Early Diodes Thermionic diodes are thermionic valve devices (also known as vacuum tubes) Electrodes surrounded by a vacuum

um within a glass envelope, similar in appearance to incandescent light bulbs. Semiconductor Diodes Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions In a p-n diode, conventional current can flow from the p-type side (the anode) to the n-type side (the cathode), but cannot flow in the opposite direction. Semiconductor Materials Semiconductor means the elements having a conductivity between a conductor and an insulator Commonly used: Germanium (Ge) Silicon (Si) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Atomic Structure Every atom is composed of 3 basic particles: electron, proton & neutron The outermost orbit are called valence electrons Semiconductor have only 3 5 valence electrons Atomic Structure

Silicon

Germanium

Gallium

Arsenic

Covalent bonding is the bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons Ex: covalent bonding of silicon atoms Extrinsic Materials The characteristics of a semiconductor can be altered by adding specific impurity atoms to that semiconductor material. This process are call doping A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic material Two types of extrinsic material: n-type p-type Extrinsic Materials n-type materials Extra electrons in the covalent bond gets from n-type materials such as antimony, arsenic and phosphorus p-type materials Extra holes in the covalent bond gets from p-type materials such as boron, gallium and indium Majority and Minority Carriers For n-type material: Majority carriers: electrons Minority carriers: holes For p-type material: Majority carriers: holes Minority carriers: electrons Semiconductor Diodes

 By simply joining the n-type and p-type material together, a semiconductor diode was born Connect the diode to a source:

This is called REVERSE BIAS

To conclude, diode can be represented as a switch (but not ideal) For a forward-bias, 0.7V (knee voltage, VD) have to be applied for the diode (for silicon) For germanium, VD = 0.2 ~ 0.3V For gallium arsenide, VD = 1.2 ~ 1.4V Zener Diode A special type of diode that is supposed to be reversed biased Zener diode works in zener region where the diode start to breakdown at breakdown avalanche voltage (VZ), and the current is avalanche current (IZ) It limits a voltage to a certain point to pass through the zener diode LED (Light-Emitting Diode) In a forward-biased p-n junction, recombination of the holes and electrons requires energy possessed by the unbound free electrons In Si and Ge, most of the energy is dissipated in the form of heat and photons But in other material such as GaAs, the energy generate light but it is invisible for the eye to see (infrared) Other materials that emit light during forward-bias operation Color Construction Forward Voltage Amber Blue Green Orange Red White Yellow AlInGaP GaN GaP GaAsP GaAsP GaN AlInGaP 2.1 5.0 2.2 2.0 1.8 4.1 2.1

Diode Approximation Diode equivalent circuits: Ideal Equivalent Circuit Simplified Equivalent Circuit Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit Purpose: to represent diode

Load-Line Analysis A simple analysis which used the diode characteristic to obtain the Q-point (operation point) A series diode circuit and characteristic: E = VD + VR = VD + I R

VD = 0, E = 0 + I D R = I D R, I D = E

I D = 0, E = VD + (0) R = VD , VD = E Connect a line between E / R and E The overlap of the lines becomes the Q-point of the diode and IDQ and VDQ will be obtained

Semiconductor Materials Common materials used in the development of semiconductor devices: Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) Operating Conditions No Bias Forward Bias Reverse Bias Resistance Levels Semiconductors act differently to DC and AC currents. There are 3 types of resistances. DC or Static Resistance

 AC or Dynamic Resistance Average AC Resistance DC or Static Resistance The resistance of a diode at a particular operating point is called the dc or static resistance diode. It can be determined using equation (1.1): RD = VD/ID AC or Dynamic Resistance Static resistance is using dc input. If the input is sinusoidal the scenario will be change. The varying input will move instantaneous operating point UP and DOWN of a region. Thus the specific changes in current and voltage is obtained. It can be determined using equation (1.2) rd = VD/ ID