PIM - Book 3 of 3

The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on
Participatory Irrigation Management

Tehran-Iran May 2-5, 2007
PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATIONS ROLE IN WATER RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT OF EAST AZARBAIJAN AND ARDABIL PROVINCES
Farhad Paknia1, Seyed Alireza Hosseinzadeh Tabrizi2, Farhad Almaspour3
ABSTRACT:
During the past five decades, the trend of management based on the people participation
has been weakened by considering new form of water resource management, and
generally, the role of people participation in the drinking water supply of rural and
urban areas according to technical & environmental requirements has thoroughly been
changed. Thus, the people presence in this section of activities has been omitted and
people participation was limited to the distribution of irrigation water and preserving of
kanats and structures. Recently, new stage of People's participation system in the water
resource management of the country has started with initiating financial public
participation for construction of irrigation networks. Notwithstanding, this desirable
process shows deep dependence of public interests to collective activities in the history
of this country. Nevertheless, these changes in comparison with huge abilities of people
as in the history of management based on collective cooperation in the water affaires
has been displayed which to be very slight. Dependence to the potential capacities of
people and stakeholders is a fact that global society and international conventions
believe in that too, and regarding to this matter, vast activities are enforceable.
Necessarily, research and knowledge of different dimensions of public participation
specially recognizing its dimension in the history of public participation in the water
section was one of inevitable principal activities for entrance to huge boundary of this
subject. Through such a scientific recognition and with notice to planning and preparing
of integrated system and construction of public participation, subject of public
participation in water section could be completely sustained by dependence to deeps
believes of people. According to the policy of Ministry of Energy based of combination
of vast public potential abilities with public income resources in the construction of
irrigation and drainage networks with decline target of projects construction time and
assurance to their correct operation and finally managing the main section of public
income resources to the economical infrastructures , East Azarbaijan water Corporation,
during the second and third development , economical , social , cultural development
1 - BS in management/ People participations and Investment Office, East Azarbaijan Regional Water
Authority (E.A.R.W.A), Tabriz-IRAN. Tel: +981 411 3382232, farhadpaknia@yahoo.com
2 - MS in Hydraulic Structures,/ Subscriber Affairs and Surface Water Resources Users Office,
E.A.R.W.A, Tabriz-Iran. Tel: +981 411 3382309 and +981 9144150241, alialireza@yahoo.com
3- MS in geographic information systems, / planning Office, E.A.R.W.A, Tabriz-IRAN.
Tel: +981 411 3382306, f_almaspoor@yahoo.com
794 International Seminar on PIM
plans of Iran along with water resources development of two provinces succeeded to
establish 133 water users cooperation's ( and 46 projects to cover 72595.575 hectares of
land ) with 10900 water users. In addition, 21 projects of participation projects started
operation in the half of this year. In this article, we briefly explain the most important
activities which have been done, revealing the problems and difficulties about the public
participation.
Key words: E.A.R.W.A- Public participation - irrigation – public networks – water
1-INRTODUCTION
In the recent decades, the integrated development by multilateral participation of all
people in development plans has been experienced in some countries and this problem
has brought useful results to these countries. For our country, the experiences of these
countries are more useful than experiences of development countries such as American
and European countries.
If we study the history of mankind's life, we will notice that the man always has tried
more for creating his special location in the environment; so that the first societies were
created and in that society sense of participation for recreating society and living place
were strengthened, and they had no the other resort in their thoughts except mutual
cooperation and understanding with other societies. The direct and indirect participation
of all people in the structure of society were completely apparent.
Participation in rural society is more important, because distance between government
organizations in the cities and beneficiaries of these polices in rural areas is more.
To get an effective participation in development should be recognized and solved.
Concept of participation is extensive and polyhedron and social and cultural concepts
should necessarily be examined from expertise viewpoints. Specific solutions,
acceptable and logical methods should be collected and selected by considering the
cultural, social and economical specifications of each area.
The necessity and the importance of people's participation in development plans are:
1. Participation is precondition of development.
2. Participation is a key element of planning.
3. Participation is guarantor of successfulness of government plans.
4. Participation is a basic stone of current affairs of society.
Through participation, knowledge or belief of villagers about development plans and
absorption of their helps may be obtained.
2-THE ROLE OF PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT:

Generally collective participation of people makes the following three type of change in
individuals, such as:
1. Change in individual's knowledge level: his or her information level and habit,
2. Changing in her or his skills level: method of doing mental and physical pieces of
work.
3. Change in his or her structures and views: behavior, intends and viewpoints of
peoples about society problems. The scientists and researchers has summarized
the role of villagers’ participation in socio-economic programs as following:
1. To make incentive and readiness in people for changing continuous socio-
economic and cultural situations and to accept plans and projects.
2. To make risking morale in villagers for encountering with problems and finding
their solutions.
3. To raise decision- making power in people to designing plans and development
projects for strengthening innovation sense.
4. To make changes for guarantying development plans by people’s participation
in all planning phases.
5. To help to the regulation of power structure in society and to make changes in
power distribution by giving ability to the people or to receive power with
them.
6. To accelerate the trend of accomplishment of projects, save the time of
accomplishment, and increase the quality of rural programs.
7. To help for logical exploitation of projects and projects.
8. To get more information about programs and problems of society and find
solutions for them.
3- BARRIERS to VILLAGER’S PARTICIPATION:

Villager’s participation needs the specific conditions and situations, if these conditions
not be provided; in this case villager’s participation will encountered with serious
barriers. For better understanding, here we present the following necessary bases:
3-1 The historical bases: one of the effective factors to attract villager’s participation
in different development programs is the culture of participation and social morale of
participants. This morale when will be appear that a historical root be exist and it has a
long history in their life environment and villagers have experienced a sweet taste of
cooperation sense. In these conditions, participation has logical and good results. In our
country, there are a few cultural and religious bases for participating in social affairs
such as building mosques, kanats, Caravanserai and the other public places.
Furthermore, different production methods and social life have made the different types
of participation with special formations. The formations like Boneh, Sahra, Haraseh etc
are feasible samples of people’s participation formations. Social and economical
changes and the other changes have altered the traditional forms of participation. As the
result of that, social and economical relationships have also been changed. Nowadays,
planning methods and organizing participation with proportion to the enhanced
technology level is the main issue.
3-2 The Political barriers: Planning system has a direct relationship with the
governmental and official system of each country in the national, regional and local
scales. If a society has a central government system or autocracy system, in this country
participation system will not be profitable. The wide interfere of a minority group or a
person in the political decision-making and managing affairs weakens democratic
participation bases. So, condition of participation existence in the local and rural level is
the existence of democratic and political system and also decentralized planning system.
Furthermore, in order to establish a logical participation system at the villages, this
system must be created in the socio-economic structure of the villages so that it could
design a suitable participation status and then be accomplished. This work is a duty of
experts and government individuals. Because sometimes pressures of political tribal
groups and inter-group dependences could be an obstacle to attract participation of the
majority of people and sometimes the existence of local powers and their enjoyment of
a good socio-economic base at the village can be a serious obstacle to the participation
and decision-making activities. There are a few specific ways to guide the people to
have socio-economic cooperation that these are the duties of the governments. The
governments must consider a priority to the cooperation sector in the economy of our
country. One of the reasons of failure of economic and government system to attract
people’s participation is political interference and ignoring the traditional methods.
3-3 Economic obstacles: Beside the internal conditions, participation needs external
conditions that here the main conditions are socio-economic conditions. Participation
mechanism must be achieved free from political unsafe economic competitions.
Attracting people’s participation at the development and economic plans depends on the
economic abilities of the peoples. Because of low incomes, the majority of the villagers
of IRAN have no the ability of participation. In different countries such as India and
Korea, the factor of economic poverty is one of the main barriers to the people’s
participation. Furthermore, poverty of rural groups weakens effect of their efforts and
also weakens their interference and participation in decision-making and their
participation in the establishment of development plans. Participation trend may
strengthen the economic base of the villagers. The role of the government is very
important to reach this goal. The feasible sample of this participation policy can be
found at the Samoel Andog’s Revolution in Kora republic that was designed to the
participation of the villagers in order to increase revenues of villagers. The effect of this
movement and preparation made deep changes at the villages of Korea republic so that
in 1974 income amounts of majority of villager’s households became more than
households of cities.
3-4 Cultural and Social Obstacles: Cultural and social factors are the other effective
factors on people’s participation as a relational canal for socio-economic development.
Generally, there are a few local pressure groups in the villages, these groups are agent
of profits of powerful individuals that weakens local formations and seldom strengthens
them. The choice of local leaders as local people agents is a suitable social factor to
reach the participation. Production groups of volunteer societies, farmers groups and
women associations are samples of the participation local organizations.
4-THE SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC BASES TO REACH THE

PARTICIPATION:
Development process is a trend that the economic, social and cultural situations of rural
and urban societies are improved by popular and government efforts. This implicated
process of development includes two principal elements, one of which is people’s
participation and their effort to improve their life level. By self-helping and local
innovations; and the one is instruments provision and necessary techniques are provided
by government. This bilateral cooperation of people and government makes
development plans becomes effective.
4-1 The Cultural and Social Bases: Generally, participation is a type of interaction
between values, goals, factors, activities etc. In fact the interaction between these
elements is an interaction between the experience and the interpretation of participation.
We must also examine the existence of social base. This base is a result of two
following experiences and examinations.
Generally principals of the participation to the people are following cases:
- Participation is a part of the cultural and social system and it originates from the
society.
- This participation is the result of popular power not individual power and people
by using that can access to the social and economic security.
- Participation is as a goal for the villagers not as an instrument.
4-2 The Result of Interaction between Two Experiences about the Participation:
On the base of the participation between two experiences “to the government” and “to
the people” conditions are provided that confronts people’s participation with problems.
These conditions contain these specifications:
- Participation is a risk to the people.
- Because the original plan is provided by the upper levels of the government, and
people has no interference in the phase of the decision-making and planning, so
people see themselves without power in the establishment of development
programs.
5- PROCESS OF THE PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION:

5-1 Process of the Participation: Generally process of the participation starts with a
phase of need sense and problem knowing and then a base and an incentive is provided
to the popular activity. At first, this activity continues as an informal form and then as a
formal form and finally the result of this popular activity is participation. The process of
participation is composed of these following phases:
1. Need.
2. Problem knowing.
3. Incentive.
4. Group formation.
5. Group organization.
6. Formal activity.
7. To reach the goals.
8. To examine the goals.
9. Satisfaction.
5-2 Conditions and Necessities of the Participation: Conditions and necessities of the
participation that has a direct relationship to the participation process fulfilled in this
following framework:
1. To know the goals of a problem, to know the problem and to have enough
incentive to popular activity.
2. Interactive informing and interaction after establishing initial groups.
3. Membership, consultation, independence after forming organized groups.
5-3 Process of People’s Participation: Phases of the participation in different fields are
following cases:
5-3-1 Phases Concern to the Participation Process: Planning is a dynamic, flexible
work and the result of planning to design the targets, policies and methods of work.
- Organization: to part a work to the different parts, to leave the works and to make
changes in a system that the results are controlled.
- Promotion: it includes effective guidance, to make relationship and to provide
incentives to participate.
- Control: to control concerned activities in different phases of participation
process.
5-3-2 Methods Concern to the Promotion to Participate:
- The interference and the examination: to be in an area and to help or consult with
local people.
- Mobilization and discussion: to make interests and information about framework
and targets of plan.
- Advertisement and effort: to advertise the information about plan.
- People employment: to attract people supporting and helping and to base the local
organizations as a protection tool.
- Adjacency: continued interference, education and establishment of plans in order
to develop areas.
- Explain: to experiences.
6- STRATEGIES AND ORGANIZING PROBLEMS PARTICIPATION:

6-1 Participation Strategies: there are a few important strategies of people’s
participation such as:
1-Participation strategy as an investment: there is a specific difference between
participation as an investment and as a target. Participation as an investment is people’s
participation in order to help to each other, to provide financial resources to establish
development plans and to arrive to the forecasted goals. In the participation strategy as a
goal, people have the main role in decision-making about establishment of plans.
2- Participation strategy in development plans: development strategies are fulfilled by
promotion, active employing and organizing the people to design polices and plans.
6-2 organizing the participation: certainly grouped organizations have a powerful tool
to ease accessibility to the development and specially establishment of water resources
development plans. To know the social and economic distinctive groups as a basic unit
of development is very important. Organization is a precondition of any activities, so
the relationship between the organization and the participation is a specific part and are
presented these following cases:
6-2-1 The process of making group: this process means to arrange and it includes
“research in the village”, “choice”, “distribution of responsibilities”, “to define duties”,
“the examination of providing financial resources to establish plans” and planning.
These groups, as an organization is a means to participation of people in the process of
development and to establish plans.
6-2-2 the problems about organizing groups to participate:
1. Forming: to form the groups to participate in plans.
2. Membership: this is based on the common economic benefits.
3. Meetings of groups: these are the main spaces to transfer different opinions, to say
the goals of plans, timing work plan and coordination and leadership.
4. Structure: group must have an internal structure so that by it to access to an
organized base and by using that can get to the participation.
6-2-3 Agent and the main duties of participation: in order to have an effective
people’s participation and an organized group to establishment of development plans
needs an agent so that it can ease the process of participation. Certainly, a participation
agent is an important factor in the process of participation. The main duties of
participation agent are:
- To help examining of socio-economic of a region and the villages around that
region with cooperating groups.
- Leadership and to help to the people in economic activities, to improve production
situation and socio-economic infrastructures and to plan and to help to the small
groups to do economic activities.
- To provide continuous promotion in order to do self-confident activities and to
promote problem solving and decision- making inside groups.
- To provide a relationship between financial protective groups and to help

educating of members of groups about participation easing.
- To help the groups in order to move towards good efficiency.
7- SOLUTIONS OF PARTICIPATION:
7-1 General solutions of participation: some solutions of the villager’s participation are:
- To change planning system and moving towards decentralized planning system.
- To promote public culture at the society and people by using tools and cultural
values and general relationships.
- To make interactive confidence between official organization chiefs and people.
- Planners must notice to the injustice balancing policies, renewing of education
system, justly distribution of possibilities and chances, popularizing social
services in order to promote people’s participation.
- By using possibilities of research and consulting organizations in order to know
cultural, mental and social specifications and to examine the needs of rural and
urban needs, the integrated and precise studies muse be done.
- To arrange and organize personals in order to guiding participation by official
organizations.
- To do the cultural activities in order to omitting the existence organizational
culture of governmental organizations on the base of dependences to the general
benefits of government and to promote the culture of people’s participation.
7-2 Practical activities to achieve people’s participation: recognizing need and
practical activities to fulfill participation affair depends it’s all the phases are specified
with noticing to it’s needs and conditions and establishment activities must be collect
with notice to the cultural and social structures and specifications of each areas. These
activities are as following:
1. To know precisely cultures and economic activities.
2. To change thoughts of rural and urban people to life, work, production and future
and specially the necessities of areas development.
3. To make people interest in projects and goals of development plans by short
stories, texts, local poets.
4. To make story films for fulfilling activities and to broadcast them in different
areas.
5. To know the special stakeholders.
6. To make competition between different groups of people is one of the social
potentials to financial participation.
7. To make primary and basic groups those basis elements to inform formal
organizations and formations are provided. By these agencies, to get bank
facilities and repay these facilities become formal.
8. The existence of a promotional organization is a basic element of fulfilling
people’s participation by educating the beneficiaries and to have good relationship
to them.
9. Finally, if all the villagers don’t participate in the process of plans design and
establishment, their real needs and benefits aren’t provided.
During recent decades, the activities that are said upper lines were experienced in the
villages of functional boundary of Regional Water Authority of East Azarbaijan. This
activity during a time more than a decade has brought new experiences to this authority
specially created a good and continuous relationship between people and this authority
and became a base to have a new movement. The effect of these activities is
continuance of people’s participation in the national and large plans.
8- THE HISTORY OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION AND FORMATION OF

WATER USER'S COOPERATIVE IN THE REGIONAL WATER AUTHORITY
OF EAST AZARBAIJAN
8-1 functional framework:
The activities that has been done in the beginning of formation and during activity
years as a executive way to form people’s participation in the Regional Water Authority
of East Azarbaijan has been in the following framework:
1. From the beginning of forming of discusses about people’s participation, in this
organization using of services of experienced managers and experts that further to
have believes to the discusses and affairs about people’s participation at the
financial problems, they have had enough knowledge about people’s participation
in the operating and planning of development plans and familiar managers as one
of an effective parameters to inform people’s participation have been used in this
organization. This subject has been examined in the establishment phases with
more sensitivity.
2. After a decade, this reality is completely obvious in the functionality and report
card of activities about people’s participation affairs of this organization that in a
set of practical and theoretical activities, using of services of university
professors, researchers around this area has been one of the most important
activities and besides establishment activities and before starting these activities,
to receive different opinions and viewpoints of researchers and thinkers has been
as an important factor to determine activities about people’s participation.
Because the sensitivity of social problems makes before doing any establishment
activity, by using theoretical bases and to combine these bases with experiences,
the best routes are determined and then selected.
3. To pass different explanation seminars, to have different meetings to political
persons such as governors, deputy-governors, Islamic bureaus, agriculture
managers, parliament agents, cooperation organization, planning and management
organization, agent of banks in order to define different problems about people’s

participation such as to define the cases of act and prescriptions to gain practical
activities have been the most important activities of people’s participation to make
coordination to charges. This important activity has been noticed as a necessary
and precondition activity of people’s participation affairs before starting any
establishment activity. Because of sensitivity of this subject and problem, the
straight belief in this organization is that coordination to other offices and
organizations has a basic role to continue people’s participation and this problem
in different times has been experienced during establishment activities and it’s
positive effects in the process of establishment activities has been proved and it’s
beneficial results has been sensed.
8-2 Practical activities:

1. The first phase is before starting theoretical discussions (up to 1994):
2. In this phase, the attraction of people’s participation limited to the small plans of
water supply to the agriculture and especially to the farmer’s participation to
transfer lands of water structures establishment place without paying prices of
lands that are located in the routes of plans establishment.
3. The second phase in the framework of people’s participation committee (since
1994 to 2002):
4. To provide the bases and to attempt to provide knowledge and belief to the
managers and experts and the other agents about people’s participation by passing
conferences with parliament agents, planning and management organization and
the other political and official persons, to inform water user's Cooperatives by
water authorities and general office of cooperation in the villages that covered by
water resources development plans.
5. the third phase, practical activities to the field of common cooperation between
water organization and Jehad-keshavarzi organization(from2002 to now)
Functionality of People’s participation office in the part of water user's Cooperative in
12 yearly time distribution(94-2005) has been shown at the following table and
changing some cooperation parameters have been shown at the diagrams 1 to3:
Table-1: Functionality of People’s participation office in the part of water user's

cooperative in 12 yearly time distribution (94-2005)
Type of activities/Year 94-95 96-97-98 99-2000-2001 2002-2005 1994-2005
Number of plans 3 6 13 17 39
Number of cooperatives 15 24 13 81 133
Number of beneficiaries 2428 1956 1988 18736 25108
The are of lands covered 5042 12219 4232 111912 72596
(hectare)
Amount of bank 2798 41760 53090 627970 688620
facilities(million rials)
Diagram 1 : Number of participation plans
20 17
15 13
10
6
5 3
0
94-95 96-97-98 99-2000-2001 2002-2005
Year
Diagram 2: Number of beneficiaries
20000
18736
15000
10000
5000 2428 1956

1988
0
94-95 96-97-98 99-2000-2001 2002-2005
Year
Diagram 3::Amount of bank facilities (Million rials)

700000
627970
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000 41760 53090
2798
0
94-95 96-97-98 99-2000-2001 2002-2005
Year
It must be said that on the based of forecasted necessities in the legal points of water
and agriculture of the third plan has provided a good opportunity to make relationship
between the effective factors in the common affairs of irrigation and drainage network
lands. Specially, a very relief role to people’s participation and to do social studies and
to write and operation system in water resources development is considered by legal
points 106, 107 and the report of consume optimization of agriculture part. About this
problem, a common cooperation document in order to fulfill the forecasted legal duties
in the cultural and socio-economic plans of the country was collected.
Figure 1: Beneficiaries survey projects

9- CONCLUSIONS
The analysis that has been done in this paper shows that participation is a precondition
to develop and without villager’s participation development will not be enquired.
The investment of government about this problem is necessary and development of
villages is not completely depend on the government investment and the subject of
participation depends on the cultural and socio-economic conditions of villages is
examined and then about that problem is decided (amount of government investment
and villager’s participation). On the other hand, powerful backgrounds of participation
existence between people has been experienced during the history with depending on
the conditions of the time and different places of IRAN and its conditions has been
changed by government system changes, but in spite of the existence of long-period
history a systematic form of people’s participation has not been organized in different
activities specially to its economic forms. The experience of people’s participation in
the operation of ware resources like the other forms of people’s participation has been
affected by different reasons and testimonies and during the history by the effects and
interferences of modern managements, as the form of water resources management and
a set of activities have been completely changed. Water resources management that has
been changed to the today’s form according to the principals of water industry, there
wasn’t in 50 years ago because during last half of century systems of beneficiaries of
water resources have been depended on the activities that were organized by people and
there weren’t today’s direct interfere in the water resources management. Although to
make today’s form of water resources management was inevitable because of
population growth, industrialization of cities and development of civilization, but the
absence of people in decision-making and nonuse of people’s abilities in today’s water
resources management cycle is the main weak point in the process of water resources
management cycle.
Many experiences of people’s participation in the last decades about the operation
affairs of water resources and the effective and successful experiences from establishing
the first and second plans of the cultural and socio-economic development and specially
the experiences of note 6 and 76 of the second act of development plan to establish
water resources development plans shows this fact that to notice and to design the main
place of people’s participation has been the necessity of fundamental growth at the
water resources management of the country and about this problem, it is necessary that
by collecting and combining of past experiences and new finds, the new and accepted
form of people’s participation organization in the third plan of cultural and socio-
economic development has been considered in the band A and article 106 and then be
executed and this matter must be noticed in the fourth development plan as a title of
band Te of the article 17 so that substance of development really be based.
10- SUGGESTIONS:
1. Forming a controlling and appraising core of the acts and the routine methods of
people’s participation plans includes the Ministry of Energy experts, the Ministry
of Jahad va Keshavarzi, the Ministry of Cooperation and consultant engineers in
the development office of the Energy Ministry and to recognize the weak and
power points and to provide performing outline of the fourth plan and to define
the relationship between the Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Jahad va Keshavarzi

and Ministry of Cooperation as following flowchart:
2. Applying the social studies in the Regional Water Authorities by using
experienced humans and experts and finally to guide consultant engineers (to
write master plans by the organization of management and planning).
3. Examining and appraising really performance of the active water user's
Cooperatives and to recognize the problems in order to improve the exist
conditions and to make necessary coordination in the Ministry of Energy –
Cooperation and the Ministry of Agriculture in order to exert the common
encouragement policies and to provide guaranty to the prices of agricultural
products.
4. Planning of systematic educations by related organizations for cooperatives.
5. To use the experiences of successful countries especially Asian countries must be
noticed and to transfer the knowledge and experiences by sending experts to these
countries.
6. To say and explain the role of people’s participation as a fundamental part of
development and its role to govern the social justice to the people by popular
Medias.
Flowchart-1: Organizational relationship to inform water user's Formations.

REFERENCES:
1. Maesoomi, Kaveh-Operation Authorities of Networks and People’s participation
–Water and development Magazine of Energy Ministry-Number 2.
2. Sahebi, Sadeg- Operational Strategies to beneficial participation of beneficiaries.
Water and development Magazine of Energy Ministry – Number 9. Autumn.
3. Okly, Piter and Marsden-
4. The methods of participation in rural development- the ministry of Jehad and
Keshavarzi.
5. Farhad paknia – Regional Water Authority of East Azarbaijan and Ardabil-
people’s participation.
6. Tagavi,Neimatollah- Social Participation and Rural Development-
WHY BLUE PRINTS ON ACCOUNTABILITY OF WATER USER

ASSOCIATIONS DO NOT WORK: ILLUSTRATIONS FROM
SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN
Kai Wegerich1
ABSTRACT
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union there have been two major changes in the
agricultural sector in Kazakhstan. First agricultural production changed from centrally
planned large scale state and collective farms to small scale private farms. Secondly, the
water management of on-farm irrigation system was transferred from hydro-technical
units to WUAs. The creation of WUAs in South Kazakhstan is based on blueprints,
which promote equity and accountability. The paper critically evaluates the existing
blue prints of WUAs. It is argued that even these blueprints do not live up to the spirit
of equity and accountability of the organization to its members and between members.
Examples of WUAs in South Kazakhstan are presented, which shows weak
organizations, lack of accountability and farmers which are not empowered to change
their own organization.
INTRODUCTION
In Kazakhstan, during the Soviet period, agricultural production was structured in state
and collective farms and on-farm water management was organized by specialized
hydro-technical units of these farms. Land reforms divided the large scale farms.
Irrigation management transfer (IMT) and the creation of Water User Associations
(WUAs) seemed to be a promising solution to keep up the irrigation infrastructure and
to take over water management and delivery to a vast number of small private farms.
Fieldwork was conducted from October to December 2004. Within this period
interviews were carried out with main stakeholders in international organizations
working on training for newly independent farmers and WUAs, staff of district and
province water management organizations in South Kazakhstan, as well as WUA staff
and WUA members. The paper utilizes collected data from two districts in South
Kazakhstan province, Turkestan and Makhtaaral.
1- Affiliation: Irrigation and Water Engineering group, Wageningen University, Nieuwe Kanaal 11, 6709
PA Wageningen, The Netherlands. Phone: +31 317 482750; Fax: +31 317 484759;
e-mail: wegerich@yahoo.com; kai.wegerich@wur.nl
The paper continues with a short background section on land and water reforms in
Kazakhstan since independence. This is followed by a discussion of the current
blueprints of WUA organizations, their accountability, their rights and responsibilities
towards their members and vice versa. The next section presents the data of the
assessment study of the WUAs in the two districts in South Kazakhstan. The last section
concludes.
BACKGROUND: LAND REFORMS, IRRIGATION AND WATER

MANAGEMENT
Even though Kazakhstan started its agricultural reforms in 1992 directly after
independence, only the introduction of the Bankruptcy law (December 1998) let to a
rapid expansion of private farms. By April 1999 already 84,766 peasant farms were
established. The irrigation system in Kazakhstan was designed for large scale farms and
mainly for one particular crop. The state and collective farms were responsible for the
operation and maintenance of the on-farm water management infrastructure. Already
during the Soviet Union period there were maintenance problems with the on-farm
irrigation systems (Bucknall et al 2001, p.5). A TACIS report (1995) points out that
often the most convenient method of irrigation for farm management was chosen. This
implied low flow rates and long furrows (p.79). The irrigation system was a supply
rather than a demand system. The report concludes, to establish a demand system is
“either organizationally impossible […] or the capital cost of installing such a system
would be prohibitive” (p.83). Nevertheless, in 1997 water tariffs were introduced for
agricultural water users. The water charge is supposed to be calculated per cubic meter,
but because the infrastructure was built for large scale collective farms and not for small
private farms, water distribution is estimated rather than measured by cubic meter. Only
since 2003 farmers can become legal members of WUAs.
Even though the situation in the irrigation sector in Kazakhstan did not look promising
in legal and organizational terms, the South Kazakhstan province bordering Uzbekistan
has received special attention in the creation and establishment of WUAs since
independence. In this province alone there are 80 WUAs, of which 27 are located in
areas which are covered by rehabilitation projects of the World Bank and Asian
Development Bank. This seems to suggest that the WUAs in the region had special
support and follow international blueprints on organizational structures of WUAs.
However, do these blueprints address sufficiently the question of equity and
accountability of the WUA to its members.
ARE WUAS ACCOUNTABLE, AND TO WHAT EXTENT? IS IT A MYTH?

Accountability is defined as “the means by which individuals and organizations report
to a recognized authority (or authorities) and are held responsible for their actions”
(Edwards and Hulme, 1996 p.967). In the case of a WUA, it is reasoned that the staff is
doubly accountable to the members through both electoral and financial channels.
Current international recommendation is to separate the governing body and
management body. Hence there is an electoral accountability channel to the governing
body and a financial accountability channel to the management body. While
internationally an egalitarian perspective of equity is recommended, by which each
member has the same right and voting power, an IWMI/SICWC manual (2003) on how
to establish WUAs in Central Asia recommends a proportional perspective, by which
membership rights to vote in the WUA are connected to land size (p. 22). This
proportional perspective on equity institutionalizes the inequity on the local level. One
of the consequences could be that the weight of complain of a small holders counts less.
It is still assumed that financially autonomous irrigation agencies, such as WUAs,
provide better services, because WUAs are created to serve the interests of their
members and non-members. The obligation of the members and non-members in a
WUA is the prompt payment of water service fees (Hodgson 2003, Salman 1997). If
members or non-members do not pay their fees or take more water, it is reasoned that
gradual sanctions, starting with small fines, can be imposed (Ostrom 1990). In addition,
if members or non-members damage the infrastructure they would have to compensate
the organization for the destruction.
On the other hand, what happens if the organization fails to provide the water service,
either partially or completely? Ul Hassan and Nizamedinkhodjaeva (without date) argue
that “if the quality and quantity of the service falls below the agreed standards, the users
can, for example, hold part of the service fee payment as a fine.” (p.7) Taking into
consideration that the service fee could be below the incurred losses, (in most cases this
would be the case) then this option does not seem to be satisfying for the members.
Instead of making the WUA accountable for not effectively controlling and therefore
not being able to provide the service according to the contract, the standard
recommendation is to create a dispute settlement committee within the governing body
of the WUA. Even though the water rights and water charges are supposed to minimize
inter-personal conflicts, the WUA turns again to its users, to let them find an agreement
by themselves. Hence, disputes are not minimized, but they are only given a formal
space. However, would a small landholder accuse a large landholder and press for
compensation? Therefore subjecting him/herself to face repercussions on issues which
are not related to water, such as having access to formal or informal credits, to other
inputs or outputs, or risk loss of employment possibilities for him/herself or a family
member? The blue print ignores the heterogeneity of the WUA members and their
embedded status in a wider social and economic context.
ARE THE WUAS IN SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN ACCOUNTABLE TO THEIR

MEMBERS?
Recent reports on WUAs in South Kazakhstan have emphasized that local authorities
and senior officers of the former collective farms have hijacked the newly established
WUAs. (Zimina 2003, Mott McDonald/DfID report 2003). This would imply that the
WUA managers would not necessarily represent the interests of the farmers, but the
interests of those at higher levels, or have their own benefit in mind. To substantiate the
issue of non-accountability of WUAs to its members, data from Makhtaaral and
Turkestan district in South Kazakhstan is presented.
While in Turkestan district farmers could not elect the WUA heads, in Maktaraal district
the WUA heads were elected by the WUA members. However, in Maktaraal farmers in
the WUA K23 complained that they were not able to reelect a new head and that only
the district administration could dismiss the current head. Neither in the Turkestan nor
in the Maktaraal district was a separation between the governing and managing bodies.
Even though, in Maktaraal district international projects provided training on the blue
print of WUA organizational structures.
In both districts farmers in complained that the staff of the WUA was only interested in
fee collection. These complaints were even raised by the District Water Department in
Maktaraal. Farmers complained that the system of water tariffs was not transparent. In
different interviews with farmers in the K26 WUA, it became evident that the fees even
vary within the same WUA. A farmer of the WUA K23 stated the “WUA staff does not
do anything, just takes money. We do not ask what they do with it, we just give it”.
Similar complaints were raised in Turkestan district.
In all visited WUAs was evidence of tampering with the irrigation infrastructure. While
in WUA K23 a farmer admitted that he broke a large piece out of the irrigation channel,
in K26 the farmer complained that his outlets were blocked by a tail-end farmer.
According to the interviewee, the farmer at the end of the channel was the former
governor of Maktaraal district, who had 120 ha agricultural land. The interviewee stated
that the large farmer pays a higher price for water and therefore receives all the water he
needs. Hence, the farmer implied that the WUA staff blocked some of his off- takes, or
accepted that his off-takes got blocked, so that the rich farmer could receive the water.
The farmer himself, did not make any attempt at unblocking the off-takes himself, and
did not feel that he could complain to the WUA.
In Turekstan district the water situation was aggravated by farmers changing to more
water intensive crops. In the Solnak village, during the period of the collective farm the
main crops were grass, corn and grain, while today farmers plant cotton. As
consequence the water demand of the district has increased, while the district water
allocation continued (Solnak village governor). Farmers at the head and tail-end
complained that they did not get enough water and that they do not get the water in
time. A tail-end farmer complained that “even if I pay additional money for water, it
does not mean that I will get the water in time. Maybe I will get the water with the next
turn, maybe in the next season or the water department can pay the money back.” In one
case a farmer received 3 out of 4 irrigation turns. At the time of the fourth turn, the
WUA could not provide any water and therefore could not fulfill their side of the
contract. The farmer lost his harvest and the WUA paid back the irrigation fee. The fee
is quite low and paying back the fee did not prevent the farmer from going bankrupt. In
the case where the WUA would have provided the water within the next turn the crops
would have received the water too late and it would have had a negative effect on the
production. In either case, the WUA did not fulfill the contract and did not take full
responsibility for their mismanagement.
CONCLUSION
The case study of South Kazakhstan demonstrated the negative consequences of a rapid
and ill planned withdrawal of the state and the consequences of weak blueprints.
The presented cases of the WUAs in South Kazakhstan show that the created WUAs did
not represent the interest of their members, but seem to utilize the WUA to generate
income. In this sense the WUAs reflected more the interests of individual power holders
and the WUA staff and not the whole farmer community. Either the former hierarchical
structure or a high level of heterogeneity amongst the members seem to stabilize the
system and make individual WUA members accept the situation. That farmers still pay
fees could be related to two issues, first that the WUA staff has enough authority to
enforce fee payment and second that the fee is low and therefore is minimal in relation
to the total cost of farming. Hence, to pay fees could be seen as a formal obligation but
which does not guarantee (sufficient) water delivery.
The blue print of WUAs has shown significant weaknesses in terms of accountability.
The question is, are these kinds of “accountability” mechanisms in a WUA sufficient,
when the livelihood of a farmer depends on it? When participants of the WUA have to
compensate for damages, but the WUA itself does not? This raises the question whether
one has to understand the WUA as an accountable service provider or a facilitator? In
case a WUA should be a service provider with meaningful contracts on water delivery,
what could be a solution? To be fully accountable not a conflict committee is necessary
but the WUA should compensate for its failure to deliver the service it contractually
agreed upon.
REFERENCES
1. Bucknall, J., I. Klytchnikova, J. Lampietti, M. Lundell, M. Scatasta, M. Thurman.
2001. Irrigation in Central Asia: where to rehabilitate and why. World Bank
Group. Washington.
2. Edwards, M. and D. Hulme. 1996. Too close for comfort? The impact of official
aid on nongovernmental organizations. World Development. 24(6): 961-973.
3. Hodgson, S. 2003.Legislation on water users’ organizations: a comparative
analysis. FAO Legislative Study 79.
4. IWMI/SICWC. 2003. How to establish a WUA: practical steps for social mobilizers.
Tashkent. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/centralasiawaterusers/files/pdf/WUA_eng.pdf
5. Mott MacDonald / Department for International Development (DfID). 2003.
Privatisation/Transfer of Irrigation Management in Central Asia. Final Report
6. Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the commons – the evolution of institutions for
collective action. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press
7. Salman, S.M.A. 1997. The Legal Framework for Water Users' Associations: a
comparative study. World Bank Technical Paper 360
8. TACIS. 1995. WARMAP project report IV: irrigated crop production system.
9. Ul Hassan, M. and N. Nizamedinkhodjaeva no date. Social Mobilization
and Institutional Development Approach and Strategy. IWMI Tashkent.
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/centralasiawaterusers/files/pdf/SMID_StrategyEng.pdf
10. Zimina, L. 2003. Developing water management in South Kazakhstan. in S.
O’Hara (ed). Drop by drop: water management in the southern Caucasus and
Central Asia. LGI Fellowship Series. Budapest.
WAYS FORWARD TO USE GROUNDWATER BY SMALL AND

MARGINAL FARMERS’
(EXPERIENCE, LESSONS AND OPPORTUNITIES)
A. K. Sikka1, A. K. Singh2
ABSTRACT
Surface irrigation systems in terms of major and medium canals are spread allover.
However, it has been debated that the unreliability of these systems in terms of
adequacy and timings, affects severely to small and marginal farmers. On the other hand
irrigation water from ground water is one of the most assured source on which one can
rely. Considering the constraints such as small and fragmented land holdings, poor
socio-economic conditions etc. restricts the groundwater use to enhance land
productivity and ultimately any improvement in their livelihood. It has been always
observed that whenever small/marginal farmers have got opportunities to invest quality
inputs timely it directly results into enhanced productivity in comparison to medium and
large farmers. Countries like India comprises of a large number of small and marginal
farmers who are suffering by these constraints. One of the best solutions in this case has
been experienced in India by encouraging small and marginal farmers to go for
community tube wells. This has paid rich dividends in those areas which need to be
widened in a sustainable manner to other areas also after understanding the experiences
and lessons of existing arrangements.
This paper tries to discuss some of the case studies where the concept of community tube well
has been introduced and based on their experiences and lessons what could be the better
opportunities that exists.
INTRODUCTION
Rapid growth of population and industrialization are becoming major threat to
agriculture sector as share of land and water decreasing day by day. On the other hand
with decreasing investments and declining performance of many large and medium
scale surface irrigation systems, interest has been developing in recent years for seeking
new ways to improve land productivity and livelihoods of small and marginal farmers at
global level. Considering the majority of the small and marginal farmers in developing
countries, it is now very well realized that they can be key players in increasing global
1 - Director, ICAR research Complex for Eastern Region, WALMI Campus Phulwari Sharif,
Patna – 801505, Bihar, India, Email: aloksikka@yahoo.co.in
2- Senior Scientist (Soil Water Engineering), ICAR research Complex for Eastern Region, WALMI
Campus Phulwari Sharif, Patna – 801505, Bihar, India, Email: atulsinghk@yahoo.com
agricultural production and achieving food security. Water being one of the key input in
crop production system, it has been observed that access of irrigation water is negligible
if we talk about large and medium surface irrigation systems and faces financial
constraints in case of groundwater exploration. This requires a major shuffle in existing
irrigation strategies in a way that access of irrigation in crop production to small and
marginal farmers may be made easy by keeping this commodity at the outset rather than
trying to figure out how they can be incorporated in scheme of things.
Besides achievement of green revolution and plenty of successful innovations in
agriculture production system, smallholders live at or below the poverty level and are
highly averse to risk; their very livelihoods are focused on keeping the margin for error
as small as possible. (Pant N., 2004) At the same time they are considered to be capable
of managing technologies efficiently provided they have access to affordable
technologies that are easy to operate, maintain and repair. Small-scale systems and
technologies are attractive since they put the operation, maintenance and management
of systems directly in the hands of the individual farmers, thus eliminating any need for
centralized control or management. Hence, small marginal holders can be more
productive with their yields and efficient utilization of resources in comparison to their
counterparts’ i.e. medium and large farmers.
Considering the case of efficient application methods of irrigation water unfortunately,
most existing modern irrigation techniques do not fit the plots of smallholders, and are
far too expensive (in terms of capital or operational costs) to be affordable which
hampers their agricultural yield substantially. These constraints forces most of the
farming community to stick with the surface methods of irrigation though a range of
efficient water application technologies, techniques and practices have been developed
over the years on behalf of smallholders. However, many, if not most, technologies
have been unsuccessful in their performance, application, dissemination or adoption.
Attempts have been undertake to encourage farmers to adopt bush pumps, rope-and-
washer pumps, rower pumps, treadle pumps, pitcher pot systems, drag-hose sprinklers,
hydraulic ram pumps, microirrigation systems, windmills, water harvesting techniques
and a host of other technologies with mixed success. While it may be that some of the
technologies simply did not perform to expectations, there is a natural tendency to over-
emphasize the technology itself rather than pay attention to the process by which it is
identified, modified, and disseminated. All too frequently the end customer -- the farmer
– has been left out of the process altogether. As a result uptake of most appropriate
irrigation technologies by small-scale farmers has been relatively poor.
The post independence era after 1947 in India, saw greater importance to irrigation and
the efforts undertaken resulted in achieving self sufficiency to feed the country’s
population i.e. most famed “Green Revolution” in late sixties and seventies. After
independence the total planned expenditure of nearly 10 per cent of the country was for
development of water resources. This comprises of erection of large dams which were
considered as “modern temples” of developing India, various major, medium and small
surface irrigation systems and development of groundwater resources with the help of
deep and shallow tube wells. As per records the irrigated area expanded from 22.6
million hectares in fifties to 59 million hectares in nineties, an increase of 161 percent in
four decades. This increase was about 33 percent of the estimated potential. Roughly 42
percent of the net irrigated area in 1990 was from surface water sources whilst 51% was
contributed from tanks, step wells, tube and other sources. Considering the trend of
source wise irrigated area it can be observed that in recent past decades there is a
decline in case of canals from 38.49 % (1970-71) to 30.21 % (1998-99) whereas ground
water exploration from tube wells as source of irrigation has increased significantly
from 14.34% (1970-71) to 35.63% (1998-99) (Anonymous. 2004). This trend is
indicative of diversion of farming community towards reliable source of irrigation water
reason being low project efficiencies, which is of the tune of only 40% or less which
reflects poor management of surface irrigation systems. Though the use of groundwater
has increased significantly (Ballabh et.al., 2003) but still small and marginal farmers are
struggling to take advantage of this. Some of the major reasons: poor socio-economic
status, small and fragmented land holding sizes, lacking technical know-how, little or no
awareness of promotional schemes for installation of tube wells by GOs, poor state of
electrification etc.
Considering these aspects this paper, discusses the Vaishali district of Bihar state in
India where a participatory approach has been adopted in form of Community Tubewell
to provide opportunity even to small and marginal farmers in the area to have easy
access of groundwater for irrigation uses. The views and elaboration further by authors
are based on personal visit and interactions with concerned agencies and farming
community involve and some basic information from secondary sources.
CASE STUDY: COMMUNITY TUBE WELLS IN VAISHALI
FORMATION OF VASFA AND ITS INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

Vaishali falls in the northern part of Bihar having rich historical background.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy a very high percentage 86.4 per cent of the
working population is engaged in the agricultural sector (1971 Census) as compared to
82.7 per cent in Bihar, and 69.7 per cent all India. The average size holding is small and
fragmented. With respect to the availability of the Vaishali have rich reserve of ground
water. According to the Geo-hydrological map of India, Vaishali falls in the high-yield
region of unconsolidated alluvium. These formations are richest in ground water and are
very congenial to tubewell technology, which can exploit water held in sandy aquifers
only, and not in water bearing strata found in rock formations or consolidated
formations.
The late J C Mathur of the Indian Civil Service (ICS) was the brain behind the
community tubewell. He started his career as the Sub-Divisional Officer, Vaishali, in
the 30’s and was very much struck by the rich cultural heritage and poor economic
conditions of the people of Vaishali region. During the late sixties, he was working as
Additional Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture and was closely associated with
India Committee under the Freedom from Hunger Campaign. This provided the
platform to do something for the poor farmers of Vaishali. He, therefore, prepared a
detailed project report for the development of small farmers of the region and contacted
Dewan for the execution of his scheme. Mathur offered Mr. K. D. Dewan the
opportunity to settle at Vaishali and serve the cause of small farmers. Mr. Dewan a
graduate in Agriculture had come to India after partition and settled down as a farmer in
Nelokhedi near Karnal in Haryana. He had tremendous interest in social works and had
done some commendable work in organizing farmers’ co-operatives in that area. Mr.
Dewan was impressed by Mathur’s ideas and came to live in Vaishali in 1969 (Prassad
K., 2000). He mobilized the farmers in the area and was successful in forming Vaishali
Area Small Farmers’ Association (VASFA), which got registered as a voluntary
organization in 1971. VASFA was recognized as the first pilot project of its kind in the
country by the committee under Freedom from Hunger Campaign. It received a grant of
Rs.4,00,000 from the government of Norway. Out of it, Rs.2,00,000 were kept in fixed
deposit in the loaning bank (Central Bank of India) as security, and other half is used as
a revolving fund for the developmental works of VASFA, particularly for construction
of tubewells. The main objective of VASFA was to organize small farmers for
multifarious agricultural activities, and to manage loans for group tubewells,
agricultural machines, godowns, and plant protection apparatus etc. It worked in
collaboration with People’s Action for Development India (PADI), Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India and Central Bank of India. The association was
divided into three zones – viz, Vaishali, Madarna and Bibipur. The executive committee
of VASFA consisted of a President and three Vice-Presidents (representing three zones)
elected by all members for one year and three years, respectively, a Treasurer, who is a
representative of PADI, and a General Secretary who is nominated for six years jointly
by PADI and ‘Vaishali Sangh’ ( Vaishali Sangh was a voluntary organization, aiming at
cultural and economic development of Vaishali region formed in the early forties with
the effort of late Mr. J C Mathur when he was serving as commissioner at Muzaffarpur).
Mr. Deewan worked with VASFA as a PADI employee for seven years, but resigned in
1978 as a PADI official and was associated with VASFA as its General Secretary since
then. Upto 1983 VASFA managed to organize 36 community tubewell groups (16 in
Vaishali, 7 in Madarana and 13 groups in Bibipur) in 16 villages of Vaishali and
Muzaffarpur district of Bihar, covering a membership of 650.
INSTALLATION OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELL

In the area surrounded for the community tubewell work, the officials of INADP (Indo-
Norwegian Agricultural Development Project) and VASFA approach the small and
marginal farmers and persuade them to obtain the benefits of a joint tubewell. The first
step in this direction is the formation of groups of small and marginal farmers.
Generally farmers having land over 5 acres are not included. However, sometimes their
inclusion is unavoidable, on account of the location of their land. The members of the
group should have contiguous land so that it could be commanded by a joint tubewell.
One of the member-farmers in each group has to donate 0.02 acres of the land for
installation of the tubewell. The group members elect one of them as group leader. Each
farmer furnishes a copy of the official record of the total land owned by him and enters
in an agreement to abide by the terms and conditions set by VASFA and INADP (Indo-
Norwegian Agricultural Development Project). The papers are then submitted to the
loaning bank (Central Bank of India), and the necessary amount is withdrawn from the
revolving fund for the construction of the tubewell cabin, installation of pump set,
energisation, and construction of field channels. After the completion of these works,
the total cost is distributed among the group members in proportion to the area of their
land under the tubewell command. The members at this stage enter into a direct
agreement with the bank, according to which the amount is treated as a term loan
borrowed by the individual farmer from the bank. Each farmer is required to pay his
loan with interest in five years in six-monthly installments. There is also a provision to
recover the loan from one-tenth of the crop of the farmers.
MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELLS

The management of each tube well was the joint responsibility of group farmers and the
group leader. The water charges for members and non-members were fixed different.
Initially most of the community tubewell had electricity motor but with non-availability
and irregular supply of electricity nearly all the tubewell changed to diesel operated
engines. Presently, the charges for members are Rs. 9/hr plus diesel and for non-
members it is Rs. 18/hr plus diesel. The members who want to irrigate their lands which
are outside the demarcated command area initially are charged as non-member. In
regard with the water distribution of water, members are preferred first then non-
members. For giving water, the time duration is allocated to members in proportion to
their land. Sometimes the time duration is fixed on a weekly basis, at other times it is
decided by mutual agreement and convenience of the group members.
The method for collecting the water charges, in majority of the cases it has been
observed that, members pay after the crop selling/crop maturation, and the non-
members pay either on a monthly basis or at the time of taking the water. Sometimes the
members also pay on a monthly basis.
Conflicts did arise in some cases, either over the distribution of water, caused generally
because of electric failures and rostering of electricity/scarcity of diesel, or over the
operation and maintenance of the tubewell and upkeep of field channels etc but it was
reported that conflicts are resolved in the groups somehow. The most common method
used for resolution of conflicts is to call a group meeting and thrash out the problem to a
workable solution. The second most common method is to involve the VASFA and
INADP officials in the meetings and thirdly a particular member can be warned for
cancellation of his membership by the rest of the members.
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

Some of the major problems associated in smooth working of community tubewells
have been short supply of electricity, either due to electric failure or because of
rostering of electric supply, acute shortage of diesel during the peak season, timely
maintenance of mechanical defects in the tubewells, non-payment dues in time by the
farmers in some cases, lack in maintenance of proper records and accounts on irrigation,
initially when groups were formed some influential farmers also came in groups they
managed to get the tubewells installed in their land and also became group leaders and
create problems committing all kinds of irregularities and trying to deprive the other
group members of the association, in few places caste barriers came into picture where
high caste and low caste people had reservation in working together.
Timely recovery of bank loan does became a common problem as recovery of loan was
not stressed in the initial stages this was to give farmers ample time to maximize their
agricultural production and to repay the loan when they become prosperous. However,
this initial complacency has made the farmer indulgent, non-appreciative of the role of
the bank. In this way the loan were treated as a free gift in some cases, and does not care
to repay it.
IMPACT OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELLS

Besides these problems as stated above community tube wells have done good job to
bring wider group of farming community to work together. Specially incase of resource
poor farmers who are not able to enjoy the benefit of owning a tube well. In this way the
movement started by VASFA and INADP have not only helped small and marginal
farmers to get access to irrigation water but have also helped these farmers get
individual bank loans for meeting their various other agricultural requirements or
provide them a subsidiary source of income – i.e., diary development etc. The poor
farmers are thus helped to get rid of the clutches of money-lenders. Considering one of
the major concerns of the policy makers in recent years which have been to percolate
the benefits of the various schemes to the rural poor judging from this angle, the
experiment of community tube wells in Vaishali has been extremely successful.
CONCLUSION
On the basis of out study it can be recommended that community tube wells are bound
to be successful subject to proper kind of leadership/awareness campaign & technical
know-how is facilitated amongst wider group of farming community besides taking care
of formation of tube well groups. This attempt also facilitate conjunctive use of rain,
ground and surface water besides bringing improvement in the local environment which
directly or indirectly helps the livelihood of the people in the area through increased
yield, better health, employment opportunity etc. At other hand on social front this
attempt brings different set (based on holding sizes and caste) of rural community
together.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous. 2004. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. 2004. Accessed on internet
at http://agricoop.nic.in/Agristatistics.htm on 21/12/2006.
2. Ballabh Vishwa and Kameshwar Choudhary. 2003. Groundwater and Agriculture
Production: A Comparative Study of Eastern UP, Bihar and West Bengal’, IWMI-
TATA Water Policy Programme, Anand.
3. Prassad Kamta. 2000. Study on status, impact and determinants of farmers’
participation in irrigation management. Sponsored by Planning Commission Gov.
of India. Institute for Resource Management and Economic development Delhi –
110092. Published on Nov. 2000. Accessed on internet at http://
planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/irmed/irm_cont.pdf on 21st Dec.
2006.
4. Pant Niranjan. 2004. Trends in Groundwater Irrigation in Eastern and
Western UP. Paper published in Economic and Political Weekly
July 31, 2004. Accessed on net on 16/12/2006 at http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmi-
tata/files/pdf/EPW/EPW02.pdf.
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION POLICY

UNDER THE INDONESIAN WATER RESOURCES LAW
Soeprapto Budisantoso1
ABSTRACT
Indonesian Water Resources Law issued in 2004 provide a benchmark for water
resources management and development, and therefore for irrigation, policy in
Indonesia. The irrigation sector affects the livelihood of Indonesian farmers, and
influence nation’s food production. In accordance to the law, irrigation management be
held by the government, and irrigation service fee is free within the government’s built
and operated irrigation systems.
However, due to limited government’s financial, material, and human resources,
farmers and other beneficiaries participation in term of contribution is encouraged. The
law also determines local government participation, in term of obligation, to share
government’s responsibility on the base of administration boundary and the areas of
irrigation systems.
This policy was a form of adjustment to former policy on Irrigation issued in 2001, in
which irrigation management to be handed over to farmers, and irrigation service fee is
an obligation collected by farmers to finance the purpose, and government’s
participation, in term of contribution, is encouraged to help farmers. However, under the
new participation policy, farmers may be assigned to manage the irrigation system on
behalf of the government, on condition that farmers are capable and willing to
contribute 50 percent of management cost of the proposed system.
Keywords: PIM, Indonesian Water Law, Irrigation
1- Former Head of Utilities Management Service, Water Resources Management Services, South
Sulawesi Province, Republic of Indonesia, Jl. AP Petta Rani no 88, Makassar, 90222.
Phone: 62-411-440322, Fax: 62-411-458438, email: o816254353@yahoo.com.
INTRODUCTION
1.A. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Indonesian Water Resources Law issued in 2004 (Law No 7/2004) determine policy and
strategy related to irrigation development and management in Indonesia. It is because of
irrigation affects the livelihood of many low income Indonesian farmers and the country
food production, according to the law, the irrigation development and management is
under the government authority and responsibility. However, due to the decentralization
and participation policy aiming at sustainable irrigation management, the law distributes
the authority, and therefore responsibility, of irrigation development and management to
the regional governments (provinces and districts/municipalities) and also to the
beneficiaries (farmers). The delineation of the responsibility is as tabulated in Table 1.
The foregoing table shows the necessity of support by other stakeholders to perform the
development and management, indicates the participatory policy of irrigation
development and management of the Republic of Indonesia. The standard of
government built irrigation system is shown in a schematic diagram as in Figure 1.
Primary canal
Weir
Tertiary Canal Tertiary Canal

Secondary Canal
Tertiary Canal
Tertiary Systems
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Indonesian Irrigation System Lay Out

Table 1. Policy and strategy of Indonesian Irrigation Development

and Management under Water Resources Law No 7/2004
Category of the Responsibility by Supported by

Program Activity
systems (obligation) (contribution)
Within the district/ Farmers, Provincial,

District/Municipality
and Central
Upgrading and Municipality Government
Government
Construction of
Government
New and
financed Inter-district Irrigation Provincial Farmers, District, and
Expansion of
Irrigation Systems Government Central Government
Primary and
Development
Secondary
Irrigation Canals Central Farmers, District and
Inter-province
Provincial
Irrigation Systems Government Government
Within the district/

Farmers, Provincial,
District/Municipality
municipality and Central
Government
Government
Less than 1,000 ha
Operation,
Government Maintenance, and
Inter-district and
financed Rehabilitation of Provincial Farmers, District, and
Irrigation Primary and 1,000 – 3,000 ha Government Central Government
Management Secondary Irrigation Systems
Irrigation Canals
Inter-province and Farmers, District and
over 3,000 ha Central Government Provincial
Irrigation Systems Government
Structural
Tertiary System Government Farmers
Development
within
Irrigation Government
Development financed Irrigation
Canal Development
and System Farmers Government
and System OM
Management
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary within the

Private/Village
private/village financed irrigation system
1.B. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT.

The participatory irrigation development and management, is defined as participation of
beneficiaries and other stakeholders in the whole process of development and
management not limited in the planning and decision making process but also in
financing, implementing, and providing other resources as inputs to the irrigation
development and management, in terms of obligation as well as contribution.
Under the foregoing policy and strategy, the institutional development, empowerment,
and capacity building of the stakeholders to be reached by the following activities:
1. Incorporation of the stakeholders in the planning , design, and implementation of
irrigation development (construction and upgrading) and management (operation,
maintenance, and rehabilitation),
2. Participation in financing and providing resources, as obligation as well as

contribution, in construction, operation and maintenance. In case of farmer’s
participation, it is as obligation in the tertiary systems and as contribution in
primary and secondary systems.
3. Provision or assistance of organizational and institutional assets such as office
space and equipment, transportation facilities, and production facilities, i.e., from
central government to regional government, or from government to farmers.
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA

1.C. The objectives: The main objective of irrigation development and management is
to support the agricultural development aims to increase the income and welfare
of the rural population, farmers in particular. Improvement of farmer’s income by
increasing the agricultural production will reduce number of rural population
under poverty line (37.3 million, 2003), improve welfare, and increase agricultural
sector contribution to the GDP. The 2003 data show number of land owner
farmers engaged in rice cultivation is 17.56 million household with average land
ownership size of paddy field is 0.44 Ha/household. The income per capita of the
country is IDR 7.1 million (721 USD). Agricultural sector, together with forestry
and fishery, contribute 16.6.% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while
mining and quarrying sector contribute 10.7 %, trading, hotels, and restaurant
16.3 %, industries and manufactures 24.6 % and others sectors 31.8 %.
Another purpose of agricultural development supported by irrigation is securing food
availability for the increasing population of the country. Total number of Indonesian
population by the year of 2003 is approximately 215 million and the latest population
growth rate is 1.5 % per year. Indonesian mainly consumes rice, which contributes to
supply 67% of calories and 64 % of proteins per capita per year. In 2003, total
production of paddy is 56 million ton (dried un-husked paddy). The incremental rate of
paddy production is 1.14 % per year. Java Island produces 54.18 % of the total
production, with production rate of 5.23 ton/ha. Paddy production is the largest output
of food crop, followed by cassava (18.5 million ton), maize (10.9 million ton), peanuts
(0.78 million ton) and soybean (0.67 million ton).
It was partly because of the foregoing purpose and condition that under the new
Indonesian Water Resources Law, government assume responsibility of irrigation
development and management, and therefore, farmers within the government built
irrigation system are free from paying the irrigation service fee. The extent of
government responsibility and obligation shown in the following Table 2.
Table 2. Classification of Paddy Fields

Condition of Paddy Field Developped By Administration Area (Ha) Ratio (%)
Irrigated Paddy Fields Governement Central 2.206.000 29
Provincial 1.098.000 14
District 2.701.000 35
Village 560.000 7
Rainfed Paddy Fields 1.135.000 15
Total Paddy Fields 7.700.000 100
1.D. FORMER POLICIES ON PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION

The participatory irrigation development and management factually has been embedded
within the traditional culture of the nation. The traditional model varies with the region
and ethnic groups, but one of the most famous was Subak System in Island of Bali, in
which farmers develop their own “water government” with strong set of democratic
laws and guidelines to be observed by its members, connecting the social and cultural
obligation with their beliefs and religion. The irrigation systems, categorized as village
financed irrigation systems, scale varies from 10 to 800 ha, was built with heavy
contents of appropriate technology in the planning of canal lay-out, and in the structural
design and construction.
It was in early 1900 when Dutch Administration started to develop large scale irrigation
schemes in Indonesia for the benefit of their trading company VOC (Dutch East Indian
Company). Then, after the proclamation of independence in 1945, the irrigation
development was escalated under the Indonesian New Order Government started in
1966. The development, with top down approach and the spirit of government build
everything, subsided beneficiaries participation. The tertiary irrigation system
development which had been the responsibility of farmers was taken over by the
government. Under the situation where farmers’ participation was neglected, farmers
became passive, powerless, yet demanding, which in turn became the cause of
difficulties in operation and maintenance and high cost in government expenditures in
irrigation.
Realizing the future difficulties when farmer’s participation in irrigation development
and management was diminishing, Indonesian Government, in cooperation with various
donor countries such as Japan (JICA and JIBIC), USAID, World Bank, ADB, GON,
etc, started to plan and implement various models of institutional development,
empowerment, and capacity building, in promoting farmers and beneficiary’s
participation. It was started in early 1980’s when irrigation design team was not only
consisting of engineers and economist, but also sociologist and anthropologist studying
the existing and the required farmers and stakeholders institutions and improving
farmers’ capacity and participation in the irrigation development. In assisting the study
team speaking to farmers and implementing the socio-engineering prepared by the team,
the service of NGO became necessary.
Under the centralized New Order Government (1965-1998), it was formulated that
Central Government develop the irrigation system, while Regional and Local
Government conduct the irrigation management, i.e., operation maintenance and small
rehabilitation, under Central Government inappropriate financial support. The
beneficiaries participation was developed by beneficiaries pay principle in which
farmers, organized in Water Users Association (WUA), were to pay the government
collected irrigation service fee (ISF) to gradually reduce government burden on
providing cost of irrigation management. In general the ISF collection rate was small.
Moreover, although in some regions the ISF collection rate is appropriately high, the
outcome was not satisfactory for the regional government used the collected ISF for
purposes other than irrigation management. As a result Central Government burden on
irrigation management cost were remain high, irrigation system maintenance were
inadequate and suffer from serious degradation, and farmers were reluctantly pay for the
ISF.
When the decentralization law was enacted to promote local government participation,
irrigation management was placed under the responsibility of local government.
Because of the limited local government budget capacity, local government collected
ISF became the backbone to support of the irrigation management cost. However,
because of reasons discussed in the foregoing paragraphs, collection of ISF was
inadequate, and irrigation system degradation was increasing.
Under the National Water Resources Policy Reform leading to strengthen private sector
involvement supported by World Bank and Asian Development Bank it was concluded
that beneficiaries pay and manage policy will be a possible solution to overcome the
irrigation management problems. Under the reform, Indonesian Government Regulation
on Irrigation issued in 2001 promoted farmers to be the responsible institution for
irrigation management, and an irrigation management hand-over from government to
farmer’s organization meeting the hand-over criteria shall be conducted. The farmers
collected ISF, will be the backbone to support the irrigation management cost with
government assistance, as government participation in term of contribution.
To support the 2001 Irrigation Management Policy, the following steps was required:
x Formation and revitalization of farmers’ Water User Association (WUA) in
tertiary systems, federation of water users association (FWUA) in secondary
systems, and main water user’s organization (MWUA) in primary systems, in a
democratic and participative way.
x Formation of Irrigation Commission, stakeholders’ forum authorized to determine
irrigation plan, policy, and financing within the framework of participatory
approach in District Level and Provincial Level, respectively.
x Capacity development and empowerment of the aforementioned institutions by
training (organization, administration, operation and maintenance, finance,
cooperatives, farming, etc), comparative study, and by provision of appropriate
legal status, power, and regulations supporting the institutions, and by provision
of technical and financial assistance whenever necessary.
Capacity development and empowerment of the WUA/FWUA/MWUA by
incorporation in the planning and design activities, and also in the implementation of
irrigation development (construction and upgrading) and hand over the management
(operation, maintenance, and rehabilitation) related to the area represented by the farmer
groups.
1.E. ADJUSTMENT OF THE 2001 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT POLICY.

In contrary of the hand over irrigation management policy to the farmers group
stipulated in the Government Regulation no 77/ 2001, the Water Resources Law no7/
2004 stated that irrigation management of primary and secondary system remain under
the government responsibility, including the cost responsibility, whereas the farmers
group responsible for the management and cost of the tertiary system. The other
adjustment is that farmers were not required to pay for the ISF to the government,
except for organizational levee in the tertiary system collected by farmers. The policy
was verified by the issuance of Government Regulation no 20 in 2006 on Irrigation as a
replacement to the former Government Regulation no 77/2001. The purpose of the
adjustment was to remove the irrigation management burden from the farmer’s
shoulders, particularly the financial burden that will possibly become more expensive if
the farmers group as private institution holding the irrigation management determines
the profitable irrigation service fee. Beneficiaries pay principle was considered
inappropriate applied to the farmers since Indonesian farmers were normally poor,
considering the land ownership size of only 0.44 ha/farmer household.
However, in promoting the farmers participation particularly in the area where farmers
are capable, a ministerial decree was prepared to guide that in addition of farmers
shared responsibility in tertiary system irrigation management, farmers were allowed,
under their own willing and proposition, to manage on behalf of the responsible
government, the secondary and primary systems, on condition that farmers are willing
and capable to contribute 50% of the management cost of the system they want to
manage.
CONCLUSION
Participation of stakeholders, i.e., regional and local government and farmers group, in
irrigation development and management, requires not only incorporation of the
stakeholders in the decision making and implementation of the process, but also
allocation or mobilization of their input and resources in kind of manpower, materials,
equipment and finance, may be in the form of obligation because of the law, and/or in
the form of contribution based on their capability and willing. The foregoing steps were
obtained through empowerment of the related irrigation development and management
institution and Water Users Associations (WUAs).
The on going policy on irrigation management supported by Indonesian Water
Resources Law and the new Government Regulation on Irrigation was dedicated to
remove the irrigation management burden and cost from farmers shoulder, however
when farmers are capable, under farmers willing farmers may conduct the management
of the irrigation system on behalf of the responsible government on condition that
farmer can afford to contribute 50% of the management cost of the system.
REFFERENCES
1. Government of Indonesia, 2004, Republic of Indonesia’s Law No.7 Year 2004 on
Water Resources, Directorate of Water Resources and Irrigation, Ministry of
National Development/National Planning Agency, The Law, 55, The Explanation,
55, Indonesia.
2. Government of Indonesia, 2001, Government Regulation no.77 on Irrigation,
Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia.
3. Government of Indonesia, 2006, Government Regulation no.20 on Irrigation,
Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia.
4. Government of Indonesia, 2005, Draft Ministry of Public Work Decree on
Participatory Irrigation Management, Directorate General of Water Resources,
Ministry of Public Works, Indonesia.
EXPERIENCES OF BULK WATER ALLOCATION IN

LARGE SCALE IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
Mohamed Aheeyar1
ABSTRACT
Irrigation Management Turnover (IMT) was introduced in major and medium scale
irrigation scheme in Sri Lanka in early 1990s. After over a decade of experiences it has
been found that, Water Users Associations (WUAs) have failed to mobilize adequate
amount of resources toward system operation and maintenance (O&M) leading to
inefficient water use and deterioration of irrigation infrastructure.
The concept of Bulk Water Allocation (BWA) was introduced in 2002 and pilot tested
in the Mahaweli System-H to find out a methodology, which can be used as a complete
solution for water management problems in large-scale irrigation schemes. Under the
BWA quantity of water to be issued for a particular distributary canal (DC) and
consequently for a particular user for the cultivation practices in a given season is fixed
before commencement of the season. The concept provided the volumetric impression
of water use and incentive to utilize the water in an efficient manner.
The research findings show that, water productivity, cropping intensity and extent of
cultivation in dry season has increased significantly after implementation of BWA while
using less amount of water to cultivate one unit of land has reduced. Farmer perception
on BWA is also very positive in terms of increase in productivity and income.
BWA concept has been seen as a strategy to achieve the expected objectives of IMT.
Adequate supply of water with reliability and timeliness has improved the farmers’
confidence in water issues which has been a great incentive to motivate farmers to shift
from traditional high water consuming, low return rice cultivation to less water
consumptive, high return cash crops. Decentralized partial O&M cost recovery adopted
with BWA has been successful in achieving targeted collection compared to past failed
attempts of centralized water charges.
1- Research Associate, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training Institute, PO Box 1522
Colombo, Sri Lanka. Email: hartiiar@sltnet.lk, Tel: +94112698539, Fax:+94112692423
1. INTRODUCTION
Allocation of finance for sustainable operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation
systems has been decreasing over the years due to budgetary and fiscal constraints
although irrigation systems have been expanding and improving in Sri Lanka after
gaining independence in 1948. Failure to make necessary policy changes to generate
and allocate sufficient funds to properly operate and maintain the irrigation systems has
been one of the main concerns of policy makers to avert the deterioration of irrigation
infrastructure and increase the efficiency of water use in irrigated agriculture in order to
meet competing demand for water between different sectors.
Participatory irrigation management (PIM) policy was adopted in major irrigation
systems in Sri Lanka in late 1980s as a measure of government cost reduction in
operation and maintenance (O&M and improve the performance of the systems.
However, after couple of decades of experience in PIM, it has been found that, WUAs
have failed to mobilize adequate amount of resources toward O&M, and some of the
maintenance responsibilities have become 'no body's' business and there is a serious
under investment in irrigation system maintenance (Aheeyar, 1997, Samad and
Vermillion, 1999). The situation has lead to not only poor irrigation performances but
also deterioration of irrigation infrastructure than expected life period and leading to
premature rehabilitation of the entire scheme.
Mahaweli H area is the first of the downstream area benefited by Mahaweli river
diversion project. The system H has the longest history of settlement in the country and
was relatively highly occupied before the Mahaweli water was diverted. System H
contains about 60 percent of irrigable land with well-drained Reddish Brown Earth
(RBE) soils, which require more water for the cultivation of low land rice. The total
irrigation extent in the system H is around 31,500 ha allocated among equal number of
farmers at the rate of one hectare per farmer. The cropping pattern in the system H is
generally rice crop for entire extent during wet season and rice and Other Field Crops
(OFCs) for 50 percent of total extent during dry season. Therefore annual cropping
intensity rarely reaches over 150 percent in system H, which is lowest, compared to
other parts of Mahaweli development area. Therefore water management is crucially
important in Mahaweli system H for the successful cultivation especially during dry
season. At the same time lack of a financial allocation for O&M due to fiscal constraints
lead to poor performance of irrigation systems, which aggravated the problem of water
scarcity and of proper management of limited available water. Mahaweli Authority of
Sri Lanka (MASL) implemented various special water management packages in
Mahaweli H area time to time to meet the challenge of water scarcity and to improve the
water use efficiency.
The concept of Bulk Water Allocation (BWA) was introduced and pilot tested by
Mahaweli Restructuring and Rehabilitation Project (MRRP) in Mahaweli system-H to
find out a methodology, which can be used as a complete solution for water
management problems in major irrigation schemes (Gunaratna, 2004). Under the BWA,
quantity of water to be issued for a particular user and consequently to the distributory
canal for cultivation practices in a given season is fixed before commencement of the
season. Therefore, particular user has a legal water right and has to actively participate
in water management and also provided incentive to save the water. A maintenance
fund has been set up at DC level with farmer contribution in order to conduct the self-
management of canal system. Under this initiative in Mahaweli System it was expected
to develop Mahaweli H to as a ‘model demonstration system’ in terms of both irrigation
management and commercialized agricultural production system. The programme was
implemented as a package which included rehabilitation of the system, IMT, allocation
of water on pre fixed quantities at each seasons, capacity building of farmers and
officials, institutional development and establishment of forward and backward
linkages.
The concept was seen as a strategy to achieve the expected objectives of IMT and
increases the water use efficiency and water productivity. The project started in 2001
dry season, on pilot basis in selected locations and later it has become a broad subject in
Mahaweli H area with the improvements made in subsequent seasons. The other main
features of the BWA is farmers have to pay a O&M fee of Rs 250 per ha per season to
the respective WUAs which is to be used for the sustainable O&M of the turned over
distibutory system. Farmers have to manage the crop with the agreed quota of water and
the irrigation agency has the responsibility of supplying the promised amount of water.
The failure to supply of agreed quota and consequent crop failure has to be compensated
in double by the agency and the demand for additional amount of water by farmers will
be charged.
2. OBJECTIVES
The major objective of the study is to assess the impacts of participatory irrigation
management adopted through implantation of BWA concept on the performance of
water distribution and agricultural production.
3. RESEARCH METHODS
3.1. STUDY SITES

Mahaweli H system is divided into nine blocks for the purpose of administration, in
which two blocks were selected randomly for the detailed survey, namely Galnewa and
Madatugama blocks. Two WUAs from each block selected randomly to represent head
and tail areas of branch canals.
3.2. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

The study is based on the information and data collected from literature, secondary data
maintained by MASL, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and structured
questionnaire survey. Necessary data was also collected from WUAs records.
A multi stage stratified random sampling technique was adopted in selecting sample
farmers considering the head and tail differences of the system and the selected canals.
The total sample size was 120.
The main quantitative parameters used for the assessment are,
i) Cropping intensity=
Area cultivated in the dry season Area cultivated in the wet season
*100
Cultivable area
ii) Tank Water duty (m)= Actual quantity of irrigation water used (m3)
Actual extent cultivated (m2)
iii) Land and water productivity
Land productivity is defined as value of output obtained from a unit of cultivated area
while water productivity is the value of output received from a unit of irrigation water
supplied.
Total Value of Pr oduction ($)
Land Productivity ($/ha) =
Total Cultivated area (ha )
Total Value of Pr oduction ($)

Water Productivity ($/m3) =
Diverted Irrigation sup ply(m3)
Standard Gross value of Production (SVGP) is used to measure value of production.

SVGP is standardized estimates of production calculated using international price of
rice (major crop cultivated under irrigated condition).
Pi
SVGP = ( ¦ AiYi )Pw
Pb
Ai - Area of crop i
Yi - Yield of crop i
Pi - Price of Crop i
Pb - Price of base crop (Rice)
Pw - Price of base crop traded at world price
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. WATER SUPPLY PERFORMANCE

4.1.1. Gross water quota/ seasonal water duty at block level
Data was analyzed to find out the performance of water duty before vs after BWA in
Mahaweli H area. The block level water duty gives an overall idea of the efficiency of
the whole system in providing water to save crop needs.
Figure 1 illustrates the trend of tank water duty over the years in dry seasons, indicating
the improvement in tank water duty after year 2002. As Mathmaluwa (2003) pointed
out, lowering of tank water duty is a combined effect of restricted water quota delivered
under BWA, cultivation of low water requiring crops, effective water management
under IMT and rehabilitation of irrigation system before turnover.
Performance achieved in water duty is a result of the efficiency in water distribution and
in utilization of water at secondary and tertiary level by WUAs and water supply
performance in primary canal system by the irrigation agency. Therefore the study
analyzes the data of main canal water duties of Mahaweli H to find out the trend of
water duty in the main canals, where canal maintenance and water distribution is mainly
handed by MASL. The average main canal water duty during dry seasons in the past 5
years prior to the implementation of BWA is 4.85ft, while the average value after BWA
is 3.43ft. The main reasons for the lowered main canal water duty are reduced
conveyance losses due to rehabilitation of canal system and strict management practices
adopted in water supply after BWA as perceived by irrigation officials.
7 600
6 500
Duty
5
400 R/F
4
Water Duty (ft)
Rainfall (mm)
300
3
200
2
1 100
0 0
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04
Year
Figure 1. Average water duty in past dry seasons and rainfall pattern
4.1.2. Percentage of land extent cultivated in dry season

Area cultivated during the past dry seasons in Mahaweli H area before BWA was far
below than planned extent in Mahaweli development programme and in many years it
had been below 50 percent of total cultivable land. However, the extent cultivated in dry
seasons after 2002 was over 60 percent of total land and shows an increasing trend
except in year 2004 which affected by severe drought prevailed in the country. Figure 2
illustrates the percent of land extent cultivated in past dry seasons. The achieved
performances is basically an outcome of the water saving of wet season due to strict
water management policies adopted with the implementation of BWA and more farmers
shifting to less water consuming crops.
The aim of the BWA programme is to reach 100 percent extent of cultivation in the dry
seasons, but it is yet to be realized. The extent cultivated in 2005 dry season has reached
to about 93 percent of total extent, which is a remarkable achievement compared to past
seasons.
100 Pre BWA Post BWA

90
80
70
Extent (ha)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year
Figure 2. Percentage of land extend cultivated in past dry seasons
4.1.3. Cropping intensity

Annual cropping intensity (CI) for past 10 years of Mahaweli H area was examined to
understand the change of CI over the years. The findings are shown in figure 3. The
figure indicates the gradual increase of cropping intensity after implementation of BWA
in 2002. One of the reasons for the lower CI before 2002 might be deteriorated state of
infrastructure prior to rehabilitation. According to farmers and officials higher CI was
achieved not only due to rehabilitation of the scheme, but also with cultivating less
water consuming crops and efficient use of water in both seasons.
Pre BWA Post BWA
100 y = 1.4213x + 50.788

R2 = 0.581
90
80
Yeld (bu/ac)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04
Year
Figure 3. Changes in cropping intensity in Mahaweli H area
4.2. PERFORMANCE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

4.2.1. Changes in crop yield
The major crop cultivated in Mahaweli H system is rice both in wet and dry seasons.
Therefore, the change in rice yield was observed to understand the trend of yield over
the years. The findings are illustrated in figure 4. The figure clearly shows an increase
of yield in dry seasons is very prominent after year 2002. The similar results are
observed in the wet season yield data too. Though yield is an outcome of multiple
factors such as variety improvement, access to extension, use of straw/organic fertilizers
and timely cultural practices, the WUA leaders perceived that systematic water
management and reliable supply is one of the main reasons for the increase in rice yield
in both seasons. According to TEAMS (2003), the yield level was low before BWA
programme and some tail end farmers received much lower yield during before BWA.
y = 1.4213x + 50.788
2
R = 0.581
100
90
Pre BWA Post BWA
80
70
60
50
Yeld
40
30
20
10
0
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04
Year
Figure 4. Changes in rice yield in Mahaweli H –dry seasons
4.2.4. Land and water productivity

Land and water productivity values are calculated in terms of gross value of output
obtained per hectare of land and per cubic meter of irrigation water respectively. Rice is
the major crop in the Maheweli H system in wet seasons. Although there is a small
extent of land under OFCs during wet seasons, due to non-availability of reliable data
on yield and price of OFCs, the valuation was limited to rice cultivation. The
international price of rice was calculated at 2005 constant US dollars. Productivity
values were estimated from 1999/2000 to 2004/2005 wet season. To avoid the effect of
price fluctuation of rice in local and world market the average prices are used for the
reference period (1999-2005).
The findings on land and water productivity are illustrated in figure 5. The figure shows
that land productivity has not increased much over the time compared to pre vs post
BWA. However water productivity values are showing an increasing trend after BWA
indicating the performances in water distribution.
Land Productivity
1400 0.16
Water Productivity
1200 0.14
0.12
1000
3
0.1
800
SVGP $
SVGP $
0.08
600
0.06
400
0.04
200 0.02
0 0
99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04 04/05
Year
Figure 5. changes in land and water productivity
Table 1 highlights the summary of the findings of the irrigation system performances
achieved with the implementation of BWA. The results show that there is a tremendous
increase on the performances of the area irrigated per unit of water, extent under non
rice crops and percentage area cultivated during dry seasons.
Table 1. Summary of selected performance parameters

Performance before BWA Performance after BWA
Percent change
(1996-2000) (2001-2005)
Performance parameters
Wet Dry
Wet season Dry season Wet season Dry season
season season
1. Tank water duty (m) 1.18 1.50 0.889 0.94 -24.6 -37.3
Area irrigated per unit

2. 88.9 81.39 119.36 119.96 +34.26 +47.38
of water (ha/MCM)
Water productivity
3. 0.1 - 0.13 - +30 -
(wet season) (US$/m3)
Land productivity(wet
4. 1087.5 - 1148.9 - +5.6 -
season (US$/ha)
5. Rice yield (t/ha) 5.03 3.98 5.21 4.49 +3.6 +12.7
Extent under non rice

6. 865.75 5854 1041.75 8971 +20.3 +53.2
crops (ha)
% of land extent
7. cultivated in dry - 42.45 - 64.63 - +52.2
season
Annual cropping
8. 148.25 164.11 +10.7
intensity
4.3. FARMER PERFORMANCE INDEX

Pingali et-al (1990) has developed an index called farmer performance index, which
was defined as the ratio of farmer yield to the location specific yield potential. The
indictor provides an idea of farmers' ability to exploit the yield potential in the given
circumstances. According to Deputy Resident Project Manager (Agriculture) of
Mahaweli H, the potential paddy yield of the Mahweli H area is 6 metric tones per
hectare. The performance index has been calculated separately for the rice farmers both
in head end and tail end of branch canals and both wet and dry seasons. Farmer
performance index developed for 2005 dry season is illustrated in figure 6. According to
these findings, on average farmers have achieved 93% (5580kg/ha) and 80%
(4796kg/ha) of the technical efficiency in paddy cultivation during wet and dry seasons
respectively in year 2004/2005. The findings also suggest that about 31% of farmers
during wet season both in head and tail end areas and 15 of the farmers during dry
season were able to exceed the yield potential. About 55% and 38% of farmers achieved
the technical efficiency of 85-110 during wet and dry respectively.
Head
Tail
Average
140
120
Performance Index
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41
Farmer No.
Figure 6. Farmer performance index for head end tail areas (dry season-2005)
4.3. FARMER PERCEPTIONS ON IRRIGATION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE

REALIZED AFTER BWA
Almost all the farmers were in favor of the performances realized from BWA compared
to water management practices implemented in the past. The main benefit of BWA is
farmers’ know how about the water quota they are expected to get in the season in
advance which has helped them to plan for cropping system and cultivation practices
accordingly. About 95 percent of farmers perceived that they always or usually get their
fair share of water while only 5 percent mentioned that they sometime get their fair
share of water.
The perceptions on impacts of BWA on crop yield, income from agriculture and
profitability of agriculture are positive for large proportion of farmers. About 50 percent
of farmers perceived that, income and profitability of agriculture has increased after
implementation of BWA. WUA leaders of all selected location perceived that, correct
amount of water supply has lead to significant yield increase in paddy cultivation.
Increase of income has achieved by farmers during both seasons via increase in extent
of cultivation and cultivation of high value crops. The achieved benefits from BWA
programme have motivated framers to contribute more toward irrigation system O&M.
The survey findings shows that O&M fee is regularly paid by 92 percent of farmers in
head end areas and 100 percent farmers in tail end areas, showing the enormous
concerns of farmers in sustainable O&M of irrigation system
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
BWA programme has resulted in improving water supply performance and agricultural
production performance. Performance of water supply after BWA has improved
considerably in terms of gross water quota allocated during both wet and dry seasons at
block levels. The block level water duty has reduced at the average of 24.6 percent and
37.3 percent respectively during wet and dry seasons. Extent cultivated during dry
seasons after BWA has increased at the average of 52 percent, with an increase of
annual cropping intensity by 10.7 percent.
Area irrigated per unit of water had increased by 34 percent and water productivity
values has risen by 30 percent after BWA programme. Extent under less water
consuming, high value cash crops has shown a 52 percent increase with the
implementation of BWA.
The approach and methodology adopted for the implementation of BWA programme in
Mahaweli H area provides good lesson of experiences for rest of the major irrigation
schemes, which are having suitable infrastructure and experiencing water allocation
problems. In addition to the hardware aspects of development by MRRP, the software
parts of development activities including institutional development, private sector
involvement in forward purchase arrangements and collaborative supports received
from other government agencies are noteworthy features of this water management
programme.
Comprehensive devolution policy for the irrigation sector with clear arrangement for
roles and responsibilities and assured water supply provide tangible benefits which can
encourage farmers to invest in the long term sustainability of their irrigation
infrastructure. Allocation and sharing of responsibilities should be with clear policy
demarcations on who is responsible for the specified activities and who can be made
accountable if these activities do not take place. The irrigation management transfer
should widen up the focus beyond mere cost recovery but in helping and creating an
environment to generate the necessary development impulses for increasing agricultural
productivity, marketing linkages, scale of production and farmers income.
REFERENCES
1. Aheeyar, M.M.M. 1997. “Participatory Irrigation Management and Sustainability of
Irrigation Infrastructure: A case of Irrigation management turnover in Sri Lanka,”
Proceedings of the International conference on Large scale Water Resources
Development in Developing countries: New Dimensions of problems and prospects,
October 20th-23rd, Kathmandu, Nepal.
2. Gunaratne, B. 2003. Bulk Water Allocation Concept for Improving Water
Productivity- A Pilot Study in Mahaweli System H. In R.P. De Silva (ed), Water
Resources Research in Sri Lanka, Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture,
University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya.
3. Mathmaluwa. S, 2003. The Effect of Irrigation Management Transfer on the
productivity of an Irrigation system. A study on the Madatugama block of
Mahaweli system H. Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of
Master of Science in soil and Water, Waganingen University, The Netherlands.
4. Pingali, P.L., Moya, P.F. and Velasco, L.E. 1990. The Post Green revolution
Blues in Asia Rice Production. International Rice Research Institute, Manila,
Philippines.
5. Samad, M. and D. Vermillion. 1999. Assessment of Participatory Management of
Irrigation Schemes in Sri Lanka: Partial Reforms, Partial Benefits. Research
Report No. 34, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.
6. Teams, 2003. An Independent Audit to Evaluate the performance of Madatugama
block in system H under MRRP programme, Report submitted to Mahaweli
Authority of Sri Lanka, T.B. Jayah Mawatha, Colombo 10 (unpublished Report).
TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS AND

MANAGEMENT IN WADI HADHRAMOU YEMEN
Dr. Mohamed Al-Hebshi1 & Eng. Saleh Ahmed Bin Rabaa2
ABSTRACT
Wadi Hadhramout, a key area for agricultural production, is located in Southern East of
Yemen . Yemeni civilization had prospered in an area where water is the most limiting
factor. Traditional methods of water resources control, storage and delivery including
soil erosion prevention, rainwater harvesting, and irrigation and drinking water-delivery
structures, some of which have survived for many centuries. This indigenous knowledge
has neither been well documented nor scientifically analyzed in order to utilize it for
supporting the sustainable development of rain-fed runoff and spate irrigated farming.
In some areas the water management and water rights are known as the Habits
(ALAADAT) which other areas sometimes use these habits to solve unprecedented
problems in water management and water rights in these areas.
A long experience in water harvesting and management as well as the maintenance of
the irrigation structures systems are nearly to be disappeared and no record is known for
this experience. During the period 1970 - 1990 of the Communist Regime in the
Southern Governorate, the agricultural land was taken from its owners and distributed to
others, thus participated in the negligence of the traditions. After the Unity the lands
were returned to its owner. Also after the unity water acompanying oil add other
problems.
It is of most important to find out the water management experienced in the water
harvesting agricultural areas and test the possibilities to get lesson from it to improve
water harvesting.
1 - INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND
Wadi Hadhramout, a key area for agricultural production, is located in Southern East of
Yemen, and physically isolated by mountains and desert. Yemeni civilization had
prospered in an area where water is the most limiting factor. Water harvesting and
1 - Faculty of Agricultural Sana’a University; Republic of Yemen. malhebshi@hotmail.com or

proff_alhebshi@yahoo.com Tel: 00967-77177011
2- Civil Engineer , MB ASCE - Director General - Local Water Supply and Sanitation Corporation
Hadhramout Governorate Wadi & Deseret Regions Fox: +967 71575411 email: sbinrabaa@yahoo.com
Phone: +967 77165411 mobile: +967 5 400375 Res:. + 967 5 405788 Off.
conservation have been developed and practiced for many centuries. Due to its location
and the large differences in elevation and features of its mountainous area the Republic
of Yemen (ROY) intercepts varying amounts of rainfall. Since early history, farmers
have realized that agriculture is only possible by replenishing the plant available soil-
water from limited and difficult to control water resources. Often, crop production is not
possible under solely rain-fed condition and therefore runoff water harvesting and
conservation are crucial for successful cropping.
Traditional methods of water resources control, storage and delivery including soil
erosion prevention, rainwater harvesting, and irrigation and drinking water-delivery
structures, some of which have survived for many centuries. These structures, being
long lasting, indicate that advanced procedures had been followed in their design and
construction. With their traditional knowledge, the farmers of ancient Yemen must have
understood and analyzed data relating to rainfall, runoff, soils and climatic conditions
associated with land and water resources management. This indigenous knowledge has
neither been well documented nor scientifically analyzed in order to utilize it for
supporting the sustainable development of rain-fed runoff and spate irrigated farming
The Wadis from upstream wadi Hadhramout are:
1 - Wadi Doaan ( Wadi Laiman ,Wadi Laiser , and Hajrain ) 2 - Wadi Alain ( Sudbeh ,
Hourah , Almokhainig ) 3 - Wadi Amed ( Amed , Horaidhah , Aandel ) 4 - Wadi
Rakhyah 5 - Wadi Hainen 6 - Wadi Sur ( Shibam ) 7- Wadi Bin Ali . 8 - Wadi Aedim
In some areas the water management and water rights are known as the Habits
(ALAADAT) which are not documented from which other areas sometimes use these
habits to solve unprecedented problems in water management and water rights in these
areas . Some (Aadats) habits Known in Wadi Hadhramout are known as Follow from
upstream Wadi Hadhramout :- 1-Aadat Alhajrain, 2-Aadat Gabdhain 3- Aadat Sudbeh,
4- Aadat Aandal, 5- Aadat Ghailan ,6 - Aadat Jomaileh,7- Aadat Shibam
2- THE PROBLEM:
A long experience in water harvesting and management as well as the maintenance of
the irrigation structures systems are nearly to be disappeared and no record is known for
this experience. During the period 1970 - 1990 of the Communist Regime in the
Southern Governorate, the agricultural land was taken from its owners and distributed to
others, thus participated in the negligence of the traditions if not add new problems.
After the Unity the lands were returned back to its owners. A new problem started with
the oil production in Masilah (1993) when the oil produced acompany the water. As the
irrigation systems and the agricultural activities in this area is very old the agricultural
lands became widely distributed and rarely one land owner own (0.2) hectare in one
place, more over due to cultural complication, it is very difficult to give up the land. The
lands are spate irrigated excellent land. The ground water is available and the mean
activities of the people is cultivation. It is required to test an unprecedented relationship
for irrigation with ground water in scattered land ownership.
3 – METHODOLGY
This study has been reached by reviewing the literature in hand about Wadi
Hadhramout, with field visits by the authors and personal experience and observations.
Consultancy works done by authors in Wadi Hadhramout and other Yemen regions.
4 – WATER RESOURCES IN WADI HADHRAMOUT
4 – a - Surface
Water 4-a-1- Rain water:
The rain source is mostly the isolated cumulative clouds, this phenomena caused the
rain fall on different isolated places which caused floods in some branches of wadi
Hadhramout while other branches are dry. If it happened the clouds and then the rain
spread over different branches simultaneously the floods from different branches
accumulate and caused sever damage as it happened in the seventies. Wadi Hadhramout
catchment area receives main annual rainfall of a density ranges between 50 mm and
300 mm, the catchment lays over mountains in the west and far north west ,desert in
northwest and wadi course and tributaries in the north and south plateau .
The catchment area is the largest in the Arab Peninsula.
The Wadi characteristic is unic in the world. In all wet or dry water courses the size of
the wadi course at the beginning of the wadi is narrow and enlarged to the maximum
size at the end which is not the case in wadi Hadhramout A long the wadi course there
are many tributaries / branches counted more than fifty just down stream of Tarim
Town.
4 - a - 2 – Floods
The rain source is mostly the isolated cumulative clouds, this phenomena caused the
floods in some branches of wadi Hadhramout while the others are dry. If it happened the
clouds and then the rain spread over different branches the floods from different
branches accumulate and caused sever damage as it happened in the seventies.
Spate irrigation is an ancient form of water management, involving the diversion of

flashy spate floods running off from mountainous catchments, using simple deflectors
of bunds constructed from sand, stones and brushwood on the beds of normally dry
wadis. Flood flows, usually flowing for only a few hours with appreciable discharges,
and wit recession flows lasting for only one day to a few days, are channeled through
short steep canals to bonded basins, which are flooded to depths of 0.75 m or more.
Subsistence crops, often cereals, are planted only after irrigation has occurred. Crops are
grown from one or more irrigations using residual moisture stored in the deep alluvial
soils formed from the sediments deposited from previous irrigations. This type of
agriculture is very risk-prone and requires high levels of co-operation between farmers
to divert and manage the distribution of flood flows. The Hadhramis community had ran
the system, until the period 1970 - 1990 of the Communist Regime in the Southern
Governorate, the agricultural land was taken from its owners and distributed to others,
thus participated in the negligence of the traditional system since then spate irrigation
system in Hadhramout is started degradation, the damage to the irrigation
infrastructure are from absent of maintenances and poverty has increased. Most
households in spate-irrigated areas are poor, with a per capita income generally less and
in some cases far less, than US$1 per day.1 Estimated net household revenues derived
for some spate-irrigated systems 1 Traditional intakes are constructed from locally
1- Al- Hebshi Mohamed Abdul-Rahman Hashm, THE CYCLE OF POVERTY IN YEMEN, Sana’a, 2004
available materials. Large embankments (diversion bunds) are constructed with animal
powered scraper boards, but this type of equipment cannot easily handle coarse gravel
and cobbles. Diversion bunds are found on lower reaches of wadis, where the bed
slopes, bed material sediment sizes and the flood peak discharges, are all lower than at
the mountain fronts.1
Aqm
Earthen diversion bund constructed cross a wadi bed. Also
used to describe traditional diversion spurs
The Average annual surface flow in Wadi Hadhramout is shown in the following table2:
In Wadi Hadhramout branches the wadi flood is intercepted to divert the flood water for
irrigation using various types of diversion structures through canals to the fields. Some
structures such as drop structures, weirs, control structures.
1- www.metameta.nl/spate irrigation systems.

