical equality, either by mathematical manipulation or by use of special measuring scales, is not recommended.
4.2.
4.3.
5.
APPARATUS
Figure 1British Pendulum Tester
TS-5a
T 278-2
AASHTO
5.1.
British Pendulum Tester (Figure 1)The pendulum with slider and slider mount shall weigh 1500 30 g. The distance of the center of gravity of the pendulum from the center of oscillation shall be 16.2 0.2 in. (411 5 mm). The tester shall be capable of vertical adjustment to provide a slider contact path of from 47/8 to 5.0 in. (124 to 127 mm) for tests on flat surfaces and 215/16 to 31/16 in. (75 to 78 mm) for tests on polishing wheel specimens. The spring and lever arrangement shown in Figure 2 shall give an average normal slider load between the 3 in. (76 mm) wide slider and test surface of 2500 100 g as measured by the method prescribed in the Annex.
Figure 2Schematic Drawing of Pendulum Showing Spring and Lever Arrangement 5.2. SliderThe slider assembly shall consist of an aluminum backing plate to which is bonded a /4 by 1 by 3 in. (6 25 76 mm) rubber strip for testing flat surfaces or a 1/4 by 1 by 11/4 in. (6 25 32 mm) rubber strip for testing curved polishing wheel specimens. The rubber compound shall be natural rubber meeting the requirements of the Road Research Laboratory (see reference under Section 2.3) or synthetic rubber as specified in M 261.
TS-5a
T 278-3
AASHTO
5.2.1.
New sliders shall be conditioned prior to use by making 10 swings on No. 60 grade silicon carbide clothor equivalent under dry conditions. The swings shall be made with a tester adjusted as in Section 7. Note 2Carbide cloth material known to be suitable for this purpose is available from 3M Company, St. Paul, MN, under the trade name Type B Safety-Walk.
5.2.2.
Wear on the striking edge of the slider shall not exceed 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) in the plane of the slider or /16 in. (1.6 mm) vertical to it, as illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3Slider Assembly Illustrating the Maximum Wear on Striking Edge 5.3. 5.3.1. Accessories: Contact path gauge shall consist of a thin ruler suitably marked for measuring contact path length between 47/8 and 5 in. (124 and 127 mm) or between 215/16 and 31/16 in. (75 and 78 mm) as required for the particular test. Miscellaneous equipment, such as water container, surface thermometer, and brush is recommended.
5.3.2.
6.
6.1.
TEST SPECIMEN
FieldField test surfaces shall be free of loose particles and flushed with clean water. The test surface does not have to be horizontal provided the instrument can be leveled in the working position using only the leveling screws and the pendulum head will clear the surface. LaboratoryLaboratory test panels shall be clean and free of loose particles and shall be held rigidly so as not to be moved by the force of the pendulum. Flat laboratory samples shall have a test surface of at least 31/2 by 6 in. (89 by 152 mm). Accelerated laboratory polishing wheel specimens shall have a test surface of at least 13/4 by 31/2 inches (45 90 mm) and shall be curved in the arc of a circle 16 in. (406 mm) in diameter.
6.2.
6.2.1. 6.2.2.
7.
7.1.
PREPARATION OF APPARATUS
LevelingLevel the instrument accurately by turning leveling screws until the bubble is centered in the spirit level.
TS-5a
T 278-4
AASHTO
7.2.