2- Tahir, T., "Water Harvesting Techniques in Yemen and Their Prospects in the Scaes Environment of
Yemen" Water Harvesting Conference, Khartoum, Sudan, 19-20, Aug., 2003.
Farmer improved spate irrigation structures in the Hadramawt in Yemen

Diversion Weir with a stepped downstream face
4 – b - 1 – GROUND WATER
Since early times the farmers in wadi Hadhramout used to draw the ground water using
labours and animals. Since early 50 s the mechanical engines started in wadi
Hadhramout to be used to drew ground water for irrigation and for drinking purposes. A
major groundwater aquifer was recently discovered in the eastern part of the country
with an estimated storage of 360 billion m3 1 . Table 1 explains deferent aquifers of
Hadramout area, Aquifers Depth, Water by Millions Barrel In square mile.
1- LAHLOU ABDELHADI, WATER RESOURCES OF 11 WATERSHEDS IN NORTH YEMEN,

3rd International Conference on Wadi Hydrology, 12-15 December 2005, Sanaa, Yemen,
lahlouhadi2004@Yahoo.fr
Groundwater Map –Yemen

Table (1) Typical Rock Formations In Masila Block Hadramout 1
No. Aquifers Aquifers Depth Water by Millions Water

By Mater Barrel In a squire Mail Quality
1 Jeza 0 – 120
2 Umm Eradhuma 180 – 270 Un-Know Potable
3 Sharwayn 25 –50
4 Mukalla 300 – 600 640 Potable
5 Fartaq 40 – 55
6 Harshiyat 700 – 900 742 Potable
7 Qishn 96 Water & Oil
4 – b – 2 – DISPOSAL OF THE WATER ACCOMPANYING MASILAA OIL

Canadian Occidental Petroleum Ltd. (Canoxy), major operators in the Hadhramout-
Masila block region of Yemen in 1992, retain Komex International Ltd (Komex) to
provide an assessment of the ground water resources in the area. Komex year long study
determine the existence of two previously unexplored major deep aquifers. Draw from
this study suggest that these aquifers, which exist at over 800 m depth in most of the
study area, offer excellent potential for good quality groundwater for potable supply and
industrial or agricultural purposes. Initial estimates suggest that annuapotential safe
yields from the aquifer could exceed several hundreds of millions of cubic meters, if
properly developed.
Canoxy has retained Stanley International Consultants Ltd (Stanley) to conduct a study
on the potential impacts of disposing of the produced Qishn water into the Harshiyat
formation in the N.W Masila Block, Yemen. The study should, in particular, address the
concern that disposal operations may impact the overlying Mukalla aquifer& the others,
which contains potable water. For instance in table 2, when the oil is sold, a country
appears to grow richer, even though depreciation of the natural capital - soils, and water
- may create future losses several times greater than the present gain.2
5 – THE WATER RESOURSES DEVELOPMENT

Before the unity in 1990, the water recourse devin two opposite directions, In the north
part of the country developing project concentrating on the wadi and flood control
project and the exploitation of the ground water was left to the privet sector, while in the
south the Government concentrate on the ground water exploitation neglecting the
floods the wadi development although land reclamation projects were implemented
depending on ground water. The privet sector was out of the equation in this field.
1- Canadian Occidental Petroleum, HYDROGEOLOCAL ASSESSMENT OF PRODUCED WATER

DISPOSAL, Yemen Masila Project, April 1994, (p 48)
2- Dr Mohamed A. Al- Hebshi, Eng. Saleh Ahmed Bin Rabaa, Disposal of the Water Accompanying
Masila Oil in Yemen, International Conference On Soil & Groundwater Contamination & Clean-up in
Arid Countries, Sultan Qaboos, University, Oman, 20 – 23 January 2003
In early 1990 after the unity the situation was in the north part the ground water was
exploited and in many regions it reached grave situation. and in the south the land
ownership started and all the gained developed land became gradually desert.
And the wadis flood structures need heavy rehabilitation and maintenance while most
of the people did not know how such structures used to be maintained.
Table (2) the Cost of Injection & Opportunity Costs of Masila Water Disposal
Total Opportunity Cost of Quantity Injection Rate Years

Cost Costs Injection Per Year (BWPD.000)ƅ
1029300 343100 686200 17155 47 1994

3153600 1051200 2102400 52560 144 1995
4730400 1576800 3153600 78840 216 1996
5825400 1941800 3883600 97090 266 1997
6942300 2314100 4628200 115705 317 1998
7402200 2467400 4934800 123370 338 1999
7840200 2613400 5226800 130670 358 2000
8081100 2693700 5387400 134685 369 2001
8256300 2752100 5504200 137605 377 2002
8015400 2671800 5343600 133590 366 2003
5256000 1752000 3504000 87600 240 2004
3766800 1255600 2511200 62780 172 2005
3438300 1146100 2292200 57305 157 2006
2868900 956300 1912600 47815 131 2007
2737500 912500 1825000 45625 125 2008
2387100 795700 1591400 39785 109 2009
1598700 532900 1065800 26645 73 2010
1554900 518300 1036600 25915 71 2011
1029300 343100 686200 17155 47 2012
1- Per day * by 365 Injection per Year

2- Estimated Cost of injection by 40 YR Per Barrel
3- Opportunity cost per Barrel of Water is estimated by 20 YR
6 – CONJUNCTIVE USE OF FLOOD AND GROUND WATER

The conjungtive use of flood and ground water was not experienced widely in wadi
Hadhramout. There is an old saying farmers used to say if the rain does not come we
will draw water from the ground using the humans and the animals (˜̶̶͂́ ͉ ̻ ˣ˼̱̒ ̳ˑ)
The practice of using ground water and flood is widely experienced in Tihama region
West of Yemen as the wadis flood is controlled by modern permanent structures which
is not the case in Wadi Hadhramout.
7 – CONCLUSIONS
Soil and water management in spate systems is vital for three reasons. The first is the
soils are largely induced by human activity. They are built up from the sediments
transported with the spate flows that settle when water is bunds on bunds fields. The
water holding capacity and fertility of these soils is usually excellent, but soil
management is required to counter land rise, maintain fertility, and in some areas to
avoid soil crusting and compaction. The second reason is the importance of moisture
conservation in crop production. In spate systems irrigation before planting provides the
main source of crop moisture. Conserving this moisture is essential to crop production.
Good moisture conservation can have an impact on production often greater than
improvements to the water diversion systems. The third is the positive and lasting
impact by developing successful partnerships built on mutual trust and respect with
farmers, land owners and the local communities where they work and live to gather
peacefully. The lands are spate irrigated of excellent soil. The ground water is
Al-Hebshi &. Rabaa available and the mean activities of the people is cultivation . It is
required to test an unprecedented relationship for irrigation with ground water in
scattered land ownership taking into consideration the possibility of flood irrigation as
conjunctive use of ground and flood water.
The Water Company the oil production from a deep aquifer and it is effects in
environment is scurries problem in Yemen.
8- REFERNCES:
1- Al- Hebshi Mohamed Abdul-Rahman Hashm, THE CYCLE OF POVERTY IN
YEMEN, Sana’a, 2004
2- Al- Hebshi Mohamed A., Eng. Saleh Ahmed Bin Rabaa, Disposal of the Water
Accompanying Masila Oil in Yemen, International Conference On Soil &
Groundwater Contamination & Clean-up in Arid Countries, Sultan Qaboos,
University, Oman, 20 – 23 January 2003
3- CANADIAN OCCIDENTAL PETROLEUM, Hydrological Assessment of
Produced Water Disposal Yemen Masila Project (April 1994)
4- CANADIAN OCCIDENTAL PETROLEUM. Yemen Masila Project Water
Treatment Disposal options (April 1994)
5- David Brooks, "Oil and Water Can Mix", LEDS, Vol. 8 No. 4, Oct. 1997, Canada
6- LAHLOU ABDELHADI, WATER RESOURCES OF 11 WATERSHEDS IN

NORTH YEMEN, 3rd International Conference on Wadi Hydrology, 12-15
December 2005, Sanaa, Yemen, lahlouhadi2004@Yahoo.fr
7- Tahir, T., "Water Harvesting Techniques in Yemen and Their Prospects in the
Scaes Environment of Yemen" Water Harvesting Conference, Khartoum, Sudan,
19-20, Aug., 2003
8- www.metameta.nl/spate irrigation systems
OBSTACLES TO FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION AND

DRAINAGE MANAGEMENT IN IRAN
Dr. M. Fekri Ershad1
ABSTRACT
Experiences of 1950’s and 1960's revealed the importance of public participation in

success of development programs of developing countries. Based on new visions, a
prerequisite of rural sustainable development is active, conscious and voluntary
participation of farmer in the process of decision-making, planning and management of
all programs. This sort of participation in decision making and handling of social affairs
is both an effective factor on development and a product of development process.
Promoting farmers participation in management of irrigation networks merely consist a
part of social interaction between different social groups, i.e. government and villagers.
Therefore, before dealing with participation issue, one should first deal with social
interaction of a given society. Since these interactions and their historical changes differ
among different societies, applying the successful models for participation of a given
country, would not necessarily lead to success in another country.
Throughout the history, Iran has had always a despotic government, and all social rights
were exclusively determined by the government, and therefore all responsibilities and
public issues were to be dealt by the government. Since people had no objective social
rights, they felt no responsibility in front of the government. The result is a distorted
view of government-nation relationship in which the nation considered itself as the
servant of the government. This distorted attitude is still vastly spread among our
people-specially farmers, and its perpetuation is the main obstacle in front of their active
participation in management of rural issues. The prerequisite of farmer’s active
participation including participation in management of irrigation network is the change
in this distorted attitude of state-nation relationship. Achieving such a change requires
education and promotion of a new attitude towards participation, which is a long
patience-demanding process.
Keyword: Farmers participation, despotism, absolutism, social interaction, private
ownership, democracy, social status
1- Tehran Univercity- IDRO-Valieasr Building-Jam e Jam Str. Valiasr ave. Tel: 009821-23862132
Fax: 009821-23862288; E-mail: Fekri@idro.org
I- INTRODUCTION
The experiences during these two decades, 1950’s and 1960’s shows although the
governments were effective in the growth of agriculture in the developing countries
including Iran by establishing large water conveyance and water supply structures, the
lack of farmer attendance in irrigation networks’ management and planning caused
several problems which were effective in the failure of the governmental growth and
development plans of the developing countries.
The experiences of these years made it clear that the governmental organizations and
the staffs are not interested in consulting and cooperating with local communities and
always behave imperiously with them. Actually, the governmental agencies believed
that farmers were not able to recognize their own good. So in order to insert the new
ideas and methods, they must be persuaded to follow the expert’s social and technical
recommendations. This attitude is clearly against the modern aspects of growth and
development. The new views consider active, awareness and voluntary attendance of
public in the procedure of decision making, planning, executing and managing as one of
the conditions for sustainable development plan. So in order to approach the rural
development and productivity promotion on social and water resources depend on
cooperation of all the authorities (public and government).
Thus the lack of farmers’ participation in the rural affairs, (among them irrigation
networks management) was known as one of the reasons for the failure of the
development plans, consequently the concept of participation became the most
important pre-condition for the growth and development plans which should be paid
attention.
But the lack of farmers’ participation in growth and development faced the authorities
by the following question: Why the farmers don’t have a tendency toward participation
in their own community affairs. The problem has been cleared now.
What is the Reason for the Lack of Framers’ participation in the rural Development
plans?
What remained was to find the solution:
How can we persuade the farmers to be active in the development plans?
Then the experts seriously started investigating on the effective factors to attract
farmers’ participation in the development plans and encouraging them to participate in
the rural affairs.
II- PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

The new development ideas, concern human power as the most important effective
factor in the sustainable development and call it as “the human capital”. This capital
will flourish and help the development procedure when it has the right to make decision
freely. Stiglitz announced “the effective factor in the sustainable development is public
participation in the affairs. This kind of participation should be based on responsibility
feeling and free dialogue “in the International Conference on Democracy, Market
Economy and Development” which was held in Seoul, in 1999. Public participation in
making decision and administrating the community affairs is both effective factor in
development and the result of development procedure. Actually there is a mutual

causality between participation in the community affairs and the sustainable
development. Farmers’ participation attraction in the irrigation networks management
means to transfer some of the responsibilities from a community sector (government) to
another one (farmers) which actually cover a part of socio-economy interaction of
different community groups. Thus before discussing about this issue, we should
investigating and specifying the social interaction of certain social groups of the
community. The experiences show without concerning the social interactions of social
groups and their historical changes can not be sure about the success of participation
plans. As far as the interaction of social groups and the historical changes in different
societies haven’t been the same, so taking the pattern from the methods of those
successful countries may be fail in another country. For the same reason, it is necessary
the selected methods of participation attraction in each country should be fit with the
trend of historical changes of social interaction in that country. For this purpose we
should investigate on historical relationship of the government and the public to know
the willingness or unwillingness of the public to participate in the community decision
making and consequently determine the degree of their responsibility acceptance.
III- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE GOVERNMENT AND THE

PUBLIC RELATIONSHIP IN IRAN
I would like to mention to the historical background of the government and the public
relationship, in order to explain the obstacles of farmers’ participation in execution
responsibilities acceptance in Iran- among them irrigation and drainage networks
management and finally give some recommendations to defeat these obstacles.
Iran is a vast country , located in a dry and semi-dry region where the rural communities
are mostly far from each other. Most of these rural communities are located in the dry
regions. Actually they didn’t have considerable surplus production in the past. The
scattering state of rural communities and the scares of surplus product haven’t let to
establish an independent and powerful feudalism. Actually, only an active military force
could collect the surplus product of those scattered villages and turned it to a powerful
central government; and this active military force could mostly be prepared by the
tribes. All these governments have been despotism ones during the history of Iran.
Before continuing the discussion I would like to point out the difference between
absolutism (as it was organized in Europe) and the despotism (as it was dominated in
eastern countries among them Iran). In absolutism, private ownership ( specially land
ownership ) was respected and secured, while in despotism, the private ownership
wasn’t secure and most lands belonged to the government and land ownership wasn’t an
unclaimed right, but was a privilege which was granted by the government.
“Francois Bernier” the special physician of Orang Zib Mongol was written in his
itinerary “king himself was the only owner of all the lands.”
During the past, a large part of agricultural lands always belonged to the government
and the government transferred them to the people. Actually the agricultural lands
ownership was not a right, it was a privilege which was granted to government's agents
and any time they wished they would take them back. Of course there was some piece
of lands which belonged to land lords, but even those lands could be expropriate very
easily. Even the wealth of people and their social status needed the approval of the
government.
From the view point of sociology, although the absolute government depends upon
influential of social classes of the society and the existence and legitimacy of the
government would be on the hands of influential social classes and their satisfaction, the
high social classes of the society and their wealth were indebted to the king of the
despotic government.
In Iran, the will of the despotic king didn’t have any restriction. Although there were
some regulations in Iran, but there was no written legal criteria. The specialty about the
despotic government was: “lack of equality in front of laws”. Caloshkin, the Russian
permanent delegate during Nader Shah, (1741) wrote: “the king successively changes
the ministers, governors and commandeer their properties on behalf of him. I can say I
have never seen even one of the commanders to be secured after losing his status.” The
most recent despotic government of Iran was Ghajar dynasty. Lord Croson pointed out
“king can do what ever he wants and his words are as law… he can depose or assign all
the ministers, officers, employees and judges. The life and death of all the members of
royal family and all the civil and military personnel without any trial were in his hands.
The properties of those who were executed would be granted to the king. In order to get
a high position in the government, depend on the cost you should pay some bribery and
gift."
The main differences of despotism and absolutism can be summarized as follow.
Absolutism Despotism
1- Law oriented 1- Law disoriented

2- Although the king has absolute right in 2- The king is free to do what he wants
legislation, there are some main rules without concerning any rules.
which should be fallow.
3- Privet property, especially land 3- Land property is not a right; it is a
property has been respected and is privilege which is granted to the people.
secured.
4- The government is relevant to high 4- The high social class of society is
social class of society. relevant to the government.
As far as the whole rights of the society have been in the hands of despotic government
during the past history of Iran, all the responsibilities and public tasks had been
undertook by the government. In other words, because the people didn’t have any
rights, so they didn’t feel any responsibility in front of government.
IV_ PUBLIC ALIENATION FROM GOVERNMENT IN IRAN

The result which has been concerned from what have been discussed was the alienation
of the social classes from government. This kind of public alienation from government
has been continued up to now, in spite of changes after constitutional revolution (1906).
This historical alienation has caused an inverted understanding from the relation
between the nation and the government in Iran.
In European countries, the government is elected by the nation as an employee of the
public to serve the society since industrial revolution and establishing democracy.
While the continuation of despotic government in Iran has drawn an inverted vision
from the relation between the nation and the government in the public’s mind. In other
words, as far as the central government has been the only owner of the public’s wealth,
the people have been stipendiary, servant and peasant of the government under certain
hierarchy. This kind of inverted understanding from the relationship between the nation
and the government has been remained in the mind of the majority of the people in our
country yet. Still the people think of the role of government as governor and ruler. The
farmers’ expectation from the government as a supporter and benefactor have been
increased specially after revolution and caused to strengthen the same inverted
understanding from the relationship between the nation and the government. The
continuation of the same understanding is the main obstacle of active participation of
the farmers in the rural affairs, especially in development affairs and responsibility
acceptance.
Although because of limited area, population density and urban living significant in the
cities, the people have more or less believed in order to manage the complicated affairs
of the city all the people should participate and work together. But this belief has not
been justified in the rural communities yet, still the farmers haven’t accepted that they
have to perform and participate in a part of services which have been executed by the
government and some of the government agencies so far.
V-PRECONDITION OF FARMERS’ ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE

RURAL AFFAIRS
Participation in the irrigation networks management, as the preconditions of farmers'
active participation in the rural affairs, requires attaining the new attitude of the relation
of the government and the public and inverting those imaginations which have been
existed so far. As far as this new attitude has been based on democracy, the separation
of farmers' participation procedure and the expansion of democracy cause to make
transient decision and policies which is just wasting time and manpower. We shouldn’t
expect the procedure of participation attraction to be faster than the procedure of
democracy expansion. At most the procedure of participation can be forwarded in step
with democracy in the society. Regarding the causality of these two issues, it should be
mentioned in order to stabilize the public participation in the community affairs- among
them farmers’ participation in the irrigation networks management should be patient
and take steps slowly but making the farmers participate in the irrigation networks
management without feeling deeply the necessity and benefits of participation will be a
kind of unsustainable participation which will be broken up by any changes in the
government existing policy. It is impossible to make the farmers participate in the rural
affairs administration either by force or granting some financial privileges. The only
way to encourage the farmer to participate in the rural affairs is to make them
understand the necessity and the benefits of cooperation and participation in decision
making.
VI-TRADITIONAL COOPERATION AND PARTICIPATION IN THE

MODERN SOCIETIES
However from many years before the cooperation and participation in the rural affairs
have been dominated in the country, the land reform performance in 1963 changed the
infrastructure of rural community and this kind of traditional cooperation has gradually
paled. Some new phenomena have entered in the economical and social life of the
village since 1960 decade, after performing land reform where the most important one
was the attendance of government and the relevant agencies. From that time we have
been the evidence of gradual weakening of traditional cooperation patterns in the rural
area, because in many cases the governmental plans for rural development were
dissimilar with the pattern of farmers’ traditional cooperation.
Whenever we talk about farmers’ participation in irrigation and drainage networks and
the relevant problems, some opinions have been paid attention to the rural communities
and revival of this traditional cooperation structure as the solution to the problem of
farmers’ participation attraction in the modern establishment management of irrigation
and drainage networks. But it should be paid attention the active participation in modern
irrigation networks administration is different from the traditional cooperation, because
solving these days problems whit traditional methods are impossible. In traditional
cooperation, there are a limited individuals belong to rather homogeneous communities
who are cooperated together in the frame of individual or relationship, which
cooperation and participation means consciously acceptance of continues cooperation
with other members of the society and responsibility acceptance in order to access to the
group objectives in nowadays large and inhomogeneous communities.
Actually consciously acceptance is the most important phenomenon of participation.
People should consciously feel the necessity and benefits of participation and use their
energies for a common objective without any obligation. For this purpose the issue of
participation should have harmony with their benefits and interests; besides people
should be in decision making as well.
The meaning of cooperation in the participation procedure is much more expanded one.
When a person accepts a certain task, it is not necessary to perform that job, actually he
promises not to disagree with. But cooperation needs a kind of action and interaction
which asks necessarily for collaboration. In order to create such an interaction it is
necessary the people do not feel that participation arrangement will be a threat against
their benefits and social status and finally responsibility acceptance means unity with
the people on the one hand and the project success on the other hand. In order to create
such feeling the benefits of participation should be higher than the costs.
Here are some examples for participation and cooperation attraction of farmers which
have been applied by the higher level authorities by establishing rural cooperatives,
equity centers, cultural centers and other similar semi-governmental institutions.
In this trend the people are ignored, in other words the relation between the government
staffs and the farmers are as commanders and obedient and instead of leaving the
farmers in the different levels of participation decision makings, their tasks are applied
to them. So by this method the independency of farmers to the government will be
increased.
The most suitable form of participation in the society affairs is to establish executive
agencies by the public intention on behalf of their clients. The municipalities can be the
most important ones in the modern communities. Farmers’ participation attraction
should be performed by such executive institutions which are established by the
farmers' intention. Only this kind of participation can help the growth and sustainable
development of the rural areas. We can’t expect, the farmers undertake the management
of repair, maintenance and water distribution in the main canals besides the difficult job
they have in agricultural affairs. Actually one of the problems of framers participation
attraction is the interference of these activities in the irrigation networks management.
There should be a mediator service institution to undertake the executive management
of the modern irrigation and drainage networks on behalf of farmers in order to
overcome this problem.
For this purpose we can hire the qualified manpower in order to establish private service
agencies to operate the installments and the irrigation and drainage networks. The
present governmental organizations will be replaced by these agencies as the farmers’
executive organization. Establishment of this type of professional agency shouldn’t be
the way is happened today. In order to secure the success of this method, we should
create a kind of motive in farmers as the first stage to appear voluntarily as applicant for
those services. It is obvious the governmental organizations can also be very effective in
technical supervision and establishment of professional agencies of private sector.
Encouraging the farmers to step forward in this line, we should dominate the culture and
the new view of participation in villages before. But besides the farmers, the authorities
in rural affairs should expand the horizon of their view about participation and shouldn’t
limit theirs just on farmers’ financial one.
It is valuable to motion to the view of one of the executive authorities of one of the
water conveyance projects about a questionnaire which was provided for gathering the
farmers’ opinions and intentions to participation.
“The questions are to be placed in a form, so that the
participation does not seem as a voluntary subject. During the
interview, the farmers are to made ready for accept the
participation”
As you notice in the above phrase, participation has been concerned as an obligation,
not a voluntary affair.
VII- CONCLUSION
At the end, once again it should be emphasized that the most important thing which
should be done to attract the farmers to participate in irrigation and drainage
management is to train and promote the participation culture; of course it takes time and
asks for patience.
The new understanding of participation has been trained in many countries these days.
There should be also some training agencies in different level to train and promote
participation especially in the rural communities in Iran. This procedure takes time and
need patient to progress step by step.
REFERENCES
1- The Social History of Iran, M. Ravandi.
2- The Story of Civilization, Will and Ariel Durant.
3- Opposition of The Government and The Nation, M.A Homayon Katozian.
4- Irrigation Management Transfer, Why & How?, Sayyed A. Heydarian.
ICWC OF CENTRAL ASIA AS INCTITUTE

OF REGIONAL WATER SECURITY
Rysbekov Yusup1
ABSTRACT
As is known, water use from trans-boundary rivers of Central Asia (CA) has a huge
conflict potential. Issues related to equitable water allocation between the regional states
and their mutually beneficial use are kept in view of the Heads of CA States. In the
beginning of 1990s the CA Governments have signed the Agreement about cooperation
in area of regional water resources’ use and protection (Alma-Ata, 1992). According to
this Agreement, the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC) of CA
established, and earlier accepted legal acts regarding regional water management remain
in force, in particularly – interstate water distribution is based on Water Use and
Protection Master-Plans (WUPMP) developed in 1980s for the Amudarya and Syrdarya
river basins. Establishment of ICWC was an important step towards keeping “status-
quo” in regional water management. ICWC decisions are fulfilled through its executive
authorities – Basin Water Organization (BWO) “Amudarya” and BWO “Syrdarya”.
ICWC determines water policy in the region and its major direction. According to the
Agreement 1992: a) ICWC is responsible for general governance of the regional water
management system; b) high officials of main water departments of CA countries are
the members of ICWC; c) ICWC meetings are held on the quarterly basis in one of the
state-founders; d) ICWC Decisions are accepted on consensus’ basis; e) ICWC member
has a right of “veto”, thus ensuring high protection of national interests. ICWC acts as
political institute of regional water safety, and its activity allowed avoid regional water
conflicts predicted by western analysts.
1- Dr. Yusup Khaidarovich Rysbekov, Assistant Director

Scientific-Information Center of Interstate Coordination Water Commission (SIC ICWC) of Central Asia.
11, Karasu-4, Tashkent, 700187, Republic of Uzbekistan; Tel. (998 712) 651659; Fax: (998 71) 1665097
E-mails: <yusuprysbekov@icwc-aral.uz>, <Yusuf.Bek.004@rambler.ru>
1. POST-SOVIET PERIOD: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND THEIR INFLUENCE

ON REGIONAL WATER RELATIONS IN CENTRAL ASIA
1.1. NATIONAL INTERESTS OF THE CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES IN THE

INTERSTATE WATER RELATIONS’ SPHERE AND REGIONAL WATER
SECURITY
In the beginning of 1990s geopolitics has changed cardinally, and a system of the
international relations became more unstable. The developing realities have caused not
only choice’s freedom of the further development ways by new subjects of world
politics, but also exclusive complexity of this choice.
At the same time, the Cold War’s ending has given mankind chance in another way to
look at the world and occurring processes on the Earth. One of advantages of new
international relations’ system became by the majority of the states a fact’s recognition
that the safety depends as a whole on joint efforts. Said fairly concerning new
independent states of Central Asia (CA) - Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic,
Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Republic of Uzbekistan, each of which has
the tasks on protection of national interests, external-politics aspects of which are
closely bound with problems of regional and global security. The categories “national
interests” and “national security” are closely connected, include various kinds (political,
legal, economic and others, in their interrelation and dynamics) and carry system
character. Though in general security system the national security is a subsystem of
global and regional security, the concept “national security” is key concept in the
security of various levels. The global and regional security does not exist in the abstract
kind, and they are derivative of national safety - both in a historical context, and by way
of stability and opportunities of its maintenance. Taking into account that the essence of
national security is national interests’ protection in various spheres of social-political
life, problems of trans-boundary water resources (TWR) use in CA should be
considered through a prism of national interests’ protection.
Last years ecological security is included in the national security system of the states as
one of its key components. In system of ecological security the problems, connected to
the water factor, occupy the special place, among which fresh waters’ deficiency is key.
On the data of the World Water Council, to the 2050s about 2/3 world population will
have a problem of fresh water’s deficiency. According to the World Meteorological
Organization/UNESCO estimation, 97.5% of World water resources are salty and 2.5%
- fresh. From fresh waters 2.24% are inaccessible or are remote (polar ice, glaciers, and
deep underground waters). Only 0.26% of total world waters are accessible fresh
waters, which are a potential source of possible international and local conflicts.
As a consequence many analysts and experts count that correlation connection between
ecological crisis situations in different areas of the World and conflicts on this basic is
present, in XXI century the struggle for natural resources will become aggravated, and
predict on the future specific wars – “water”, “grain” and others “eco-wars” [2, 9, 11,
13, 15; etc]. “Nature resources’ deficiency becomes... by reason of a confrontation,
conflicts and wars.... A major kind of natural resources becomes water.... That we could
buy for earlier money, it is necessary pay in blood” – so one of experts estimates the
water relations’ prospects in the world [12]. “If in ɏɏ century petroleum was called as
liquid gold, in ɏɏI century such definition will be given to fresh water. And the same
as the petroleum brought the limited prosperity to the certain areas last hundred years
and caused wars and conflicts, its place will be occupied by freshwater” [10].
In these forecasts the growing value of the fresh water resources is truth, but their
deficiency as the conflicts’ reason carries probable character and depends on decisive
persons’ skill to develop compromise national and interstate water politics.
1.2. DEVELOPING WATER SITUATION IN CENTRAL ASIA

Water situation in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) can be estimated as rather difficult. From
beginning of the 1990s water problems of the ASB became as factors of regional, and
sharpest problems (for example, Aral Sea accident) - and global security. The most part
of ASB waters are formed in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan (upstream countries),
and Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan are the basic water consumers.
By different estimations, Afghanistan uses now 1.5-2.0km3/year, in North Afghanistan
(Amu Darya upstream: Kokcha, Kunduz rivers etc.), is formed about 8-10km3/year of
water. About 25% of the ASB river flow is formed in Kyrgyzstan, and 80% Amudarya
flow and practically all flow of the Zeravshan river is formed in Tajikistan. Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan are interested to develop water-power engineering.
On Turkmen territory there are more than half of Tuyamuyun reservoir, which delivers
water for Republic of Karakalpakstan and Khorezm province (Uzbekistan), head
constructions and other infrastructure of the Amu-Bukhara machine canal (ABMC) and
Karshi main canal (KMC). ABMC and KMC submit water for Bukhara, Navoi,
Kashkadarya provinces of Uzbekistan. In Kyrgyzstan there are basic water sources of
the Syrdarya river basin, Sokh, Andizhan, Kassansai reservoirs, which are constructed
for maintenance by water of the Uzbek irrigated lands. Water delivery for Dzhizak,
Syrdarya (to lesser degree - Tashkent) provinces depends substantially from Kairakkum
hydrounit’s work regime, which located in Tajikistan. Samarkand, Navoi, Kashkadarya
and Dzhizak provinces of Uzbekistan use water from Zerafshan river, flow formation
zone of which is in Tajikistan. More than 90% of water resources, used by Uzbekistan,
are formed in Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.
Water delivery for Southern Kazakhstan (Shymkent province) carried out by interstate
canals in Uzbekistan (located in Syrdarya and Tashkent provinces), for Syrdarya river
downstream, including Northern Aral Sea, depends on work regime of the Toktogul
(Kyrgyzstan), Kayrakkum (Tajikistan), Charvak (Uzbekistan) reservoirs.
As a whole, basic national interests of the upstream countries (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan)
are connected to development of hydropower capacities, and downstream countries
(Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) - to water use for irrigation needs.
In opinion of many experts and analysts, in water use from trans-boundary rivers of CA
the significant conflict potential is made, and water problems are occupied leading place
among alarms’ hierarchy for the future of the Central Asian region (CAR). Depending
on developing political situation the regional water problems can become the factors of
union or reintegration of the Central Asian states.
1.3. POLITICAL AND LEGAL BASES OF TRANS-BOUNDARY WATER

MANAGEMENT IN CENTRAL ASIA
Basic directions of regional water politics are determined by the decisions of the CA
States’ Heads. The basic political-legal documents, in which the key principles of the
regional water relations are determined, are following:
- Interstate Agreement (ISA), 1992 [5],
- Decisions of the CA States’ Heads, 1993, according to which the International Fund
for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) is created. Within Independence IFAS has accepted
a number of important political decisions in sphere of the regional water resources
use.
- ISA, 1993 [6],
- Concept (1993) of the CA States on problems of Aral Sea Basin (ASB), which has
incorporated rules, which are entered to IWRM theory in modern understanding [3],
- Decision (1994) of the CA States’ Heads and Russia Government, by which the
First ASB-Program (ASBP-1) is confirmed [4],
- ISA, 1996 [8],
- Declaration and Statement of the CA States’ Heads (Nukus, 1995; Issykkul, 1995;
Almaty, 1997; Tashkent, 1998, 2001; Ashgabat, 1999; Dushanbe, 2002; etc.),
according which the politics of sustainable water-ecological management in CAR is
determined,
- ISA, 1998 [7],
- ASBP-2, prepared on behalf of the CA States’ Heads and approved by them, is
accepted in Dushanbe (2002). ASBP-2 is the key political document, which reflects
the basic problems of the ASB in water and nature protection spheres [14].
Among the listed above documents the Agreements 1992, 1993, 1996 and 1998 are
international legal acts, according to which trans-boundary WRM (TWRM) is carried
out. Agreement 1993 is the more political document, which establishes the general
approaches to the joint management of water and other natural resources in CA for
improvement of socio-economic and ecologic situation in CAR.
The questions of TWRM in CA are a subject of consideration of other regional political
structures also, in particular, such as the “Organization for Central Asian Cooperation”
– OCAC (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, since 2004 - and Russia),
the “Euro-Asian Economic Community” – EAEC (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan) etc. For example, in frameworks of EAEC 26
Agreements should be accepted which are signed by the OCAC members, from them 8
Agreements concern to the water and hydropower regulation in CAR.
According to classification of Global Water Partnership, one of active and consecutive
conductors of IWRM ideas, first two main elements of the favorable conditions for
implementation of IWRM principles are: a) Political decisions (“water politics”); b)
Legislative basis (“water politics in the law’s form”). Analysis shows, that coordinated
by the CA States’ Heads the political support and decisions on realization of radical
reforms in water sector of CAR (“regional water politics”) are available. Business with
development of international-legal bases of TWRM in CA is a little bit more difficultly.
In particular, last years the certain efforts on development new water legislation are
undertaken, however this work goes rather slowly. For instance, the ASBP-2 has 14
Priorities, from which first is called "Development of the coordinated mechanisms of
the water resources complex management in the Aral Sea Basin". More than 10 ISA-
drafts should be prepared according to the Priority #1 of the ASBP-2.
2. ICWC OF CENTRAL ASIA: ROOTS, CREATION, ACTIVITY
2.1. TASHKENT STATEMENT 1991 AND ALMA-ATA AGREEMENT 1992

ICWC of Central Asia is created according to the Agreement 1992, and it all researches
know practically. However history of this Agreement’s preparation and signing is less
known for many experts, and for some reasons it not mentioned. Long terms of
preparation of a line of the regional Agreements’ drafts are one of reasons of this
phenomenon. As mentioned above, more than 10 regional ISA’s drafts should be
prepared according to the Priority #1 of the ASBP-2, on much from them terms of
preparation have expired in 2004, 2005. Some Agreements’ draft (on Syrdarya, Water
quality, Databases etc.) have a history 7-8 years and began to prepare long before
acceptance of the ASBP-2, but any of them is not ready for signing by Parties.
At the same time, history of ICWC creation is unique and instructive in many respects.
After self-liquidation of Union SSR, first persons of National Water Agencies of
Central Asia and Kazakhstan1 sign a Statement (Tashkent, October 12, 1991) [17].
It is represented very useful to result this Statement completely, which is a starting point
and beginning a process of ICWC creation2:
STATEMENT
Of Chiefs of Water authorities of republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan
(Tashkent, October 12, 1991)
We, Chiefs of Water authorities of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan, as the professionals, estimating inevitability of a difficult situation in
connection by increasing water deficiency and aggravation of ecological intensity in the
Aral Sea Basin, were based on a historical generality of the peoples of Central Asia and
Kazakhstan, their equal rights and responsibility for maintenance of rational water
resources’ use in region, believe necessary:
1. To recognize exclusive feature of the closed water basin, what is the Aral Sea
region, and necessity of acceptance by everything the measures for prevention of
negative consequences connected from it drying.
1- In the Soviet special geopolitics territory of the present 5 posts-Soviet republics of Central Asia were
called as Middle (Central) Asia and Kazakhstan
2- Translation is informal.
2. To recognize indissoluble dependence and interrelation of interests of all republics

in the decision of questions of sharing water resources Aral Sea Basin as single unit
on common for all republics principles and fair regulation of their consumption in
view of interests of all peoples living in region.
3. To count expedient, in conditions of infringement of former economic connections,
association of working and potential capacities for sharing use, to continue study of
opportunities for long-term cooperation, prospects development programs’
development, and creation of joint organizational structures for coordination.
4. To carry out development and correction of inter-republican water limits and water
use on years and separate sources in view of guaranteed water maintenance of
Prearalie and Aral Sea.
5. To recognize that a preservation of relative balance, water maintenance of the
Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers’ downstream through an establishment of the certain
water share of each republic are a prime-turn task for Prearalye problems’ decision.
6. To provide an exchange of the complete information about water use, water
infrastructure, legal and other documents determining the status of water as a
resource and the order established in republics on its use.
7. To not accept unilateral actions having a negative consequence for other republics.
8. All dispute questions to permit with participation of the Chiefs of the republics’
interested organizations and representative of the disinterested party.
Only our incorporated and coordinated actions can promote the effective decision of
regional water problems in conditions of growing ecological intensity.
State Committee on Water Resources of Kazakh SSR, Chairman N.Kipshakbayev

Ministry of Water Resources of Kyrgyzstan, Minister V.Melnichenko
Ministry of Water Resources of Tajikistan, Minister A.Nurov
Ministry of Water Resources of Uzbekistan, Minister R.Giniyatullin
Ministry of Water Resources of Turkmen SSR, First Deputy Minister A.Awezov
1. Is printed in Russian, on two sheets, with the right of translation on state languages
of all republics, which authorities have signed present Statement, and for
publication.
2. First (original) copy with signatures is kept in Ministry of Water Resources of
Republic of Uzbekistan, others participants have a photocopy.
3. Is signed in Ministry of Water Resources of Republic of Uzbekistan.
This Statement is a starting point of ICWC creation. The period from time of fastening
of idea ant its realization deserves the special attention, as on the question “why drafts
of regional Agreements long prepare”, in a number of cases the examples are resulted,
when a process of preparation and conclusion of the international Agreements on water
resources (India and Pakistan etc.) proceeded by decades. Only 130 days (From October
12, 1991 till February 18, 1992, less than 4 months) were required for preparation of the
appropriate documents and realization of idea of ICWC creation, namely – for signing
of the Agreement 1992 in Alma-Ata.
Agreement 1992 "About cooperation in sphere of a joint management of use
and protection of water resources of interstate sources" was signed also by the first
persons of National Water Agencies of CA republics, but already – on behalf
of independent States as the Agreement’s Parties. This historical Agreement was
signed by Ministers: from Republic of Kazakhstan – N.Kipshakbayev, from
Kyrgyz Republic – M.Zulpuyew, from Republic of Tajikistan – A.Nurov, from
Turkmenistan – A.Ilamanov, from Republic of Uzbekistan – R.Giniyatullin.
According to the Agreement 1992, the ICWC of CA established, and earlier accepted
legal acts regarding regional water management remain in force. Establishment of
ICWC was an important step towards keeping “status-quo” in regional water
management. ICWC decisions are fulfilled through its executive authorities – Basin
Water Organization (BWO) “Amudarya” and BWO “Syrdarya”. ICWC determines
water policy in the region and its major direction. According to the Agreement 1992: a)
ICWC is responsible for general governance of the regional water management system;
b) high officials of main water departments of CA countries are the members of ICWC;
c) ICWC meetings are held on the quarterly basis in one of the state-founders; d) ICWC
Decisions are accepted on consensus’ basis; e) ICWC member has a right of “veto”,
thus ensuring high protection of national interests. Political importance of the
Agreement 1992 is confirmed by the Interstate Agreement 1993, which was signed by
the CA States’ Presidents in Kyzyl-Orda. In particular, in the Agreement 1993 is said,
that the Parties count necessary: “to form on a parity basis Interstate Council on
problems of the Aral Sea Basin and at it: … for Coordination Water Commission
working according to the Agreement, signed February 18, 1992 in Alma-Ata”.
2.2. ICWC OF CENTRAL ASIA: ACTIVITY AND SOME PROBLEMS

The Rules “About the Interstate Commission for Water Coordination of Central Asia”
are accepted December 5, 1992 (Tashkent), according to which SIC ICWC [16]:
- Determines uniform water politics in region and develops its basic directions,
- Develops and confirms water limits for each State of CAR,
- Develops and carries out the regional ecological programs,
- Develops recommendations to Governments of the Parties on uniform price politics
in sphere of regional water resources use,
- Promotes development of corporate communications,
- Coordinates water economic activity of regional scale,
- Creates uniform information system on water/land use, organizes their monitoring,
- Coordinates joint scientific-research activity etc.
ICWC decisions are carried out by its executive bodies:
- Basin Water Organization (BWO) “Amudarya” (basic tasks, as a whole: submission

of established water limits to each state in Amudarya river basin, operation of
hydraulic engineering structures of interstate importance, which are on its balance),
- BWO “Syrdarya” (basic tasks, as a whole: submission of established water limits to
each state in Syrdarya river basin, operation of hydraulic engineering structures of
interstate importance, which are on its balance),
- Secretariat (basic tasks, as a whole: maintenance of the ICWC decisions, financial
control, international communications),
- Scientific-Information Centre (scientific-information maintenance of ICWC),
- Control-Metrological Centre (metrological devices and equipment).
ICWC executive bodies have status of the international organizations [1].
ICWC has wide rights and acts as institute of maintenance of regional water security in
Central Asia. ICWC activity has allowed to save status-quo in TWRM and to avoid the
water conflicts in Central Asia predicted by western analysts.
ICWC should act as the main political institute of maintenance of regional water
security. As well as the national security, water security includes many aspects, in
particular - political, legal, economic, social, educational, technological, personnel etc.
In this context the following existing problems require serious attention:
- Development of the regional Agreements’ drafts on water resources. The legal base
stipulated ASBP-2 should be developed and this process should be sped up;
- Absence of monitoring of the signed Agreements’ performance. Last years a line of
rules of the working Agreements (is especial - Agreement 1998) are not observed;
- Strengthening of potential and powers of the ICWC executive bodies. So, now both
BWO do not supervise many water structure of interstate importance;
- Interchange of information on water resources. Now it is on unsatisfactory level,
there is no close coordination with national hydro-meteorological bodies;
- Water quality management. While the ICWC activity is limited to management of
trans-boundary water quantity;
- Absence of economic mechanisms of damage’s compensation caused other Party.
Now they are not developed;
- Absence of public participation at preparation of the regional Agreements’ drafts
and at acceptance of the ICWC decisions on water-ecological problems; etc.
CONCLUSION
Sustainable development of the CA States is impossible without solving the problems of
regional TWRM, which boil down, if expressed in one phrase, to “mismatch of interests
between upper and lower reaches of the trans-boundary rivers”, and the TWRM
principles, reflected in agreements of the CA States’ Heads, may be formulated as
“long-term mutually beneficial strategy of equitable and reasonable use of TWR”. For
realization of political will and decisions of the CA States’ Heads in this sphere of the
interstate relations, first of all, legal bases of TWRM of region should be necessarily
developed. In regional scale IWRM introduction is possible at desire of the Parties to
use voluntary mechanisms of the resolution of conflict interests, not resorting to legal
tools. At the same time, the legal bases of conflicts resolution will allow carry out
national actions within legal field’s limits. Strong international-legal base of TWRM of
region is also factor of restraint of emotions and excludes pointlessness of disputes.
As is known, acceptance of the responsible political decisions requires clearness and
definiteness. There is a good expression: “to act professionally competently is, first of
all, to remember constantly about political criteria”. So the ICWC founders acted, so the
ICWC members should act for maintenance of regional water security in Central Asia.
And in this matter it is not necessary to follow always western samples.
REFERENCES
1. Agreement between Governments of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan “About the status of the International Fund for
Saving the Aral Sea and its organizations”, Tashkent, 1997.
2. Aleksandrov I. XXI century: hydro-resources and armed conflicts. // “Foreign
Military Review”, 1998, # 9 – pp. 2-5.
3. Concept of the CA States on problems of the Aral Sea Basin, Tashkent, 1993.
4. Decision of the CA States’ Heads and Russia Government on the “Program of
concrete actions on improvement of ecological conditions in Aral Sea Basin on
nearest 3-5 years in view of socio-economic development of region" (ASBP-1),
Nukus, 1994.
5. Interstate Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan "About cooperation in sphere of a joint management of use and
protection of water resources of interstate sources", Alma-Ata, 1992.
6. Interstate Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan “About joint actions on decision of the Aral Sea’s problems…",
Kyzyl-Orda, 1993.
7. Interstate Agreement between Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan “About
Syrdarya river basins’ water-power resources use”, Bishkek, 1998. Tajikistan has
joined to the Agreement in 1999.
8. Interstate Agreement between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan “About cooperation on
water-economy questions”, Chardzhou, 1996.
9. Kotov L. Negotiation with Bangladesh about Ganges’ water distribution. //ITAR-
TASS, series “ȺɆ”, 25.07.1995 – pp. 9-11.
10. Kuram D.Kh. Vision 2050. //Water security in the world and region. – Tashkent:
Information collection of SIC ICWC, # 1 (14), April 2001 - with 5-9 (with 7).
11. Palaria A. Restless waters of Euphrates. // “Compass”, 1996, # 26 – pp. 31-34.
12. Peters P. Future conflicts’ culture. // "Parameters", Winter 1995/96, 11 p.
13. Priscoli J.D. International conflicts connected concerning trans-boundary water

resources. // Legal collection # 2 (9) – Tashkent: SIC ICWC, 2001 – pp. 157-180.
14. “Program of concrete actions on improvement of ecological and socio-economic
conditions in the Aral Sea Basin for the period 2003-2010” (ASBP-2). – Dushanbe,
IFAS, 2003 – 110 p.
15. Putilov S. The planet is threatened “with grain wars”. //“Novosti razvedki i
contrrazvedki”, 1996, # 24 – p.14.
16. Rules about “Interstate Commission for Water Coordination in Central Asia”,
Tashkent, 1992.
17. Statement of Chiefs of Water authorities of republics of Central Asia and
Kazakhstan, Tashkent, 1991.
STRUCTURAL BARRIERS FOR FARMERS' PARTICIPATION

IN DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Ali Ghasemi1
ABSTRACT
Scaling up sustainable welfare of human is, no doubt, possible in development process

and through mainstreaming of socio-ecological issues and alleviation of poverty within
the “global context”.
The development process tends to changing and reforming the structures, and focuses
on differential change in the fields of economy, culture and nature, however, leading to
the creation of many tensions which should be recognized and controlled. Many socio-
ecological uncertainties and deficiencies have posed impacts on different development
strategies adopted during the past years.
Authorities believe that empowering the target beneficiaries and creating active NGOs,
followed by gradual transfer of related commitments to competent people-oriented are
accounted for the initial steps in structure reforming and managing improvement
processes.
Investigation on participatory and farmers-based irrigation management has revealed
noticeable lack of a native pattern, for which, evaluation on the reasons of success in the
successful pilot as Qazvin towards removing cultural and legal obstacles and the
process of extending the development program of people's participations stand and lead
to "solidarity" in methodology of irrigation management transfer.
This essay highlights the following cases:
x Factors and elements of weaknesses in administration and managing structure
x Management rules and regulations involved in the area of agricultural water
Then a new scope will be presented on separation of water resources management and
their utilization towards formulation of the Integrated Water Law and structural
reforming of water management. It presents many applicable suggestions on method of
organization, irrigation management transfer process, and promotion of productivity. At
last, a new operating pattern for water supply (basin) and consumption (network) in
1- M.Sc. in Irrigation Structures, and Managing Director of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM), &
Initiator and Executive of Qazvin Participatory Irrigation Management Project. Address: Shahid Bahonar
Bulvd., Qazvin, Iran. Tel: +98281-2233-187, Email: ghasemi_ali2@yahoo.com
hydraulic establishments is proposed under the title of Integrated Water management

System «Inversed» tree-shape.
Key words: Water management, Water uses management, Inversed tree-shape model,
Empowerment, People's participation
1. INTRUDUCTION
Huge investments are annually spent over supply and consumption of water at global
scale. Such endeavors have crucial aspects in arid and semi-arid areas (as Iran) and it
seems that In future, water issues remark for fundamental constraints in human society
and possibly causes unwanted tensions or conflictions.
Many developing countries, have so far adopted unilateral governance in studies and
implication of water and agricultural development schemes. They, usually, ignore socio-
economic settings of rural communities during developmental planning. Such
managerial system would eventually result in regeneration and survival of the former
lord-peasant system leading to wider "nation-state" context, which nullifies people's
impact on decision-making process. The consequences of this status lowers the
productivity indices and generates critical challenges as: poor efficiency in modern
networks' operation; pre-matured depreciation of hydraulic structures; lack of continued
plan for maintenance; poor adoption of wise planting and irrigation policies; and lower
farming yield per hectare under irrigation- drainage condition.
Upon the managerial view as "Re-engineering" expressed by Michel Hummer (1990), it
is inevitable to emphasize on basic change and new attitudes and eradicate traditional
methodologies. Under re-engineering scope, science, arts, theory and practice are
interlinked to encourage beneficiaries' participation and to meet their basic
requirements.
Obstacles and restrictions hampering farmers' participation can be identified through
"Group Communication" and are gradually eliminated by launching integrated
participation system and transferring managerial commitments. Enacting progressive
codes and conducts, and merging parallel organizations would shed light on inter-
relations and pave the way for multi-dimensional participation of farmers in running
and maintaining hydraulic establishments.
2. METHODOLOGIES
The ongoing administrative culture and institutional set-up in water management and
utilization are assumed as key variables to affect on decision-making and farmers
communications. Various surveys demonstrate a strictly manager-oriented nature in
governmental organizations, while in certain cases, the more "participation" intervenes,
the more positive impacts are observed. Followings are success stories at global scales
with impressive impacts and change in the process of service delivery and optimum
running of hydraulic systems:
- Participatory Approach Program (PAP) in Philippine’s National Irrigation