Zero AdjustmentsRaise the pendulum mechanism by loosening the locking knob (directly behind pendulum pivot) and turn either of the pair of head movement knobs at the center of the tester to allow the slider to swing free of the test surface. Tighten the locking knob firmly. Place the pendulum in the release position and rotate the drag pointer counterclockwise until it comes to rest against the adjustment screw on the pendulum arm. Release the pendulum and note the pointer reading. If the reading is not zero, loosen the locking ring and rotate the friction ring on the bearing spindle slightly and lock again. Repeat the test and adjust the friction ring until the pendulum swing carries the pointer to zero. Slide Length Adjustment: With the pendulum hanging free, place the spacer under the adjusting screw of the lifting handle. Lower the pendulum so that the edge of the slider just touches the test surface. Lock the pendulum head firmly, raise the lifting handle, and remove spacer. Raise the slider by lifting the handle, move the pendulum to the right, lower the slider, and allow the pendulum to move slowly to the left until the slider edge touches the test surface. Place the contact path gauge beside the slider and parallel to the direction of swing to verify the length of the contact path. Raise the slider, using the lifting handle, and move the pendulum to the left, then slowly lower it until the slider edge again comes to rest on the surface. If the length of the contact path is not between 47/8 and 5 in. (124 and 127 mm) on flat test specimens or between 215/16 and 31/16 in. (75 and 78 mm) on curved polishing wheel specimens measured from trailing edge to trailing edge of the rubber slider, adjust by raising or lowering the instrument with the front leveling screws. The slide length may also be adjusted by means of the vertical height control knobs. Readjust the level of the instrument, if necessary. Place the pendulum in the release position and rotate the drag pointer counterclockwise until it comes to rest against the adjustment screw on the pendulum arm.
7.3. 7.3.1.
7.3.2.
8.
8.1.
PROCEDURE
Apply sufficient water to cover the test area thoroughly. Execute several swings until consistent results are obtained, but do not record the readings. Note 3Always catch the pendulum during the early portion of its return swing. While returning the pendulum to its starting position, raise the slider with its lifting handle to prevent contact between slider and the test surface. Prior to each swing, the pointer should be returned until it rests against the adjustment screw.
8.2.
Rewet the test area and without delay make four more swings, rewetting the test area prior to each swing and recording the results. Note 4Use four swings for natural rubber and five swings for AASHTO M 261 rubber. Care should be taken that the slider remains parallel to the test surface during the swings, and does not rotate so that one end rather than the entire striking edge makes the initial contact. Available data indicate that tilting of the slider may cause erroneous BPN readings. Installation of a small flat spring will relieve the problem. The spring can be inserted into a slot in the spring clip and the assembly secured by the cotter pin as shown in Figure 4. The free ends of the spring can rest on the slider backing-plate to restrain the slider from tilting.
TS-5a
T 278-5
AASHTO
Figure 4Spring Clip and Spring to Inhibit Slider Rotation 8.3. 8.4. Recheck the slider contact length in accordance with Section 7.3. Recheck the zero adjustment in accordance with Section 7.2.
9.
9.1. 9.1.1.
REPORT
The report shall include the following: Individual values in BPNs or polish values, and the average BPN or average polish value for each test surface. Temperature of the test surface. Type, age, condition, texture, and location of the test surface. Type and source of aggregate for polish value tests. Type and age of the rubber slider.
9.1.2. 9.1.3. 9.1.4. 9.1.5.
10.
PRECISION AND BIAS