Administration model (NIA)
- Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) in Turkey
- Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in Qazvin Irrigation Management Co.
(QIM) in Iran
Often, attracting consumers' attention to follow development program, is accompanied

by financial mechanism and encouragement.
Emphasis on this aspect and derivation of new approaches for saving beneficiaries' cost
and time in line with development of human communications and observation of
cultural remarks, can greatly enhance participatory management and its objectives.
Locally-adopted and genuine approaches act as practical principles in participation
development schemes. Incorporation of local clients in re-engineering of water
management and the nature and quality of services rendered by the private institutions,
shall effectively mobilize development process and scaling up productivity in
agriculture sector.
In order to analyze public system and the sub-cultural impacts on prevailing relations
between government and people, and to collect information on institutional set-up and
their terms of reference, certain field surveys and direct studies were conducted on legal
instruments and existing data in water sector.
Moreover, proposing key insights and evaluating impacts and performance of policy-
making and implementing centers were taken into account via unstructured observation
(UO) without attention to structure of existing administrational system.
3. DEVELOPMENT AND BARRIERS PARTICIPATION

Experts recognize that in a large system for supplying, conveying, distributing and
utilization of water, climatic, environmental, economic and social perspectives are
greatly inter-linked. Hence it calls for scientific investigation and management of such
system as a holistic entity with following two operational areas:
a. Upstream geographical area including water basis, hydraulic structures, electrical
and mechanical sectors of reservoir dams which are widely managed by absolute
public management system.
b. Downstream geographical area including water conveying tunnel regulating and
deviation dams, irrigation-drainage networks and farm inlets which are either
operated under public, participatory or private management systems.
It seems that inception of IMT process under such complex status is only practical
through boosting participatory management of the extremely end of the networks i.e.
distributor channels. Provision of socio-technical requirement will provide reliable bed
for expansion of people's participation in hydraulic segments and upon willing and
request of the target clients. "Management Commitment" remarks for real success of the
change–oriented plans and for development of participatory interventions. This
principle is considered as an impetus and effective factor in every reforming and
changing initiative. Financial planning and regulation is also recognized as another

critical stage for expedition of an overall participation process. Improvement and
empowerment of managerial structure of target farmers may also be realized via
involvement of the work forces (IWF). This process becomes operational through
creation and enhancement of NGOs followed by gradual IMT fulfillment. At present,
people's participation in water utilization management and IMT process does not
comply with scientific and practical criteria, leading to lack of organized short and long-
term development schemes in participatory management. Moreover, ongoing measures
are either hort-run and fragmented in nature, and are mainly operated for coping
transient problems and possible enjoyment of credits from national or international
resources. Consequently, such attempts, together with other tasks towards privatization
including various examinations, studies researches and guidelines, could never pave the
way for development of participatory management. Perhaps, the reasons behind failure
of farmers' involvement in irrigation commitment lie within the legal gaps, parallel
institutions, and lack of decisive will for strengthening creativities. Aside from legal and
structural inconsistencies, there exist certain key socio-cultural challenges in the way of
IMT planning and new communications development.
3.1. LAW IN GOVERNMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF WATER AND INCONSISTENCIES

In 1943, a legal status for determination of governmental rights in water sector was
developed by establishment of the autonomous National Irrigation Institute (approved in
1943) as the first step for organized studying and implementing of water-soil projects.
Water law and its nationalization process were also realized in line with facilitation and
expedition of projects execution in hydraulic systems and free occupation of related
lands under networks construction, followed by legal stabilization of governmental
water. Foregoing legislation and other regulations could never create a viable bed for
meeting social perspectives in national water management system. Later, removal of
this inconsistency failed even upon formulation of the law for equitable distribution of
water (1982) and its executive code (1996). Despite the rank of I.R. Iran among the top
global dam-constructing countries, it seems no outstanding progression in irrigation
management system. In this regard, the law of stabilization of agricultural water change
(1990) and its segments as follows, have to be well-evaluated and interpreted: i)
Traditional networks – equal to 1 % of guaranteed price of agri-crops. ii) Combined
networks - equal to 2% of guaranteed price of agri-crops. iii) Modern networks - equal
to 3% of guaranteed price of agri-crops. Enacting certain parts of water rules and
regulations has also encountered challenges in promotion of capabilities and
exploitation of the resources. The operational inconsistencies in ongoing regulations
have always caused dissatisfaction of the users against executive bodies including
MOE, National Water Resources Management, Regional Water Corporations, and
Provincial Directorates for Water Affairs, and Provincial Irrigation Utilization
Companies. However, under any circumstances where socio-economic status justifies,
legislation should be frequently renewed and updated. For instance, the Law for
equitable distribution of water assumed as a progressive mechanism and could affect on
better interaction between the farmers and public institutions specifically in general
water management, whereas the same Law, and its executive codes, has gradually lost
its applicability. Followings are certain legal parts left idle or faced to limited
performance:
Table1. Act for equitable water distribution ratified by Iranian Islamic

Consultative Parliament in 1982
Article
Description Duration
No.
I Removal of occupations in natural rivers, streams, channels, and ponds Unlimited
IV Prevention and stopping the unauthorized wells "
XII Installation of metering devices on existing wells -
XXI Transfer of agri-water distribution and fee-charging to local users -
IXXX Controlling and monitoring on water consumption rate Unlimited
Shifting the responsibilities for creation and utilization of tertiary and

IXXX -
quarternary channels
IXXXV Prohibiting any change in water intake or creating new water conduits Unlimited
Table2. Operational regulation for optimum consumption of agri-water

approved by the ministerial cabinet in 1996
Article
Description Enforceable in
No.
Formation of appropriate utilization systems and
V 2 years
empowering the local leadership on water issues
Issuance of due certificates for optimum agri-water
VII -
consumption
Installation of water meter for volumetric discharge of
XVI 2 years
wells
Table3. The 3rd National Development Plan ratified by the Parliament in 2000
Article
Description Enforceable in
No.
106 Creation of Water Users Associations (WUAs) 5 years
107 Creation of water and soil utilization organizations 5 years
107 Issuance of Agri-water Document Unlimited
3.2. NON-GOVERNMENT DEVELOPMENT, REGULATIONS AND CHALLENGES
Government focuses on Article 44 of National Constitution to plan for entrusting certain

affairs to the people. This Article recognizes the national economy under 3 different
sectors i.e., governmental, cooperative and private, with wider commitments and
involvement for non-governmental sectors.
Initial legal mechanisms for organization and registration of NGOs can be assumed in
the Law of Trade (1932) as the underlying structure for promotion of commercial and
production affairs in ongoing private and non-governmental sectors. Along this path,
certain other regulations were also devoted to development of non-governmental
management and economy, in particular, strengthening agri-based corporation. with the
following frameworks:
Law of Agrarian Reforms (1961),
i Law of Production,
i Cooperatives and Land Consolidation (1970),
i Rural Cooperation Authority (1971),
i Law of Agricultural Corporation (1973),
i Law of Labor and Business Association (1990) , and
i Law for Development of Cooperation Sector (1971).
The primary measure for improvement of existing water networks utilization, accounts
for creation of irrigation-drainage utilization companies. The trilateral agreement (1990)
between the Ministries of Energy, Agriculture and Head of MPO, led to establishment
of 17 companies at provincial level (1991) which recognized allocation of 49% water
shares for the two foregoing Ministries and 51% for local users and beneficiaries (that
never realized). Presently, Water Resources Management Co. deserves 51% water
shares whereas, the rest lies within affiliated firms linked to Ministry of Energy.
Though, power of decision-making in management systems is always affected by 3
general elements i.e., "Institutional status", "Management aspects and merits" and
"Economic capabilities". However, lack of well-organized and direct relation between
the NGOs' management domains underlies their poor productivity. This barrier is
assumed effective enough and grows as legal gap in developing countries. Consequent
of this interaction is materialized in the fundamental equation as one member=one vote,
whereby for many NGOs’ managers, power originates from ownership scale i.e. wealth
(economic power=one vote).
However, private firms and NGOs were, more or less, established but disappeared at
certain places and periods. Today, their share in GDP is negligible with inefficient role
in formation of farmers-government interactions. Followings are key reasons underlying
such ineffectiveness:
Table4. Different organizations and their specifications
No. Type of Organization Capabilities Risks and Deficits

+ Free competition -Preference of leadership profits
1 Special corporation
+ capital impacts -Tremendous fixed and circulating capitals
+ Free competition -Preference of leadership profits
2 Limited liability
+ capital impacts -Tremendous Fixed and circulating capitals
- Inappropriate background before the
+ Specialties farmers
3 Agri-based corporation
+ Govt. support - Demolition of registered agri-based
corporations
- Lack of ownership influence into
+National participation
4 Rural Cooperatives management
+ Govt. support
- Poor technical and executive experiences

+National participation management
5 Production cooperative
+ Govt. support - At least 1000 ha. Land possession
compulsory
Water Users' +Members’ common benefits
6 management
Association + Govt. support
- Only one union in every province
+ Soft regulation - New and unknown operation
7 Corporate association
+Many members' interests - Unclear legal position
In the proposed model, "Federation" accounts for the governing body over the corporate
Associations at provincial level which, in turn, undergoes National Federation domain
as the highest apex supervised by ILO. It is anticipated that ILO shall extend needed
support and mobilization to the national federation.
3.3. DEFICITS OF THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE
Connoisseurs believe that the heavy government would obstacle the sustainable
development. This is a key instruction for analysis of the related organizations and their
performance in the areas of water, agriculture and environment.
During the past years, various models were experienced on the utilization of hydraulic
structures e.g. reservoir or deviation dams, tunnels, conveying canals and other
irrigation systems. Generating water management systems based on water catchment
basin, geographical and political divisions, or entrusting the responsibility to regional or
provincial water organizations, are the main public management models in water sector.
These models are characterized by development of water resources while demonstrating
different definitions and operations in management and consumption patterns. Regional
water organizations and/ or provincial authorities have the key commitments in
government-based water management system. This arrangement in combination with

national hierarchical divisions, including provinces, districts, countries and villages, and
with serious impacts on social, political and economic sectors, has created a traditional
and non-organized management system in water sector.
Blurred and poor structure of water and agriculture management is the central factor
that hinders operation and performance of the public sectors in mobilizing beneficiaries'
participation. Unfortunately, there are inter-mingled borders between management and
operation of water and agriculture. On the other hand, it doesn’t seem sharp distinction
between water resources and their consumption, nor clear obligation yet identified for
water providers and users plus lack of proportional balance realized in the areas of
decision-building and decision-making.
3.4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHALLENGES
Complexities and differential interactions in socio-economic and techno-engineering

fields of water and agricultural management represent multi-lateral relations with
positive or negative impacts. Farmers' inter-relation as well as communication of rural
elites and groups with executive institutions could either promote or weaken this
system. Various constraints so far detected in the process of people's participation in
public and community sectors, have also been identified as other challenges. Moreover,
there exist other socio-cultural bottlenecks in the various processes of NGOs
development, either for local users, farming units, farming groups, farming blocks,
water users' unions and/or for their apex federation.
Making proper ground for promotion of participation, inherited from conventional sub-
cultures as election of local water-distributors and formulation of multi-century
petitions on permanent or seasonal rivers, have all shared in consolidation of Water
Users' Associations followed by Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to the local
beneficiaries.
3.5. MISCELLANEOUS BARRIERS
Other barriers might also be considered in the development process of non-government

sector including lack of transparency and synergy in public institutions, poor executive
mechanism in operation, inadequate plan for reforming the system, deficit support to
farmer's empowerment schemes, imbalance of funds and costs, limitation of entrusted
responsibilities, and lack of needed incentives for holding new commitments.
Despite the numerous researches and studies made in the areas of utilization system and
people's participation of irrigation-drainage systems, examinations are designed as
centralized trend with no local and operational perspectives. Hence, unilateral resolution
of governmental obstacles in decision-making processes and implementing of non-
process-oriented programs were taken into account with no focus on people's
participation. This means that beneficiaries are not briefed on the requirements and
impacts of IMT process in future.
Negligence of training programs for empowering the associations towards

programming, organizing and solution of technical and legal problems geared in water
management system, and the way for interaction and perception of how to distribute
responsibilities between associations and government, are assumed as other
inconsistencies.
There are other uncertainties as; lack of regulatory codes for outlining needed guidelines
in government sector and for its better interaction with local users; poor policy-making
and transparent action-plan in formulating appropriate agreements; and inadequate
coordination in development of self-running ground, would hinder the real motivations
for shaping participatory management and people's mobilization towards holding new
commitments. Moreover, owing to poor development of IMT initiative, changing the
national or local managers and authorities has sometimes changed the scenario, or in
cases, led to abruption of transfer process, too.
4. CONCLUTION
Productivity is know as a knowledge for sound exploitation of resources, human forces,
skills, technology and information, and for gaining the best outputs and "Integarated
management in consumption". Good productivity and provision of prompt means for
NGOs management, particularly in water distribution and for beneficiaries' affairs,
would realize their satisfaction. It seems, upon proper designation and operation of an
integrated management system comprising of two components i.e. network utilization
management (Water Supply in the Catchment basin), and observation of water
consumers' priorities, many challenges can be eradicated with remarkable leaps towards
higher productivity. However, integrated management system basically regards other
perspectives and features in "socio-technical management of surface and sub-surface
water" which resembles a tree-like model and concentrates on water as the critical
element of productivity in agriculture for maximum reduction of users' costs and times.
The IMT initiative has started with setting and development of water user's
organizations followed by training qualified managers and renovation of managerial
structures in basic establishments. Legislation of government and NGOs’ codes and
conducts, as well as gradual transfer of networks management entail due change and
reform of regulations in monitoring and in executive bodies at local and national scales.
certain recommendations for more clarification are as the following:
4.1. FORMULATION OF "INTEGRATED WATER LAW"
For the sake of sustainability and transparency, the task calls for adoption of
comprehensive laws and regulation to form related organizations and transfer of
irrigation management (IMT) in favor of the local clients. This holistic law would
outline all stakeholders and their commitments towards improved proceeding of the
initiative through extension of participation-focused culture and empowerment of the
target beneficiaries. The law would clarify terms of reference, for the executive water
authorities issues:
Table5. Topics and contents of the proposed "Integrated Water Law

Chapter I: Generals
Section Description Remarks
1 Introduction Background and justifications
2 Terminologies Looking up the national and historical encyclopedia
Chapter II: General Regulations
1 Studies on water resources Details and aspects
2 Water basins General divisions and specifications
3 Artificial infiltration & recharge Water catchment’s conservation
4 Flood plains and traditional streams Coordination with related institutions
5 Water resources conservation Surface and sub-surface water
6 Quarries Ways of aggregate utilization
7 River bed and banks Description of scientific methods for location of beds
and banks
8 Violation and offences In coordination with Judicial power
9 Beneficiaries affairs TOR and operational guidelines
10 Investment Local and external investment
11 Codes and conducts Live institutions, executive codes and conducts
12 Water allocation Micro and Macro Allocations
13 Water rate Details on total cost
Chapter III: Headquarters
Section Sectors Remarks
1 Ministry of Energy Office of the Minister
2 Dept. of Water Resources Mission and Vision
3 Dept. of Water Use Mission and Vision
4 Company of Water Resources Management "
5 National Water and Sewage Company "
6 National Irrigation-Drainage Company "
Chapter IV: Provincial Executive Bodies
1 Provincial water management authority Vision and Mission
2 Provincial water and Sewage Authority Vision and Mission
3 Provincial irrigation and drainage company Vision and Mission
Chapter V: Development of People's Participation
1 General aspects and definitions History, operational trend
2 WUAs mission Bylaws, ToR
3 Central federation at provincial level "
4 National Union of WUAs "
4.2. REFORMATION OF WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Ratification of the "IWL", hopefully leads to duty distinction of water supply and
demand divisions, which in turn, paves the way for enhanced water management
system. To this end, following structure is proposed for the system concerned:
Diagram1. Proposed Water Management System

4.3. WATER RATE

At present, water rate is calculated upon percentage of agri-crops price, however, it does
not match general costs for supply and distribution of agricultural water. Based on
investigations, this unconformity has significantly affected the irrigation performance,
which means the real and natural value of water deserves negligible impact on
productivity. Hence, it is suggested to calculate the water rate on the basis of projects'
operation total costs and their hydraulic structure.
4.4. INTEGRATED WATER MANAGEMENT (IWM)

Integrated Water Management is closely involved in water supply under natural
conditions, and in its distribution through technical codes and socio-cultural structures.
Obviously, under such status, manifold utilization system and its negative impacts, tend
to suppress any improvement management and creativity. Therefore, it is rational to
appeal for replacement of the manifold and dispersive management by an integrated
management system on all water establishments. To this end, the following inversed
tree-shaped model is proposed to run for a 2-year trial in pilot regions:
Water basin
Management of water reserves (Tree's root)
Management of deviation and Water conveying

conveyance Canal
Water Distribution Canals

Water Utilization management (Tree’s Branch)
Diagram2. Integrated Water Management Inversed tree-shaped model (I)
To make this model operational, we can mobilize the existing irrigation-drainage

companies or create companies for water establishments operation. This model
comprises of management for utilization, supervision of all segments (basin and
network) under integrated manner.
These companies would bear vision and mission in water supply (basin) as the model
roots, and in utilization sector (network) as the branches of the inversed tree-shaped
model. As far as institutional chart is concerned, utilization management will enjoy
autonomous operation and recognition by other managerial structures as regional or

provincial organizations for water resources management with no direct intervention in
it. Consequently, the foregoing model, if becomes operational, shall lead to the
following achievements:
x Policy-making and macro-allocation of basin's water: (absolutely) by government;
x Integrated planning and management on the system: (just) by utilizing companies;
x Launching utilization management and improvement of water management:
(only) by Water Users' Associations.
5. REFRENCES
1. Archives of the Irrigation-Drainage management Co. Qazvin province.
2. Bayani P , ofrecio , Participatory Development and Management : A Cornerstone
of Philippine Irrigation Program , Tsukuba Asian Seminar , Japan , NOV 80014
(2005)
3. Dennis kinlaw, 1995, the practice of empowerment; Marking the Most of human
competence, England.
4. Ghasemi, Ali. (2005). Participative Management in Qazvin plain , icid , china
5. Green, B, and Barry, j, "the participation Solution, Management Review.
November 36-39 " 1985
6. Hatami, Abbas (2002), Change-oriented Organizations and Development-focused
companies, Hamed publication, Zanjan, I.R. Iran
7. Heydarian, Ahmad (2004), "An analysis on domestic experience in IMT",
Goharane-Kavir, Irrigation-Drainage Co. of Tehran, I.R. Ira.
8. Kinla, Denis, "Human Resource Development", translated by Dr. Nejad Parizi
(2004), Modiran publication.
9. Lectures and essays of conference« Participation System » , (2000) Ministry of
Oil Publication , Iran
10. Maxvel Maltz (1985), "Psychology of Subjective Picture", translated by Mehdi
Qarachedaghi, Nobahar publication, Tehran, I.R. Iran.
11. Mohsenian, mahdi, Proceedings on Participation Approach (2001), Human
Communication, Soroush publication, Tehran, I.R. Iran.
12. Rabbani, Masoud-Rezaie, Kamran-Maanavizadeh, Neda and Ebadian, Mahmoud
(2006), "Pure production", RWTUV Co. Iran, Atena publication.
13. Shafiabadi, Abdollah (1987), "Techniques and Approaches in Consultancy" Rose
publication, Tehran.
FARMERS' TENDENCIES TOWARD PARTICIPATORY

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
Nasren Afshar1, Kiumars Zarafshani 2
ABSTRACT
In most developing countries, irrigation management is heavily dominated by the public

sector. However, government operated irrigation schemes are poorly maintained with
steadily deteriorating infrastructure. A current solution to this dilemma is participatory
irrigation management (PIM). This participatory approach seeks to share the burden of
irrigation operation and maintenance cost with the beneficiaries. For any participatory
approach to be effective, qualitative studies are needed to assess how beneficiaries think
about the outcome of such projects. Therefore, the purpose of this qualitative study was
to assess farmers' tendencies towards participatory irrigation management among
members of Sarabbas and Sefidbarg Water Users Association (WUA in Kermanshah
province. Using focus group techniques among 103 members, results indicated that
farmers have somewhat weak tendencies toward PIM. They felt that farmers can not
share the cost of irrigation facilities and the current facilities are out-of-date. Further,
they were not interested to install water meters and applying for loan was against their
religious beliefs. Although farmers were willing to solve water problems among
themselves, but they believed irrigation operation and maintenance should be the
responsibility of government agencies.
INTRODUCTION
Almost 40% of the world's food crops are produced by irrigated agriculture. Thus, the
performance of irrigated and drainage is critical to the food supply and to farmers'
income, as well as to the environment. The ultimate goals in managing irrigation water
are efficiency, equity and sustainability (Sun, 2000). Efficiency has been achieved if
every drop of water has been properly allocated and used without any waste. The goal
of equity means that water is fairly distributed among users. Some farmers may have an
advantage over others. Those at the head of a canal have an advantage over those living
downstream, as they have first access to water. Influential farmers may have better
1- Graduate Student, Department of Agricultural Extention and Education, College of Agriculture

Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran, TEL: (0831) 8323732
2- Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extention and Education,College of Agriculture, Razi
University, Kermanshah, Iran ,TEL: (0831) 8323732
access to water than poor farmers. In some cases, ideals of efficiency and equity may be
in conflict. The goal of sustainability, therefore means that the users of today should
maintain the quality and quantity of water resources for the use of future generations
(Sun, 2000).
Managing irrigation so as to achieve efficiency, equity and sustainability is very
difficult. Market mechanisms are not enough and high prices for water when it is
scarcest mean that low-income users may lose their access to water. Unrestricted use if
prices are low may lead to pollution, water-logging and over-use of groundwater. Given
the special characteristics of irrigation water, there is a good reason for government to
intervene, and even directly manage irrigation systems. However, when a centralized
agency is in charge of planning and operating an irrigation system, the result is often too
much bureaucracy. Moreover, too much money is spent on staff salaries and as a result,
the cost of water is high with poor irrigation service, and yet the users are unwilling to
pay their irrigation fees. The result is a vicious circle of high costs, poor services and
low payment of fees, leading to inadequate funding and further deterioration of services.
One way out of this difficult situation is the participatory approach to irrigation
management. Increased farmer participation in irrigation is part of a world-wide trend of
devolution in natural resource management. Experience shows that farmers all over the
world are potential managers who, when properly organized, are able to manage their
own affairs. Participatory irrigation management (PIM) is increasingly viewed as a
means to improve the performance of irrigation investments. Beginning in the 1980s,
there have been large-scale programs to turn over irrigation management from
government agencies to organized water user groups in a number of countries, such as
the Philippines, Indonesia, Senegal, Madagascar, Colombia, and Mexico.
The idea that farmers should participate in irrigation management has grown in Iran
since the mid-1980s. The premise is that when farmers are clearly the owners of the
physical system, so that the maintenance costs are their own responsibility, they will
have a strong incentive to protect the physical integrity of the system to reduce their
overall costs. Moreover, PIM has been driven by the need for a higher return from the
massive funds invested in irrigation, which plays a major role in increasing agricultural
production. However, in western part of Iran, these irrigation systems exist in isolation
with limited participation of farmers. The purpose of this qualitative study was to shed
light on farmers' perception towards participatory irrigation management in
Kermanshah province.
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES:

The purpose of this study was to assess farmers' perceptions toward participatory
irrigation management. Specifically, the study sought to identify PIM issues fram
farmers using nominal group technique.
METHODS AND PROCEDURES:

This qualitative effort used a focus group approach to meet the objectives of the study.
Interview questions for focus group leaders were designed to gain an understanding of
the issues facing farmers, as experienced by each of the respective groups of individuals
composing the focus group. Farmers were asked to respond to four open-ended
questions regarding their perceptions toward participatory irrigation management. The
questions were: 1) what do you think about participatory irrigation management? 2)
what do you think the major obstacles are in operating and maintaining irrigation
systems? 3) What are the problems with installing measuring devices? 4) Would you
apply for a loan in order to develop irrigation systems?
Focus group were composed of farmer (n = 103). The nominal group technique
(Delbecq, Van de Van & Gustafson,1975) was used to facilitate the identification of
problems facing participatory irrigation management among farmers, followed by
discussion sessions. The nominal group technique is done only when group consensus
regarding the prioritization of issues is important to the overall research or planning
project. The nominal group technique can be used as an alternative to both the focus
group and Delphi techniques. It presents more structure than the focus group, but still
takes advantage of the synergy created b group participants. As its name suggests, the
nominal group technique is only "nominally" a group, since the ranking are provided on
an individual basis. Focused group sessions ranged from 3-5 hours in length and were
facilitated by researchers. At the conclusion of each session, notes were transcribed and
summarized into tables with frequencies and percentages.
RESULTS:
The first research question assessed farmers' perceptions toward participatory irrigation
management. As shown in table1, the majority of farmers (43.7%) perceived PIM as
creating extra burden or obligation on farmers. However, 21.3% of participants
perceived PIM as autonomy among users. Moreover, 25.2% of farmers believed PIM is
not possible since water users don't get along well with each other and it would create
communication problems among farmers.
Table 1. What do you think about PIM?
Answer Frequency Percentage

Develops financial obligation for farmers 45 43.7
Not possible considering current communication problems

26 25.2
among users
Provides autonomy among users 22 21.3
Develops sense of responsibility 6 5.8
Government agencies are unable to manage irrigation systems. 4 3.9
The second research question assessed major obstacles in operating and maintaining
irrigation systems as perceived by farmers. Results indicated (table 2), the majority of
farmers believed the irrigation facilities are out of date and a frequent electricity
shortage creates more problems for farmers.
Table 2. what do you think the major obstacles are in operating

and maintaining irrigation systems?
Irrigation facilities are out -of- date 54 52
Frequent electricity shortage 25 24

Irrigation facilities have no problems 18 17
I have no knowledge of facilities maintenance 6 5.8
The third research question asked farmers to what extend installing measuring devices
cause problems. As shown in Table 3 the majority of users were against such
installation due to high cost and complicated maintenance problems.
Table 3. what are the problems with installing measuring devices?

The majority of users are not willing to install measuring
44 42.7
devices
Too expensive 26 25.2
Complicated maintenance problems 11 10.6
It should became mandatory 6 5.8
Unreliable water resources 2 1.9
I have no knowledge of install measuring devices 5 4.8
It doesn't help much 3 2.9
Having to pay water fee limits installing measuring devices 3 2.9
There is no problem installing measuring devices 3 2.9
Finally, the fourth research question assessed farmers' willingness to apply for loans in
order to develop irrigation systems. Results revealed that the majority of farmers are
against loans due to religious beliefs. However 40.7% of farmers were interested to
apply for a loan (table 4).
Table 4. Would you apply for a loan in order to develop irrigation systems?

Receiving loans is against religious belief 50 48.5
I would use loans to expand irrigation systems 42 40.7

I can not pay back the loan 9 8.7
Don't need a loan, I have sufficient financial resources 2 1.9
Data was further content analyzed to evaluate farmers overall perception towards
participatory irrigation management. Using 3-point Likert Scale, farmers were asked to
respond to 12 statement concerning their level of agreement toward participatory
irrigation management practices, As shown in Table 5, farmers were less inclined
to participate in irrigation management schemes launched by government officials.
Almost all farmers (99%) believed irrigation system management is the responsibility of
government agencies.
Table 5. Farmers’ perception toward participatory irrigation management.

Answer agree somewhat agree disagree
Management of irrigation systems is
governments' responsibility Frequency 102 1 0
Percent 99 1 0
Irrigation facilities belong to the government Frequency 100 1 2
agency Percent 97 1 2
User are able to manage irrigation systems
Frequency 5 13 85
Percent 4.8 12.6 82.5
Efficiency of irrigation systems will increase if Frequency 6 8 89
users take the responsibility Percent 5.8 7.7 86.4
Government is doing a good job in managing
irrigation facilities Frequency 26 2 75
Percent 25.2 2 72.8
There is problem with water distribution Frequency 95 2 6
among users Percent 92.2 2 5.8
Users should pay water fee Frequency 39 15 49
Percent 37.8 14.5 47.5
Users should maintain and operate irrigation
systems Frequency 21 15 67
Percent 20.3 14.6 65
Users should repair irrigation systems Frequency 4 5 94
Percent 4 4.8 91.2
Users should take charge of water distribution
Frequency 21 31 51
Percent 20.3 30 49.5
Users should take the responsibility of solving Frequency 56 22 25
water problem themselves Percent 54.4 21.3 24.3
Users should pay for the cost of irrigation
water Frequency 3 3 97
Percent 3 3 94
CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

Members of Sarabbas and Sefidbarg Water User Associations were not enthusiastic
about participatory in irrigation system management promoted by government.
They believed these facilities belong to the government and they should take a passive
role in managing such facilities.
One reason for current perception is that government have not yet provided an up- to-
date infrastructure thus farmers feel threatened by worn out irrigation facilities. They
feel these facilities would be expensive to maintain and that their resources are not
sufficient to meet the cost of operating and maintaining these facilities. Furthermore,
farmers were less interested
to work in groups. Based on the results of this qualitative study, it is recommended that
government agency take a first step in turning over irrigation facilities that are sound
and without any mis-function. It is further recommended that government officials
select those
places with highly motivated farmers to participate in their irrigation schemes. More
resourceful farmers are more inclined to participate in irrigation management.
Therefore, government agencies should target more resourceful farmers if they are to
enhance participatory irrigation management projects.
REFERENCES:
1. Delbecq, A., Van de Ven, A. H., and Gustafson, D.H. Group Techniques for
Program Planning. Glenview, IL: The Scott, Foresman and Company, 1975.
2. Sun, P. P. C. (2000). Participatory Irrigation Mangaement (PIM). Retrieved on 12
Dec. 2006: http://www.Agent.org/library/abstract/nc129c.html
SOCIO-CULTURAL INTIMIDATION ON THE EMERGING

IRRIGATION INSTITUTIONS
P. Ignatius Prabhakar1
India is predominantly an agrarian society; access to water for irrigation is an

influencing factor of the status of a landed individual. Technological development
provided opportunity to individual access to ground water through mechanised wells
and hence the once popular tank water irrigation lost its importance in many places and
so the traditional irrigation institutions managing them. The State had full control over
irrigation tanks. The last decades of the 20th century witnessed a pervasive policy
consensus spear headed by World Bank to transfer state management of natural resource
by and large to community of users. Resulting in a blanket approach of Participatory
Irrigation Management (PIM) components in all irrigation-related activities nationwide
(Hooja et al. 2002). Thus through projects and through legislations the States started the
formation of WUA in villages
The fundamental features of an Indian village social structure are the constitution of
various castes in the village (Srinivas 1976; Béteille 1996). The interactions and
relationship of individuals between local institutions of social, religious, economic and
political nature underlies the functioning of village social system. An individual has
different types of roles to play. The inter-relation between individuals belonging to
different institutions is one of the factors that explains their role, relationship of power
and social status. The power in an Indian village is spread wider in different levels of
the social structure resulting in emergence of different types of elites. The elites’
intervening factors play a significant role in all sets of action pattern involving
individuals from different institutions.
The elites of the dominant castes held various positions in the villages’ traditional
institutions like the temple management and maintenance, caste organization, traditional
irrigation institutions. In regard to the traditional irrigation institutions in the state of
Tamil Nadu, a system of management had been in practice for several centuries called
Kudimarath, where the farmers were involved in the maintenance of the tank for
themselves. In most of the cases during the 18th and early 19th centuries due to various
reasons such as local wars, appropriation of tanks by the British government, etc. the
farmers slowly lost their interest in Kudimarath. Nevertheless, in many places farmers
1 - Researcher (Social Anthropology), Social Water Management Program, French Institute of

Pondicherry, Pondicherry, South India.
continue to participate, at least through voluntary labour not under any formal
discipline. (Palanisamy et el, 2003).
The competitiveness between caste groups though prevails, the entities within castes
like the kin groups and lineage patronization is emerging. Another major factor that is
contributing substantially in the present day village affairs is the intrusion of the popular
political parties. This is manifested in various forms, like the disputes and conflicts
between the families, kin groups and lineages is nourished by the rival political parties
taking their either of the sides, resulting in fractious situations. The creation of WUA
and TA is not an exception in the villages that has provided ample space to exercise the
fuel the differences that prevails.
The state has stereotype guidelines for forming these new associations. In many
instances the farmers find it difficult in adapting to the implemented association, as it
does not suit their already existing system thus causing disinterest among the irrigators.
As a result the formed WUAs remain non-functional. This is well explained by
Mollinga (2001) in the case of WUA in Andhra Pradesh (AP), where no further action
has been taken to shape processes within the WUAs apart from the organisation of the
elections, and also he criticises how these newly formed associations are captured by the
local elites. This viewpoint is also shared by Reddy (2005) who recently had undertaken
an extensive study in AP and argue for a restructuring and reforming of the State
irrigation department and the bureaucracy that is critical for effective and sustainable
irrigation institutions. And Mosse (1999) in mentioning about the Tamil society he says
“social dominance does not remain unchallenged by new institutions which also provide
the means to advance externally defined development objectives such as equity
democracy and social justice…. the point is that these social changes intersect with local
caste conflicts or factional affiliation and with strategies to challenge as well as retain
caste power.”
In this paper I present two cases of one each from the states of Pondicherry and Tamil
Nadu. In the first case I will be describing the functioning of the Tank Association of
Vadanur Tank in Pondicherry, where the context is one association, one tank and two
villages. The case in Tamil Nadu is about the Tank water users association of
Thiruvennainallur and Saravanapakkam under the context of one association, two tanks
and two villages. From these two cases an attempt is made to analyse the socio-cultural
factors, such as the existing polity in the caste groups and kin groups that are
intimidating the functioning of the WUA /TA and the role of the state.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY REGIONS
Tamil Nadu with a geographical area of 13 million hectares is ranked eleventh in size
among the Indian States. The net area irrigated rose from 21.11 lakh hectare in 1950's to
27.75 lakh hectare in the 1990s and is reported to have come down to 21.48 lakh hectare
during 2004-05. The State is dependent on the ground water resources for providing
irrigation to additional acreage and to stabilize the existing area under irrigation. The
three main sources of irrigation in the State are rivers, tanks and wells. There are 39,202
tanks, 2,322 irrigation main canals & 18,26,906 irrigation wells in the State. There are
79 reservoirs with a total capacity of about 6895 MCM (243 TMC) (15% of the annual
water potential) (SPC, annual plan, 2005-06). The Public Works Department of Tamil
Nadu have the control over the tanks that has a command area of more than 40 ha that is
8,903 in numbers. There are 20, 413 tanks that have a command area of 40 ha and less
fall under the control of Panchayat Union1. There are 9,886 tanks called the Ex-zamin
tank. Individual local chiefs called Zamindars once controlled these tanks. With period
government orders, the PWD are entrusted to undertake repair works in these tanks.
Pondicherry is a small state with a geographical area of 480 sq kms that has the status of
the Union Territory. Pondicherry has four regions (or districts), Pondicherry, Karaikal,
Mahe and Yanam. Pondicherry and Karaikal are situated within the state of Tamil
Nadu, whereas Mahe and Yanam are situated within the states of KeraIa and Andhra
Pradesh respectively. The net area irrigation in the state of Pondicherry is 16.73
thousand hectare in 2003-04 2. Two rivers that originate in Tamil Nadu – the Gingee
and the Pennaiyar – pass through the region of Pondicherry that flows into the Bay of
Bengal. There are also 84 tanks that have the capacity to store water for irrigation. The
region has substantial quantities of groundwater of fairly good quality. In Pondicherry,
unlike Tamil Nadu, all the tanks – whatever their sizes – are under the control of PWD.
There are 59 system tanks and 25 non system tanks in Pondicherry region that irrigated
a command area of 6592 ha.
The study tanks are situated in Pondicherry and Tamil Nadu. In Pondicherry it is
Vadanur tank and in Tamil Nadu there are two study tanks - Thiruvennainallur tank and
Saravanapakkam tank - situated in the district of Villupuram. All the three study tanks
receive water from the same source of pennaiyar river through two different systems.
this river runs to a length of 432 km, that originates from Karnataka state that is situated
to the north east of Tamil Nadu. The length of 320 km is in Tamil Nadu. The tirukoilur
anaicut is siutuated across river pennaiyar in Villupuram district of Tamil nadu. There
are four canals taking from right bank of the anaicut and one canal from left bank. the
Vadanur tank situated in Pondicherry is the last tank that receives water from the only
canal situated at the left bank of the anaicut called the Pambai canal, whose length is
32.4km and supplies water for 26 tanks. And the tanks of tiruvennainallur and
saravanapakkam recieves from one of the four canals sitiuated at the right bank of the
anaicut called Ragavan canal with a length of 36.4 km. These two tanks are the 16th and
17th tanks of the 46 tanks that receives water from this canal.
The Tamil Nadu farmers’ management of irrigations systems act – 2000 of the Tamil
Nadu Legislative assembly received the assent of the President on the 25th February
2001. The act is to provide for farmers’ participation in the management of irrigations
systems. And since then the government through he PWD is forming WUA in a phased
manner through out the states. Even prior to this intervention from the government
during mid-1990s there were projects of tank development and rehabilitation sponsored
by European Commission, that introduced WUA in selected villages in the state. The
Tank Rehabilitation Project of Pondicherry (TRPP) was launched in August 1999; the
Pondicherry public works department (PWD) implemented this project with the
assistance of the Agriculture Department. The European Commission provided
1- Panchayat Union is an administration division below the district. This panchayat union comprises of
few village panchayat (see foot note no. 2)
2- http://www.pon.nic.in/stategovt/ecostat/ecostat2/ecostat.htm
consultancy to assist the implementation of the project. The monetary support for the
project was 81% from European Commission, 13% from PWD and 6% from the
contributions of the Local community. NGOs were involved to mobilize the community
and form TAs.
CASE I – TANK ASSOCIATION OF VADANUR TANK
The two hamlet villages of Purana Singu Palayam (PSP) and Vadanur (VAD) constitute
the administrative unit of Vadanur village panchayat1. These two villages share one
irrigation tank – Vadanur tank (VAD tank). Farmers from both the villages have their
lands in the command area of the tank. In VAD there is a colony inhabited by the
Parayar who are SC2 community, majority of them are landless agricultural labourers
and only few family own land. Majority of the inhabitants in VAD are from the caste of
Vanniar (initially agricultural labourer and now farmers) who are also called Gounder,
they hold the maximum of the lands. There are Chettiar (merchants by tradition, but
also own lands and practice agriculture) and other castes like Reddiar (agriculturists and
big land owners), Yegali (washer-man), Pillai (accountants) but fewer in numbers and
few Muslim families. PSP also has a SC colony inhabited by Parayar with similar
occupational pattern of that of VAD. There are few families of the dominant caste of
Reddiar, most of them are big land owners in PSP. The majority of the inhabitants of
the village are the Vanniars who own lands. There are other castes, Yegali (washer-
man), Achari (carpenter, black smiths), Yadava (sheep/cattle herders) and only one
Pillai family who were once the only big landlord in PSP.
The tank of VAD is the last tank of a system that receives water from a canal
connecting the Penniyar river through diversion barrage controlled by the PWD of
Tamil Nadu. The command area (ayacut) of the Tank is 165 hectares, until early 1970
the only Pillai family in PSP who owned nearly half of the command area. The tank has
five sluices, of which through four sluices water will be distributed to the lands in PSP
and through one sluice to VAD lands. The major crops that are cultivated in the
command area are paddy and sugarcane. Paddy is cultivated for three bogums (cropping
season), one is a long term crop for 5-6 months and the other two are short term crops of
three months.
In hamlet village of VAD, there are ten village leaders who are called natamai, the
preponderant caste are the Vanniar. The main function of this institution is to organize
village temple festival. In the SC colony there are three natamais. In PSP again the
Vanniar who are the majority is divided into four lineages or kothu. Each kothu has a
leader called kothukarar. The function of this institution is also to organize village
temple festival. Of the four kothu the families belonging to one of the kothu called the
kumalamuttar draw respect from other kothus, as they were traditional leading the other
three kothus, moreover they were one who were holding land in PSP amongst the
Vanniars for many generations though not equal with the big land lords of Reddiar.
1- Village panchayat is the lowest elected governing body, administrative boundaries of a village
panchayat will comprise of one or many hamlet villages or revenue villages.
2- Schedule Caste (SC) is the constitutional category given to dalits who are at the lower level of the
Hindu caste hierarchy, who were also called harijans or untouchables.
In PSP rivalry between two kothus prevails for more than five generation. There is said
to be opposition from sanasimuttar (one of the kothu) against any decisions taken in the
village by leaders of kumalamuttar. This rivalry in many cases has resulted in clashes in
the village. In the present day situation, the village panchayat president, office bearers in
the TA, belong to the kothu of kumalamuttar. The leading persons of kumalamuttar are
also member of the regional political parties and also those leading persons of
sanasimuttar are also active members of the regional parties those opposes the political
parties to which the kumalamuttar are affiliated.
The leading persons of kumalamuttar and Reddiars who are big land lords have good
relationship with each other. Moreover, these families hold most of the land in the
ayacut of the tank than others in PSP. Few of the leading person of kumalamuttar along
with few interested Reddiars of PSP and few interested farmers from VAD took the
initiatives every year to march in the supply canal upstream to see to it there is free flow
of water to VAD when water is released in the system. This activity is said to be a very
old practice and is termed as ‘bringing water to the tank’. Due to the proportion of land
holding between the farmers of VAD and PSP in the ayacut, the people of PSP
outnumber those of VAD in participating in bringing water to the tank. The expense for
this activity is met by the funds with the kothukarrars of PSP that are collected for the
temple festivals. The revenue that is generated out of the resources from the tank like
the fish is shared in the proportion of 2:1 between PSP and VAD. This is justified as
one share each for the PSP and VAD; and the other share is for the water that is brought
also goes to PSP because the expenses are borne by them.
An association was started during 1995 for VAD tank, under guidance of the PWD. But
the association did not become active rather it remained only in paper. The only activity
done collectively by the likeminded and interested farmers of PSP and VAD is bringing
water to the tank when the water is released in the system, that was claimed as the most
important activity. This was not done under the aegis of the association formed.
The leading person of PSP and VAD on knowing the inception of a Tank Rehabilitation
Project of Pondicherry (TRPP) during 1999 voluntarily represented themselves to the
project management unit and invited them to implement the project. TRPP had
guidelines and procedures drafted for the formation of the TA. An NGO was entrusted
with the assignment of social mobilisation and formation of TA. The NGO undertook
household survey and based on it a category of members to be appointed in the
Executive Committee (EC) was prepared beforehand. Ayacut farmers, (60%),
agricultural labourers/landless (30%), other groups (washer (wo)men, shepherds, fisher
(wo)men, etc) (10%). In the group of ayacut farmers, different categories like marginal,
small and big farmer; and those with and without well had to be represented. Also
women should have at least one-third representation in the EC.
The process of formation of the VAD TA was said to be difficult both for the NGO and
for the leading people of PSP and VAD who had interest in the irrigation tank. The
main opposition had come from the encroachers who were cultivating inside the tank.
This issue was taken up rigorously by leading persons of the saniathanmodu of PSP to
oppose the eviction of the encroachment. The representative of the NGO was
manhandled, and four of the people involved with the TA were tied up inside a temple
in VAD. The political and social status of those leading persons of PSP and their
approach in dealing with the agitation is said to be a vital factor in the formation of the
TA.
In 2001 March the Vadanur tank association was formed. It has 25 executive member of
all the categories specified in the guidelines. Fourteen of them are from PSP of them
four are Reddiars and nine are Vanniars mostly belonging to kumalamuttarmodu, nine
out of ten of them from the VAD are Vanniars and one from another neighbouring
village, who has land in the command area of the tank. One SC and two women from
VAD; and one SC and one woman from PSP also comprise the EC. The president and
secretary of the TA are from the kumalamuttarmodu and the secretary is a Reddiar, all
three from PSP. The vice president, and joint secretaries are from VAD. The Office
bearers from PSP are still continuing office, whereas from VAD changes had occurred;
on formation of the TA, a Muslim was the vice-president and a Vanniar was the joint
secretary, on due course, as their participation in the meeting and other activities was
not effective, a land owning Chettiar and another Vanniar were replaced respectively.
The treasurer of the TA is a wealthy Reddiar and is called by the villagers as auditor;
moreover he owns the biggest rice mill in the region. He has good connection with the
political leaders of the state. He is an influential person and have undertaken many
activities in the common interest of PSP, like, providing rice to landless at times of
natural calamities, conducting health camps in the village and provided nourishments to
the school children. The president of the TA is also the village panchayat president, who
has been in this post for nearly fifteen years. The secretary also a local leader of the
regional political party, and has served as president of the agricultural co-operative
society in the village. The vice president a Chettiar from VAD is a big landowner; he is
one of the ten natamais in VAD and a local leader of a regional political party. The Join
secretary is also an active member of a political party.
The influential status of the Office bearers of the VAD TA has facilitated the
association to undertake rehabilitation activities in the tank. They have been regularly
de-silting the tank; they have laid farm roads in the ayacut, and riverbanks. They have
also taken initiatives and planted trees in the tank bed.
Prior to the formation of TA, the resources in the VAD tank, fishes and the trees in the
tank bund were shared between the villages of VAD and PSP. There is a physical
demarcation in the tank that divides the tank for VAD and PSP. The revenue generated
from fallen trees and from the yield of the trees in the tank bund under respective
boundaries would be managed by the respective village institutions of natamai and
kothukarar. In regard to the fish harvest, traditionally there was pre-defined share
allocation amongst the ayacut farmers and as well few days of free catch for all the
villagers. After the formation of TA, the TA took the control over these resources. The
revenue generated from these resources went to the TA. The fish was cultured by the
TA and was auctioned. This happened twice after the formation of TA, thereby
depriving the earlier shares and free catch. The TA appropriates the revenue to their
account that is generated from the resources in the tank that went to the village
institutions earlier. This has created a frigid situation between VAD and PSP. The
contention of the VAD people is that the revenue that used to come to their village
institution has stopped. The people of VAD view that the revenue goes to PSP due to
the domination of the office bearers of TA who are from PSP.
Ever since the formation of TA there are cold differences between the encroachers who
were evicted from the tank bed and the TA. Most of the encroachers were land less SCs.
The contention of the leading people of TA is that the rival saniathanmodu had made
the good use of the cold difference of the people both in VAD and PSP to rise against
the TA. Even in the recently held panchayat election, the election promises of those
contesting the elections from the faction backed by rival individuals of saniathanmodu
was that if they are elected to power they would allow the landless to cultivate inside the
tank.
The contention of the saniathamodu, is that they do not accept the formation of TA, as
they feel those who all are represented in the EC are those who would support and do
not question the decisions taken by the Office Bearers (OB) which is dominated by
persons from kumalamuttarmodu.
The TA auctioned fish in the VAD tank for two years after their formation. During the
first year, the TA decided that fish would be cultured and sold by them. They appointed
guards to safe guard the fishes that were grown in the tank. They harvested the fishes
and used a transport to sell it in other villages. During this process, it was only the office
bearers who got involved in it and many of EC members did not get involved. As the
Office bearers were from the land owning category, the labourer who used to work in
their field were utilised to under take physical work in the process of selling the fishes.
Owing to the non-compliance of the EC members, the following year, a public auction
was called for, during when people from far off places participated in the auction1. This
time, the collective bidding by few members of the TA won the auction. And after the
harvest of the fishes, the accounts were submitted to the TA explaining an incurrence of
loses. TA association decided to compensate the loss, by returning the money collected
in the auction. This aroused anger amongst many even from the EC of TA against the
compensation given. But it was said that the domination of the TA officer bearers
silenced the under current that was rising against them.
In both the cases the leading people of the TA blame the rival group for incurring loss.
Their contention is that, it was the rival group that encouraged the landless and other to
enter the tank and catch fish.
The EC meeting of VAD TA takes place once a month during the evenings of full moon
day at the residence of the treasurer of the TA in PSP. During the first year this meeting
was held during daytime at the third sluice2 of the tank. The monthly meeting of the EC
is intimated through post to the EC members. This meeting commences by 6 pm and
goes upto 9 pm. During which the NGO representative designated as Community
1- The TA made announcement of the auction in local new papers.