Note 5The following material pertains only to the precision and bias of BPN units.
10.1.
Repeated tests show standard deviations as follows: British rubber sliders, 1.0 BPN units Sliders conforming to M 261, 1.2 BPN units In both cases, the upper quartile of variability is represented in prevailing test instruments. As there is no marked correlation between standard deviation and arithmetic mean of sets of test values, it appears that standard deviations are pertinent to this test regardless of the average frictional levels being tested. The relationship, if any exists, of observed BPN units to some true value frictional level has not and probably cannot be studied. As a result, precision and bias of this test in relation to a true frictional level measure cannot be evaluated, and only repeatability is given for the method.
10.2.
TS-5a
T 278-6
AASHTO
10.3.
Determine the testing error as follows:

E= t ( ) n
(1)
where: E = testing error, t = normal curve of 1.96 or 2.0 rounded,
n 10.4.
= standard deviation of individual test results (BPNs), and = number of tests.
In order to assure that the testing error stays within 1.0 BPN at a 95 percent confidence level (corresponding to a normal curve of 1.96 or 2.0 rounded), the following number of record swings are needed per sample: British natural rubber sliders, 4 Sliders conforming to M 261, 5
ANNEX
(Mandatory Information)
A1.
A1.1.
CALIBRATION
Weight of PendulumThe pendulum arm with mounted rubber slider shall be disconnected from the instrument and weighed to the nearest 1 g. Center of GravityThe center of gravity of the pendulum with a mounted rubber slider shall be determined by placing the pendulum assembly over a knife edge and experimentally locating the point of balance as shown in Figure A1.1. The adapter nut shall be held at the far end of the arm by a lightweight paper wedge. After the point of balance has been obtained, the position of the balance weight shall be adjusted until the sides of the pendulum foot are horizontal.
A1.2.
Figure A1.1Pendulum Assembly Showing Location of the Point of Balance A1.3. Distance of Center of Gravity from Center of OscillationWith the pendulum reconnected to the tester and knurled bearing cap removed, the distance shall be measured from the center of oscillation (center of bearing nut) to the point of balance (center of gravity). This distance shall be measured directly to the nearest 0.04 in. (1 mm).
TS-5a
T 278-7
AASHTO
A1.4.
Slider LoadThe pendulum shall be clamped to a holder attached to the scale plate of the tester and the tester placed and leveled on a tripod stand as shown in Figure A1.2. Insert the spacer. Adjust the pan balance with a bearing assembly (Note 5) on one pan and tare weights on the other pan so that the balance pointer is at a center scale reading. The pendulum, with a slider, shall be lowered with the vertical height knobs of the tester until the slider is approximately 0.01 in. (0.25 mm) from the top surface of the bearing assembly. Lock the vertical height knob and remove the spacer. This will cause an unbalance, which shall be partially compensated by adding weights to the opposite pan to bring the indicator to within approximately 200 g of the center scale reading. To complete the balance procedure, the pointer is returned to the center scale reading, by adding water slowly into a graduated cylinder. Empty the cylinder and repeat the pouring. Record the average weight required to raise the slider so that the balance pointer is at the center of the scale (Note A1). If the average, normal slider load between the 3 in. (76.2 mm) wide slider and the pan balance is not within the requirements stated in Section 5.1, adjust the spring tension nut illustrated in Figure 2 and redetermine the slider load.
Figure A1.2Arrangement of the British Pendulum Tester, Showing Pendulum Assembly and Pan Balance Used to Measure Slider Load Note A1The bearing assembly may be a ladder bearing with a rigid, free-moving top plate or a similar arrangement so that no horizontal loads are introduced while measuring the vertical slider load. Note A2It may be necessary to move the pans of the balance up and down to work the spring in order to get smooth and consistent readings. If the measurements of the slider load are still irregular after working the spring, remove the side and bottom panels of the pendulum foot and inspect for cleanliness of the bearing surfaces and knife edges illustrated in Figure 2 and redetermine the slider load.
1
This method agrees with ASTM E 303-93 (2003), except for differences in the number of allowed unrecorded swings in the test procedure and the addition of an optional method of slide length adjustment.
TS-5a
T 278-8
AASHTO
Accelerated Polishing of Aggregates Using the British Wheel

AASHTO Designation: T 279-96 (2006) ASTM Designation: D 3319-90
1.
1.1.
SCOPE
This method covers a laboratory procedure by which an estimate may be made of the extent to which different coarse aggregates may polish. The values stated in SI units are regarded as the standard. This standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the users of this standard to consult and establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
1.2. 1.3.
2.
2.1.
AASHTO Standards: M 261, Standard Tire for Pavement Frictional-Property Tests T 2, Sampling of Aggregates T 106M/T 106, Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortar (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens) T 278, Surface Frictional Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester ASTM Standards: C 778, Specification for Standard Sand D 75, Practice for Sampling Aggregates D 1415, Test Method for Rubber PropertyInternational Hardness 1 E 303, Test Method of Measuring Surface Friction Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester
2.2.
3.
3.1.