2- The third sluice of the VAD tank is also called the middle sluice. All activities pertaining to the tank
matter, like fish auction, tree auction and redressal of disputes pertaining to the tank will be held in a
space near the third sluice, moreover this place is situated in location that is at the middle of the two
hamlet villages of VAD and PSP.
Organiser (CO) responsible for this TA moderates the meeting on the works carried out
in the previous month and works that has to be undertaken in the coming month. In
order to encourage the EC member to attend this monthly meeting the Office Bearers of
the TA had introduced thrift and saving programme, where the members have to save
hundred rupees every month, on requirement the saved money will be lent to one
individual, who would pay back it with an interest. This change of venue of the meeting
and the introduction of the thrift and saving scheme has caused considerable impact on
the participation of the EC member like women, SC, and even others in the meeting.
Two women members from after the change of venue have not attended the meeting as
the timing and the distance did not suit their convenience. Three men members also
from VAD do not attend the meeting as they do not have a cycle or a motor bike to
reach the meeting venue, they also attribute that the timing also does not suits them. In
regard to the introduction of the thrift and saving, few EC members who are unable to
part take in it due to their financial problem abstain from attending the meetings.
Moreover, this thrift and savings has attracted few other non-EC members who have
their interest in it alone. On an average only eleven EC member of the TA participate in
the monthly meetings.
Those people who were opposing the formation of the TA for VAD tank, on due course
after witnessing the physical work undertaken by the TA in the tank have become eager
to associate themselves with the tank association. The explanation given by the OB of
TA on the reason for this eagerness is the money that was involved in the works
undertaken. There are two issues that arise, the OB of TA complain that the new found
interest by those who were antagonistic initially is that they feel that they could make
some money out of the works undertaken. The other who wanted to associate
themselves feel that the money is not being utilised properly by the OB of the TA. And
again here, those who wanted to enter the TA are also the traditional rivals belonging to
saniathanmodu in PSP. And also there are few from VAD also who wanted to join the
TA.
In the EC of the VAD TA, according to the guidelines of the TRPP, people from all
categories like the SC, landless, women; and small, large and marginal landholding
farmer comprise the 25 members from VAD and PSP. After five years of the VAD TA,
the expressions of the SCs, women and few members of the EC do not reflect the
cohesiveness of the association. When talking about the TA, they exclude themselves
and address the OB as TA. Many of them were co-opted in the TA by the leading
people who had their interest in the TA to fill the required number of 25.
The VAD tank water has not been used for irrigation for the past 30 years. There is a
substantial number of bores in the command area. The farmers without bore well in the
command area are denied the privilege of using the water for irritation when there is
water in the tank. In this regard the farmers without bore express their unhappiness.
Moreover, their contention is that, if the water is stored in tank to augment the ground
water (according to the bore well owners), when there is water in the tank, the price of
water that is sold by the bore owners should be reduced, but the fact is that the same
price is levied. The other fact is due to the inconsistency of the supply of water in the
tank due to frequent failure of rain, the farmers without bore well are dependent on the
bore owners. Therefore the upper hand of the bore owners on the decision of the non-
usage of the tank water for irrigation remains unchallenged by the farmers without bore
in the command area. After the formation of TA, this practice continues, as the OB of
TA are also borewell owners in the command area. There is a general acceptance that on
irrigating the tank water the yield of the crop would be better than when irrigated with
ground water.
CASE II - TANK WATER USERS ASSOCIATION OF THIRUVENNAINALLUR AND

SARAVANAPAKKAM
TVN is a big village that has a status of the Town panchayat under administrative
classification. According to 2001 census the total population of the TVN is 8582 nearly
one fourth (26.46%) are Scheduled Castes.
TVN has a command area of 267 ha for its tank. The tank has three sluices named as
merku vali madugu, kizhaku vali madugu and therku vali madugu i.e. east way sluice,
west way sluice and south way sluice. The villagers select by consensus the Vaikal
Maniyam1 for the sluices. The Vaikal Maniyam had specific responsibilities to be
carried out pertaining to the distribution canals from the sluices. In order to manage and
maintain the canals one had to use his ability and had to adapt strategies to pool human
resources to clean and repair the canals. The resources could be either by contribution
through physical work or through cash. The Vaikal Maniyams usually are elites,
respectable persons who have a command over other farmers in that specific distribution
canal. In TVN this post of Vaikal Maniyam was hereditary in nature. One of them was
from the Vanniar caste and two were from the Udayar caste
In TVN Udayar or Tulu Velalar caste are numerically preponderant followed by

Vanniar or Gounder and a substantial number of Muslims. The Rediyar caste, though
only one family, held most of the land in the village, they are said to be migrants to this
village and are not natives. Due to their influence with the then politically influential
personalities in the region, it is said by others that they took possession of the
porambokku2 lands into their hand and had obtained legal documents for it. Theus
assuming power over the other castes in the village. But after the death of the eldest
Rediyar i.e. after 1962, most of their lands were sold by his sons that was bought by
other castes in the village. And their dominance over the other castes also reduced
considerably.
The members of the WUA recount that the vaikal maniyam is a prestigious position in
the village and those in this position had high respect and their words were taken as a
command and accomplished with abidance and esteem. The Rediyar had a command
over the village due to his land holding capacity and his relationship with the
officialdom of the state. He controlled all affairs of the village including the irrigation
tank, moreover it is said that he would also give directions to the vailkal maniyam.
1- Vaikal Maniyam literally means canal manager

2- Porambokku lands are the lands that are not privately owned
In the year 1976 there was the introduction of vathu kuthagai (duck auction) i.e.
immediately after the harvest of the paddy in the command area of the tank. It is ssaid
that the off spring of the dominant rediyar initiated this vathu kuthagai. the bidder who
wins the auction could graze their ducks in the command area after the harvest of the
paddy for a period of one year. The amount generated by this vathu kuthagai was
deposited in the bank under the name of a responsible person , the first was the son of
the dominant rediyar, then the village panchayat president and then the president of
Farmers Organisation. And the money will be utilized to repair the distribution canals.
From then onwards the contribution of the respective command area farmers diminished
due to availability of this fund from the vathu kuthagai. After this advent of this vathu
kuthagai there had been incidences where this post was contested under prestige issues
between individuals. This has occurred within a caste and also between castes.
Under the Command Area Development scheme, the PWD organized Farmers
organization (FO). In which a president of FO was appointed since 1996. This
appointment is said to be under political party grounds. This was mentored by the
regional representative of the legislative assemble who is called the MLA – Member of
the legislative Assembly. The individuals those who were closely associated with the
MLA used their influence to become the president of FO, with the consecutive changes
in the ruling party of the state and the MLA the leaders of the FO also changed. This
president of the FO was later given the responsibility of the vathu kuthagai and the
maintenance of the distribution canals of the tank. The main reason for the contestation
for this position is the authority to manage the vathu kuthagai funds. Moreover, the
president of the FO also owned lands in the command area of the tank. For the past two
years due to a dispute between present WUA president and the then FO president the
money remains unutilised.
The tank is said to receive water from the system twice a year according to the irrigation
inspector of the Tirukoilur anaicut (barrage) in the Pennaiyar river from were the water
is deviated through vents to the canals that takes water to the tank. During January
2007, the water was released through the vents that reached the TVN tank, in addition to
the water that was there in the tank due to rains that occurred the previous year. In the
command area there is a substantial quantum of bore wells, so the dependency on the
tank water by the command area farmers is not eminent. Moreover, the distribution of
water from the sluice is not controlled through any sort of allocation strategies amongst
them. Individual farmers let out water on requirement through the sluices. During this
season, except for one sluice the in other two sluices water is distributed to the
command area. The allocation of water is said to be on negotiation between individual
farmers on their requirement. The distribution canal of the west-facing sluice that passes
through the residential area of TVN remains damaged for nearly a year. The farmers
under this canal manage their irrigation through ground water, few of them are not
happy, as they are not able to use the tank water for irrigation.
The neighbouring tank to TVN tank is Saravanapakam (SVP) tank. These tanks are
contiguous to each other with only a bund dividing the two tanks. The command area of
this tank is 126 ha. This tank also has three sluices. The preponderant caste in this
village are Vanniars or gounders, the dominant caste in this village are Naidu caste. The
command area of SVP tank extends to the neighbouring village of Gokulapuram.
Mudaliar, traditionally weaving community is the only caste that lives in Gokulapuram.
Unlike TVN, there were no vaikal maniyam for SVP tank.
In SVP, there was a tradition of pass vari – which means water distribution tax. Few of
the families who had lands in the command area paid this tax. These families had the
right over the fish and other resources of the tank. The vanniars who constitute the
majority in the village have seven divisions or lineage called Kothus. Each kothu was
headed by a natamai. This village institution of natami managed the resources of the
tank. These persons would take the initiatives to make requests to the PWD officials to
release water for their tank. The revenue generated from the resources of the tank was
managed by one of natami or the panchayat president and was utilized for the general
welfare of the village, like organizing feasts during festival times, temple related
activities, meeting the needs for the infrastructure in the village. The command area
farmers maintain the distribution canal from the sluices by themselves on requirement;
the initiatives are taken by the natamais who have the land in the command area.
In SVP, similar to that of TVN politically influential persons holding land in the
command area were presidents of the FO.
During March 2004, the elections for the managing committee of the water users
association of TVN and SVP tanks were held. In this case, one WUA for the both the
tank is said to have designed by the PWD and order were passed to conduct the
elections. The command area of both the tanks were divided into four governing
division each. And the divisions were numbered from one to eight. Nominations were
invited by the PWD for the post of president of the WUA and for the members of the
managing committee representing the respective divisions. The main eligibility to file
their nomination for any of the posts is one should be a command area farmer holding
patta (legal documents for the land) in their name. Voter list1 were made, the eligible
voters were the holders of the patta.
The elections process had been vigorous in TVN. There was contestation for the post of
president and for the members of the managing committee (MC). There were two
candidates from TVN contesting for the post of president, both from the same Udayar
caste and as well from the same political party affiliation. The reason for the
contestation was personal differences between the two candidates. Both of them
deployed their respective candidates for post of members of the managing committee.
The opposing candidates spent money during the election campaign. The candidate who
won the president post spent one lakh rupees (2127 US $). He expresses that it would
have been a prestige issue if he had been defeated in the election. Of the four members
of the MC who won in TVN, one of them hails from the hereditary of the vaikal
maniyam of west way sluice of the tank, belonging to the Udayar caste. Of the four
member of MC three are Udayar and one from the Vanniar caste. The four members of
MC and the president are active members of the political parties at the local level10.
Whereas in SVP four members of the MC were unanimously elected for the respective
1- According the list prepared by the village administrative officer during November 2003, TVN had 629
voters and SVP had 400 voters.
governing divisions of the command area. Three of them are the natamais of SVP and
the fourth is a politically influential person from Goukulapuram.
The PWD in addition to the conduct of the elections for the president and MC of the
WUA, they also formed sub-committee for finance, work, water-management and
monitoring. The local officials of the PWD express that under the government orders
the WUA and the sub-committees were formed. According to them as there are no
funds that are provided for the WUA, it is difficult for the WUA to become active.
Moreover, they feel after the conduct of the elections and formation of WUA, there has
not been any substantial activities that has happened pertaining to the functioning of the
WUA.
In the case of Tank WUA of TVN and SVP, prior to this formation, the respective
villagers managed the tanks and its resources. The resources such as grass inside the
tank that is used for thatching the roofs of the huts, fishes in the tank, trees inside and in
the tank bund. In the first year after the formation of the WUA, the president of the
WUA, under his authority auctioned the grass of SVP Tank, the villagers of SVP also
auctioned the grass of their tank. This created a conflicting situation between the
villagers of the SVP and the president of the WUA who is from TVN. More over the
MC members of SVP were in the favour of their villages, as the MC members of SVP
are the supporters of the opponent who contested for the post of president and lost. As
the result the WUA president lost the race in regard to the grass auction. This year
again, the villagers of SVP auctioned themselves the trees in the tank bund and paid an
amount to the PWD that was transferred to WUA account. This amount was utilised by
the WUA president to pay back the pending amount on the previous years grass auction.
The other issue that is concerning the MC members of SVP is the non-compliance of
the WUA president regarding the repair of the sluices of SVP tank. When they approach
the PWD regarding this, they express that the PWD officials wanted the request to come
through the WUA president.
On the other hand, the WUA president is petitioning the district administration, the
PWD, the state administration regarding the repair of the canal that distributes water
from the west-side sluice of the TVN tank. He also expresses his inability to utilise the
vathu kuthagai funds for this purpose due to the factional dispute within TVN. Owing to
the confrontation of the earlier village panchayat president the vathu kuthagai was not
held for past five years. The new panchayat president has taken initiatives to hold the
vathu kuthagai, but ambiguity prevails over the authority and access to utilise the funds
generated out of it.
The contention of the farmers of the command area of TVN is that the traditional vaikal
maniyam were dedicated, their main priority rendered benefits to the villagers; like
clearing the distribution canals from the tank for the benefit of the command area
farmers, judicial utilisation of resources like fish, grass, fire wood from the trees for the
direct benefit of villagers in general. The villagers respected the vaikal maniyams; for
clearing the distribution canal, all the command farmers would render physical labour
when an announcement is made. And in regard to clearing the supply canal,
representation will be made from all the households in the village. In SVP, though there
were no vaikal maniyam but it is said that a similar trend prevailed by the initiatives
taken by the natamais of the village. But neither the farmers nor the villagers are
satisfied with their approaches, as they feel that are not able the see the commitment that
was there with the vaikal maniyams in the president and the members of the WUA.
TO CONCLUDE..
The state's interventions remain very peripheral that is indeed not enough to shape the
processes of the WUAs in the study tanks, as expressed by Mollinga as in the case of
AP, which was the pioneering state in regard to PIM implementation in India. Be it the
case in AP; the Act that is adopted in TN is similar to that of AP, so from the experience
of AP, TN has to make early correction in the process so that the defects that has
occurred in AP could be avoided.
The surface water irrigation in the case of study tanks though not considered the
important source of irrigation due to availability of ground water; however, there is
substantial number of bore wells in the command area. So the WUA and the TA that are
formed do not attempt to regulate or control the irrigation aspects (both surface and
ground water), rather their interest is more on the other resources that could generate
revenue, and thus the competition for positions in the MC and EC in the associations.
There is an inherent exemplification of caste, kinship and political party issues that are
entangled in all possible combinations under the aegis of the newly introduced irrigation
institutions. There are many obvious cases of political indictments exercised by the
those in positions in WUA and TA, that affects the
The farmers of the command area themselves take care of the issues regarding water
distribution from the tanks. There are spontaneous collective initiatives taken by the
farmers who do not have own bore wells, for cleaning the distribution canal from the
tank without depending the WUA. The representatives of the WUA of the study tank in
TN do not give priority unlike the traditional representation for the canal that existed
earlier.
Moreover in the study tanks, the cropping pattern and farming practices are also not in
the agenda of the WUA. The reason for this is again the prevalence of independent
access to ground water.
With the existing approaches that is witnessed amongst the TA and WUA in the study
areas, I envisage that both the TA and WUA would exist, but the would remain only in
the state's administrative records. There has to be a revitalisation in the social
orientation and mobilisation to be undertaken, to create awareness and the importance
of these associations amongst the water users. Reminisces of the Traditional Irrigation
institution should be imbibed amongst the water users. Only then these associations
would become institutions in the future.
REFERENCE:
1. David Mosse, "Colonial and Contemporary Ideologies of 'Community

Management': The case of Tank Irrigation Development in South India", Modern
Asian Studies 33, 2 (1999), pp.303-338, Cambridge University Press.
2. Dhan Foundation "Agriculture of Pondicherry Union Territory" Report prepared

for Madras School of Economics, 2002.
3. Mollinga P.P., Doraisammy R. and Engbersen K., "The Implementation of

Participatory Irrigation Management in AP, India", Int. J. Water, Vol.1, Nos. 3/4
(2001), pp.360-379.
4. Palanisamy K. and Easter, K.W., Tank Irrigation in the 21st Century - What Next?
Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2000
5. Ratna Reddy V. and Prudhvikar Reddy, P., "How Participatory is Participatory

Irrigation Management (PIM)? A study of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in
AP", Working Paper No. 65, Centre for Economic and Social Studies, Hyderabad,
India, November, 2005.
6. State Planning Commission (SPC), Annual Plan, 2005-06

http://www.tn.gov.in/spc/annualplan/ap2005-06/ch_9_11.pdf
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT OF the MIDDLE

SEBOU IRRIGATED SYSTEM
Abderrazak IKAMA1
SUMMARY
The large-scale irrigation sector is characterized by the State’s direct intervention while
small – and medium- scale irrigation is run locally by traditional associations in so far
as management and operations of the district are concerned.
The year 1969 saw the promulgation of the Agricultural Investment Code, which was
the first legal instrument of its kind to govern management and operations of irrigation
schemes and which requires that users basically contribute to the State’s financial effort
without actually involving them in the implementation of irrigation development
projects.
This approach based upon the State’s unilateral intervention inevitably resulted in
adverse effects (deterioration of equipment and frequent recourse to rehabilitation
operations). Faced with this critical situation, the government opted for the development
of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) as early as 1990.
The adoption of PIM as an irrigation policy was a strategic alternative aiming at
revisiting a methodology previously used in the beginning of the 60’s--a period when
each irrigation development was unilaterally designed, funded and implemented by the
State rather than through a participatory approach involving consultation with,
organization and commitment of water users.
The Middle Sebou irrigation scheme, located in the Fez area, provides a highly
representative illustration of the transition from centralized management to consultative
management. Indeed, the development of this 6500- hectare area was carried out
through a new development and irrigation management pattern stemming from a
partnership holding between the State and water users. This approach is aimed at
sharing roles and responsibilities and effectively getting users grouped in Water Users'
Associations (WUAs) supervise management of their irrigation systems.
Therefore, the Middle Sebou irrigated system is run through a contractual framework
directly by the beneficiaries who are adherents to any of the twelve Water Users’
Associations (WUAs) which are structured into two federations.
1- Rural Engineer, Head of the management unit of Sahla project, rural engineering department, Morocco
I. AN OVERVIEW OF IRRIGATION IN MOROCCO
I.1 BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION

Morocco’s climate fluctuates between semi-arid and arid conditions and is typified by a
rainfall that varies from one region to another and has increasingly unsteady annual and
seasonal patterns, which make irrigation an incontrovertible imperative to boost
agricultural production and to enhance farmers’ income.
Morocco’s irrigated sector is divided into two sub-sectors:
x Large-scale irrigation systems with water supplies from big dams and with
considerably sizeable areas recently equipped with modern networks. The
irrigable potential area through large-scale hydraulic structures is estimated to
amount to 850, 000 hectares.
x Small- and medium-scale irrigation, where the systems are small-sized and are, to
a large extent, irrigated using local water resources. The irrigable potential of
small- and medium-scale irrigation is estimated to stand at 785, 000 hectares.
I.2. BASIC OPERATING STRUCTURE OF IRRIGATION INFRASTRUCTURE.

Large-scale irrigation infrastructure is characterized by the State’s direct intervention
through its being a developer, operator and caretaker of the operations of irrigation
systems with a view to ensuring their durability. This is not the case of small- and
medium-scale irrigation, requiring ongoing consultation with the local population who
are already clustered in traditional associations to supervise management, operation and
maintenance or even renewal of irrigation infrastructure.
In 1969, within the framework of the Agricultural Investment Code which stipulates
that water users must, for their own benefit, contribute towards the State’s financial
effort, amongst the body of statutory and regulatory provisions adopted then, two of
them pertain directly to the management of large-scale irrigation systems.
x A direct contribution, estimated at 30% of the expenditure incurred by
development costs calculated on the basis of equipped acreage.
x The payment of an annual water fee was intended to recover 10% of the
investment, development amortization costs as well as for all expenditures
incurred by operations and maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure. This
annual fee per cubic meter of used water was calculated on the basis of an
equilibrium price set periodically through a joint decree by the Ministry of
Agriculture, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Equipment.
Such a unilateral intervention by the State inevitably led to adverse effects; namely, the
increasing importance of the actions the State had to carry out in order to ensure better
functioning of irrigation infrastructure on the one hand and the serious lack of interest of
water users towards infrastructure, often subjected to recurrent and costlier degradation.
The responsibility of government in such situations was to opt for Participatory
Irrigation Management (PIM) as early as 1990.
The adoption of PIM was, therefore, a strategic alternative put in ballast by the State.
This strategic alternative allowed revisiting the irrigation policies formerly used in the
beginning of the 60’s and making of irrigation development a sector which was
exclusively designed, funded and implemented by the State.
x PIM as a participatory approach involving consultation, organization and
commitment of water users within a contractual framework was a constitutionally-
based response to management of irrigation systems. PIM would enable:
x To effectively involve users in, and increase their responsibility for irrigation
water, development, operations and maintenance of equipment and irrigation
infrastructure;
x To promote dialogue and implementation of concerted actions between the State’s
watershed agencies and farmers in irrigated systems;
x To create good management practices for water resources, equipment and
irrigation infrastructure;
x To achieve rational use of both water, soil, equipment and irrigation infrastructure
to serve not only the interests of irrigated agriculture, but the interests of the
nation as well;
x To increase the returns of water and allocate it efficiently.
II. DESCRIPTION OF THE MIDDLE SEBOU AND DOWNSTREAM INAOUEN

IRRIGATION SYSTEM
II.1. PROJET AREA

The Middle Sebou and Downstream
Inaouen irrigation system covers
15,000 hectares acreage and is located
at the piedmont of the Rif mountains,
60 kilometers away from Fez. From an
administrative standpoint, this system
falls within the jurisdiction of the Fez
Wilaya and of the Provinces of
Taounate and Sidi Kacem.
This system was split into five main
district irrigations for purely economic and technical considerations and development of
irrigation infrastructure was carried out in two stages:
x The first phase includes district irrigations I and II extending over an acreage of 6,500
hectares. Development of the irrigation infrastructure was launched in 1994 and
completed in 1998. District irrigation II (3,500 hectares) got irrigation water in 1998
and district irrigation III (3000 ha) got it gradually during the 2001/2002 crop year.
x The second phase encompasses irrigation district irrigations I, IV and V covering
an acreage of 8,500 hectares. The preliminary study and implementation
procedures are being carried out. Effective operation of these irrigation district
irrigations is slated for 2007.
Water supply is ensured through

pumping stations, strewn all along
the banks of the Sebou river whose
waters are regulated by Idriss 1st
dam—Matmata- with a yearly
throughput capacity of 1.2 m3.
Irrigation water allocated to the
system amounts to 130 m3 yearly.
II.2. PROJECT COMPONENTS
II.2.1 Hydro-agricultural development

The main hydro-agricultural development activities focused on external and internal
developments; namely,
x Construction and fitting of 42 pumping stations (main and booster stations)
x Supply, transport and laying of irrigation canals and pipes;
x Construction of a 90 km power distribution line;
x Steering a cadastre operation (land clearing, deep ploughing, land leveling) over
15,000 hectares;
x Building internal and external drainage networks;
x Construction of a road network.
II.2.2. Agricultural Development

The initially applied cropping system is highly favorable to cereals, grown by almost
98% of farmers and represents 81% of crop rotation, along with a quasi absence of
fodder breaks. Plant and animal productions were low.
1%3%7%3%1%
5%
80%
cereals legumes industrial crops fodder crops

market gardeningarboriculture fallow
A quadrennial crop rotation scheme was chosen for this irrigation scheme - with an
average intensification of 150%. As far as agricultural development is concerned the
following main orientations were targeted:
x Introducing new ‘value- added’ cash crops such as sugar beet, tobacco - market
gardening crops. Aromatic and medicinal plants will probably be cropped as farms
are generally small-sized;
x Increasing production of fodder crops since dairy production is high on the
agenda;
x Increasing cereal and fruit tree production through applying appropriately-sound
techniques;
II.3. AIMS OF THE PROJECT
The main aims of the project are as follows:

x Improving and intensifying crop production ( market gardening, sugar beet, fruit
trees) and animal production ( milk, meat);
x Increasing farmers’ incomes (from €130 /hectare as a per annum net take-away
profit margin prior to the project to around €1,200 / hectare after the project );
x Improving standards of living within the project area through electrification and
road infrastructure development;
x Increasing job opportunities (from 25 work days/ per inhabitant /per annum prior
to the project to 150 work days/ per inhabitant /per annum after project
implementation;
x Creating and enhancing capacity-building of associative movement with a view to
enabling water users to undertake tasks relating to management, operation and
maintenance of irrigation infrastructure.
II.4. COST – PROFITABILITY AND FUNDING SOURCES
The project cost amounts to 133 million Euros. Economic profitability rate was initially
estimated to stand at 11.7% in June 1994.
The cost of the preliminary irrigation batch, estimated to be 54 million Euros, is
financed up to 50% by the French Development Agency. The remainder is funded by
the Moroccan budget.
III. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The new strategy for irrigation development and management is based upon a
partnership scheme involving the State and water users. The purported aim is to share
roles and responsibilities and to effectively involve water users, who are members of
Water Users Associations (WUAs), in the management of irrigation systems.
III.1. INSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION
a) Approach:
The approach adopted for establishing irrigation associations in the perimeter draws
upon communication between all stakeholders involved in the project.
In short, this approach draws upon lending an ear to the stakeholders, promoting mutual
understanding and taking account of (i) attitudes and knowledge of all concerned
parties, particularly those who are influential in communities and local groups and (ii)
emergence of new leadership with innovative projects.
The establishment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) was the fruit of consultations
and negotiations involving various partners. Meetings were marked by a transparent
dialogue and by the concern to promote connivance and togetherness to avoid
misunderstandings.
A program of awareness-
building meetings was
then drawn up in
joint collaboration with
various representatives
of the local population
and opinion leaders.
Subsequent to this
thorough groundwork,
the scope of activities
was widened to include
all concerned parties.
This contributed to
accurately defining the
boundaries of each WUA.
b) Institutional Framework
The organizational framework pattern was endorsed subsequent to a series of

consultations held with water users. It provided for shouldering the WUAs with tasks
relating to (i) technical and financial management of all irrigation infrastructure and
pumping units (ii) operation and maintenance of water distribution and drainage
networks.
Synoptic Diagram of District Irrigation II Infrastructures

EL KHAIRE EL KARAME
D9,10 and 11 D12 and 13
( 836 ha ) D12 ( 622 ha )
9 D13
T12
SR3 5
Sebou River
LOUDAYA
G12,13 and 14
SR2 SP4 ( 819 ha )
CHARRADIA
Zégota and G10 et 11 SR1
8 6
( 440 ha )
Bled Hamri
7
c) Contractualization of relations between the various players

Within a contractualization framework, the WUAs clustered within a federation are
entrusted with the responsibility of carrying out operation and maintenance of water
infrastructures by the State. Relations between the various partners are governed by:
x The agreement between the
administration/federation- Convention générale de
Administration
WUA together with a gestion et de
maintenance des
general specifications book, Fédération des
which lists down the AUEA
irrigation infrastructure and Convention particulière
d’exploitation
equipment put at the disposal Association
of the associations and their
federations, the water
Contrat de vente eau
allocation for each sector, Usager
the technical, financial and
organizational provisions,
thecontrol mechanisms of commitments made as well as the human and logistics
support of the administration and its length in time.
x The Federations/ WUAs agreement which defines the responsibilities and
obligations of each organization with regard to management, operation
x and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure as well as intervention levels in
connection with invoicing and recovery of irrigation water fee.
x Standard procedures of Federations and WUAs which set subscription fees,

invoicing and irrigation water fee collection procedures, internal financial and
administrative management procedures, as well as the disciplinary provisions
related to water service management.
x The water sale contract (User/WUA-Federation) which defines water allocations,
distribution modalities, invoicing and irrigation water fee collection procedures.
III.2. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Two management levels have been the focus in each of the two irrigation-based
developed districts:
x The upstream level which corresponds to the main water infrastructures shared by
WUAs : i.e. pumping and booster stations, pipes, transfer canals , balancing
reservoirs, drainage, the external protection system and the roads easing access to
the irrigation infrastructure. The federation shoulders the responsibility of
managing all these components.
x The downstream distribution level encompasses the whole infrastructure of all
irrigation networks, including drainage and earth roads leading to plots allocated
to each association in the irrigated system. The infrastructure also incorporates
supply canals, water intakes and main pipes operated and maintained by each
WUA.
a) Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Infrastructure

All activities related to operation and maintenance of hydro-agricultural equipment shall
be entrusted to WUAs and their federations. WUAs and their federations have recruited
their own staff; namely,
x Watermen who ensure appropriate irrigation water distribution, operation and
maintenance of irrigation networks and enforcement of water policing;
x Pumping station operators who ensure proper operation, preventive care and
maintenance of pumping stations;
The administration has made available to the federation a qualified technical team of
engineers, technicians and a management accountant, to serve on a temporary basis and
for a limited period of five years so that they could help it to carry out its missions
successfully.
b) Pricing of Irrigation Water

The pricing of irrigation water is adopted based upon applying the principle of real
water price. Indeed, the water fee covers all the costs associated with water service;
namely, energy, operation costs, maintenance of equipment and repairs.
Each water user must pay:

x a mandatory annual WUA
proportionate to the cropped
acreage s/he owns within the
perimeter;
x a three-month water fee which
is proportionate to the amount
of water used in compliance
with the individual contract
signed with the WUA and the
federation.
These water fees are set in such a way as to allow for accounts equilibrium and
observance of the commitments made by the WUAs and their federations.
IV. ACCOMMODATING MEASURES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
IV.1. ACCOMMODATING MEASURES OF THE IMPLEMENTED OF THE PIM

If Contractualization of relations between the State and organized farmers provides for a
five-year transition period, no strategy has as yet been devised to equip the associations
with the required training to ease take over of tasks subsequent to the withdrawal of the
technical staff afforded to them by the administration despite their being daily
supervised by this very technical staff. It is deemed necessary to design a concerted
action program targeting the members of the governing board of WUAs, their
federations, the watermen and pumping station operators.
This program should be tailor-made to enable the various partners (WUAs and their
federations) to undergo an efficient and effective training--- a training that will enable
them to successfully take over management, operation and maintenance of the irrigation
systems.
The implementation of this program must necessarily identify the tasks each partner
should carry out. With these tasks in view, the training program must be, therefore,
adjusted in such a way as to appropriately empower the various partners for tasks
incumbent upon them.
Strengthening Participatory Irrigation
Management requires the following
support means and measures:
x Training and readying supervision
agents for new relations with
WUAs;
x Training board members of
WUAs to gain deeper insights into
their missions and statutory
functions;
x Training WUAs’ technicians (watermen) and those of the federations (pumping
station operators) in techniques for operation and management of hydro-
agricultural works.
x Emancipating water-user members of these WUAs so that they become real
partners of the administration.
IV.2. FUTURE PROSPECTS

Success of this new strategy for the enhancement of Participatory Irrigation
Management is contingent upon:
x Reforming the legal texts;
x According to the 1969 Agricultural Investment Code, irrigation infrastructure
belongs to the State, which in itself is a hindrance to the work of the federation to
collect funds for renewal, repair and rehabilitation of water structures which fall
within the prerogatives of the State in its capacity as the exclusive owner of the
irrigation infrastructure.
x Effective involvement of all stakeholders with regard to pre-feasibility study on
irrigation development schemes (choice of area, type of irrigation pattern);
x Opening up an act on voting rights in such a way as to enable all members to be
elected taking account of their farm size. In so doing, the board of WUAs will not
be monopolized by a particular group of farmers only.
x Disseminating enforcement circulars in order to reinforce or clarify the directives
of legal texts, such as exemptions on VAT.
x Promoting sound financial management in connection with opportunities of
investment of funds available to WUAs and federations so that they can make
their capital yield a fruit and thus increase their income.
x Carrying out irrigation development projects through an integrated framework.
Indeed via Participatory Irrigation Management, the institutional and
organizational aspects are under better control. Still, a lot remains to be done with
regard to increasing the returns of the cubic meter of water. This can only be done
through engaging in a partnership scheme involving all concerned parties
particularly farmers, administrators and manufacturers.
x Taking account in project design of the environmental component by anticipating
and assessing the potential impacts on the ecosystem.
PARTICIPATION OF FARMERS IN THE MANAGEMENT

OF RAINAGE SYSTEM
Mumtaz Ahmed Sohag1, Ali Asghar Mahessar2, Masroor Nabi Memon3
To combat waterlogging and salinity, initially a number of Salinity Control and

Reclamation Projects (SCARPs) were introduced 1960s in Pakistan. And also, surface
and subsurface drainage system and biological drain system has been introduced for
controlling over twin problem of waterlogging and salinity in the country level. Out of
total irrigated area of 16.69 Mha (41.23 Ma), 7.545 Mha (about 45%) has been covered
under drainage. Still 9.14 Mha (22.59 Mha) needs to be provided drainage facilities in
the irrigation basin system of Pakistan.
Institutional Reforms has been introduced within water sector by act 1997, in the Sindh
Province Pakistan. Through these reforms Sindh Irrigation & Drainage Authority
(SIDA), Area water Boards (AWBs) and Farmers Organizations (FOs) were formed at
barrage, main canal and distributaries/ minor levels. Drainage Beneficiary Groups
(DBGs) have been made on branch drainage system levels. These reforms have
provided good opportunity to the farmers/stakeholders participations in management of
Irrigation as well as Drainage system in Sindh province of Pakistan.
The Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) which consisted on Spinal drain and Link drain
such as the DPOD, KPOD and Tidal Link has been constructed in recently which will
receive drain water from left side of Indus River for disposing off into Arabian Sea
While Right Bank Outfall Drain (RBOD) is under construction on right side of Indus
River which will receive water from Upper Sindh and Balochistan for outfalling in the
creek of Arabian Sea. The drainage system/ network in the commanded area of Kotri
barrage has been introduced in 1960s. This system covers both sides of Indus Rivers
and downstream of Kotri barrage which is under jurisdiction of Districts Thatta, Tando
Muhammad Khan and Badin on right and left flanks respectively.
There are many constraints/problems for safe removal of drains water, such as, high tide
low hydraulic gradient, mismanagement of operation and maintenance of the system,
defer of maintenance, not proper collection of revenue and drainage cess, lack of
interest of framers/stakeholders towards drainage system, heavy rainfall and cyclone
frequently, low crop yield, high value of input, low value of output, shortage of
irrigation supply, impact of waterlogging & salinity, fertility of soil, effluent of Sugar
mills, polluted of surface canal waters, highly saline groundwater, deteriorating
conditions of communication infrastructures, poor living standards, bad environmental
1- General Manager (R&D), SIDA, Hyderabad, Pakistan

2- Deputy Director (Water Resources), EMU-SIDA, Hyderabad
3- Junior Engineer, SIDA, Hyderabad
impacts over ecosystem, frequently earth due to unstable slopes in silty stretches; these
all constraints/problems are brought under discussion during meeting with
farmers/stakeholders to address for better management of drainage system in the study
area.
INTRODUCTION:
Pakistan is a developing country having highest population growth rate of about 3% per
annum that requiring the increasing water demand year by year. The demand of water
consumption can be coped with modernization of irrigation system through Integrated
Resources Management and better management of drainage network and support
agricultural modernization for the sustainable development, socially, environmentally
and economically.
Pakistan is bestowed with the largest integrated irrigation network in the world. This
makes Pakistan essentially an agricultural-based country and therefore, its economy
largely depends on the irrigation system. Surveys carried out from time to time indicate
that conveyance losses range from 20% to 30%. The colossal wastage of water, not only
decreases water for agricultural, industrial and domestic uses but also creates the
problem of waterlogging and salinity.
Unlike the integrated irrigation network, Pakistan’s drainage network is not
interconnected. Much of the drainage effluent is either reused in the Indus basin
Irrigation System (IBIS) or disposed into the rivers and canals. The needs to be
constructed drainage basin in each canal command area for avoiding environmental
degradation through interconnecting the drainage system of the country in order to
dispose off all effluent water drainage into the Arabian Sea.
There are several principal causes of water logging and salinity, namely irrigation
without drainage, over irrigation, low delivery efficiency of the irrigation (35 to 40
percent from canal head to root zone) and inadequate drainage system., Low hydraulic
gradient of Sindh Province, obstructions and obstacles developed in natural depressions
through construction of railway lines, lanes and roads. The semi-arid climatic conditions
prevailing in Pakistan also lead to accumulation of salts in the root zone. In addition,
irrigation supplies add salts every year to the root zone. Groundwater pumpage, which
is unregulated, further aggravates the situation by mobilizing salts dissolved in the
groundwater aquifer
The drainage of Sindh Province covered 2.724 Mha (6.732 Ma) where drainage
facilities have been provided through 4190 tubewells in Fresh Ground Water (FGW),
2256 Saline Ground Water (SGW) areas including 361 scavenger wells, 9185 km
surface drains and 4046 km of sub drains (Tile drains). The project are; LBOD (Stage-I)
constructed to carry the saline effluent from the left bank area of River Indus through a
system of spinal drains, main drains and Tidal Link to the Arabian Sea and RBOD
(Stage-I), which is under construction and will provide drainage facilities for the Indus
Right bank. About twenty four percent of the area is severely waterlogged and out of
which 54% is saline and needs to be covered under drainage.
MAIN OBJECTIVES:
The main objective of this study is to review & examine the functioning of the drainage
system and environmental an socio-economic impacts and also agricultural
enhancement in Kotri Drainage circle. Therefore a study exploratory survey has been
conducted on the selected systems due to the short span of time.
ii. To address the problems in surface drainage system.
iii. To examine performance of the drainage network..
iv. To assess potential for the re-use of drainage effluent..
v. To examine Operation &Maintenance of the system.
vi. To diagnose the causes of the drainage problems/ threats with a special view to
prevent water logging & salinity.,
vii. To assess socio-economic conditions of local people
viii. To assess environmental impact in the study area
STUDY AREA
The area of the drainage circle commonly is located in deltaic areas low-elevation above
MSL flat but slightly sloping from the apex to the sea, land underlain at shallow depth
by un-ripened soils & marine saline ground water drainage outfall to the sea constrained
by the tidal regimes, at the sea side the cultivated land of the command transits into
extension flat type of coasted fore lands, flooding by the sea is only the incidental
problems and there are no distinct coastal embankments. Natural drainage conditions
vary with the higher lying lands in the upper command.
MEETINGS FARMERS/STAKEHOLDERS
The meeting were held with Farmers Organizations (FOs), namely Pandhi Wah, Shah
Bukhari minor, Dandhi Mubark wah, Jarki minor, Pthan hassan Ali minor, Dodo minor
and etc and also the field visits have been conducted and the data about studies have
been collected. Poor performance of drainage system Loss of lives and damages due to
flooding caused by cyclone, heavy rain fall, capacity of drainage system, breaches of
embankments, Water logging and salinity problem, Backwater flow of certain main and
branch drains, the high tidal effects, severe pollution of irrigation and drainage water,
Over-use of irrigation water in the upstream area and severe shortage in tail-end areas,
certain loss of fisheries recourses in Dhandh and reused of drains water.
IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS

In this regard, physical status of drainage infrastructure has been visited and examined,
as well as the meetings were held with local people of different walk of life and
interviews were conducted & recorded in order to identify the problems related to
irrigation system, drainage network, socio-economic & environmental issues. This
collected information and data has provided much more views to address the problems
and the issues, described as under.
DRAINAGE NETWORK
The construction of the Kotri barrage which happens cause over application of irrigation
water for higher crop intensity within its command area. Therefore, it was realized for
prerequisite of Drainage System in the command area of barrage. There are about 8.0
million cusecs per day canal water is being delivered for irrigation of 2.0 million acres
of agriculture land. The application of increased quantity of water and cutting of natural
drainage lines by network of irrigation canals, railway lines and roads have resulted in
waterlogging and salinity in the canal command area. In 1959, the waterlogging
problem became very acute in certain areas that it became necessary to undertake a
drainage scheme in the Kotri Command area.
DRAINAGE CESS
During the meetings, farmers apprised to that the surface drainage network suffers from
weed growth and banks sloughing, as well as degradation of structures and insufficiency
of outfall. The major cost of the improper maintenance and operation of the system are
the shortfall in revenue generation i.e. Abiana and drainage–cess as well as paucity of
development funds for the modernization of the system. In order to understand these
complicated problems of system and improve the operational efficiency of Kotri
Surface Drainage System. The stakeholders brought under discussion both the physical
status and improvement needs of the system as well as O&M requirements, given the
present and future Scio-Economic, and environmental requirement of the catchments
area of the drainage system.
The drainage system is facing problem of operation and maintenance since its
construction. This system is directly not source of earning for farmers and other
stakeholders but indirectly provides good opportunity for sustaining of land fertility and
safe disposal of heavy rain water and pancho water. Owing to deferred maintenance of
drains which provides space to thorny bushes and reeds to develop in the prism of drain.
Therefore, recently Government has taken initiative steps for levying cess for revenue
collection as proper operation and maintenance can be carried out.
HEAVY RAINFALL AND CYCLONE

The average annual rainfall in the study area varies from 6 inches to 9 inches. Most of it
occurs in the months of (July and September) monsoon season. The hottest months are
May and June and coldest is January. Light rain showers occur occasionally in January
& February. Although the annual rainfall is low, yet the project area is subject to severe
storms. This area receives the heavy rainfall and the cyclone within frequency of four or
five year. In 1992, 1994, 1999 and 2003 there was heavy rainfall and the drain which
was already silted up could not accommodate the storm water. This caused heavy losses
to standing crops and property and damage to drain sections. The prism sections of the
drains have almost been lost due to flow well beyond their capacities.
SEA INTRUSION
Farmer told that the drainage system is under close to coastal area, therefore, drainage
effluent is being disposed off into Arabian Sea. The Surface drainage system of Sindh
province has been diverted for out-falling directly into the Arabian Sea via tidal creeks..
The tides cause reverse flow in the systems especially during high tides. Land slope
along the lower reaches of the open drain are practically flat and ground water tables are
high with heavy salt contents. Hence these areas are badly flooded especially during the
monsoon season. This problem is more aggravated due to deferred maintenance of the
drainage system.
There is large Kotri Drainage Circle network so that there was not possible to conduct study
of over all Drainage Circle. Keeping in view, six (6) main drainage system have been
selected out of eighteen (18) of Kotri Drainage circle. There are following selected six
drainage system whereof study was carried out with participations.
I. Ghora Bari Outfall Drainage System
II. Jamsakro Outfall Drainage System.
III. Nagan Dhoro Outfall Drainage System
IV. Karo Ghungro Outfall Drainage System
V. Fuleli Guni Outfall Drainage System.
VI. Lowari Branch Drains System
THE SELECTED OUTFALL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS:

Surface Drainage Systems above mentioned which are located in Badin and Thatta
district of coastal area of Sindh Province of Pakistan. The drainage system was
constructed in 1960s. The area lies in the Canal Command area of the Kotri Barrage.
The drains water of the system outfalls into different creeks of Arabian Sea by gated
and ungated structures. The network presently comprises a main outfall drain, branch
drains and field drains and also catchment area of drain. Due to improper operation and
maintenance, the drains have been silted up badly, resulting growth of weeds and reeds.
banks sloughing has also occurred.
The drainage system has been damaged due to not proper maintenance and repair of
infrastructure. Therefore, embankments of main drain and branch drains are in poor
condition. The breaches and erosion have been developed in the drainage berms and
flanks of banks due heavy rain. The weeds and reeds have been grown in the prisms of
the main drain and sub surface drain system which cause of obstacle of smoothly flow
and take place shape of afflux.
Outlet structure, Left bank outfall wing has partially collapsed, which affects main
outfall structure and starts to endanger asphalt road. Depending on drainage water
discharge, saline water enters more or less far from the tidal creek into the lower reach
drains, thus negatively affecting neighboring lands, groundwater and crops was
observed.
The study of this system is required to investigate the feasibility of structures and
including drainage system, which integrates i.e. hydrologic, hydraulic/flood protection,
tidal, agricultural, irrigation and drainage water quantity and quality management,
environmental and O&M costs aspects. This study may serve as a pilot for similar
situations (but on a larger scale) of low-laying lands crossed by major open outfall
drains discharging into dhands in the tidal fringes of the Left Bank of the Indus.
ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL IMPACT

Kotri circle of drainage system is considered in the coastal region, This region has been
come under impact of heavy rainfall and cyclone frequently average between 4 and
6year. The cyclones and heavy rainfall have destroyed the ecosystem and soicio-
economic standards of the local people. Therefore, this region has to face environmental
physical, biological, socio-economic issues frequently. The network of drainage system
of Korti circle has brought some extent good opportunity for improving negative
environmental impacts but due to construction of this network created obstacles in the
natural ways of run off rainwater or inundated flow on one hand, while lack of operation
and maintenance of system happened more cause of environmental adverse impacts in
its jurisdiction.
The jurisdiction of Kotri Drainage circles comes under canal command of Kotri barrage.
In this area water is being supplied through perennial and non-perennial canals.
Therefore, during dry season local people and livestock consume drainage water for
domestic and livestock. On the one canal water is being polluted by wastewater
municipal and industrial and also effluent water of established of sugar mills in the
command area of Kotri Barrage which also have been dumping their effluent into the
drainage system on the other hand. It is really fact that the local people and ecosystem
is only source of consuming canal water and drainage water because ground water is
heavily saline. The recently, they could not receive potable water for drinking purpose
and other purpose. The application of such type polluted water will not cause of demise
fertile lands, animals and ecosystem but also of humans gradually.
Environmental issues were also discussed with the stakeholders, and outlined no
significant negative environmental impact; however the stakeholder complaint about the
effluent of sugar mills and stagnant water due to which smell and other environmental
issue occurs.
In view point of the stakeholders and from our team view point the following
suggestions are made; Sugar mills owners in the area may be asked for the in house
treatment of the their mills effluent before discharging it into drain, domestic sewage of
the towns and cities should be treated before discharging into near by drain. A
monitoring plan is proposed and implemented under O&M component Stagnant water
may be drainaged by making natural flow arrangements.
The data regarding the social and economic aspect were collected on the questionnaires
by questioning the different categories of the stakeholders i.e Landlords, Farmers,
Fishermen, NOGs, Agricultural Departments Labourers, and Servicemen etc.General
Socio – Economic query is consisted on the following points, yearly income by all
sources, expenditure during the year, technical persons as an additional source of
income, health care facilities including the maternity facilities, Social problem faced by
then and any assistance from government organization, environmental aspects affecting
their living and agriculture productivity, Source of domestic use of water, Irrigation
water and its distribution, Merits and demerits of drainage networks, usage of drainage
water for domestic use and agriculture purpose, Participations in the drainage system
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

During the meetings were held and field visits have been carried out for better
management of drainage system through participation of farmers/stakeholders. The
farmers are real stakeholders of operating and maintenance of irrigation and drainage
system. During discussion it was realized that farmers were more interest in the
management of irrigation system than management of drainage system. It was observed
that farmers/stakeholders were not familiar with the importance of drainage
management.
During the meeting with farmers/stakeholders, NGOs, FOs, about management of
drainage system following aspects was covered during study such as:
Drainage / Canal systems performance
Socio-Economic Conditions
Environmental aspects
Keeping all objectives of study in view, the following points and facts have been
observed and documented:
- Non awareness regarding the drainage system of the stakeholders were noted.
- Mostly the stakeholders were interested in the canal system rather than Drainage
system.
- Natural drainage conditions vary with the higher lying lands in the upper
command, being some what better drained than the lower lying lands in the lower
commanded and in depressions.
- Drainage condition in the lower command area and in the depression adversely
affected by the discharge and collection of excess surface water in the area.
- Water logging and salinity problems were visible in the catchment area.
- Though the record regarding alignments dimensions and design criteria are
available of the irrigation and drainage system in the concerned office, but at the
site there was found much variation in design parameter of the systems.
- Drainage systems have not been designed for multifunction use (e.g. cattle
drainage, re-use) and also according to heavy rainfall.
- No plan was made regarding the development of the drainage system for
consultation with local Community.
- Blockage and obstacle in certain main, branch and sub drains were observed due
to closure of drains by the local people for their crossing purpose or otherwise due
to reeds, weed and sloughing of site slopes.
- The drain sections at some places have widened whereas the infrastructure are al
most the poor condition, hence the cost of maintenance of drain prism may
increase.
- The outfall structures available were not functioning properly.
- Where there were no outfall structures at the outfall points, therefore, sea intrusion
has damaged the drainage network up to about 10 Km in upstream.
- Farmers and other stakeholders showed less interest to own this system for
operation and maintenance because they are considering this huge network so that
it not possible for them to manage and operate on one hand while they have been
referencing about low crop yield due to salinity and waterlogging and frequently
impact of cyclones. Therefore, there is need of establishing Drainage Beneficiary
Group (DBG) and conveying positive benefits from this system.
- The drainage water has been used for crop without considering negative impact
over fertile lands.
- Dhands are located in the coastal area which have been supplied pancho water
from irrigation system so that they have been maintaining their sanctity but due
construction of Drainage system and huge network LBOD system have put
serious impact on this dhands. Therefore, these have been converted from fresh
water saline.
SUGGESTION / RECOMMENDATION:
The Researcher observed number of adverse issues in the study area, on the basis some
suggestions and recommendations are given below:
x There is stern need of creating awareness among farmers/stallholders about
importance and self operation and maintenance of drainage system.
x There should be given top priority for establishing Drainage beneficiary Group
(DBG) for operation, maintaining and self sustaining of drainage system.
x The capacity of drainage system in the Kotri Drainage circle should be enhanced
according to heavy rainwater, as rain water can be safely dispose off into creeks of
Arabian Sea.
x Awareness should be created among Farmers and stakeholders for not making
breaches and cuts in the drainage system during heavy rainfall.
x The gated structure should be constructed at all outfalling points for averting sea
intrusion and controlling high tides of sea, otherwise, sea intrusion may cause
degrading fertile lands, negative environmental and socio-economic impact.
x There is hard need to construction small ponds at upstream of each outfall

structure, as drainage water may be store in the ponds during high tides.
x During field visit it was observed that drainage water is being utilized for
cropping through lift machine without knowing quality of water. Therefore, this
water has put negative impact over fertile lands.
x There is very important to monitoring water quality of drainage system after that
can be applied for cultivating of crops. Otherwise, the saline water may cause of
devastation of fertile lands and which leads low crop yield.
x The Protective Embank may be constructed along with coastal area for controlling
sea intrusion, flooding during cyclone. This bank will provide facilities to local
people to save their lives and their livestock through shifting on it.
x It is clear fact that due to defer of maintenance of drainage system which has
badly affected on the operation, Therefore, Government should pay serious
consideration for improving this system with the consultations of local people and
stakeholders.
x It is important to mention that out these lagoons some are in RAMSAR
commission. Accordingly, ecosystem of the lagoons has in dangerous conditions
and also cause of deteriorating socio-economic conditions of local people and
fishermen.
x The subsidiary should be paid to the farmers in seeds and fertilizers as they can
improve crop yields.
x The irrigation system supply may be made perennial basis that may increase crop
productivity. This is tail area of irrigation system of our country so it has always
been facing shortage of water.
x The groundwater is saline that can not be used for application of land for
cultivation of crop and for utilization of domestic purpose so that entirely
ecosystem in the command are of Kotri barrage depends upon the fresh surface
water of canal.
x During conducting interviews from local people in the catchment area that they
have been crying about not only shortage of water but told that they have
receiving polluted water from canal system and drainage system for drinking
purpose. They told that urban and industrial effluent was disposed off into both
side of canals of Indus River. Therefore, it should be not dumped into canals as
they can save waterborne diseases.
x Social and economical conditions of local people was poor due lack of awareness,
low crop yield, low literacy rate, victimization of heavy rain fall and cyclone
frequently.
x The house building structure of local people was constructed of raw material and
that constantly remains in danger due to heavy rainfall and cyclone.
x The life standards of the local people was realized poor due to lack of facilities of
communication system and education system.
x Ideas / opinion of stakeholders regarding the benefits of the drainage system and
their interesting coordinator and responsibility to take own the O&M of the
system of on farm drainage system.
x To developed and improve the use of both natural as well as human re-source are
environmental sustainable economically feasible and socially equitable way,
through improved drainage and related water management in the individual
drainage problem.
x Identification objectives i.e. protection of Irrigation and drainage water quality
against pollution, reduction of the saline surface effluent quality through technical
measurement, protection against storm water management to prevent solution for
drainage problems and disposal of drainage water with the random of selected
system, to have sufficient social support for the implementation of the system
effectively.
x The need of organizational development which can enhance capacity with several
factors in the new approach to drainage development. Multifunctional designs for
structures, which have several purposes to be improved as people are not familiar
with multifunctional of operation & Maintenance drainage system.
REFERENCE:
1. Report on Drainage Master Plan of Pakistan, December, 2005.
2. Mahessar A.A, Improving Irrigation Water Management through Participation of
Farmers Organization at Potho minor.
3. Stakeholders Consultative workshop on Environmental monitoring Plan of Left
Bank Outfall Drain (LEMMP- BOD), November, 2004.
4. Soomaro, Muhammad Saleh, Management of Effluent and Remedial Plan for
LBOD System. November, 2004.
5. MUET, November 1997, Symposium on Left Bank Outfall (LBOD) Project and
its Impacts, Symposium Proceedings.
6. Sohag, Mahessar etal. Conducted (2005) on pollution on Indus Waters and the
Drainage System of Sindh, published paper in proceedings of Environmentally
Sustainable Development in International Conference, held by Department of
Environmental Science, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology,
Abbotabad
The 4th Asian Regional Conference &
10th International Seminar on
Tehran-Iran 2-5 May, 2007
Theme 3
Support System for PIM Sustainability

GENERAL REPORT ON THE THEME “SUPPORT SYSTEM

FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY”
A. Hafied A. Gany1
INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND
Out of obout 315 abstracts that had been submitted, 95 papers that have been accepted
for the “4th Asian Regional Conference” and “the 10th International Seminar on
Participatory Irrigation Management, and about 50 papers for History Seminar for
presentation, or about 135 papers altogether. There are 44 papers belong to Theme 1 (A
Review on Participatory Measures in Irrigation); 23 papers belong to Theme 2
(Required Grounds and Facilities for PIM Formation); and 28 papers belong to Theme 3
(Support System for PIM Sustainability).
On top on these figures, there are nine key speakers to give highlights of the underlying
issues on PIM. Among others: (1) Problems and perspectives of PIM under the Small
Land Holding Condition (INPIM-INA); (2) Irrigation Management Transfer (IRAN);
(3) Irrigation Management Reform; (4) Success and sustainability of PIM (INPIM); (5)
Performance PIM (FAO); (6) The Impacts of Management Transfer; (7) Experience on
Management Transfer (The World bank); (8) Water Users, Participatory Management
and Sectoral Reform (IWMI); (9) International Networks on Participatory Irrigation
Management (The World Bank).
The present general report has been abstracted from Theme 3 giving special scrutiny on
“Support system for sustainability of Participatory Irrigation Management”. Out of
which, 21 papers are accepter for oral presentation and seven papers for poster
presentation.
Based on overall review of the 28 papers on Theme three, the issues have been grouped
into sin major sub themes, which are highly relevant with the theme, despite that some
particular aspects are unavoidably “overlapped” to some extent with other themes. This
report, therefore, fucuses a special scrutiny on these six sub-themes (sections) with
some interrelated context with the other two themes. The issues are highlighted in
Section 7.
1- A. Hafied A. Gany, Ph.D., P.Eng., is a Board of Director of International Network on Participatory

Irrigation Management (INPIM); Pesident of the Indonesian Chapter of INPIM (INPIM-INA); Vice
President of the Indonesian National Committee of ICID; and the member of History Working Group of
Irrigation and Drainage of International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage –ICID.
(General Reporter) - gany@hafied.org; hafiedgany@gmail.com
The general outline of the report based of grouping in somewhat random order, are
highlight as the following groups: (1) Institutional Aspects, Constraints, and
Opportunity; (2) Concepts and Analysisis of Public Participation; (3) Sustainability of
Participatory Irrigation Management; (4) Evaluation of Irrigation Project Performance;
(5) Impacts of Socio-economic development; (6) Capacity Building; and (7) Salient
highlights of the papers on the theme “Support System for PIM Sustainable”.
I. INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, CONSTRAINTS, AND OPPORTUNITIES
1.1. GENERAL REVIEW

Under the variety of modes, participatory irrigation management has been implemented
in many parts of the world over the last few decades. The implementations have been
reportedly been indicating positive results. These particularly true for the newly
completed projects including among others: (1) irrigated agricultural performance; (2)
resource mobilization; (3) quality of irrigation services; (4) maintenance of irrigation
infrastructures; and (5) farmers’ institutional development, and other such
implementation achievement.
However, there are a number of evidences suggest that sustenance of such gains over a
long run is often debate-able especially under the poor institutional conditions with the
short-lived project activities. In fact, the continuation of external support should be
continuously provided for a period of time before the capability of the community to
manage the project on self sustainable basis. These external supports among others are:
(1) supporting policies and strategies; (2) capacity building, training, and extension; and
(3) monitoring and evaluation.
1.2. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

From the perspective of institutional arrangement, there are at least three significant and
complementing actors: national/provincial governments, irrigation agencies and/or
water users associations, and the irrigators. The institutional linkages among the three
governance levels of responsible actors are evident.
In Nepal for example, the experiences so far indicate that the transferring management
to farmers has been a huge experiment. Overall, the process has been positive, but more
needs to be done to achieve the desired objectives.
In the past several attempts have been made to introduce a system to collect water fees
from the farmers but without much success or long lasting. Therefore, whether gains in
irrigated agricultural performance in PIM/IMT sites can be sustained is questionable. In
the past, due to insufficient resource allocation for regular maintenance, irrigation
systems fell into disrepair soon after rehabilitation and needed to be rehabilitated within
a few years.
With regard to effective functioning of the WUAs, one difficulty is to locate strong
leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence by
creating favorable linkages with contributing actors. This is particularly relevant to the
cases in which various supports are extended in the name of supporting PIM/ IMT
initiatives through short-lived donor-supported projects.
Despite that the refine Goals and Objectives of PIM/IMT foresees improvement in
agricultural performance and reduction in government expenditure. However, for last
several years, clear and measurable objectives are not yet laid out. In fact, transferring
the irrigation system over to WUAs in itself is perceived as one of the objectives in
contrast to defining the impacts and results that are expected from the management
transfer. For example, experience in Nepal suggest that greater farmer participation in
water supply and system management; increased contribution of farmers’ resources to
operate and maintain the systems; higher agricultural production; and a more positive
farmer perception towards water delivery services. The main threat, however, is the lack
of sustainability.
1.3. SUSTAINING THE POSITIVE ACHIEVEMENTS

To ensure a sustainable positive impact, the state needs to give much more attention
towards issues such as: (1) Sufficient resource allocation for O&M (be it from farmer
contributions or government subsidies); (2) Ways to locate good leadership in the
community and create an enabling environment for its emergence; (3) Focus on
institutional development of WUA before rehabilitation, as preconditions before starting
technical works; (4) Post transfer support: DOI should broaden its role of ‘irrigation
system manager’ towards ‘support service provider’; and More (human and financial)
resources allocated to ensure a functional monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system to
monitor impacts of PIM/IMT.
1.4. OPPORTUNITY FOR EFFECTIVE INSTITUTIONAL ENHANCEMENT

An important area which is sometimes overlooked in the design of IMT programs is the
support system for WUAs and irrigated agriculture during and after management
transfer.
Planners need to consult with water users about what support services are most needed
by the farming community in order to assume the new responsibilities and tasks as well
to overcome constraints.
Support services during and after management transfer may include advisory services
about institutional arrangements, establishment of organizational and financial
procedures and skills, credit facilities, legal advice, marketing and construction
procedures.
Training and extension are amongst the most important tool to develop the knowledge
and skills of farmers and enable WUA officials to undertake management
responsibilities and to ensure more profitable irrigated agriculture.
1.5. FARMERS NETWORK FOR WATER SECTOR REFORMS IN SOUTH INDIA

This paper deals with practical experiences of one of the fundamentals of PIM i.e.
Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms (FNWSR) in South India undertaken by
JalaSpandana.
The main objective of FNWSR is to facilitate farmers – the major stakeholders in

irrigation to participate effectively in the political process of policy formulation and
implementation. INPIM supported JalaSpandana to carry out FNWSR in 2004 and
2005.
The results in terms of regular interaction with the concerned Ministry and Bureaucracy,
pressure group to lobby for PIM, motivate fellow farmers to function efficiently at
various levels of WUAs, seem alarming. In Andhra Pradesh, FNWSR succeeded in
building pressure on the government and ensuring the continuity of WUAs. In
Karnataka, the members of FNWSR succeeded in effective formation and functioning
of project level WUAs institutions in four major irrigation projects.
The analysis concludes that the farmers network is the pre requisite for the success of
PIM that warrants devolution of power from department to water users. In this context
the FNWSR not only enables negotiate and contest with the government agency but also
facilitate building consensus and cooperation from fellow farmers. It is evident from the
evaluation that the FNWSR has created considerable impact on PIM through creating
awareness among farmers, direct interaction with the policy makers, facilitating
implementation process, with limited financial resources.
1.6. FORMULATION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN IN SEMI-ARID

ZONE
This paper presents agricultural and rural development policy of the Government of
Morocco in the arid region located at the southeast of the Atlas Mountains.
Given the severely lacks rainfall, with only 50 to 200 mm per annum and agricultural
activities are fully dependent on torrential water and groundwater through subsurface
tunnel structures, referred to as the “khettara" (system resembles tertiary canal of a large
irrigation system in end water distribution system) in Morocco.
The khettara system has been well operated for several hundreds years because
community itself was established on the basis of khettara water. Since the khettara flow
is indispensable to maintain communities in arid region, it is desirable to improve
present situation through efforts of local people with assistance of local governments
considering the major significance of the khettara rehabilitation, i.e., (1) less cost and
safer water sources; (2) sole water source for stable agricultural production; (3) source
to preserve social system; and (4) heritage for the future.
In the light of these facts, it is expected that the Government will continuously support
communities and unify them into more large organization such as "communal society"
to stabilize and increase farm income of the rural communities under their initiatives.
II. CONCEPTS AND ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
2.1. COOPERATIVE MODE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

Based on experiences, the locals' participation in water resources utilization is not
differed from other forms of public interactions. For public project, however, financial
support by the governments plays a great role in the completion of this kind of project,
and the absence of the public in these projects can be a remarkable weak point.
One of the effective ways in water resource development is through public participation
such as on public in scheduling, construction, completion and maintaining the projects.
In East Azerbaijan, for instance, the participation of the public in completion and
maintenance has been initiated through cooperative approach referred to as Water
Supplying Cooperative Companies (WSCC).
Through the WSCC, public participation has been implemented by means of socio-
economic and management to benefit from the water resource projects. Through the
close interaction with the authorities within the framework of the WSCC, the effective
life of the projects has been increased and a better use of soil and water resources. The
case of East Azerbaijan is considered as a successful model for public participation.
2.2. PERFORMANCE STUDY OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

A performance study has been conducted in Orissa State, India to examine the
functioning and otherwise of Water User Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayat in India
promoted by the State and the local traditional irrigation institutions. The study
objectives are; (1) to contrast the formal and informal institutions in terms of their
formation, performance and success, (2) to examine about the peoples participation and
their liveliness, and (3) to recommend policy interventions to make the formal
institutions more successful.
The study observation concludes that the Pani Panchayat as regulatory institutions in
charge of water distribution on equitable basis, their performance has been reasonably
weak and unsuccessful. Even though Pani Panchayat has been initiated and endorsed in
the State for more than a couple of years, the acceptance of the model have been
lethargic and scattered. However, the study showed that co-operation increases with
increase in farm size.
Researchers have drawn up a strategy for policy makers to ensure IMT programs
become more pro-poor stressing the need to clearly define the rights of farmers, raise
awareness of these rights, reform the election process, and monitor participation in
water user authorities.
As a whole WUA an unexecutable and unacceptable, and is not in the interest of the
people. There are so many constraints like selfishness, illiteracy, no interest due to big
landowners, which hinder for the improvement of WUA.
A detailed action plan should be prepared in consultation with the water users through
Participatory Rural Appraisal method. It is necessary to apply bottom-up approach
instead of top-down for sustainability. Simpler procedures are needed that still provide
the WUA organisations with sufficient legal standing to deal with government agencies,
contract with private firms, contractors, and control resources within the group.
2.3. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN ZANJAN

PROVINCE, IRAN
Increasing water efficiency in agriculture part is the most important solution to reduce
the negative impacts of water crisis. The most important aspect to put into effect is that
the new irrigation project has to be based on appropriate programming as well as
performing of irrigation designs and projects implementation.
An evaluation study has been conducted in Zanjan Province, Iran concludes that the
performance of new irrigation projects have been ranked into four levels including
excellent, good, moderate and weak. The overall evaluation of projects in zanjan
indicates that the weakness from the qualitative analyses, while the evaluation indicate the
good performance from qualitative. From these projects, three successful contribution
projects have been identified, however, the performance evaluations from pressured
irrigation in third program in Zanjan Province, the study concluded that these projects
aren’t conformities in contribution degree from quality point.
From this evaluation, some recommendation for future implementations are as follows:
(1) The projects have to be equipped with data base networks from national water
sources with appropriate quantity and quality as well as time accuracy; (2) Water
measurement networks must be effective to support appropriate water resources
allocation; (3) Improvement of irrigation efficiency and water utilization is most
important aspect to consider; (4) Implementation of artificial feeding projects by
groundwater during the non culture seasons; (5) consistent assistance to water users
association for improving operation and maintenance; (6) The result from studies about
comparing evaluation of pressured irrigation and difference in irrigation efficiency, it is
potential in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.
2.4. FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT IN

NORTHEAST IRAN
A study has been implemented in Northeast Iran to investigate the farmers’ participation
in irrigation networks management with an approach to compare two groups of farmers
in the irrigation networks with Water Users’ Cooperative (WUC) and without. The
methodological approach was a descriptive-correlational and causal-comparative study
of the survey type.
The reliability analysis and the t-test with independent samples showed that there were
significant differences in relation to the averages of the variables of status of farmers’
participation in irrigation management, annual income, farmers’ perception of rural
irrigation status, social solidarity with some parameters.
According to the study findings, it was found that WUCs as the considerable social
capital can improve the level of farmers’ participation in irrigation water management.
Significant differences was statistically found between two groups of WUs, those who
involved in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUA networks in relation
to the individual variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture.
Among the economic characteristics, there was a significant difference between two
groups of respondents in relation to their annual incomes. Significant differences were
found between two groups of respondents from the stand point of all their cultural and
social characteristics, namely extension contacts, communication channels, social
confidence, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC,
and farmers’ participation status concerning irrigation networks management.
In addition, the analysis results indicated that among technical factors, there was a
significant difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and
farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of respondents. Hence,
agricultural policies in Iran must aim at raising the potential of water management
technologies through the development of multi-functional WUCs to enhance
agricultural water productivity, promote equitable access to water and to conserve the
natural resource.
2.5. PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN

IRAN
A study of stakeholder views on the modern Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes has
suggested farmers and extension staffs that the existing canal management is not
sufficiently responsive to the new challenges of agriculture in the post-reform era, and
that a more participatory management structure could help resolve the problems in
water delivery.
Iran already has a long-standing and successful model for participatory farmer
management in the millennia-old Miraab system (Shaarebin) used for managing the
Karezes and Qanats in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. The survey responses
indicated that all three stakeholder groups (farmers, extension staffs and water agency
staff) would support the implementation of a management structure based on the Miraab
system.
The research confirmed the importance of consulting different stakeholder groups, who
might have different attitudes and perceptions of the problems and potential solutions.
All the stakeholder groups surveyed indicated they would support its introduction,
though some doubts were expressed in interviews about senior water agency staff.
It is suggested that farmer organizations should take the government’s interest in
irrigation management transfer as a window of opportunity to take up the stewardship
of, initially, the tertiary water distribution system. They should use their indigenous
knowledge to achieve the flexible demand management required for viable modern
farming.
The commitment of farmers and support of other stakeholders are both crucial for
success of the Miraab systems in the new working context. Successful management of
the tertiary canals would be a good start for the ultimate establishment of the full
farmers’ stewardship of the main and secondary canals in the future.
2.6. PIM OPTION FOR GROUNDWATER

Given the fact that a large sector of the irrigated area is totally or partly dependent upon
groundwater, in Iran, groundwater has also become a cornerstone of many regional
economies and societies.
A study has been conducted to study analyzes the situation of groundwater resource use
in the Abshar irrigation system in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran and establishes the
question if participatory management of groundwater and conjunctive use is a viable
option for irrigation management in the present context.
This paper intends to trigger the thought on whether through participatory groundwater
(or conjunctive water) management it is possible to establish control measures for
groundwater management in a case such as the Abshar Irrigation System or any other
area where groundwater exploitation levels form a threat for the sustainable use of
groundwater.
The remaining questions to be established among others: “Is participatory groundwater
management within and outside of surface water irrigation systems a feasible solution?”
If so, what knowledge is needed? What social structures are needed and at what scale?
How should responsibilities be established and who should be responsible for what?
What role should be delegated to the state? What role should be delegated to the water
management agencies? What responsibilities should go to user organizations and how
do you organize these? Is there a need for institutional engineering? The subsequent
answers to these questions would provide feasible options for PIM on Groundwater.
2.7. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATION NETWORKS

OF TEHRAN PROVINCE
Participatory Irrigation Management in the section of irrigation and agriculture in the
wide land of Iran with water scarcity has a long history. After the victory of Islamic
revolution of Iran government provided a fast development in water industry in the
demand of work in a way that the resource dams which are under operation and use are
more than 170 national dams in provinces and about 83 national resource dams are
being built.
The process of participatory management shift has been done either by voluntarily
establishment of people or it has been done by the application of government, so they
have been able to use this design through actual field performance.
As far as the previous experiences in Teheran Province, there are a number of problems
and constraints associated with PIM implementation. These are among-others: (1)
limitation of authorities and legal instrument as well as support system; (2) Unclear
water right (3) Diversified water policies causing problems on the management shift in
the cities of Tehran Province; (4) Lack of successful PIM model the purpose of
attracting people participation; (5) Lack of sense of ownership and responsibility in PIM
implementation; (6) Lack of inter-sectoral coordination; (7) Highly dependence on the
government on the water services; (8) Problem of land conversion from irrigated
agricultural lands to industrial, housing and other non agricultural purposes; (9) Lack of
initiative for proper maintenance of irrigation infrastructures; (10) Lack of public
awareness on the appropriate use of safety facilities provided for irrigation

infrastructures.
2.8. APPLICATION OF PROPORTIONAL PLUS RESET (P+PR) AUTOMATIC

CONTROL SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATION OF WATER USERS IN DELIVERY
MANAGEMENT
Facing water shortage and increasing water demand, it is necessary to consume limited
water resource in an optimal fashion. Due to low performance of irrigation networks
improvement, water delivery systems and its performance with participation of water
users and applying improved control system become a must.
For this purpose in recent decades several automatic control Systems including P+PR
system, for flow management in irrigation networks have been introduced. Applications
of these techniques provide situation that, water users play a direct role in water
delivery with high flexibility.
To test the performance control in this study, the ICSS hydrodynamic model has been
applied on ASCE standard canal number two to test the global performance of P+PR
downstream automatic control system.
The results show that average depth deviations are in the range of 0.001 to 0.014 % and
maximum depth deviations are in the range of 0.111 to 0.211 %. The response time of
control system shows that the depth is stabilized in the allowable range at the first time
step. Performance indicators and depth variations demonstrate appropriate functioning
of the control system.
Relying on the results of this study, application of this control system in irrigation canal
which provide higher flexibility and direct participation of water users in management
of water delivery could be suggested.
The study concludes that the performance of developed P+PR automatic downstream
control system for simultaneous and significant diversion variations of outlets is quite
suitable and it could be used as an effective instrument for direct participation of water
users in management of water delivery.
2.9. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA STATE,

INDIA
Maharashtra has long tradition of farmers’ participation in irrigation management in the
form of Phad systems and Malgujari tanks. In the nineties, the first Co-operative Water
Users Association (WUA) was established in the Mula Irrigation Project. With its
success, Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has been promoting PIM in the State. Over
the last 10-15 years, there was appreciable growth in WUAs. There are number of
success stories, underlining the importance of WUAs. On the other hand, there are also
some instances of no appreciable improvement in performance of irrigation projects
with WUAs.
The study was concluded to evaluate the actual performance of WUAs a study was
conducted with some conclusion as to provide insight into hindrances in functioning of
WUAs and measures to improve its effectiveness, which in turns improves the
performance of irrigation projects.
It reveals the reasons behind the slow progress and also highlights important learning
and challenges to upscale PIM in the State. GoM has initiated series of reforms to
strengthen PIM. A stand-alone act (MMISF Act - 2005) has been enacted to provide
legal backing to WUAs. The water for irrigation to be supplied volumetrically through
WUAs only and there will be legal agreement between WUA and competent authority.
The State has gone further in providing water use entitlement to individual farmers and
establishment of independent water resources regulatory authority to ensure judicious,
equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State.
It is observed that Irrigation management transfer improves the service delivery as well
as financial performance of the Project. There is need to have committed support from
WRD and timely efforts to build WUAs to shoulder the responsibility. The Maharashtra
case study provides insight into important aspects of PIM and possible measures to
strengthen WUAs movement. Though Maharashtra approach to PIM is gradual, but
with reforms in place and changed mindset of officers of WRD and farmers, PIM could
lead to sustainable irrigation management.
2.10. PARTICIPATION OF THE FARMERS ON O&M OF IRRIGATION NETWORKS

IN CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCES, INDONESIA
Under the new law on Water Resources No. 7/2004 and the Government Regulation on
irrigation No. 20/2006 in Indonesia, the central and local governments recognize the
role of the water user associations (WUAs) to carry out the irrigation networks system
management based on farmers’ participation approach.
This paper elaborates several researches for analysis and evaluation of the farmers’
participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system in two
provinces in Indonesia: Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara.
This research gives general responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning and
performing processes respectively as indicating the scores of 2.77 and 2.80 and
classifying the moderate categories as well as at the evaluating process as indicating the
score of 3.2 and classifying the high category. The farmers’ response on operation and
maintenance of the irrigation networks system management in two provinces
summarizes that 42% of farmers is categorized as high participation, 16% as moderate
participation, 32% as low participation and 10% as very low participation.
Several other researches have been carried out for different locations in Indonesia for
evaluation the farmers’ participation on O&M of the irrigation networks system by
different analysis methods and clearly concluding the positive impact. This synthetic
research was carry out at six water districts in two provinces i.e Central Java and West
Nusa tenggara, the results also showing that a good correlation between the farmers’
participation and the performance of O&M of the irrigation networks system in
Indonesia.
2.11. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF PIM IN QAZVIN AREA

Since the last fifty years, gradual progression in management style of irrigation and
drainage systems supported by promotion of people's participation in management trend
has faced the government-oriented or hindering mechanisms to critical challenges at
global scale. Genesis of this mind-set could largely facilitate evolution of change
management through the four-stage process including: diagnosis, denial, cooperation
and participation.
The network imitates a telescopic model in operation with hydro-mechanical diversion
and checks (Amil) installed at its upstream. The Irrigation Management system in
Qazvin (QIM) also follows full public governance as being experienced everywhere
across the country. This traditional management, parallel to over-dated structures has
left nothing but a depreciated and inefficient network in Qazvin.
A holistic plan for capacity building and empowerment of local farmers was founded in
the province to develop a participatory management and promote due changes towards
optimum utilization and maintenance of the network. The initiative is reliant on a tree-
shaped model and consists of: farming groups, water users associations, unions and their
apex Federation at provincial level. Upon direct election of farmers' representatives and
formulation of legal instruments, managerial and maintenance affairs in main and lateral
canals were gradually transferred to the local clients.
Presently, many commitments encompassing structural rehabilitation and water
distribution have been shifted to the farmers in Qazvin, followed by logistic and
administrative works handled by private sectors. Dynamic involvement of the young
generation (men and women) at managerial and technical levels scattered at WUAs
branches or Federation posts remarks for outstanding aspects of the PIM system in
Qazvin.
To date, the mode applied for creation of CBOs (community-based organizations) and
legislation of NGOs in terms of Water Users Association (WUAs) in Qazvin, generates
a national pattern over the state.
2.12. RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PIM (THE TAFILALET

AREA, SOUTH-EAST OF MOROCCO
The research project for improvement of PIM is a concrete follow-up of the Rural
Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT). The Tafilalet is located South-east of
Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone and extends over an
acreage of 77 250 km2, of which 60 000 ha are under irrigation.
During a mission carried out in the area by experts from the International Fund for
Agricultural Development (IFAD), it was deemed necessary to undertake actions to
upgrade users’ capacities to deal with management of irrigation infrastructures. Based
on the results of the mission, plans of the research project for the improvement of PIM
were developed and implemented. The project, financed through donations from IFAD
($US 490, 000), aims to set up prerequisites to make it possible for users to upgrade
their intrinsic capacities through: (i) organizing themselves within Water Users
Associations (WUAs) where water resources are available; and (ii) meeting O&M costs
incurred by irrigation systems.
A pilot action plan has been implemented in two small-scale irrigation systems falling
within the scope of action of the Tafilalet Rural Development Project (PDRT). The
project has targeted two localities Jorf and Tinjdad where the problem of water scarcity
is most acute. The plan is based on the following three basic actions: (i) promoting
adoption of partnership schemes involving various departments of the Ministry for
Agriculture and users of water resources and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure;
(ii) increasingly involve the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the
Tafilalet (ORMVATf) in providing supervision and technical backstopping to the
WUAs and (iii) encouraging use of water-saving irrigation strategies.
During the four years of project implementation and while aiming at introducing new
methodology and a new approach to prompt farmers to contribute to ensuring durability
of irrigation infrastructure, the project has been able to reach almost all of the goals set
down: (i) organizing and training farmers within the context of their WUAs; (ii)
enhancing awareness by means of training courses and field trips; (iii) promoting water-
saving irrigation strategies through practical demonstration plots and acquisition of
logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database for follow-up evaluation of the WUAs’
performance.
2.13. PRDA: A PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING AND

IMPROVING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE – CONCEPTUALIZATION AND
EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION IN KENYA
In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture is the backbone of the economy and employs approx
70% of the active work force. Rain-fed agriculture is largely dominant and agricultural
production is increasingly vulnerable to erratic rainfalls and recurrent droughts.
Although irrigation development is still in its infant stage in most countries and its
performance remains largely below expectations of policy planners, it is believed it has
a strong potential for rural development and economic growth.
The APPIA (is a French acronym for “Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa”)
project is implemented in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the major
activities of the project was to develop and test in the field a participatory methodology
for analysing and improving the performance of farmer-managed irrigation scheme.
This methodology has been named PRDA for “Participatory Rapid Analysis and Action
Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. A manual published by IWMI and the
FAO presents the details of the methodology.
This paper describes briefly the situation of smallholder irrigation in Kenya and the
numerous questions regarding the performance of such schemes. PRDA is then
presented and a case study of its application in one Kenyan scheme is given. In
conclusion this paper suggests a set of recommendations for effective use of PRDA
based on the lessons learnt in the African countries where it was tested. Based on the
results obtained during the course of the APPIA project, the present document suggest
that PRDA may be one tool to achieve successful participatory irrigation management
that can be used by multi-disciplinary/multi purpose organization such as National
Irrigation and Drainage Committees.
Technicians and policy makers realized that there was no organization in country that
can address all issues related to irrigation management. Hence the Ministry of Water
and Irrigation decided the formation of a professional association to enhance
networking amongst irrigation players, implement multi-disciplinary approaches and
develop further Research & Development programs. In countries where they exist this
could be one role of the National Irrigation & Drainage Committees.
III. SUSTAINABILITY OF PIM
3.1. MEASURING OF SUSTAINABILITY

Many resources have been spent on analyzing and standardizing an approach to
introducing PIM. However few resources have been allocated to developing indicators
for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of the performance of WUAs. The sustainability
of WUAs within the specific socio-cultural context of the countries in which they have
been introduced/developed requires more consideration.
Given special scrutiny of the themes on international experience with measuring
performance of WUAs; common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs; and main technical
and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance, it has been concluded that
the institutional arrangements for M&E of WUA performance, such as Federations of
WUAs, the role of national, regional and local authorities in measuring WUA
performance and the maturing of PIM as a process of development.
This conclusion puts forward a hands-on approach for policy makers, implementation
experts, academics and consultants for ensuring and improving the sustainability of
PIM.
3.2. STRATEGY FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY

Participatory management in irrigation is among the burning issues for discussion in
recent decade for exploiting the irrigation and drainage networks of different countries
irrespective of their involving infrastructural facilities.
Considering the competition in consumption of agricultural water and optimum use of
accessible water resources, a study has been conducted based on the assumption that the
governmental management faces serious challenges in meeting the needs of users, while
the private sector looks at it doubtfully because of high risk in investment on
agricultural water. The study for creating participative irrigation management has been
conducted in Foumanat Irrigation Network (Gilan Province) and Soufichai Irrigation
Network (East Azerbaijan Province).
The Foumanat Irrigation Network is a network with an age of more than 30 years and
covers an area approximately 50,000 hectares. The main crop of the area is rice.
Soufichai Irrigation Network is about eight years old and covers an area about 12,000
hectares. The main crops of the area are cereals and fruits.
The study concludes that the strategy for PIM sustainability must be perceived that
operation and maintenance of irrigation networks is not independent from ways of
participation in rural and urban societies.
The ways and degree of participation in irrigation networks have to be seen from two
major considerations: The first that the degree of willingness of the mother exploiting
company to assigning part of its responsibilities and the second is the users who are
going to accept the responsibility.
For explanation of common issues especially the ways of allocation and distribution of
water in irrigation networks, both these aspects must be equipped with analysis
instruments, which has to be able to demonstrate water allocation to each system that
would resolve the competitive use of water amongst the users.
3.3. MICRO-PLANNING IN PIM, AN ENTRY POINT FOR SUSTAINABILITY

The necessity of devolution of certain management responsibility of irrigation system to
the farmers' organization is now widely accepted as an effective tool for sustainable
irrigated agriculture.
In India during 1990s systematic institutional and organizational changes have been
undertaken to increase farmers’ participation in irrigation management through
formation of Water Users’ Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayats under different
externally assisted economic restructuring and irrigation infrastructure development
programmes of World Bank, European Commission, Japan Bank for International
Cooperation.
Today, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) at various levels is being
implemented in different types of irrigation systems. For this program, appropriate
institutional arrangements and mechanisms to bring about efficient utilization, equitable
distribution and sustainable irrigation service are framed by different states of India.
From a number of experiences learned in Orissa, the poorest state in the dominion of
republic of India, concludes that the strategic micro level planning along with identified
entry point implementation program that are undertaken for sustainable irrigated
agriculture simultaneously.
The study concludes that the objective of poverty reduction by way of promoting
schemes for agricultural productivity improvement through irrigation can be achieved
by adopting community based participatory approaches that support agricultural
development like improving irrigation performance. These could be achieved by
employing new production technologies, enhancing access to markets, promoting
environmentally sustainable production activities, having gender perspective, measures
to improve income and livelihood through micro-finance, rural infrastructure up-
gradation, and participatory processes to empower the rural poor.
3.4. THE NECESSITY OF FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN PRESSURIZED

IRRIGATION SYSTEMS FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY IN IRAN
As a developing country, Iran has several large-scale irrigation and drainage networks
under study and operation. These networks are often constructed in small-scale
farmlands, and because of water deficit, inappropriate topography and incentive
policies, they are equipped with pressurized irrigation systems in which operation is
more complicated, comparing with surface irrigation method.
On the other hand, government policy is to develop private sector and therefore
transferring operation of the networks to farmers’ organizations is highly considered.
Most importantly is the availability considerable costs of project execution which is
provided by public credits also bank facilities by farmers’ commitment establishing a
sustainable PIM is highly important.
Nowadays, national policy is often accelerating construction in large-scale pressurized
irrigation projects, as a result all components of pressurized irrigation systems being
performed by government, so farmers do not play such an important role in this process.
This theorem would cause some problems in transferring the irrigation system
management to farmers’ organization.
The study results obtained from performing under pressurized irrigation systems by
government is compared with the one constructed by farmers organization, also offers
some suggestions with regard to changing the present procedures and participating
farmers organizations in project execution.
The study observation conclude that the pressurized irrigation projects in large areas
which are constructed in small scale farmlands, all of the project execution are done by
government and after accomplishment of project execution, will be transferred to
farmers organizations. Nevertheless this approach will result in farmers’
irresponsibility, and it will, in turn cause their dissociation during project operation so
that after transferring the system to farmers’ organizations, farmers will ascribe the
organizations’ managers to be responsible for all the system's problems.
3.5. SUSTAINABLE PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

To make proper decision on irrigation management transposition, "sustainability in
irrigation management" and specifically PIM, which is the result of transposition
program should be taken into consideration.
In irrigation management transposition process, as the management transposition
mechanism and the assured responsibility delegation method are important, the
sustainability and persistence of activities are the main issue. Specially, since the
stakeholders as the future caretakers for operation and maintenance of irrigation
installations do not have enough experience for the acceptance and performance of the
given responsibilities. Therefore, the persistence of these activities in the form of new
operational system, which is the subject of sustainable management, is focal point of the
transposition program.
The main elements in the sustainable participatory irrigation management are: (1)
Strategies; (2) Training and Extension; (3) Monitoring and valuation.
In all the three abovementioned main elements, it is recommended that the rational
advisory models to be substituted for the common governmental trends, which requires:
(1) In policymaking, new guidelines with no consideration for administrative caution,
but correspond to requirements of local developing society to be submitted; (2) In
training and extension, in addition to formal education in agricultural and irrigation
activities, the issues relevant to reconciliation of technical specifications of the network
with social requirements of an operation unit to be clarified for the stakeholders; (3) By
the assistance of a specialized support system (e.g. in form of a non-governmental
specialized/advisory organization) a diligent plan for monitoring and valuation of the
performance of modern management to be designed to overcome the conditions resulted
from establishment of the participatory operational policy instead of the past one.
IV. EVALUATION OF IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE
4.1. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS (ZANJAN

PROVINCE, IRAN)
In an attempt to evaluate the water efficiency in agriculture it’s necessary to focus our
best tries on programming and performing irrigation designs and projects. From
evaluation in irrigation new projects in five years third program in Zanjan Province the
results of effect amount have been ranked in four levels including excellent, good,
moderate and weak. Nevertheless, projects have been evaluated in as weak in quantitative
term but good in qualitative term, and from these projects, three successful contribution
projects have been elected and introduced in this article.
The general suggestion noted that in order to motivate in investors, it’s necessary to use
encourage policies for using new irrigation approaches.
Regarding to performed evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in
Zanjan Province, it was realized that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution
degree from quality point.
Learning from experience of the project implementation, the following aspects are
recommended: (1) Water resources data base must be provided accurately from quantity
and quality aspects; (2) Water measurement networks installation must be improved to
ensure better irrigation management; (3) The increase of irrigation efficiency could be
achieved by appropriate irrigation water operation; (5) On pressured irrigation it’s
necessary in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.
V. IMPACTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
5.1. IMPLEMENTING PIM MANAGEMENT IN THE LITERATE STATE OF INDIA

Kerala, elongated coastal state of India, lags behind many states in the country in
participating farmers in the management of irrigation, and implementing PIM.
Government manages the irrigation projects and distribution of water to its 0.3 mha
irrigated area, which includes wetland crops like rice, and garden land crops like
coconut.
Fragmentation and subdivision of land and resultant small size of holdings (average 0.3
ha); part-time cultivation of farmers who are literate (literacy rate 91%); lack of
sufficient labour availability and high labour cost; and lack of coordination among
various departments are the major threats to irrigated agriculture in Kerala.
PIM pilot projects being implemented at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects of
the State have shown that, in spite of all the above issues, farmers are highly motivated
and are ready to share responsibilities of PIM. Since spouses of farmers are also
inducted as members of WUAs, enthusiasm shown by women in managing irrigation is
encouraging.
The pilot project experiences are also encouraging. But the hesitation of officials to
depart from the existing system, the reluctance of operational staff to involve users in
management, and lack of legislative backing, are the main blocks noted.
The observation concludes that there are several problems that may hinder the
implementation of PIM in Kerala, as mentioned above. But prospects are not too bad, as
there are several contributing factors. If the irrigation agency supports and nourishes,
PIM will nourish in Kerala also.
Almost at all levels, it is accepted that there needs a change. But their apprehensions
regarding job security and loss of mandate compel them to opt for maintaining the status
quo or keep away from the efforts to initiate change. It is expected that the lessons
learnt from the pilot projects on PIM may help to gear up the political and
administrative will to counter this.
5.2. PARTICIPATORY EXPERIENCES FOR ENHANCING LAND AND WATER

PRODUCTIVITY
This paper shares the experiences of a project having measures to facilitate the
formation of land and water management strategies and institutions that are socially
acceptable and broadly replicable.
The paper describes the participatory process developed and adopted for exploring
options for better use of water with focus on a single distributary RPC-V (Right
Parallel Channel – V) of Patna Main Canal system through cost effective participatory
mechanism, involving poor farmers, landless and share croppers.
A key difference in the present approach has been the identification and elaboration of
possibilities of bringing improvement through dialogue with poor and marginal
stakeholders empowered in relation to the larger-scale farmers who traditionally
dominate the on-farm water management (OFWM) through self-help groups (SHGs).
Dialogues were initiated between experts, local communities, and other key
stakeholders such as the Irrigation Department.
The paper concludes that peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major
principles for sustainable development of water resources. This reflects to believe that
people who inhabit an environment over time are more competent to make decisions.
Dynamic nature of land and water invites wide range of stakeholders having multiple
interests leading to complex integration amongst them. Establishing dialogue amongst
these stakeholders needs identification of appropriate processes and means through
which they can be brought together for a common goal.
The experiences in collaborative project and wide range of project partnership reflects
that participation with community members on land and water related issues is mainly
focused on two general types of situations: (a) set of issues focusing immediate and
critical concerns leading to short-term emergencies or gains such as; irrigation needs,
eradication of seasonal water logging and falling crop yields and (b) concerns that
provide opportunities to different stakeholders to come together for longer-term,
precautionary issues.
To achieve these goals the perspective should be broader which may accommodate
members from wider constituency.
5.3. IMPACTS OF FARMERS' NGOS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF

QAZVIN AREA, IRAN
Connoisseurs believe that inefficient management in O&M of irrigation system is
assumed as a key element in weakening irrigation performance. Based on experiences,
removal of existing inconsistencies and challenges will not realize without people’s
participation.
The analysis in this article have been made to formulate and implement a strategic plan
for establishment and operation of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) in Qazvin
plain mobilized by face to face communication towards further involvement of his staff
(Qazvin Irrigation Management, QIM) and target farmers in the process.
Based on a timing schedule, an action plan became operational to gradually shift
exploitation and maintenance of existing irrigation-drainage network to the local
community. Various commitments e.g., selling, inspection, registration, distribution and
delivering water quotas are to be implemented by corporate Water Users Associations.
They are also obligated for maintenance, dredging, and fixing hydro-mechanical
segments (Amil) and turn-out structures.
The local leaders, apart from foregoing services and continued inspection of structures
and operational processes, are responsible for fulfilling the demands, settling the
problems on the spot and preparing daily reports on possible offending in the network.
Implementing IMT (Irrigation Management transfer) initiative in Qazvin, has resulted in
numerous cultural, social and economic impacts especially in the area of improvement
of irrigation management and has created structural changes towards the great objective
i.e. "Equitable distribution of water" in the network.
5.4. PIM, POVERTY AND MODERNIZATION OF FARMER’S ORGANIZATION (FO)

MANAGED IRRIGATION CHANNELS IN SINDH, PAKISTAN
The concern of this paper is to assess the role of FOs in managing and implementing the
investment and modernization schemes of their own managed channels under PIM in
Sindh province of Pakistan. The paper seeks the contribution of PIM modernization
intervention in reducing the poverty, equity in delivery of water service and
sustainability of FOs. The paper then focuses on the current PIM concepts, reform, and
its process. The paper also address the issues of rehabilitation works, contract
management.
At present at least 180 irrigation channels have been transferred to FOs for management
and operation followed by assessment and collection of water service charges. The FOs
have also been given an opportunity to implement and undertake the rehabilitation and
modernization schemes for improving channels maintenance and operation.
The overall analyses concluded that PIM has evolved and become generally accepted as
a necessary aspect of productive and sustainable irrigation. The schemes of
modernization of irrigation channels are an excellent opportunity to address the issues
of sustainability of FOs, sustainable water resource management. The FO managed
investment schemes have not only addressed the local employment issues of landless
agriculture and rural worker but also has addressed the water equity and efficiency as
well.
The increased farm productivity and income has reduced poverty from the rural poor. In
Sindh PIM has proved to be successful model. But it is long way to go and government
still needs to support and create support services for sustainability of reforms in Sindh.
An empowerment model has to be followed and enabling environment for these new
institutions has to be created.
There is a need to maintain the transparency and create support service for institutions
created under reforms, particularly FOs and water management agency.
5.5. VOLUMETRIC PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA: EXPERIENCES