This test method simulates the polishing action of vehicular traffic on coarse aggregates used in bituminous pavements. A polish value is determined that may be used to rate or classify coarse aggregates for their ability to resist polishing under traffic.
3.2.
TS-5a
T 279-1
AASHTO
4.
4.1. 4.1.1.
TERMINOLOGY
Definitions: initial friction valuethe initial British Pendulum Tester readings on the test specimens before they are polished in the accelerated polishing machine. polish value (P.V.)a measure of the state of polish reached by a test specimen subjected to accelerated polishing using the materials, equipment, and procedures described in this method. The measurement is made using the British Pendulum Tester as described in Section 5.3 and T 278.
4.1.2.
5.
5.1.
APPARATUS
Accelerated Polishing Machine 2An accelerated polishing machine, also known as the British Wheel, and based upon a 1958 design by the Road Research Laboratory of Great Britain. This machine shall be mounted on a firm, rigid, and level base. The equipment shall include the following: Cylindrical WheelHereafter referred to as the road wheel, and having a flat surface periphery and of such size and shape as to permit 14 specimens described below to be clamped onto the periphery to form a continuous surface of aggregate particles, 44.5 mm (13/4 in.) wide and 406.4 mm (16 in.) in diameter. A means of rotating the road wheel about its own axis at a speed of 320 5 rpm. A means of bringing the surface of a rubber-tired wheel 203.2 mm (8 in.) in diameter and 50.8 mm (2 in.) wide to bear on the aggregate specimens mounted on the surface of the road wheel with a total load of 391.44 4.45 N (88 1 lbf). The tire shall be treated, if necessary, to obtain a true running surface. The tire shall be free to rotate about on its own axis which shall be parallel to the axis of the road wheel. The plane of rotation of the tire shall coincide with that of the road wheel. Before a new tire is used on a test, it should be conditioned by a preliminary run of six hours with a 150-grit silicon carbide using dummy specimens (extra or used) on the road wheel. Alternate Tire No. 1An industrial 8 2 pneumatic smooth-tread handtruck tire (Note 1). The tire rubber hardness shall be 55 5 IRHD measured in accordance with ASTM D 1415. The tire shall be inflated to a pressure of 310.26 13.79 kPa (45 2 psi). Note 1This is the tire originally supplied with the Accelerated Polishing Machine2 and known by the tire manufacturers designation Dunlop RLI 8 2. Dunlop discontinued manufacturing this tire in February 1979. It is retained as an alternate in this test method for those users who may still have a supply and in the event that Dunlop should resume manufacturing it in the future.
5.1.1.
5.1.2. 5.1.3.
5.1.3.1.
5.1.3.2.
Alternate Tire No. 2An industrial 8 in. OD 4 in. ID (2.80 4), 4 NHS-4 ply, cross-hatch pattern tread hand-truck tire (Note 2). The tire shall be inflated to a pressure of 241.32 13.79 kPa (35 2 psi). Note 2When it became known that the Dunlop tire (Section 5.1.3.1) was no longer being manufactured, the necessity of finding a replacement tire for the test method was evident. A search and study by the Texas State Department of Highways and Public Transportation culminated in finding this tire, a Goodyear Industrial All Weather Hand-Truck tire size 2.80 4 (Goodyear Product Code 202-008-002), to give polish values equal to those obtained with the Dunlop tire. 3 A suitable inner-tube such as Goodyear G250-4 (Product Code 199-010-700) is necessary. It was
TS-5a
T 279-2
AASHTO
also found necessary to modify the 4-in. wheel furnished with the Accelerated Polish Machine to facilitate mounting the Goodyear tire. Approximately 0.10 in. should be removed from the wheel diameter and a larger hole provided for the valve stem. This did not affect mounting and use of the Dunlop tire. 5.1.4. A means to feed the 150-grit silicon carbide abrasive at the rate given in Section 8.5. The grit shall be fed continuously and with a uniform distribution across the width of the specimens. The grit shall be applied directly onto the road wheel surface ahead of the point of contact with the rubbertired wheel. A means to feed the water at the rate given in Section 8.5 in such a way that the water is spread continuously and uniformly over the surface of the road wheel ahead of the point of contact with the rubber-tired wheel. Metal MoldsA number of accurately machined metal molds for preparing specimens. The specimen formed is 88.9 44.45 16.0 mm (3.5 1.75 0.63 in.) and shall be curved to fit on a surface having a 203.2-mm (8-in.) radius of curvature. British Pendulum TesterA friction measuring device. The British Pendulum Tester used shall conform to T 278. The slider contact path shall be 76.2 1.6 mm (3 1/16 in.). The slider width shall be 31.8 mm (11/4 in.). The rubber that is bonded to the slider shall be 6.4 by 25.4 by 31.8 mm (1/4 by 1 by 11/4 in.). The rubber shall meet the requirements of M 261. The zero adjustment shall be checked before and after testing the specimens and as often as the operator deems necessary. The calibration procedures of T 278 shall be used. However, after calibration, the small slider shall be inserted.
5.1.5.
5.2.
5.3.
5.3.1. 5.3.2. 5.3.3. 5.3.4. 5.3.5.
5.3.6.
6.
6.1. 6.2.
MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES

WaterA supply of tap water for use where water is required for any purpose in this method. Fine SandA supply of fine sand for sifting into the interstices of the aggregate prior to placing of the bonding material. Standard sand conforming to the requirements of ASTM C 778 has been found suitable for this purpose. Mold-Release AgentThe use of a mold-release agent is optional. A mold release agent may be used to prevent bonding between the mold and the bonding material. Silicon release agent and paste wax as used for automobiles and floors have been found suitable. The user should use care to prevent this agent from being absorbed by the aggregate as it could affect the measured polish value.
6.3.
TS-5a
T 279-3
AASHTO
6.4.
Silicon Carbide GritA supply of silicon carbide grit (150-grit size) to be used as the polishing agent. Grit should be checked for gradation using 150-m (No. 100), 75-m (No. 200) sieves and separated and recombined if necessary to maintain a uniform gradation for all testing. Bonding AgentA supply of polyester resin and catalyst (or another suitable bonding material, such as an epoxy resin) having a pot life of 20 to 30 minutes and a curing time of three to six hours. This bonding agent shall not be so fluid as to flow through the fine sand. An optional bonding agent may be used to eliminate use of the fine sand. This bonding agent must be quite viscous so that it will not flow completely around the aggregate particles and become part of the surface of the test specimen. Examples of suitable materials are given in Appendix X1. Follow the manufacturers precautions concerning storage and use of resin and catalyst. Coarse AggregateApproximately a 0.014 m3 (1/2 ft3) supply of coarse aggregate to be tested and sampled in accordance with T 2. The aggregate shall be normal plant run but laboratory-crushed material may be tested, if so identified.
6.5.
6.5.1.
6.5.2. 6.6.
7.
7.1. 7.2.
TEST AND CONTROL SPECIMENS

At least five test specimens for each coarse aggregate shall be tested. (See Section 10.2.) Laboratories evaluating only a few coarse aggregates each year shall include standard laboratory control specimens in each run. Two sets containing five test specimens each will allow the inclusion of four control specimens. With an accumulation of polish value history, the control specimens may be eliminated. This will allow an increase in the number of the coarse aggregate test specimens for the two sets. The aggregate to be tested shall pass the 12.7-mm (1/2-in.) sieve and shall be retained on a 9.53-mm (3/8-in.) sieve. Note 3Aggregate gradation may be varied to meet the needs of the user if reported with the test results. However, aggregates larger than 12.7 mm (1/2 in.) may not be accommodated by the mold, and aggregates smaller than 9.53 mm (3/8 in.) may not be adequately bonded in the specimen molding process to be retained for the duration of the test.
7.3.
7.4. 7.5. 7.6.
Thoroughly wash and dry the aggregate to be tested at 100 to 110C to essentially constant mass. Coat the mold with mold-release agent. Each specimen shall contain a single layer of dry aggregate placed by hand as densely as possible with a flat surface down to cover the bottom 89.9 44.45 mm (3.5 1.75 in.) surface of the mold. Note 4Particles selected should be representative of the material to be evaluated. Flat, elongated, or unusually shaped particles can cause difficulty in placement and bonding. Misleading polish values can result from inadequate surface area for polishing.
7.7.
Fill the interstices between the aggregate with the fine sand, described in Section 6.2, from onefourth to one-half of the aggregate depth. An optional method eliminates the sand by using a viscous polyester resin. This material is described in Section 6.5.
7.7.1.
TS-5a
T 279-4
AASHTO
7.8.