AND LESSONS LEARNED
Volumetric method of pricing irrigation water has always been advocated as the better
approach to induce water savings by farmers. However, owing to seemingly technical
and administrative complexities in adoption of the volumetric method - especially in
large public canal irrigation systems, the area based pricing method is widespread in
most countries.
In India, during the last decade, there has been significant development in adoption of
the volumetric supply and pricing through PIM. Present paper provides a brief overview
of international practices and the present status of irrigation water pricing and PIM in
India. A case study of volumetric allocation, supply and pricing adopted by a Water
User Association (WUA) in the State of Maharashtra has been presented.
The experiences and lessons learned from the case study and similar other WUAs have
clearly demonstrated that a combination of volumetric supply and pricing at the entry
point of a WUA command area and subsequent distribution and recovery on crop-area-
season basis by the WUA can become successful. Although, the much perceived
objective of achieving water savings due to the volumetric pricing was not directly
realized, there prevails a win-win situation both to the government department staff and
WUAs /farmers. For irrigation staff, this approach has minimized the efforts in area
measurement and vigilance on the area irrigated by farmers, and billing of irrigation
charges has become simpler.
From farmers’ side, as there is a full freedom of cropping pattern and the volumetric
water charging system being transparent, they are willing to pay higher rates and use the
available water efficiently by irrigating more area with same amount of water.
Nevertheless, there is a vast scope to refine /upgrade the present system, especially in
respect of increasing the accuracy and reliability of flow measurement.
The concept of volumetric supply can gradually be introduced at individual farmer’s
level by roping in available technology and farmers’ involvement. There is a particular
need to strengthen the role of WUAs to equip them for the enhanced responsibilities
which calls for a major capacity building exercise.
The Way Forward: Volumetric supply and pricing of irrigation water in India is still at
experimental stage and has to go a long way before it becomes a widely accepted and an
integral component of WUA’s operation.
The case study has amply demonstrated that farmers are willing to pay higher water
charges provided the supplies are reliable, flexible, equitable and there is a transparency
in the billing system. In the Waghad project, a few WUAs have gone one step ahead by
practicing internal distribution of water on hourly basis instead of crop-area basis (proxy
volumetric approach).
Nevertheless, the political will, quality of service, and leadership are the buzzwords to
make it happen. There is a need to make the flow measurements more accurate, reliable
and the structures more robust. The flow measuring device may be equipped with an
automatic water level recorder /totalizer to account for fluctuating flow rates and
convert those into volumes.
Deficiencies in the construction and maintenance of the measuring structures need to be
removed. Some innovative flow measuring devices may be tried. There is a need to
provide water level regulating structures in the canal network to maintain stable flows at
the measuring points. Capacity building and training of all concerned – Department
personnel and farmers should continue. With the given scenario, one can hope of using
volumetric water pricing as a tool to bring about water savings in reality.
VI. CAPACITY BUILDING
6.1. PARTICIPATORY TRAINING PROGRAM, IN ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

This paper deals on the field activity of participatory training program (PTP)/capacity
building of various stakeholders undertaken by Jala Spandana in large canal irrigation
projects in Andhra Pradesh, India.
Given the objectives as to strengthen PIM, sustain WUAs, enhance water use efficiency
and livelihoods, the JalaSpandana Designed Participatory Training Programme (PTP),
which build the confidence of farmers and other stake holders and produced good
results in taking over the responsibility of collecting water tax/rates/charges, exploring
alternates for efficient main system management, sustainable WUAs, tail end
deprivation.
The trainings were carried out in an integrated approach to Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM) with unlimited time bound program that is easy to encompass all
the complexities of the irrigation system, which again could be registered by the
participants.
Under the support of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. PTP has been extended to
irrigation projects that are undergoing modernization program with huge expenditure.
The representatives who were initially discussing only on physical works started
exploring alternatives for efficient water management. Establishment of
dummy/informal project level committees is yet another technique adopted in PTP.
Lessons Learnt: PTP is the right way of training program as different stake holders
realize their roles and responsibilities and in three years period, the project committee of
WUAs or Department officials show the sign of taking over the training as part of water
management. The department officials and WUAs prove great potential to resolve
majority of the issues including tail enders and operation and maintenance issue.
The time frame for PTP in these large irrigation projects given the magnanimity of the
issues and work in large irrigation project is inadequate, the field experience shows that
at least three years is necessary for NGOs to prepare the ground fully and exit.
The intensified PTP in large irrigation projects compounded with policy reforms
certainly make PIM success in AP, particularly in the wake of policy making WUAs
continuous body with every two years election to one third of the members.
INPIM may commission study on PIM in Andhra Pradesh both from policy perspective
and field situations for the benefit of larger interest of PIM. Further, it would be
appropriate for INPIM to support activities like Farmers Network for Water Sector
Reforms and Develop PTP.
6.2. BUILDING CAPACITY FOR PIM - EXPERIENCES AND EMERGING ISSUES

This paper builds on established concepts of capacity-building to look in turn at the key
dimensions of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual
development. The importance of a consistent and supportive policy environment for
building capacity for PIM is emphasized. A range of approaches to institutional
strengthening are put forward, and their focus on the strengthening and development of
Water Users Associations for PIM is discussed. Individual development is normally
undertaken through training, but there is a clear need for innovatory and non-formal
approaches to training, particularly to support PIM.
The paper then goes on to discuss water governance and social learning, as two key
emerging issues of particular relevance to capacity-building for PIM. Water governance
provides a framework for viewing PIM within the wider perspective of the water sector
as a whole, while the current emphasis on social learning is particular relevant to

concepts of participation and PIM, and provides an entry point for capacity-building
through individual development.
Recent experiences collated through ICID workshops and elsewhere are reviewed for
insights into capacity-building for PIM. These include experiences from India, China,
Peru, and transition economies such as Ukraine and Albania, with reflective case studies
from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania.
The paper draws on these experiences to develop some general conclusions in the light
of the theory and concepts of capacity-building, in particular highlighting the need to
take an integrated view of all the resources needed for capacity-building for effective
PIM and the importance of better understanding of participatory processes and of
learning at the local level.
This paper also analyzed the need for capacity building for PIM at the level of the
policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. It discussed
the importance and relevance of the emerging concepts of water governance and social
learning to capacity-building for PIM. Finally it reviewed the experience of ICID and
others in the field.
The general calculation is that the Institutional strengthening provides the most
significant issues in capacity-building, and there is no blueprint for success. The
outlined approaches to institutional strengthening which build on a set of design
questions. The appropriate responses to these questions will vary from location to
location.
The emerging concepts of water governance and social learning suggest further key
challenges for capacity-building.
Whilst much has already been learnt from field experiences, there will always be a need
for further learning as the needs for capacity-building change in the constantly evolving
context of PIM.
VII. SALIENT HIGHLIGHTS OF THE PAPERS ON THE THEME “SUPPORT

SYSTEM FOR SUSTAINABLE PIM”
INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS, CONSTRAINTS, AND OPPORTUNITIES
GENERAL REVIEW
7.1. There are a number of evidences suggest that sustenance of institutional gains over
a long run is often debate-able especially under the poor institutional conditions with the
short-lived project activities.
7.2. In fact, the continuation of external support should be continuously provided for a
period of time before the capability of the community to manage the project on self
sustainable basis – among others are: (1) supporting policies and strategies; (2) capacity
building, training, and extension; and (3) monitoring and evaluation.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT
7.3. From the perspective of institutional arrangement, there are at least three significant
and complementing actors: national/provincial governments, irrigation agencies and/or
water users associations, and the irrigators. The institutional linkages among the three
governance levels of responsible actors are evident.
7.4. Despite that the refine Goals and Objectives of PIM, however, for last several
years, clear and measurable objectives are not yet laid out. In Nepal for instance,
transferring the irrigation system over to WUAs in itself is perceived as one of the
objectives in contrast to defining the impacts and results that are expected from the
management transfer. For example, experience in Nepal greater farmer participation in
water supply and system management; increased contribution of farmers’ resources to
operate and maintain the systems; higher production; and a more positive farmer
perception towards water delivery services. The main threat, however, is the lack of
sustainability.
SUSTAINING THE POSITIVE ACHIEVEMENTS

7.5. To ensure a sustainable positive impact, the state needs to give much more attention
towards issues such as: (1) Sufficient resource allocation for O&M (be it from farmer
contributions or government subsidies); (2) Ways to locate good leadership in the
community and create an enabling environment for its emergence; (3) Focus on
institutional development of WUA before rehabilitation, as preconditions before starting
technical works; (4) Post transfer support: DOI should broaden its role of ‘irrigation
system manager’ towards ‘support service provider’; and More (human and financial)
resources allocated to ensure a functional monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system to
monitor impacts of PIM/IMT.
OPPORTUNITY FOR EFFECTIVE INSTITUTIONAL ENHANCEMENT

7.6. Planners need to consult with water users about what support services are most
needed by the farming community in order to assume the new responsibilities and tasks
as well to overcome constraints.
7.7. Support services during and after management transfer may include advisory
services about institutional arrangements, establishment of organizational and financial
procedures and skills, credit facilities, legal advice, marketing and construction
procedures.
7.8. Training and extension are amongst the most important tool to develop the
knowledge and skills of farmers and enable WUA officials to undertake management
responsibilities and to ensure more profitable irrigated agriculture.
FARMERS NETWORK FOR WATER SECTOR REFORMS IN SOUTH INDIA

7.9. The farmer’s network is the pre requisite for the success of PIM that warrants
devolution of power from department to water users. In this context the FNWSR in
India not only enables negotiate and contest with the government agency but also
facilitate building consensus and cooperation from fellow farmers.
7.10. It is evident from the evaluation that the FNWSR has created considerable impact
on PIM through creating awareness among farmers, direct interaction with the policy
makers, facilitating implementation process, with limited financial resources.
FORMULATION OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN IN SEMI-ARID ZONE

7.11. The khettara (system resembles tertiary canal of a large irrigation system in end
water distribution system in Morocco) system has been well operated for several
hundreds years because community itself was established on the basis of khettara water.
7.12. With assistance of local governments considering the major significance of the
khettara rehabilitation, i.e., (1) less cost and safer water sources; (2) sole water source
for stable agricultural production; (3) source to preserve social system; and (4) heritage
for the future.
7.13. In the light of these facts, it is expected in Morocco that the Government will
continuously support communities and unify them into more large organization such as
"communal society" to stabilize and increase farm income of the rural communities
under their initiatives.
CONCEPTS AND ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
COOPERATIVE MODE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

7.14. One of the effective ways in water resource development is through public
participation such as on public in scheduling, construction, completion and maintaining
the projects. In East Azerbaijan, for instance, the participation of the public in
completion and maintenance has been initiated through cooperative approach referred to
as Water Supplying Cooperative Companies (WSCC).
7.15. Through the WSCC, public participation has been implemented by means of
socio-economic and management to benefit from the water resource projects. Through
the close interaction with the authorities within the framework of the WSCC, the
effective life of the projects has been increased and a better use of soil and water
resources. The case of East Azerbaijan is considered as a successful model for public
participation.
PERFORMANCE STUDY OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

7.16. A study observation in Orissa State, India concludes that the Pani Panchayat as
regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on equitable basis, their
performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. Even though Pani Panchayat
has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of years, the
acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered. However, the study showed
that co-operation increases with increase in farm size.
7.17. Researchers have drawn up a strategy for policy makers to ensure IMT programs
water user authorities.
7.18. A detailed action plan should be prepared in consultation with the water users
through Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method. It is necessary to apply bottom-up
approach instead of top-down for sustainability. Simpler procedures are needed that still
provide the WUA organisations with sufficient legal standing to deal with government
agencies, contract with private firms, contractors, and control resources within the
group.
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN ZANJAN

PROVINCE, IRAN
7.19. For new irrigation project, the most important aspect to put into effect is that the
implementation has to be based on appropriate programming as well as performing of
irrigation designs and projects implementation.
7.20. An evaluation study has been conducted in Zanjan Province, Iran concludes that
the performance of new irrigation projects have been ranked into four levels including
excellent, good, moderate and weak. The overall evaluation of projects in zanjan
indicates that the weakness from the qualitative analyses, while the evaluation indicate the
good performance from qualitative.
7.21. From these projects, three successful contribution projects have been identified,
however, the performance evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in
Zanjan Province, the study concluded that these projects aren’t conformities in
contribution degree from quality point.
7.22. From performance evaluation, some recommendation for future implementations
are as follows: (1) The projects have to be equipped with data base networks from
national water sources with appropriate quantity and quality as well as time accuracy;
(2) Water measurement networks must be effective to support appropriate water
resources allocation; (3) Improvement of irrigation efficiency and water utilization is
most important aspect to consider; (4) Implementation of artificial feeding projects by
groundwater during the non culture seasons; (5) consistent assistance to water users
association for improving operation and maintenance; (6) The result from studies about
comparing evaluation of pressured irrigation and difference in irrigation efficiency, it is
potential in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.
FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT IN

NORTHEAST IRAN
7.23. A study has been implemented in Northeast Iran to investigate the farmers’
participation in irrigation networks found that Water User’s Community (WUCs) as the
considerable social capital can improve the level of farmers’ participation in irrigation
water management.;
7.24. Significant differences was statistically found between two groups of WUs, those
who involved in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUA networks in
relation to the individual variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture.
7.25. Significant differences were found between two groups of respondents from the
stand point of all their cultural and social characteristics, namely extension contacts,
communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation,
farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning
irrigation networks management.
7.26. The analysis results indicated that among technical factors, there was a significant
difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’
perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of respondents. Hence, agricultural
policies in Iran must aim at raising the potential of water management technologies
through the development of multi-functional WUCs to enhance agricultural water
productivity, promote equitable access to water and to conserve the natural resource.
PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF MODERN IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN IRAN

7.27. A study of stakeholder views on the modern Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes
has suggested farmers and extension staffs that the existing canal management is not
sufficiently responsive to the new challenges of agriculture in the post-reform era, and
that a more participatory approach could help resolve the problems in water delivery.
7.28. Iran already has a long-standing and successful model for participatory farmer
management in the millennia-old Miraab system (Shaarebin) used for managing the
Karezes and Qanats in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. The survey responses
indicated that all three stakeholder groups (farmers, extension staffs and water agency
staff) would support the implementation of a management structure based on the Miraab
system.
7.29. It is suggested that farmer organizations should take the government’s interest in
irrigation management transfer as a window of opportunity to take up the stewardship
of, initially, the tertiary water distribution system. They should use their indigenous
farming.
7.30. The commitment of farmers and support of other stakeholders are both crucial for
PIM OPTION FOR GROUNDWATER

7.31. A study has been conducted to study analyzes the situation of groundwater
resource use in the Abshar irrigation system in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran and
establishes the question if participatory management of groundwater and conjunctive
use is a viable option for irrigation management in the present context.
7.32. The remaining questions to be established among others: “Is participatory
groundwater management within and outside of surface water irrigation systems a
feasible solution?” If so, what knowledge is needed? What social structures are needed
and at what scale? How should responsibilities be established and who should be
responsible for what? What role should be delegated to the state? What role should be
delegated to the water management agencies? What responsibilities should go to user

organizations and how do you organize these? Is there a need for institutional
engineering?
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATION NETWORKS OF

TEHRAN PROVINCE
7.33. The PIM concept in the section of irrigation and agriculture in the wide land of
Iran with water scarcity has a long history. After the victory of Islamic revolution of
Iran government provided a fast development in water industry in the demand of work.
7.34. The process of participatory management shift has been done either by voluntarily
establishment of people or it has been done by the application of government, so they
have been able to use this design through actual field performance.
7.35. Learning from experiences in Teheran Province, there are a number of problems
and constraints associated with PIM implementation. These are among-others: (1)
limitation of authorities and legal instrument as well as support system; (2) Unclear
water right (3) Diversified water policies causing problems on the management shift in
the cities of Tehran Province; (4) Lack of successful PIM model the purpose of
attracting people participation; (5) Lack of sense of ownership and responsibility in PIM
implementation; (6) Lack of inter-sectoral coordination; (7) Highly dependence on the
government on the water services; (8) Problem of land conversion from irrigated
agricultural lands to industrial, housing and other non agricultural purposes; (9) Lack of
initiative for proper maintenance of irrigation infrastructures; (10) Lack of public
awareness on the appropriate use of safety facilities provided for irrigation
infrastructures.
APPLICATION OF PROPORTIONAL PLUS RESET (P+PR) AUTOMATIC

CONTROL SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATION OF WATER USERS IN DELIVERY
MANAGEMENT
7.36. Due to low performance of irrigation networks improvement, water delivery
systems and its performance, within in recent decades several automatic control
Systems including P+PR system, for flow management in irrigation networks have been
introduced. Applications of these techniques provide situation that, water users play a
direct role in water delivery with high flexibility.
7.37. To test the performance control in this study, the ICSS hydrodynamic model has
been applied on ASCE standard canal number two to test the global performance of
P+PR downstream automatic control system, having a conclusion that application of
this control system in irrigation canal which provide higher flexibility and direct
participation of water users in management of water delivery could be suggested.
7.38. The study concludes that the performance of developed P+PR automatic
downstream control system for simultaneous and significant diversion variations of
outlets is quite suitable and it could be used as an effective instrument for direct
participation of water users in management of water delivery.
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA STATE, INDIA

7.39. Over the last 10-15 years, there was appreciable growth in WUAs by the
Government of Maharashtra (GoM), India. There are number of success stories,
underlining the importance of WUAs. On the other hand, there are also some instances
of no appreciable improvement in performance of irrigation projects with WUAs.
7.40. The study observes that Irrigation management transfer improves the service
delivery as well as financial performance of the Project. There is need to have
committed support from WRD and timely efforts to build WUAs to shoulder the
responsibility. The Maharashtra case study provides insight into important aspects of
PIM and possible measures to strengthen WUAs movement.
7.41. Though Maharashtra approach to PIM is gradual, but with reforms in place and
changed mindset of officers of WRD and farmers, PIM could lead to sustainable
irrigation management.
PARTICIPATION OF THE FARMERS ON O&M OF IRRIGATION NETWORKS IN

CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCES, INDONESIA
7.42. Under the new law on Water Resources No. 7/2004 and the Government
Regulation on irrigation No. 20/2006 in Indonesia, the central and local governments
recognize the role of the water user associations (WUAs) to carry out the irrigation
networks system management based on farmers’ participation approach.
7.43. This research gives general responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning
and performing processes respectively as indicating the scores of 2.77 and 2.80 and
score of 3.2 and classifying the high category.
7.44. The farmers’ responses on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks
system management in two provinces summarizes that 42% of farmers is categorized as
high participation, 16% as moderate participation, 32% as low participation and 10% as
very low participation.
7.45. Several other researches have been carried out for different locations in Indonesia
suggested that there is a positive correlation between the farmers’ participation and the
performance of O&M of the irrigation networks system in Indonesia.
FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF PIM IN QAZVIN AREA, IRAN

7.46. Since the last fifty years, gradual progression in management style of irrigation
and drainage systems supported by promotion of people's participation in management
trend has faced the government-oriented or hindering mechanisms to critical challenges
at global scale.
7.47. A holistic plan for capacity building and empowerment of local farmers was
founded in the province to develop a participatory management and promote due
changes towards optimum utilization and maintenance of the network. The initiative is
reliant on a tree-shaped model and consists of: farming groups, water users associations,
unions and their apex Federation at provincial level.
7.48. Presently, many commitments encompassing structural rehabilitation and water

generation (men and women) at managerial and technical levels scattered at WUAs
branches or Federation posts remarks for outstanding aspects of the PIM system in
Qazvin.
7.49. To date, the mode applied for creation of CBOs (community-based organizations)
and legislation of NGOs in terms of Water Users Association (WUAs) in Qazvin,
generates a national pattern over the state.
RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PIM (THE TAFILALET AREA,

SOUTH-EAST OF MOROCCO
7.50. The research project for improvement of PIM is a concrete follow-up of the Rural
Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT). The Tafilalet is located South-east of
Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone to make it possible for
users to upgrade their intrinsic capacities through: (i) organizing themselves within
Water Users Associations (WUAs) where water resources are available; and (ii)
meeting O&M costs incurred by irrigation systems.
7.51. During the four years of project implementation by introducing new methodology
and a new approach to prompt farmers to contribute to ensuring durability of irrigation
infrastructure, the project has been able to reach almost all of the goals set down: (i)
organizing and training farmers within the context of their WUAs; (ii) enhancing
awareness by means of training courses and field trips; (iii) promoting water-saving
irrigation strategies through practical demonstration plots and acquisition of logistics
support; and (iv) setting up a database for follow-up evaluation of the WUAs’
performance.
PRDA: A PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING AND

IMPROVING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE – CONCEPTUALIZATION AND
EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION IN KENYA
7.52. The APPIA (is a French acronym for “Improving Irrigation Performance in
Africa”) project is implemented in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the
major activities of the project was to develop and test in the field a participatory
methodology for analysing and improving the performance of farmer-managed
irrigation scheme. This methodology has been named PRDA for “Participatory Rapid
Analysis and Action Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. A manual published
by IWMI and the FAO presents the details of the methodology.
7.53. Based on the results obtained during the course of the APPIA project in Kenya, it
is suggested that PRDA may be one tool to achieve successful participatory irrigation
management that can be used by multi-disciplinary/multi purpose organization such as
National Irrigation and Drainage Committees.
7.54. Technicians and policy makers realized that there was no organization in country
that can address all issues related to irrigation management. Hence the Ministry of
Water and Irrigation decided the formation of a professional association to enhance

develop further Research & Development programs.
SUSTAINABILITY OF PIM
MEASURING OF SUSTAINABILITY
7.55. Given special scrutiny of the themes on international experience with measuring
performance of WUAs; common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs; and main technical
and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance, it has been concluded that
the institutional arrangements for M&E of WUA performance, such as Federations of
WUAs, the role of national, regional and local authorities in measuring WUA
performance and the maturing of PIM as a process of development.
7.56. This conclusion puts forward a hands-on approach for policy makers,
implementation experts, academics and consultants for ensuring and improving the
sustainability of PIM.
STRATEGY FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY

7.57. Considering the competition in consumption of agricultural water and optimum
use of accessible water resources, a study for creating participative irrigation
management has been conducted in Foumanat Irrigation Network (Gilan Province) and
Soufichai Irrigation Network (East Azerbaijan Province).
7.58. The study concludes that the strategy for PIM sustainability must be perceived that
operation and maintenance of irrigation networks is not independent from ways of
participation in rural and urban societies.
7.59. The ways and degree of participation in irrigation networks have to be seen from
two major considerations: The first that the degree of willingness of the mother
exploiting company to assigning part of its responsibilities and the second is the users
who are going to accept the responsibility.
7.60. For enable the effective allocation and distribution of water in irrigation networks,
the operator must be equipped with analysis instruments, which has to be able to
demonstrate water allocation to each system that would resolve the competitive use of
water amongst the users.
MICRO-PLANNING IN PIM, AN ENTRY POINT FOR SUSTAINABILITY

7.61. In India during 1990s systematic institutional and organizational changes have
been undertaken to increase farmers’ participation in irrigation management through
formation of Water Users’ Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayats under different
externally assisted economic restructuring and irrigation infrastructure development
programmes of World Bank, European Commission, Japan Bank for International
Cooperation.
7.62. Today, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) at various levels is being

implemented in different types of irrigation systems. For this program, appropriate
institutional arrangements and mechanisms to bring about efficient utilization, equitable
distribution and sustainable irrigation service are framed by different states of India.
7.63. From a number of experiences learned in Orissa, the poorest state in the dominion
of republic of India, concludes that the strategic micro level planning along with
identified entry point implementation program that are undertaken for sustainable
irrigated agriculture simultaneously.
7.64. The study concludes that the objective of poverty reduction by way of promoting
schemes for agricultural productivity can be achieved by adopting community based
participatory approaches that support agricultural development like improving irrigation
performance. These could be achieved by employing new production technologies,
enhancing access to markets, promoting environmentally sustainable production
activities, having gender perspective, measures to improve income and livelihood
through micro-finance, rural infrastructure up-gradation, and participatory processes to
empower the rural poor.
THE NECESSITY OF FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION

SYSTEMS FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY IN IRAN
7.65. As a developing country, Iran has several large-scale irrigation and drainage
networks under study and operation. These networks are often constructed in small-
scale farmlands, and because of water deficit, inappropriate topography and incentive
more complicated, comparing with surface irrigation method.
7.66. Based on a study results obtained from performing under pressurized irrigation
systems by government is compared with the one constructed by farmers organization,
offers some suggestions with regard to changing the present procedures and
participating farmers organizations in project execution.
7.67. The study observation conclude that the pressurized irrigation projects in large
areas which are constructed in small scale farmlands, all of the project execution are
done by government and after accomplishment of project execution, will be transferred
to farmers organizations.
7.68. However, this approach will result in farmers’ irresponsibility, and it will, in turn
cause their dissociation during project operation so that after transferring the system to
farmers’ organizations, farmers will ascribe the organizations’ managers to be
responsible for all the system's problems.
SUSTAINABLE PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

7.69. To make proper decision on irrigation management transposition, "sustainability
in irrigation management" and specifically PIM, which is the result of transposition
program should be taken into consideration.
7.70. In irrigation management transposition process, the persistence of activities in the

form of new operational system, which is the subject of sustainable management, is
focal point of the transposition program.
7.71. The main elements in the sustainable participatory irrigation management are: (1)
Strategies; (2) Training and Extension; (3) Monitoring and valuation.
7.72. In all the three abovementioned main elements, it is recommended that the rational
(1) In policymaking, new guidelines with no consideration for administrative caution,
but correspond to requirements of local developing society to be submitted; (2) In
training and extension, in addition to formal education in agricultural and irrigation
activities, the issues relevant to reconciliation of technical specifications of the network
with social requirements of an operation unit to be clarified for the stakeholders; (3) By
the assistance of a specialized support system.
EVALUATION OF IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS (ZANJAN

PROVINCE, IRAN)
7.73. In an attempt to evaluate the water efficiency in agriculture it’s necessary to focus
our best tries on programming and performing irrigation designs and projects.
7.74. Regarding to performed evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in
Zanjan Province, Iran, it was realized that these projects aren’t conformities in
contribution degree from quality point.
7.75. Learning from experience of the project implementation, the following aspects are
recommended: (1) Water resources data base must be provided accurately from quantity
and quality aspects; (2) Water measurement networks installation must be improved to
ensure better irrigation management; (3) The increase of irrigation efficiency could be
achieved by appropriate irrigation water operation; (5) On pressured irrigation it’s
necessary in pressure way to use more lands from irrigated farms.
IMPACTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
IMPLEMENTING PIM MANAGEMENT IN THE LITERATE STATE OF INDIA

7.76. Kerala, elongated coastal state of India, lags behind many states in the country in
participating farmers in the management of irrigation, and implementing PIM.
7.77. Fragmentation and subdivision of land and resultant small size of holdings
(average 0.3 ha); part-time cultivation of farmers who are literate (literacy rate 91%);
lack of sufficient labor availability and high labor cost; and lack of coordination among
various departments are the major threats to irrigated agriculture in Kerala.
7.78. PIM pilot projects being implemented at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation
Projects of the State have shown that, farmers are highly motivated and are ready to
share responsibilities of PIM. Since spouses of farmers are also inducted as members of
WUAs, enthusiasm shown by women in managing irrigation is encouraging.
7.79. The pilot project experiences are also encouraging. But the hesitation of officials
to depart from the existing system, the reluctance of operational staff to involve users in
management, and lack of legislative backing, are the main blocks noted.
7.80. The observation concludes that there are several problems that may hinder the
implementation of PIM in Kerala, as mentioned above. But prospects are not too bad, as
there are several contributing factors. If the irrigation agency supports and nourishes,
PIM will nourish in Kerala also.
7.81. It is expected that the lessons learnt from the pilot projects on PIM may help to
gear up the political and administrative will to counter this.
PARTICIPATORY EXPERIENCES FOR ENHANCING LAND AND WATER

PRODUCTIVITY
7.82. This paper shares the experiences of a project having measures to facilitate the
acceptable and broadly replicable. The paper describes the participatory process
developed and adopted for exploring options for better use of water with focus on a
single distributary of Patna Main Canal system through cost effective participatory
mechanism, involving poor farmers, landless and share croppers.
7.83. The observation concludes that peoples’ participation has been identified as one of
the major principles for sustainable development of water resources. This reflects to
believe that people who inhabit an environment over time are more competent to make
decisions. Establishing dialogue amongst these stakeholders needs identification of
appropriate processes and means through which they can be brought together for a
common goal.
7.84. The experiences in collaborative project and wide range of project partnership
reflects that participation with community members on land and water related issues is
mainly focused on two general types of situations: (a) set of issues focusing immediate
and critical concerns leading to short-term emergencies or gains such as; irrigation
needs, eradication of seasonal water logging and falling crop yields and (b) concerns
that provide opportunities to different stakeholders to come together for longer-term,
precautionary issues. To achieve these goals the perspective should be broader which
may accommodate members from wider constituency.
IMPACTS OF FARMERS' NGOS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF

QAZVIN AREA, IRAN
7.85. It is commonly understood that inefficient management in O&M of irrigation
system is assumed as a key element in weakening irrigation performance. Based on
experiences, removal of existing inconsistencies and challenges will not realize without
people’s participation.
7.86. The analysis in this article have been made to formulate and implement a strategic
plan for establishment and operation of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) in
Qazvin plain mobilized by face to face communication towards further involvement of

his staff (Qazvin Irrigation Management, QIM) and target farmers in the process.
7.87. Based on a timing schedule, an action plan became operational to gradually shift
exploitation and maintenance of existing irrigation-drainage network to the local
community. Various commitments e.g., selling, inspection, registration, distribution and
delivering water quotas are to be implemented by corporate WUAs.
7.88. Implementation of IMT (Irrigation Management transfer) initiative in Qazvin, Iran
has resulted in numerous cultural, social and economic impacts especially in the area of
improvement of irrigation management and has created structural changes towards the
great objective i.e. "Equitable distribution of water" in the network.
PIM, POVERTY AND MODERNIZATION OF FARMER’S ORGANIZATION (FO)

MANAGED IRRIGATION CHANNELS IN SINDH, PAKISTAN
7.89. The concern of this paper is to assess the role of FOs in managing and
implementing the investment and modernization schemes of their own managed
channels under PIM in Sindh province of Pakistan. The paper seeks the contribution of
PIM modernization intervention in reducing the poverty, equity in delivery of water
service and sustainability of FOs. The paper then focuses on the current PIM concepts,
reform, and its process. The paper also address the issues of rehabilitation works,
contract management.
7.90. The overall analyses concluded that PIM has evolved and become generally
accepted as a necessary aspect of productive and sustainable irrigation. The schemes of
modernization of irrigation channels are an excellent opportunity to address the issues
of sustainability of FOs, sustainable water resource management. The FO managed
investment schemes have not only addressed the local employment issues of landless
agriculture and rural worker but also has addressed the water equity and efficiency.
7.91. The increased farm productivity and income has reduced poverty from the rural
poor. In Sindh PIM has proved to be successful model. But it is long way to go and
government still needs to support and create support services for sustainability of
reforms in Sindh. An empowerment model has to be followed and enabling
environment for these new institutions has to be created.
7.92. There is a need to maintain the transparency and create support service for
institutions created under reforms, particularly FOs and water management agency.
VOLUMETRIC PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA: EXPERIENCES AND

LESSONS LEARNED
7.86. Volumetric method of pricing irrigation water has always been advocated as the
better approach to induce water savings by farmers. However, owing to seemingly
technical and administrative complexities in adoption of the volumetric method, the area
based pricing method is widespread in most countries.
7.93. In India, during the last decade, there has been significant development in
adoption of the volumetric supply and pricing through PIM. A case study of volumetric
allocation, supply and pricing adopted by a WUA in the State of Maharashtra has been
presented.
7.94. The experiences and lessons learned from the case study and similar other WUAs
have clearly demonstrated that a combination of volumetric supply and pricing at the
entry point of a WUA command area and subsequent distribution and recovery on crop-
area-season basis by the WUA can become successful.
7.95. The concept of volumetric supply can gradually be introduced at individual
farmer’s level by roping in available technology and farmers’ involvement. There is a
particular need to strengthen the role of WUAs to equip them for the enhanced
responsibilities which calls for a major capacity building exercise.
7.96. The Way Forward: (a) Volumetric supply and pricing of irrigation water in India
is still at experimental stage and has to go a long way before it becomes a widely
accepted and an integral component of WUA’s operation; (b) The case study has amply
demonstrated that farmers are willing to pay higher water charges provided the supplies
are reliable, flexible, equitable and there is a transparency in the billing system; (c)
There is a need to make the flow measurements more accurate, reliable and the
structures more robust. The flow measuring device may be equipped with an automatic
water level recorder to account for fluctuating flow rates and convert those into
volumes; (d) Deficiencies in the construction and maintenance of the measuring
structures need to be removed. Some innovative flow measuring devices may be tried.
There is a need to provide water level regulating structures in the canal network to
maintain stable flows at the measuring points.
CAPACITY BUILDING
PARTICIPATORY TRAINING PROGRAM, IN ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

7.97. This paper deals on the field activity of participatory training program
(PTP)/capacity building of various stakeholders undertaken by Jala Spandana in large
canal irrigation projects in Andhra Pradesh, India. Given the objectives as to strengthen
PIM, sustain WUAs, enhance water use efficiency and livelihoods, the JalaSpandana
Designed Participatory Training Programme (PTP), exploring alternates for efficient
main system management, sustainable WUAs, tail end deprivation.
7.98. The trainings were carried out in an integrated approach to Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) with unlimited time bound program that is easy to
encompass all the complexities of the irrigation system, which again could be registered
by the participants.
7.99. Under the support of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. PTP has been extended
to irrigation projects that are undergoing modernization program with huge expenditure.
The representatives who were initially discussing only on physical works started
exploring alternatives for efficient water management.
7.100. Lessons Learnt: PTP is the right way of training program as different stake
holders realize their roles and responsibilities and in three years period, the project
committee of WUAs or Department officials show the sign of taking over the training as
part of water management. The department officials and WUAs prove great potential to
resolve majority of the issues including tail enders and operation and maintenance issue.
7.101. The time frame for PTP in these large irrigation projects given the magnanimity
of the issues and work in large irrigation project is inadequate, the field experience
shows that at least three years is necessary for NGOs to prepare the ground fully and
exit.
7.102. The intensified PTP in large irrigation projects compounded with policy reforms
certainly make PIM success in AP, particularly in the wake of policy making WUAs
continuous body with every two years election to one third of the members. It would be
BUILDING CAPACITY FOR PIM - EXPERIENCES AND EMERGING ISSUES

7.103. This paper builds on established concepts of capacity-building to look in turn at
the key dimensions of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual
development. A range of approaches to institutional strengthening are put forward.
7.104. The paper then goes on to discuss water governance and social learning, as two
key emerging issues of particular relevance to capacity-building for PIM. Water
governance provides a framework for viewing PIM within the wider perspective of the
water sector as a whole, while the current emphasis on social learning is particular
relevant to concepts of participation and PIM, and provides an entry point for capacity-
building through individual development.
7.105. Recent experiences collated through ICID workshops and elsewhere are
reviewed for insights into capacity-building for PIM. These include experiences from
India, China, Peru, and transition economies such as Ukraine and Albania, with
reflective case studies from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania. The paper
draws on these experiences to develop some general conclusions in the light of the
theory and concepts of capacity-building.
7.106. The general conclusion is that the Institutional strengthening provides the most
significant issues in capacity-building, and there is no blueprint for success. The
emerging concepts of water governance and social learning suggest further key
challenges for capacity-building. Whilst much has already been learnt from field
experiences, there will always be a need for further learning as the needs for capacity-
building change in the constantly evolving context of PIM.
PIM, POVERTY AND MODERNIZATION OF FO MANAGED

IRRIGATION CHANNELS IN SINDH- PAKISTAN
Nazeer Ahmed Memon1
ABSTRACT
The concern of this paper is to assess the role of FOs in managing and implementing the
investment and modernization schemes of their own managed channels under
Participatory Irrigation Management in Sindh province of Pakistan. The paper would
also seek the contribution of PIM modernization intervention in reducing the poverty,
equity in delivery of water service and sustainability of FOs. The paper will focus on the
current PIM concepts, reform, and its process. The paper will address the issues of
rehabilitation works, contract management. At present at least 180 irrigation channels
have been transferred to FOs for management and operation followed by assessment
and collection of water service charges. The FOs have also been given an opportunity to
implement and undertake the rehabilitation and modernization schemes for improving
channels maintenance and operation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Under the water and poverty initiative (WPI) there has been many papers presented by
various forums including Global Water Management (GWP). These initiatives have
been instigated by the major donors under the co-ordination of the Asian Development
Bank. In recent years there has been an increased focus on reducing poverty as a key
responsibility of government and objective of donor support. This was reinforced at the
UN Millennium General Assembly when the Millennium Development Goal of halving
the proportion of the world's population living in extreme poverty by 2015 was agreed
by all member countries of the United Nations. Other goals and targets specific to water
and poverty were agreed at the Millennium Assembly and at the World Summit on
Sustainable Development.
At present about 68% pf Pakistan’s population living in rural areas is directly or
indirectly linked with agriculture for their livelihood. The poverty assessment indicates
that about one-third of the Pakistan population is poor, and two-thirds are found in rural
areas. Poverty in rural Pakistan is deeper and more severe than in urban areas. The low
1- Social Development Specialist, Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA), Left Bank Barrage
Colony, Hyderabad Sindh- Pakistan. Email: nzessani@hotmail.com, Phone: +92 22 921 0085,
Fax: + 92 22 921 0081
agricultural productivity has been reported a major cause for poverty. The agriculture
productivity depends importantly on the availability of water for irrigation.
The paper is to review the overall status of reform and poverty in Sindh. With the
passage of time it has been witnessed that the PIM and water-related services can help
reduce poverty in the contexts of public health, land use, food production, livelihoods,
agricultural development, rural planning and environmental protection. Based on such
presumption, the PIM has been recognized as main tool in poverty reduction, especially
in the countries where agriculture is a key mean for livelihood.
2. DEFINING PIM: PROCESS AND APPROACH

Participation is a process through which stakeholders influence and share control over
development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them. Participatory
Irrigation Management refers to the involvement of farmers/irrigation users in all
aspects of irrigation management. The intensity of participatory management may range
from minimal user involvement to the transfer of nearly all management functions.
There are various aspects of PIM that include planning, design, construction, operation
& maintenance, financing and policy matters. Similarly PIM can be implemented at
various levels i.e. quaternary, tertiary, secondary, main system, project and sectors.
3. WATER MANAGEMENT NET WORK OF SINDH

Sindh province has almost 13 million acres of irrigated lands in its three barrage
command areas, built between 1932 and 1962. Sukkur barrage was the major irrigation
achievement with a command area of 7.6 million acres. The barrage was built at a
strategic location, some 600 kilometres upstream from the deltaic regions in the Arabian
Sea. The other two barrages in the province are the Kotri barrage (with CCA 3 million
acres) and the Guddu barrage (2.1 million acres) , built in 1955 and 1962, respectively,
with the former being upstream from the Sukkur barrage and the latter being roughly
150 kilometres away from the coastal and deltaic communities. The irrigation system of
Sindh province has total gross command area (GCA) of 14.391 million acres (5.8
million hectares), out of which 3.211 million acres is classified as cultivable waste,
which can be brought under cultivation if irrigation water is available. In 1999 the total
waterlogged area was calculated as 5.434 million acres which appears to be more than
30% of the total command area of the province.
The irrigation system of the province below the barrages comprises 14 feeders and main
canals, 1462 branch canals, distributaries and minors. More than 95% of the irrigation is
from canal water. The water withdrawal capacity of the barrages totals as 125,625
cusecs (designed) and 150,931 cusecs (maximum). The controlled irrigation system
installed during the colonial years was a vast network of waterways that carried
irrigation supplies from the river source to the farmlands. The system runs 13234 miles
in form of main canals, branch canals, distributor canals and minor canals. The main
canal draw water from rivers at the barrage points and delivers water into the branch
canals. Water reaches the farm through distributaries or minor canals, which take water
from the branch canal, the lower middle tier of the irrigation system. Around 78% of the
area in Sindh province is underlain by saline groundwater, which is unsuitable for
irrigation. Close to the edges of the irrigated lands, fresh groundwater can be found.
Refer below the map of irrigation system of Sindh:
A part from irrigation system, Sindh has drainage system which as such is not
contiguous and integrated. There are 13 existing surface drainage systems in Sindh,
which serve a total area of over 6.2 Million acres (2.5 M ha) and have an aggregate
length of about 2,981 miles (4,800 Km). In addition there are two sub-surface drainage
systems, which serve an area of 0.10 Million acres (0.04 M ha).
4. MAGNITUDE OF CRISIS
It is estimated, however, that out of the 13 million acres comprising the greater canal
area in the province, at least one million acres-mostly owned by small and poor land-
owning families- do not receive sufficient irrigation supplies. The situation is extremely
distressing to the communities or settlements that are dependent on the surface irrigation
flows for drinking and other domestic uses. The Sindh Government’s annual
expenditure on O&M is more than 3000 million rupees against its annual revenue
(water charges) of less than 1000 million rupees. An example of financial year 2001-02
is given in below. As stated earlier, the Sindh Irrigation System is part of the Indus
Basin irrigation system, the world’s largest irrigation system. The size of the system is
enormous by any standard. The area in the Province irrigated by the fourteen main
canals from the three barrages on the Indus River is 5.5 M ha. To give a measure of the
size of the irrigated system in the Province of Sindh: it is twice the irrigated area in
Mexico and almost equal to the area under irrigation in Egypt. The movements towards
participatory irrigation management in Sindh has its background in problems
encountered in irrigation systems elsewhere – though probably in an amplified form: the
inability to subsidize irrigation and drainage operations with public resources, the
difficulty to maintain performance standards and the increased unwillingness of water
users to contribute in cash or in kind. The irrigation system of Pakistan is the largest
irrigation system in the world. Its construction was begun long before partition and it
was expanded after independence. In Sindh alone, the system has 3 barrages and over
20, 000 km of larger and smaller canals. Today the system is in danger since there is not
enough money to maintain and operate the system.
5. THE STATE OF PIM AND POVERTY IN SINDH

Sindh has a total population of over 30 million, majority of which (51%) lives in rural
areas. The total geographical area is 14 million ha, constituting 17.5 percent of Pakistan.
About 5.8 million ha is commanded by canals. Net area sown is about 3 million ha, with
about 1 million ha sown twice a year.
It is estimated, that out of the 13 million acres comprising the greater canal area in the
Sindh province, at least one million acres-mostly owned by small and poor land-owning
families- do not receive sufficient irrigation supplies. The situation is extremely
distressing to the communities or settlements that are dependent on the surface irrigation
flows for drinking and other domestic uses.
The Sindh Government’s annual expenditure on O&M is more than 4000 million rupees
against its annual revenue (water charges) of approximately 600 million rupees. The
irrigation and drainage system has its institutional weaknesses in terms of management.
The continuous centralized management has deteriorated the water management system
in Sindh and as a result of that system’s efficiency has reduced miserably to 30% only.
The environmental issues caused due to inefficient management have never been looked
into which resulted in destruction of wetlands, Indus delta and marine life, poor water
quality, sea intrusion and disappearance of fresh water in the down stream part of Indus
River. The waterlogging and salinity has affected more than 40% of the total cultivable
command area of Sindh.
The poor water management service directly affects socio-economic condition of the
people of Sindh province especially rural people who have direct stake in water-the
main source of their livelihood. The index of Poverty in rural Sindh is deep and
alarming. About 37% population lives below the poverty line compared to 33% in
Pakistan on an overall basis. Over 70% of the rural population is landless. Rural
households, including the landless, derive 56% of their income from agriculture,
directly or indirectly. The rural poor tend to be employed mostly as agriculture wage
workers. The concentration of poor is the highest among categories of households
where the head is an unpaid family worker, sharecropper, or owner-cultivator owning
less than 2 hectares of land. The poverty headcounts in these categories are 60%, 50%
and 40% respectively. Rural Sindh is highly dependent on public services with little role
of the private sector. Thus reforms to improve public service delivery and stimulate
rural growth that raise agricultural and nonagricultural wages are fundamental for
reducing poverty in rural Sindh.
6. GOSINDH STRATEGY FOR PIM - A TOOL FOR POVERTY REDUCTION

A holistic water resources management strategy encompassing policy and institutional
improvements, improved management of storages, infrastructure improvement,
environmental sustainability, productivity enhancement, and poverty alleviation, is
required to address the water recourses management issues. While realizing the need for
such a holistic strategy and initiating its preparation, GOSindh has evolved an interim
strategy that would yield quick dividends, within the broader constraints mentioned
above, while building the foundation for the longer term strategy. This interim strategy
has three inter-related elements: (a) fostering an institutional, policy and operational
framework conducive to efficient and self-sustaining operation and maintenance of the
irrigation system; (b) supporting WCAs in implementing high payoff infrastructure
improvements needed for improved water management, particularly at the tertiary level
of the irrigation system, at a much accelerated pace, than in the past; and (c) enhancing
agricultural productivity and incomes by introducing improved technology, agronomic
practices, and information knowledge systems.
The first element of the strategy is predicated upon the implementation of fundamental
and far reaching institutional reforms that are being supported under the World Bank
funded projects. These reforms involve decentralization and transfer of management of
the irrigation and drainage system from the Sindh Irrigation Department to a multi-tier
system of autonomous institutions, with clearly defined roles and responsibilities within
the system, with a fm commitment to rationalize O&M subsidies. The key elements of
the reforms, the hierarchy of the new institutions and their roles and responsibilities are
as follows:
(i) conversion of the Irrigation Department into an autonomous Sindh Irrigation and
Drainage Authority (SIDA), with responsibility for intra-provincial aspects of the
system, including O&M of barrages and main canal head-works, and management of
intra-province bulk water transfers, including water deliveries at the head of main canals
and management of drainage effluent in main drains that extend across canal
commands;
(ii) establishment of self-accounting, commercially oriented, client responsive and
financially sustainable area water boards (AWBs) --public utilities-- on each main canal,
responsible for operating and maintaining the irrigation and drainage system within the
main canal command up to the head of the distributary canals; and
(iii) establishment of FOs, owned and managed by farmers, and responsible for O&M of
the irrigation and drainage system within the command area of distributary and minor
canals and collection of abiana (water charges). FOs would have representation on the
AWBs.
The long term vision is that once the new institutions become operational, SIDA would
enter into contracts with AWBs for bulk supply of irrigation water and receipt of the
drainage effluent generated within the limits of the AWBs. The AWBs would enter into
similar contracts with FOs for bulk supply of water at the head of the distributary
canals. The FOs will collect abiana, retain a part of it and pass on the remaining
proceeds to AWBs for maintenance of the main canals. The AWBs would in return pass
on a portion of the amounts received to SIDA for the O&M of the system under the
latter's jurisdiction. It is expected that the reforms would lead to SIDA and AWBs
developing into vibrant autonomous bodies capable of improved management and
O&M of the upper tiers of the irrigation system that would result in improved and
sustainable operations, higher water delivery efficiency and better scheduling of canal
deliveries reflecting more closely the irrigation requirements in canal commands.
Establishment of FOs would lead to more equitable distribution of water amongst
watercourses, improved and cost effective maintenance and more efficient collection of
abiana.
The second element of GOSindh's interim strategy --supporting communities to
carryout
accelerated high payoff infrastructure improvements at the tertiary level-- complements
the first element of the strategy, but stands on its own merit. It involves, establishing
effective community organizations/user groups at the watercourse, and distributary
canal levels to provide a solid foundation for the upper tier reforms. Also, investments
to make the irrigation infrastructure functional and efficient are essential to enable the
fledgling institutions (WCAs, FOs) to perForm and yield intended outcomes. Overall
progress on establishing WCAs and infrastructure improvements at the tertiary level has
been slow, primarily due to lack of capacity for social mobilization and capacity
building. GOSindh wishes to improve the speed and effectiveness of this program
through greater participation by WCAs. In addition, GOP is considering a country wide
watercourse improvement program that would include improvement of the remaining
29,000 watercourses in Sindh
The third element of the strategy -- supporting productivity and income enhancement
measures- is critical to reap the full benefits of institutional and infrastructure

improvements in terms of higher productivity, and to help translate higher productivity
into higher incomes. Past interventions in this regard have been limited to a few
demonstration centers, routine training & visit (T&V) type extension activities and
some efforts at information dissemination. Few attempts have been made to introduce
improved technology (land leveling, improved farm layout, zero-tillage, sprinkler drip,
etc.) and information systems. The impact has been modest. GOSindh is exploring new
and more efficient ways of improving and scaling up delivery mechanisms for new
technologies, extension, input supplies, storage and processing, marked marketing
information, and modem information systems, including access to internet. Current
thinking is that these activities would be developed around the new institutional setup,
primarily at the AWBs, FOs, and WCA levels.
7. INSTITUTIONS CREATED AS A RESULT OF PIM IN SINDH