Prepare the bonding agent described in Section 6.5 and in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. The consistency of the bonding agent shall be such that it will flow freely between the aggregate particles but not so thin as to impregnate the sand or to bond this sand to the specimen surface later preventing its removal. An ideal consistency would be such that the bonding agent must be forced into the voids between the aggregate particles by gentle hand pressure with a spatula. The optional bonding agent requires a heavier consistency such that it will not flow except with the aid of a spatula. Fill the prepared mold to overflow with the bonding material. Note 5Care should be used to ensure that the bonding agent is not allowed to penetrate near the aggregate surface to be polished in such a way that the rubber slider may contact it.
7.8.1.
7.9.
7.10.
When the bonding material has stiffened sufficiently, strike off the excess material even with the curved sides of the mold. When the bonding material has cured properly (three to six hours) remove the specimen from the mold. If sand was used, remove all free and excess sand from the face of the specimen. If warping prevents proper placement on the road wheel, dress the bottom of the test specimens with a grinding wheel or belt sander to ensure proper fit. Respirators shall be used to prevent breathing the dust.
7.11.
7.12. 7.13.
8.
8.1.
PROCEDURE
Determine the initial friction value of each prepared test specimen in accordance with T 278 using the slider specified in Section 5.3. Take all readings from the permanent scale. Clamp 14 specimens around the periphery of the road wheel (using rubber O-rings near the edge of the specimens) to form a continuous strip of particles upon which the pneumatic-tired wheel shall ride freely without bumping or slipping. Maintain the temperature of the specimens, water, and apparatus at 23.9 2.8C (75 5F) during the entire time of the test. Bring the road wheel to a speed of 320 + 5 rpm, and bring the pneumatic-tired wheel to bear on the surface of the specimen with a total load of 391.44 4.45 N (88 1 lbf). Feed the No. 150 silicon carbide grit at a rate of 6 2 g/min for the desired testing time (Note 6). Feed the water at the rate of 50 to 75 mL per minute. Note 6Aggregates should be subjected to a polishing action of 10 hours, unless maximum polish is achieved in a shorter time. Maximum polish is achieved when no change is detected on successive measurements.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
Remove the specimens from the road wheel and wash thoroughly to remove grit.
TS-5a
T 279-5
AASHTO
8.7.
After cleaning, test each specimen to determine the polish value in accordance with T 278 using the slider specified in Section 5.3. Take all readings from the permanent scale. If control specimens are used, determine adjustments to the polish value by comparing the polish value obtained for control specimens to the established value for the control aggregate as follows: PV adjusted = PV Control (Standard)/PV Control (run) PV Specimen (run) If the rate of polish is desired, repeat the procedure in Sections 8.2 to 8.7 at regular intervals of machine time such as 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 hours.
8.8.
8.9.
9.
9.1. 9.1.1.
REPORT
Report the following information as is appropriate to the needs of the user: Identification of the coarse aggregate tested (and the control aggregate if used) including gradation of aggregate, Initial friction value for specimens containing aggregates to be evaluated and for control specimens if used, Polish values for specimens containing aggregates evaluated and for control specimens if used, Length of time and interim polish value of specimens tested for rate-of-polish determination, Temperature during testing period, and Dates of testing period.
9.1.2.
9.1.3. 9.1.4. 9.1.5. 9.1.6.
10.
10.1.
PRECISION AND BIAS

The only measurement in this method which may be evaluated for precision and bias is the polish value. Refer to Section 7, Precision and Bias, of T 278 for information on precision and number of test specimens. If no control specimens are used, it is recommended that seven specimens of the aggregate to be evaluated be tested in order to reduce random testing errors and to increase the confidence level of the test.
10.2.
APPENDIX
X1.
X1.1.
SUITABLE BONDING AGENT

The formulation in Table X1.1 entitled Polyester Bonding Agent is a polyester bonding agent that has been found to successfully eliminate the need for sand as described in Section 7.
TS-5a
T 279-6
AASHTO
Table X1.1Polyester Bonding Agent Parts by Weight

100 30 5 to 6
Component
Polylite 32-773 Polyester Resina Wollastonite NYAD 400 Extender Pigmentb Santocel Z Silica Aerogel,c Aerosil 200,d or Cab-O-Sil M-5 Colloidal Silicae 6 percent Cobalt Naphthenate Solutiona
Supplier
Reichhold Chemical Co. Interpace Corp.b Monsanto Chemical Co. Degussa, Inc. Godfrey L. Cabot, Inc. Reichhold Chemical Co.
0.5
a
Available from Reichhold Chemical Co., 523 N. Broadway, White Plains, NY 10603. b Available from Interpace Corp., Customer Service Division, Willsboro, NY 12996. c Available from Monsanto Chemical Co., 800 N. Lindberg Blvd, St. Louis, MO 63166. d Available from Degussa, Inc., Route 46 at Hollister Rd., Teterboro, NJ 07608. e Available from Cabot Corp., Cab-O-sil Division, Tuscole, IL 61953.
X1.2. X1.2.1.
Prepare the grout as follows: Add the Wollastonite NYAD 400 to the polyester resin and disperse with a laboratory model Cowles Disperser or similar equipment which will give a good, uniform mix. Then add the Santocel Z or Cab-O-Sil M-5 and grind in with the Cowles Dispenser until a good gel is obtained. The amount of gelling agent may be varied depending upon the stiffness desired. The thixotropy or gel can also be increased by stirring in a maximum of 0.1 part by mass glycerine following dispersal of the gelling agent. Stir in the cobalt naphthenate. Just prior to use, add approximately 0.7 mass percent of 60 percent methyl ethyl ketone peroxide catalyst to the basic polyester grout and stir well. The amount of catalyst may also be varied depending upon the pot life or working time and the speed of cure desired. The working time of a 200-g batch of the catalyzed material is 15 to 20 minutes at 25C (77F). The cast specimens will cure adequately in 12 hours at 25C (77F) to perform the accelerated polish test. Note X1Other formulations may also be suitable and easily obtained locally. One such material is Preco, Gold Label, Non-Sagging Resin and Powder. 4
X1.2.2.
X1.3.
1 2
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 37. Available from Wessex Engineering and Metal Craft C., Ltd., Merchants Barton, Frome, Somerset, England. 3 Copy of the report on the evaluation of this tire is available at ASTM Headquarters, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. 4 Available from Preco Industries, Ltd., 55 Skyline Dr., Plainview, NY 11803.
TS-5a
T 279-7
AASHTO

AAHSTO Test Method

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AAHSTO Test Method

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Pete Rahn, President

Director, Missouri Department of Transportation

John Horsley, Executive Director

Standard Method of Test for

Determination of Organic Content in Soils by Loss on Ignition

3.5. 3.6. 3.7.

Calculate the percentage of organic content to the nearest 0.1 percent.

Standard Method of Test for

Percent Air Voids in Compacted Dense and Open Asphalt Mixtures

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

PRECISION AND BIAS

Test and Type Index

Acceptable Range of Two Results

Test and Type Index

Acceptable Range of Two Results

EXAMPLE CALCULATION OF PRECISION

(2.523) (0.007) + (2.423) (0.004) = 0.00316 4 (2.523)

Similar, but not technically identical to ASTM D 3203-05.

Standard Method of Test for

Method ADirect Transmission Method BBackscatter

The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the preferred standard.

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

6.4.2. 6.4.3. 6.5.

METHOD ADIRECT TRANSMISSION

8.2. 8.2.1. 8.2.2.

NOTES ON THE NUCLEAR TEST

Standard Method of Test for

Family of CurvesOne Point Method

Figure 1Example of Curves

CALCULATIONS AND REPORT

MAXIMUM DENSITY AND OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

APPENDIXDEVELOPING A MOISTURE-DENSITY FAMILY OF CURVES

Standard Method of Test for

4.9. 4.10. 4.11. 4.12.

Figure 1Soil Suction Apparatus

Figure 3Typical Thermocouple Psychrometer Calibration Line

TS-1a T 273-7 AASHTO

Soil, Suction, Water Content, and Specific Volume

Specific Volume = 1/d

Figure 4Suggested Data Sheet for Collection of Soil Suction Data

DATA REDUCTION AND INTERPRETATION

where: A = y-intercept; B = slope; and w = water content, percent.

Standard Method of Test for

Standard Method of Test for

Developing Early-Age Compression Test Values and Projecting Later-Age Strengths

SUMMARY OF TEST OF METHOD

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

EARLY-AGE STRENGTH PROCEDURE

PROCEDURE FOR DEVELOPING STRENGTH-MATURITY RELATIONSHIP

11.2.1. 11.2.2. 11.2.3.

PRECISION AND BIAS

Average Strength, psi

3 h at 70F 5 h at 72.5F 16 h at 77F 2 h at 73F Total maturity X1.3.3.3. X1.3.3.4.

210Fh 362.5Fh 1232Fh 146Fh 1950.5Fh

(X1.2) (X1.3) (X1.4) (X1.5) (X1.6)

where: SM LL K 1.645 S28 n

Standard Method of Test for

Electrical Indication of Concretes Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration

SUMMARY OF TEST METHOD

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

Chloride Ion Penetrability

Figure 1Applied Voltage Cell (Construction Drawing)

REAGENTS, MATERIALS, AND TEST CELL