In Sindh, following bodies are to be fully established:
Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority (SIDA)
13 Area Water Boards
About 1400 Farmers’ Organisations.
Sindh is proud of being ahead of other provinces in implementing these reforms and
offering investment implementation opportunity to FOs. The overall status of
establishment of new institution is as under:
SIDA- fully established and functioning
AWBs- Three AWBs on four main canals (Nara, Ghotki, Phuleli and Akram
Wah) are functional
FOs- more than 220 FOs established- mostly in Nara Canal AWB command area
8. IMPLEMENTATION OF MODERNIZATION SCHEMES

Under Sindh On Farm Water Management (SOFWM) Project, 100 distributaries /
minors managed by Farmers Organizations (FOs) are being rehabilitated / improved in
three Area Water Boards i.e. Nara Canal Area Water Board (NCAWB), Left Bank
Canal Area Water Board (LBCAWB) and Ghotki Feeder Canal Area Water Board
(GFCAWB). The rehabilitation / improvement works include:
Restoration of outlets, weak sections of channel banks & berms
De-silting
Repair of regulator gates, cross regulators and diversion structures
Protection works upstream and downstream of structures and channel sides
Construction of cattle crossings and cattle ghats (cattle drinking water points)
Installation of gauges and control structures for flow measurement at the
Distributary head and each Mogha (watercourse off take outlets).
At present around 175 irrigation channels have been transferred to FOs and about 100
distributary/ minor canals, that are managed by FOs, are planned to be rehabilitated
through a project of Sindh On farm Water Management funded mainly by the World
Bank. FOs are responsible to act as contractor for the rehabilitation of their own
distributary/ minor canal in case of less than US$ 100,000 contract amount through
Community Based Contract (CBC). On the other hand, if amount exceeds US$ 100,000,
the contract could be awarded to the private contractors through National Competitive
Bidding (NCB) and FO becomes employer of the contractor. The works are identified
and proposed by FOs on the basis of joint walk-through surveys along with AWB staff,,
consultants and social mobilization teams of Social Development Cell SIDA.
In first year 10 contracts were awarded of which 09 were NCB and one was CBC. In
first year the maximum limit of CBC work was US$ 30,000 and based on the first year
performance, environmental compliance and work quality review, the GoSindh and
World Bank agreed to extend upper limit of CBC up to US$100,000. This directly
resulted in a greater opportunity to many FOs to undertake investment activity directly
under their management and execution.
8.1. PARTICIPATION IN JOINT WALK THROUGH

In order to identify the work a joint walk through is carried out. The joint walk through
largely helps in determining the scope of rehabilitation work for FO. At the end of walk
through, a format is jointly signed by all the parties incorporating all the technical
requirements, repair needs and necessary irrigation structures. At the same time,
environmental impacts of the rehabilitation works are also assessed jointly along with
any resettlement impact of the works. In addition through the survey identification of
community infrastructures like washing bays, buffalo baths, and foot bridges are
proposed on appropriate places with consultation of FO members.
Some committees are formed by FOs to manage the rehabilitation work, monitor the
work, and implement the CBC works.
8.2. PARTICIPATION IN CONTRACT BIDDING AND AWARD

After joint walkthrough and detail designing, tender documents are prepared and based
on the cost estimation bids are invited for NCB works (costing more than US 100,000)
and evaluated in presence of the FO representatives. The contracts are awarded by the
FO in capacity of employer and FO Chairman Signs the agreement with selected
contractor. This process creates ownership of FOs and ensures sustainability.
As stated earlier, under the rehabilitation works program of irrigation channels, initially
it was decided that contracts worth less then US$ 30,000 will be awarded to FO as part
of institutional strengthening measure. And later on this limit was enhanced to US$
100,000. In the first year of program of works, only one contract was awarded as CBC
contract (FO Bagi minor in NAWB). Whereas in second year, out of 35 contracts, 21
were classified as CBCs. This enhancement in the upper limit for contract amount was
appreciated by the FO community at large. By and large, the performance of CBC has
been satisfactory as local labor and local machinery like tractors and excavators are
hired, generating employment opportunities at local level. The contractors on the
contrary largely bring their manpower and machinery from their own pool of resources,
mostly located outside of the project area. Community appreciated the donor and govt.
efforts for awarding the contract to FOs.
8.3. PARTICIPATORY MONITORING

Generally there is a strict monitoring by FOs on the rehabilitation works at most places.
FOs generally form a committee to address the quality work and ensure work is
completed as per scope. The contractors’ exerted political pressures to obtain the bills in
advance but the FOs withstand the pressure and forced contractor to complete the work.
For example contractor of Mir Minor exerted pressure on FO chairman to release his
final bill before the completion of work. But chairman took stand and described to
contractor clearly that bill could not be signed before the work was completed.
9. PIM IN SINDH: - ACHIEVEMENTS AT GLANCE

Community Participation: farming community through participatory irrigation
management has effectively been involved in management and distribution of
water at minor and canal level. More than 100,000 farmers have taken part in the
social mobilization process and promoted institutional reforms.
Control of Water Theft: After implementation of PIM, the AWBs have been
some how succeeded to control the theft and closing the illegal direct outlets. The
World Bank Aide Memoire (Feb 2005) further recognizes improvement in the
water management due to irrigation reforms. It mentions that “The left Bank
Canal AWB with the support of SIDA and IPD closed several illegal outlets in the
lined canal which served an area of about 20,000 ha. For the first time in 3 years
the tail end farmers received water”.
Better and reliable service delivery: The water service delivery has also been
improved under reform programe. The DPR value has been observed more for the
area which is managed by FOs. An other World Bank Implementation review
mission on SOFWM project (refer Aide Memoire May 27, 2005) maintains that “
the mission observations during field visits that in distributary canals where
farmer organizations are functional and physical and hydraulic improvements are
being implemented, water is now reaching the tail-end farmers who had
reportedly never received their due share in the past”.
Better management of investment and modernization schemes: A world Bank
mission on same project while visiting one FO Channel (Bagi minor that is
undertaking rehabilitation work by them) maintains in their Aide Memoire (Dec
2005) that “ This is the first community based contract and the quality of work
observed was good. The management committee was exemplary and seemed to be
working well together in a participatory and democratic manner”. The M&E
consultants (M/s MMP) of SOFWM project has recently concluded that out of 10
rehabilitation works on FO channels, work under undertaken by FO Bagi (under
community contract) was more environmental friendly than other 9 contracts
being implemented through contractors. This is remarkable finding in term of
quality work and sustainability of the irrigation and drainage system due to
reforms.
Reduction in Poverty and socio-eco distress: It has also been witnessed that in
many areas where people migrated earlier from tail area due to water shortage
have returned back to cultivate their lands as they can now receive water which
was being stolen through direct outlets at head reach. This happened mainly in the
Left Bank Area Water Board. This all has happened due to reforms in irrigation
sector. The recent report published by World Bank on Pakistan Water Economy
running dry also appreciates Sindh and recognizes that Sindh has made
commendable progress in institutional reforms in irrigation (refer page 103 of the
report).
Water Distribution equity: unauthorized discharges from direct outlets are
controlled. This has resulted in availability of water in the tail end area of Nara
and Left Bank canal AWB
Institutional Development and Governance: The WCAs and FOs have been
acting as water management bodies. All investment works on watercourse and
minors are being carried out/managed by the farmers. Te FO Bagi Minor under
community contract has been awarded contract for rehabilitation of minor. This
will improve operation and maintenance of irrigation system and ensure water
availability at tail and reduction in water losses.
Increased Agricultural Productivity and land use: with the good governance of
water at AWB and FO level, many people who migrated from tail area have
returned back in Left Bank Canal area. The land has again come under cultivation
and the yield as improved due to reliable water supply.
Reduced water losses: with the improvement of watercourses and effective
O&M by FOs the losses have decreased
Reduced Environmental degradation: the industrial units especially sugar mills
used to pollute drains and water ways by putting their effluent. The mills have
agreed to install treatment plants.
Change in cropping pattern/water use efficiency: farmers have started growing
water resistant crops (sunflowers) especially in Left Bank AWB area where
sugarcane and rice used to dominate.
10. CONCLUSION
PIM has evolved and become generally accepted as a necessary aspect of productive
and sustainable irrigation. The schemes of modernization of irrigation channels are an
excellent opportunity to address the issues of sustainability of FOs, sustainable water
resource management. The FO managed investment schemes have not only addressed
the local employment issues of landless agriculture and rural worker but also has
addressed the water equity and efficiency as well. The increased farm productivity and
income has reduced poverty from the rural poor. In Sindh PIM has proved to be
successful model. But it is long way to go and government still needs to support and
create support services for sustainability of reforms in Sindh. An empowerment model
has to be followed and enabling environment for these new institutions has to be
created.
There is a need to maintain the transparency and create support service for institutions
created under reforms, particularly FOs and AWBs.
11. REFERENCES
1. Azad, Aslam Rasheed and Yameen. 2003: Sindh Water Resources Management-
Issues and options published by Investment Centre FAO
2. Johnson, Sam H. III, Mark Svendsen, and Fernando Gonzalez. 2002. Options for
Institutional Reform in the Irrigation Sector. Discussion paper prepared for the
International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management, 21-27 April,
Beijing, China.
3. Nazeer 2004, IWRM- a tool for poverty reduction, published by Pakistan Water
Partnership, Islamabad Pakistan
4. Nazeer, “Participatory Irrigation Management and Indus Basin Irrigation System-
A case study of Pakistan” published in EC (DGI) Regional Action Program “
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Vol. 2, country over view of PIM,
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute, Bari- Italy Sept. 12-22, 2001
5. SDSC 2006, Third Party Monitoring and Evaluation of Institutional Reforms in
Sindh- Final Report
6. SDC-SIDA (2006). Monthly Progress Reports
7. Vermillion, Douglas L. Forthcoming. Irrigation Sector Reform in Asia: From
Patronage under Participation to Empowerment with Partnership. In Asian
Irrigation in Transition. Edited by G. Shivakoti, D. Vermillion, E. Ostrom, R.
Yoder, W.F. Lam and U. Pradhan. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
8. Vermillion, Douglas L. and Juan A. Sagardoy. 1999. Transfer of Irrigation
Management
Services: Guidelines. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper Number 58. Rome:
FAO, IWMI and GTZ.
9- World Bank Aide Memoirs (2004-2006) on NDP and SOFWM Projects
10- World Bank (1993). Pakistan Irrigation and Drainage: Issues and Options Report
No. 11884-PAK
11- World Bank (2004). Project Appraisal Document Sindh On-farm Water
Management Project, March 4, 2004 Report No. 27982-PKAK
12- Yameen and Nazeer (2001). Are farmers willing to contribute for operation and
maintenance of Drainage System? Proceedings 2nd National Seminar on Drainage
in Pakistan, April-18-19, 2001-University of Agriculture Faisalabad
A PERFORMANCE STUDY OF PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION

MANAGEMENT IN EASTERN INDIA: OBJECTIVES,
RATIONAL OF CONCEPT AND NEED
Sushanta Kumar Mahapatra1
ABSTRACT
Main motivations of this paper is to examine the functioning and otherwise of Water
User Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayat promoted by the State and the local
traditional irrigation institutions and to evaluate their functioning & characteristics in
the context of local water management in the Hirakud Command Area (HCA), of Orissa
state in Eastern India. The specific objectives are; (1) to contrast the formal and
informal institutions in terms of their formation, performance and success, (2) to
examine about the peoples participation and their liveliness, (3) to recommend policy
interventions to make the formal institutions more successful. The paper concludes that
the Pani Panchayat as regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on equitable
basis, their performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. Even though Pani
Panchayat has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of years,
the acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered.
Key Words: Common Property Resource, Farmer Managed Irrigation System, Formal
& Informal Irrigation Institutions, Orissa, India, Pani Panchayat, Participatory Irrigation
Management, Water User Association, Water Management
I. CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

Recently Pani Panchayat (Water Council) as an institution in irrigation management and
research in the collective management of Common Property Resources (CPRs) has
paying attention of many researchers and policy makers. The current paper deals with
an evaluation of water management through community participation and emergence of
Pani Panchayat in a case study of Vir Bajrang Bali Pani Panchayat under Lift Irrigation
Project of the Hirakud Command Area (HCA), of Orissa state in Eastern India. We are
aware that, it is incredibly near the beginning to assess and evaluate the formal Pani
Panchayat in the state, as the practice of implementation is just falling on the line.
1- Research Scholar, Madras Institute of Development Studies (MIDS), No-79, Second Main Road,
Gandhi Nagar, Adyar, Chennai-600 020 (Tamil Nadu), India Email: sushantamids@hotmail.com
Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to the user farmers is being increasingly

advocated and practiced the world over, to provide correctives to the distortions arising
from the failure of the market as well as the state. The most common type of reform in
the Indian irrigation sector in recent years has been the attempts to increase farmer’s
direct involvement in irrigation under the label of PIM. Such reforms are directed for
improving the performance of irrigation by involving who have the greatest stake in
irrigation, in the operation & management of systems.
Utmost painstaking efforts have been made in a number of countries worldwide to
transfer the rights and responsibilities for irrigation management activities of an
irrigation system from a Government agency to private or local organisations (Brewer et
al., 1999, Vermillion, 1997). Transferring responsibilities has come to be seen by
policy-makers as a way to lessen pressures on thinly stretched Government finances,
while at the same time, improving irrigated agricultural production and ensuring the
long-term sustainability of irrigation systems (Geijer et al., 1996, Kloezen and Samad
1995, Vermillion 1991). The Philippines (Wijayaratna and Vermillion 1994, Svendsen
1992), Indonesia (Soenarno 1995), China (Xu Zhifang 1995) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayake
1995) in Asia, Mexico (Johnson 1997) and Columbia (Garcia- Betancourt 1994) in
Latin America, and other countries New Zealand (Farley 1994) and Turkey (Devlet su
Isleri et al., 1996), have foremost efforts in this track. One study on a survey of the
impact assessment IMT was carried out by the IIMI and the IIMA (Naik et. al., 2002).
Brewer et. al., study (1999) found that, in India, increasing user participation in the
management of irrigation systems is being tried as a means to reduce the pressures on
Government finances, improve the performance of irrigated agriculture, and ensure
sustainability of irrigation systems. An analysis of scattered studies concludes that the
various evidences shows a combination of positive and negative consequences, but the
majority studies report positive results, particularly improvements in water distribution
and finance (Vermillion 1997). But this review study also shows that, the different
studies are not comparable, nor is it comprehensive.
FORMAL VS. INFORMAL IRRIGATION INSTITUTION

Recently major debate is in the region of the subject matter of formal vs. informal
institution. An effort has been taken to discuss both formal and informal traditional
irrigation institutions or FMIS and its sustainability, importance and participation in the
decision-making and the proper monitoring of the behavior of the members. Why focal
point on institutions? Institutions could be arranged into two ways: formal and informal.
A government agency is a formal institution as it has rules, which are officially laid down
in a written form. Farmers’ institutions could be both formal and informal. An institution
which has written rules, is termed as formal, where as an institution, which does not have
written rules, is an informal institution. In many of the informal institutions (FMIS) the
rules are not in written form but they are practiced for a long period of time. They serve as
a rule in their day-to-day interaction.
The management of irrigation systems requires strong institutions, because they have to
manage the distribution of scare resources and this can lead to various types of conflicts.
Ostrom (1992) points out conflict management as critical for self-governing irrigation
systems, and Vermillion (1996) restates this as an important factor in the context of
irrigation management transfer programs. The governance of FMIS can be studied by
looking at various rules in use. E.Ostrom (1992) observes institutions as rules-in-use,

which define the rights and responsibilities of the water users. Ostrom (1990, 1993)
characterize that an institution is the rules actually used (rules-in-use or working rules)
by a set of individuals to organize repetitive activities that produce outcomes affecting
those individuals and potentially affecting others. In a world of uncertainty they have
been used human beings in an attempt to structure human interaction. They are rule of
the game of a society and in consequence provide the framework of incentives that
shape economic, political and social organization.
On the other hand North (1944, p.360) emphasize that, Institutions as a combination of
“formal constraints (e.g. rules, laws, constitutions), informal constraints (e.g. norms of
behavior, conventions, self-imposed codes of conduct) and their enforcement
characteristics)”. Enforcement is carried out by third parties (law enforcement, social
ostracism), by second parties (retaliations) or by the first party. An institution is “… an
enduring, complex, integrated, organized, behavior pattern through which social control is
exerted and by means of which fundamental social desires and needs are met (Fairchild,
1955 cited in Dusseldrop, 1993; 56). Organisations can be defined as ‘groups of
individuals bound by some common purpose to achieve objectives’ (North 1990: 5).
They are identified by roles (Coward 1980; Uphoff 1992). Institutions are identified by
the rules, shared understandings, or norms held by a group of people (Coward 1980;
North 1990; Uphoff 1992). The most important of these sets of rules, from the
standpoint of resource management, are those governing access, withdrawal, and,
management, or those related to monitoring, enforcement, and sanctions governing
resource use (Ostrom 1992).
Norman Uphoff (1986a) also opines that institution as composite of norms and
behaviour that persists overtime by serving collectively valued purposes. An institution
is a combination of roles, rules, procedures, a practice and a system of relations. These
definitions emphasize different elements of institutions rules constituted in a group
requiring a complex of practices and control. Besides, these definitions discuss the
performance of the role by an individual and the rules that regulate actions of the
individuals/groups. The action is always guided by the role expected by other members
of the community and one is judged by the performance associated with the role.
Coward (1985) alleges that this role expectation and role performance are the
institutional and organizational dimensions respectively which are regulated by the
rules. It has to be realized that institutions are not functioning in vacuum. Changes in
the political environment and opening up of the villages are changing the strength of
social control, which is of great importance for the functioning of the institutions. The
well functioning institutions will have greater control on the use of resources and its
distribution.
II. OBJECTIVES
MAIN OBJECTIVE
Broad objective of this paper is to examine the functioning and otherwise of Water User
Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayat promoted by the State and the local traditional
irrigation institutions and to evaluate their functioning & characteristics in the context of
local water management in the Hirakud Command Area (HCA), of Orissa state in
Eastern India.
SECONDARY OBJECTIVES
The secondary objectives are;
(1) to contrast the formal and informal institutions in terms of their formation,
performance and success,
(2) to examine about the peoples participation and their liveliness
(3) to recommend policy interventions to make the formal institutions more
successful.
III. FUNCTIONING OF PANI PANCHAYAT/WUA

IN HIRAKUD COMMAND AREA, ORISSA
The Hirakud Command Area Development Authority1 reveals the fact that during 1999-
2000, seven water user’s Association (WUA) were organized and got registered under
the societies Registration Act, 1860 in villages of Kumelsingha, Babebira, Lahoula,
Paharsirgida, Kulunda, Sahajbahal and Sulunda. Of course regrets the CADA, these
WUA could not be made operative in the absence of detailed functional guidelines of
government. Information on the extent of farmer participation is illusory. The number of
registered WUAs, often used as an indicator of participation, is ambiguous. Many
registered WUAs exist only on paper in HCA. On the other hand, we have inadequate
information on instances of real participation of users which have not resulted from any
roles officially granted to them
IV. RESEARCH METHODS

In order to examine the functioning and impact of transfer of irrigation management to
the water users, a detail survey of 70 households (HH) has been done in a case study of
Vir Bajrang Bali Pani Panchayat under Lift Irrigation Point (LIP) of the Hirakud
Command area, Orissa. The Primary data has been collected from Bandhapali village of
Kardola Panchayat in Dhankauda Block comes under Sambalpur district. The
Bandhapali village is 32 KM away from the district headquarter Sambalpur. The nearest
railway station is at Hirakud 24 KM far from the village. Bandhapali is a revenue
village of Kardola Panchayat consists of one ward.
Both quantitative and qualitative information are obtained in order to observe the
efficacy of different types of institutional arrangements. Qualitative information is
obtained by way of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) use such as focus group
discussions, key person interviews like senior citizens, officials in the irrigation
department. Discussion were also done with the office bearers of the concerned PP, in
addition to those expelled from the PP i.e. woman and landless people. Two structured
questionnaires; one related to WUAs and another related to households, were prepared
1- Hirakud Command Area Development Authority (1999) – Annual Administration Report

to collect quantitative information. These interviews unscheduled, and carried out in

variety of locations like in a school house or Panchayat building, on a temple veranda,
under a tree, or in private homes. Before and after scenarios were exploited to evaluate
the impact as there is no option for with and without scenario, as all the farmers getting
irrigation water are covered under Pani Panchayat. The field work was conducted
during the period 2004-2005.
V. MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION, INSTITUTIONAL AND ORGANISATIONAL

ASPECTS
We asked the PP member about the different aspect of PP such as knowledge about
working group, user group and PP committee, and their views were described below.
PANI PANCHAYAT WORKING GROUP IN THE VILLAGE:

The committee of PP in Orissa shows that, they are formal in the sense that the
Government recognise them as having the authority to enforce the Panchayat decisions.
The Nepal experience on Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) shows that at the
central level usually the organisation comprises a general assembly of beneficiaries and
a committee consisting of members elected to carry out the decisions made by the
general body.
COMPOSITION OF THE PANI PANCHAYAT COMMITTEE

The total number of members in a PP Committee varies from area to area depending
upon the size of the command area, the complexity of the water distribution methods
employed and the respective land holding of the farmers. Each of the PP constitutes a
President, Secretary, Vice-President and a Treasure. Other members of the PP usually
represent different areas of the system. Their functions are to help with water
distribution and conflict resolution within their respective areas and to help mobilise
resources for canal maintenance and repair.
SELECTION OF MEMBERS
The user group members usually elect the members of PP committee. Here when the
Water User Association was registered in 1997 for the first time members were
nominated by the Government officials. During the meeting held on 21st August 2002
the committee members were again changed and that too by nomination with the help of
Government officials. In Nepal FMIS, generally the members have been selected on the
basis of the Panchayat head, hereditary, land holding, rich people or head of the village.
Whether a PP opts for a hereditary committee president or an elected one, influenced by
so many factors like
1. The age of the PP
2. The number of beneficiaries
3. The size of the PP

4. Access to a road and
5. The number of levels in the PP.
From the Table-1 it shows that, the process of electing the president is through
nomination as 100 per cent responded that it is through nomination. 79 per cent
members responded that there is no political interference in the working of the PP
committee (Fig-1). The wards of the village are politically demarcated boundaries; the
hydrological boundaries of the PP may extend beyond. The various activities in the PP
are taken over by the president. The landless farmers were 29 per cent satisfied with the
functioning of the PP committee. Among the marginal farmers 34 per cent were
satisfied with the committee, while majority 66 per cent are not satisfied. Majority of
medium farmers (75 per cent) are not satisfied. 62 per cent of the small farmers are not
satisfied with the functioning. On the contrary, only 17 per cent of the large farmers are
not satisfied with the functioning of the PP Committee.
Fig-1 Fig-2
Fig.2 Political Interference in Fig.3 Effectiveness of User Group in

Pani Panchayat Committee (in %) Various Activities (in %)
Yes
21%
80
59
60
33
40
No 20 8
79% 0
Very co-operative Average Poor
ACCOUNTABILITY OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE PANI PANCHAYAT

The Committee is responsible for keeping accounts, distributing water in accordance
with directives of the Governing body, implementing decisions made during the general
meeting and resolving conflicts. The day-to-day affairs of the ‘Association’ shall be
governed by the management committee. The executive body is consisting of president,
Vice-president, Secretary, Treasurer and all members of the Chak Committees. The
Secretary keep up a register of all transactions related to PP. The Secretary of the
concerned PP is having a trading business as his main profession, leaving little time to
take charge of water distribution. There are different function and power of the
executive body such as
a. The executive body shall have powers and duties necessary for the administration
of the affairs of the ‘Association’ in keeping with the provision of the bye-law.
b. Designate employ on remuneration and dismiss personal necessary for the
operation and drainage system.
c. They take care of, upkeeps and surveillance of irrigation and drainage systems in
the area if operation of the ‘Association’ and the common areas and facilities.
d. Levy charges for operation maintenance and repairs of irrigation and drainage
system.
e. Collect water rates/ charges contributions from owners and remit Government
dues.
f. See that cash book is written promptly and is signed by the treasurer.
g. Sanction working expenses, count cash balance, engage labour, organize labour
contribution from land owners or award contracts for O & M of irrigation and
drainage system.
h. Educate farmers in cropping pattern, water management, optimal and efficient use
of water and inputs for increasing agricultural production yields and their profits
through trained Irrigation Community Organised (I.C.O.)
i. Inspect irrigation and drainage system, distribution of water.
j. Scrutinise accounts kept by Secretary and/ or Treasurer and examine the registers
and accounts books and take steps for the recovery of all sums due to the
‘Association’.
k. Allow Chak committees and others to organize and carry out repairs of irrigation
and drainage systems under their respective outlets, if so desired by themselves
through labour and materials contributions.
If the committee will not function properly the powers will be delineated, and also if
any member other than the office bearers of the executive body without sufficient
reasons given in writing to the executive body will automatically ceased to be a member
of the executive body. Office bearers can also be removed upon and affirmative vote by
a majority (more than 50 per cent of the member present) of members of the general
body of the ‘Association’ any of the office bearers may be removed with cause and his
successor elected as per procedure laid down.
USER GROUP
A Water User’s Association is an ‘Association’ of all persons owning land within a
hydrological delineated portion of the command area varying in size from 300-600 Ha.
It may be for each distributary or minor or sub minor canal area including direct outlets
clubbed to them. The association will be formed and registered after enrolment of
minimum 51 per cent of members. The entire land owner within the jurisdiction of
‘association will have right to become members of the association’. The activities of the
user group is
1. Ensure collective and community responsibility of the farmers to collected water
charges from water users and payment to government from time to time.
2. Demonstrate and practice improvements on firms’ water management, method for
improve field operation efficiency in the individual firm’s field.
3. To maintain and operate the minor/ Distributary/ laterals, FCI/FDC etc including
lining earth work, structures etc. Already turned over by government to the
control of “Association” by meeting the expenditure from out of the operation and
maintenance (O and M) fund created by “Association”.
4. The “Association” will resolve disputes among farmer’s in respect of water
distribution and allied matters.
5. Develop the sense of economy in water use amongst the users.
The user group is formed on the basis of location, activities, pre-location technology. It
is also based on limit of area and budget. The group has no president, the whole group is
unanimous. It has been argued that uniformity of social economic conditions prevalent
in a co-operation conversely neutral differentiated groups tend to re-enforce the
differentiation. Access to potential benefits of the scheme by the members of the
collective is discriminatory. This constitutes a disincentive for co-operation effort by
those who perceive the benefit as beyond their reach. Unless specific measures are taken
to redress this imbalance, it discourages the reproduction of the co-operative spirit. Due
to this the field study shows that majority of the members (59 per cent) are medium
average co-operative and 33 per cent are very co-operative and only 8 per cent are less
or not or poor co-operative (See Table-2 and Fig-2). The field work also shows that
landless farmers are 69 per cent co-operative in average scale, among the marginal
farmers 25 per cent are very co-operative and 76 per cent are average. Among the small
farmers 9 per cent are not at all or we can say poor co-operative and 62 per cent are co-
operative averagely. On the contrary, majority (59 per cent) of the large farmer
responded that, User groups are very co-operative. Thus the study shows co-operation
increases with increase in farm size. Table-2 depicts that, those 9 per cent from small
farmer groups which are less or poor co-operative, are due to caste conflict. There were
no comments in relation to the UGs co-operation regarding planning/design, supervision
of construction work, cost estimation of works etc. The UG is very co-operative and
active because they are from the same or near by village and they are the relative or
neighbours to the person concern.
VI. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

An analysis on various aspects of Pani Panchayat Committee from the farmers view
points showed that many farmers had no idea about the PP Programme. The landless
farmers were 29 per cent satisfied with the functioning of the PP committee. Among the
marginal farmers 34 per cent were satisfied with the committee, while majority 66 per
cent are not satisfied. Majority of medium farmers are not satisfied. 62 per cent of the
small farmers are not satisfied with the functioning. On the contrary, only 17 per cent of
the large farmers are not satisfied with the functioning of the PP Committee. Our field
study analysis of Pani Panchayat on User Groups showed that majority of the members
are medium average co-operative and 33 per cent are very co-operative and only 8 per
cent are less or not or poor co-operative. The field work also revealed that landless
farmers are 69 per cent co-operative in average scale, among the marginal farmers 25
per cent are very co-operative and 76 per cent are average. Among the small farmers 9
per cent are not at all or we can say poor co-operative and 62 per cent are co-operative
averagely. On the contrary, majority of the large farmer responded that, User groups are
very co-operative. Thus the study showed, co-operation increases with increase in farm
size.
We can conclude that the PP as regulatory institutions in charge of water distribution on
equitable basis, their performance has been reasonably weak and unsuccessful. This
endures unfavorably on their capacity to generate resources through collection of water
cess. Researchers have drawn up a strategy for policy makers to ensure IMT programs
water user authorities. 1 Despite the fact that the irrigation agency in Orissa has taken
policy decision to encourage farmer’s participation and attempts are underway to
motivate farmers to form WUAs, the farmer’s response in this regard is not up to the
level of satisfaction (Swain; 2000: 128). The State should act as a facilitator not
controller. PP do not imply that the state would completely withdraw from irrigation,
but would continue to provide critical services, particularly water supply at main
delivery points, providing information, training and accounting are required to support
PP.
Even though PP has been initiated and endorsed in the State for more than a couple of
years, the acceptance of the model have been lethargic and scattered. There is no
promptly accessible data to evaluate this performance. As a whole PP is an
unexecutable and unacceptable. PP is not in the interest of the people. There are so
many constraints like selfishness, illiteracy, no interest due to big landowners, which
hinder for the improvement of PP.
A detailed action plan should be prepared in consultation with the water users through
Participatory Rural Appraisal method. A feasibility study should be under taken by
examining the caste class conflict, groupism, political differences and history of
confrontation and conflict if any. It is necessary to apply bottom-up approach instead of
top-down for sustainability. There must also be mechanisms to ensure that the benefits
of the project are equally distributed to all concerned stakeholders. The Government
1- For detail discussions, see The Water Policy Briefing Series (www.iwmi.org/waterpolicybriefing).
should review its decision of making the availability of irrigation water conditions to the
formation of PP. Many registration actions of PP are complex and long, raising the costs
of participation for the farmers. Simpler procedures are needed that still provide the PP
organisations with sufficient legal standing to deal with government agencies, contract
with private firms, contractors, and control resources within the group.
APPENDIX
PROFILES OF THE SELECTED PANI PANCHAYAT (PP)
Name of the PP: Vir Bajrang Bali Pani Panchayat (Lift- I & II)
Location: Village: Bandhapali Gram Panchayat: Kardola,
Post office: Chiplima Block: Dhankauda District: Sambalpur,
State- Orissa, Country- India
Age of the system: Old registration 1996-97 as WUA, Newly
formatted in 2001-02 as PP
Type of the system: Lift Irrigation (LI)
Total No of LI Points: Lift I and II
Name of the Source: Mahanadi River
Area in acre (ayacut): 123.66 Acre
Horse Power Used: 15 HP (Horse Power)
Office Bearers: Total No. of PP members: 63 No. of Committee members: Four
President Election: Nomination
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INSTITUTIONAL CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE PIM:

CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
Krishna C. Prasad1; Paul van Hofwegen2; David J. Molden3; and Bart Schultz4
ABSTRACT
Participatory irrigation management (PIM), in its various forms, has been implemented
all over the world for several decades. PIM-related interventions have generally been
made, and continue to be made, in form of a set of project activities mostly
implemented over a limited period of time with supports external to the irrigation
system. Reported results have been encouraging, particularly during and immediately
after the project activities, in terms of improvements in: a) irrigated agricultural
performance; b) resource mobilization; c) quality of irrigation service; d) maintenance
of irrigation infrastructure; and e) farmers’ institutional development. Nevertheless,
evidences suggest that sustenance of such gains over a long run is often questionable
when there are no favorable institutional conditions after the conclusion of short-lived
project activities and withdrawal of external supports. Such institutional conditions
include continuation of: i) supporting policies and strategies, ii) capacity building,
training, and extension; and iii) monitoring and evaluation. The paper identifies various
institutional constraints with the view to identify opportunities to timely instigate
possible measures that concern three significant and complementing actors:
national/provincial governments, irrigation agencies and/or water users associations,
and the irrigators. Conclusions and recommendations are based on in-depth case study
of Nepal while reflecting on relevant cases elsewhere.
INTRODUCTION: CLARIFYING PIM AND ITS CONTEXT

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) generally implies participation of irrigators
in the management of the irrigation system and is generally interpreted as “...the
involvement of irrigation users in all aspects of irrigation management, and at all levels”
(http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/pimelg/index.htm). ‘All aspects’ includes planning,
design, construction, operation and maintenance, financing, decision rules and the
1- Senior Lecturer, UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, P. O. Box 3015, 2601 DA,
Delft, The Netherlands. Phone: +31(0)152151825, Fax: +31(0)152122921,
email: k.prasad@unesco-ihe.org
2- Senior Water Management Adviser, World Water Council, France
3- Coordinator, Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, Sri Lanka
4- Professor, Land and Water Development, Department of Water Engineering. UNESCO-IHE, Institute
for Water Education. The Netherlands.
monitoring and evaluation of the irrigation system. ‘All levels’ means the primary,
secondary and tertiary (and subsidiary) levels of water distribution network in the
irrigation systems.
Most irrigation systems, both surface and groundwater, by their management mode, can
be categorized in three types: (a) agency-managed irrigation systems (AMISs);
primarily managed by the state or state-appointed entity (agency) with very little or no
involvement of the irrigating farmers, (b) jointly-managed irrigation systems (JMISs);
in which irrigators and the agency jointly manage the irrigation system, and (c) farmer-
managed irrigation systems (FMISs); wherein most management responsibilities rest
with (or have been transferred to) the irrigators. In all three situations, both the irrigators
and the agency are involved in the irrigation system management. However, the extent
and mode of their involvement varies. In AMIS, the irrigators have little space for their
organized and systematic involvement or participation, whereas in farmer-managed (or
management-transferred) cases (FMISs), irrigating farmers are the main managers. In
the intermediate stage of joint-management, both irrigators and the agency share
management responsibilities. Thus, in an encompassing sense, the concept of PIM is
evident in all scenarios, nevertheless, in varying degrees; with the exception in
completely private irrigation systems owned by individuals or private firms.
The AMIS and FMIS represent two extreme management scenarios which respectively
indicate a higher involvement of agency (conversely, lower involvement of irrigators) in
AMIS and vice versa (Figure 1). These extremes can be conceived in the form of a
management continuum in which the extent of agency’s involvement decreases as the
management mode changes from that of an AMIS to more and more of an FMIS. This
continuum represents a domain in which the process of PIM is planned and adopted.
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)
Agency Farmer
Involvement
Continuum
Agency-managed Jointly-managed Farmer-managed
Figure 1. Continuum of Participatory Irrigation Management.

Thus, PIM implies the level, mode, or intensity of user participation that would increase
irrigators’ responsibility and authority in the management of an irrigation system
(http://www.maff.go.jp/inwepf/documents/inaugural/inpim-note.pdf). Hence, the
process of initiating PIM clearly is conceivable only in those systems where
predominantly the agency has been undertaking various irrigation management
activities in the past. Typically, such AMISs or JMISs are originally constructed by the
agency without or with some involvement and/or contribution from the farmers.
Nevertheless, in cases like East Rapti irrigation systems in Nepal, the management was
taken over by the agency, mainly for improving the infrastructure, even though they
were originally constructed by the local farmers.
Reviews of various cases indicate that the main aim for initiating PIM is to improve the
prevailing disappointing performance levels of the system, both in terms of (Vermillion,
1997; Prasad et al., 1998; Groenfeldt and Svendsen, 2000; Prasad et al., 2000):
¾Efficiency of the management process in irrigation service delivery and
¾Productive efficiency of resources employed in irrigated agriculture.
Additional rationales behind PIM initiatives – some, particularly inspired by many
success stories of FMISs - include the following:
x With PIM, management is decentralized to users in a supportive socio-technical
context, which increases the farmers’ ownership of the irrigation system;
x PIM provides an opportunity to bring together agencies’ nomothetic-, and
farmers’ idiographic knowledge and experiences for improved management of the
irrigation system and thus improved delivery of irrigation services;
x A higher financial and a social cost incurs when only government agencies
undertake irrigation management functions;
x Irrigators have stronger incentives to manage water productively than does a
government bureaucracy;
x Farmers can respond more quickly to problems or changes in the system leading
to increased profitability from irrigated agriculture; and so on.
Nevertheless, PIM related undertakings may have various objectives: e.g. to improve
the financial and physical sustainability of irrigation systems (Mexico or Chile): to
improve water management and agricultural productivity (Andhra Pradesh, India); to
cope with constraints on government budgets (Philippines, Nepal); to delegate control
over the irrigation system and improve the water service (Columbia Basin, USA, Australia);
etc (Peter, 2004; http://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/aglw/waterinstitutions/default.stm). In
addition, it may also be for strategic restructuring of the irrigation sector/agency (South
Australia and South Africa) involving downsizing, adoption of new mandates,
redeployment of personnel, and a change from a centrally-financed line agency to a
financially autonomous authority or corporation (Philippines). Sometimes, irrigators
may even pressurize the state to take over the management of irrigation systems to gain
control over the use of irrigation service fees and keep the cost of irrigation from rising
as in the Coello and Saldaña systems in Colombia and the Dominican Republic.
KEY FEATURES OF PIM

In general, PIM activities are initiated in AMISs (or intensified in JMISs) either under
the initiative of the agency or the farmers. The agency’s initiative to instigate or
intensify PIM related activities, which is often interpreted as ‘supply-driven’, largely
represent an ‘intervention’ in the status quo. In the other case, irrigating farmers
approach the agency seeking various financial and technical supports to address various
challenges (or threats) in the irrigation system. The agency, in response, may offer
various supports in the form of PIM activities with an understanding that irrigators will
collectively, through their associations commonly called Water User Associations,
(WUAs), assume larger roles in irrigation management activities. The latter is often
termed as ‘demand-driven’. Such PIM related initiatives are usually based on one or a
combination of various rationales mentioned above. Congruent to the latter approach is
the process of Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT), which may be initiated with
either supply-driven or a demand-driven approach. The last two decades have observed
several countries getting increasingly engaged in IMT both in surface and groundwater
systems (http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/waterinstitutions/profiles.stm; Vermillion, 1997;
Groenfeldt and Svendsen, 2000). Though generally known as IMT, it is also referred to
as: turnover, privatization, post-responsibility system, participatory management,
commercialization, self-management, etc in different countries.
Most PIM undertakings have at least two principal sets of activities: a) irrigation system
rehabilitation1 and b) institutional development for improved service delivery. The
former set involves activities related to making changes in the infrastructural conditions
of the irrigation system. The latter set of activities involves institutional development
efforts including the development of farmer organization and related rules and
regulations; training and skill development of farmers and personnel associated with
irrigation management; establishing links with external support agencies, etc.
Rehabilitation of irrigation systems

As an impetus and means to introduce or intensify PIM, irrigation systems are
invariably slated for rehabilitation (and/or modernization). The rehabilitation is meant
for make suitable changes in the physical condition of the irrigation system so that the
system becomes physically and operationally suitable for PIM related activities. In
addition, it is expected that the irrigating farmers, upon assuming greater irrigation
management responsibilities, will be able to do so without major technical difficulties.
Rehabilitation, which to certain extent determines the eventual success or failure of PIM
initiatives, is perceived as an indispensable incentive for farmers to gradually take over
the management of the system. In addition to providing an opportunity of working
together during the rehabilitation itself, it has often played a major role in inducing
farmers’ involvement in management process. Nevertheless, the strategies, scopes of
work, arrangements for cost sharing and implementation of rehabilitation vary greatly
from one case to another (IWMI, 2000; Samad and Vermillion, 2000;
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/waterinstitutions/profiles.stm;
http://www.inpim.org/leftlinks/Documents).
1- Termed differently in different cases (system improvement, modernization, upgrading, revitalization,

restoration, etc) depending upon the nature and extent of infrastructure improvement works.
FARMER ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

In parallel to the rehabilitation or even before, formation or strengthening of the WUA
as an institution is generally integral to PIM related initiatives. Efforts are made to
ensure that the structure of such WUAs matches with the socio-physical hierarchies of
canal networks in the irrigation system. An effective WUA (see next section), besides
aiding the PIM process, may also determine to a large extent the sustenance of the
irrigation system.
With respect to PIM activities, particularly when they are aimed for IMT, devolution of
an irrigation management from the agency over to the irrigators represents a form of
decentralization. It involves the transfer of authority for decision making for lower-level
farmers or groups of farmers in the socio-physical hierarchy of an irrigation system, so
that such lower level farmer groups can elect their own councils, raise their own
resources, and have independent authority to manage irrigation systems effectively.
Moreover, operationalizing each management activity involves executing three sets of
power: legislative, executive and judicial (Agrawal and Ribot, 2000). Each of these
three sets of powers involves decision-making. Legislative power allows farmers to
form new rules and regulations or modify old ones. Rules to access and use water,
distribute to water users, and mobilize/generate resources for system maintenance are
important in managing system operation. Executive power allows farmers to implement
or enforce the rules as agreed upon, and to monitor whether the rules are actually
followed by the users. It also allows farmers to impose sanctions on those who do not
follow the rules. Similarly, judicial power allows farmers to adjudicate disputes that
arise while enforcing the rules in operating the irrigation system. Thus, empowering
WUA as an institution is necessary to promote PIM and devolution of irrigation
management authority. Assumption of irrigation management responsibilities only by
effective WUAs can result in realization of the PIM objectives. Accordingly, various
institutional development and capacity building activities for irrigators and other
personnel associated with irrigation management activities are undertaken during PIM
initiatives.
What Makes an Effective WUA?

If looked into examples of sustainable and effective WUAs across the world, one may find
four key features generally present (Wilkins-Wells and Prasad, 1994; Prasad et al., 2000;
Pradhan and Gautam, 2005; Malano and van Hofwegen, 2006). The first is some form
of local government for the association, based on the principle of voting and adequate
checks and balances in the leadership structure. Such self-governed associations are
independent of any local or central government influence other than legal certification
and auditing. This is what the autonomy in association governance generally means.
The formation of a self-governing leadership structure in the WUA includes the
following:
- Defining the hydrological boundary of the command area
- Devising a collectively agreed upon organizational design that fits with the socio-
physical hierarchies of canal networks
- Ascertaining the decision-making process and accountability within the

organizational framework
- Incorporating provisions for adequate checks and balances/sanctions against
defaulters
- Updating the roster of the beneficiaries entitled to receive the irrigation service
- Fixing the eligibility criteria for representation in the association
- Setting out a process to elect/select genuine representatives accountable to the
farmers
- Defining the process for modification of organizational set up as and when needed
- Establishing the process to seek and accept various kinds of support from different
line agencies
- Resolving the water related disputes between systems, zones of a system or
individuals
The second feature is some form of association record keeping, no matter how
rudimentary, designed to maintain records on labor mobilization, donations and/or fees,
water delivery scheduling, association membership, and some rules about how water is
to be managed and divided among beneficiaries during normal and unusual water
supply conditions. Typically the record keeping activities involve the following:
- Keeping the ledger and accounts of all sorts of resources mobilized internally or
externally for the irrigation system
- Comprehensive accounting of payments and various expenses
- Details of previous water delivery schedules and actual distribution at all levels of
the irrigation system
- Details of cropping pattern and calendar in the command area
- Details of entitled water shares, including the utilized and the balance amounts, of
individual beneficiaries
- Information regarding collected and due irrigation service fees, based on the rate
fixed by the WUA in proportion to water shares
- Keeping track of the violations made by defaulters
- Preparing the budgetary details and financial statements
The third key feature is the presence of an association’s water delivery workforce,
however small, appointed and supervised by the association leadership to oversee the
management of water and irrigation service delivery in the command area. This
workforce is responsible for allocation of water and collection of irrigation fees by
shares, meaning that a beneficiary's water right in the association's collective supply is
roughly proportional to the contributions made by that same individual to the cost of
operating and maintaining the irrigation system annually, in cash, produce, or labor
equivalent. Setting up a water delivery workforce includes the following:
- Appointing a core group of people, accountable to the WUA, and mainly

responsible for delivering entitled water shares of individual farmers to their fields
according to the agreed upon water distribution schedules
- Assessing the duty of available water at different points in the canal system
- Defining a share of water and associated irrigation service fees per share
- Ascertaining water availability in the source and the water use right
- Assessing water demand schedules and patterns
- Suggesting and adopting operational schedules based on demand and supply
conditions inclusive of plans of water distribution in different seasons and in
situations of water scarcity
- Ascertaining arrangement to distribute any shrinkage in water supply over water
shares
- Controlling the free riders
- Documenting details of actual water delivery to the field, time, dates, conveyance
time, losses, etc.
The fourth is the mechanism for ensuring adequate maintenance of the irrigation
infrastructure. It includes the following:
- Preparing prioritized inventory of required maintenance works
- Estimating resource requirements
- Scheduling maintenance works
- Allocating labors for the works to be done by internal labor mobilization
- Appointing consultants and contractors for specialized works
- Supervising maintenance activities and controlling quality
- Maintaining acquired vehicles and equipments, if any
Besides, a WUA also needs to plan and act for the long term sustenance and efficient
productivity of the common pool resource system like irrigation. Therefore, it is
necessary for the WUA to be sensitive toward the issues of environmental degradation,
deterioration agricultural resource base including the watershed or aquifer. Also,
developing linkages with different line agencies and support institutions is important for
WUAs’ sustained existence and thereby that of PIM.
ACTORS OF PIM
Main actors associated with PIM related activities can be categorized into two groups:
a) Responsible actors and b) Contributing actors (Figure 2).
Contributing
Consultants
Responsible
Contractors/Manufacturers
National/Provincial Governments Policy/Legislation
Universities/Schools
Irrigation and Drainage Agencies Main and distributary systems Research Institutes
Water Users Assocations
Banks/Donors
Irrigators/Farmers Field systems
INGOs/NGOs
Allied farmer groups e. g. cooperatives
Local interest groups/Politicians, etc
Figure 2. Actors of PIM (adapted from Schultz et al., 2005)
Generally, the responsible actors are: a) national and provincial governments; b)

irrigation and drainage agencies or WUAs - which may be appointed by the
government, or the irrigators, or jointly; and c) the irrigating farmers. The contributing
actors may range from various donors to local politicians and other inertest groups. This
implies that to achieve productive and sustainable irrigation system management, the
roles of these three actors and their activities associated with irrigated agriculture need
to be in synergy. Nevertheless, such a synergy must be accomplished within the legal
framework of a country where several rules and regulations will be applicable, such as
environmental and land use regulations, ownership, etc (ibid, p. 270-271). The three
responsible actors essentially reflect three levels of governance, namely; national and/or
provincial; irrigation system level and field level. All other actors only contribute to, or
facilitate the effort of effective and sustainable irrigation management. They are needed
and have specific functions for various reasons, but ultimately, they are not responsible
for the management initiatives in an irrigation system.
Case Review
The 7th conference of International Network on Participatory Irrigation Management
(INPIM) pointed out that despite encouraging signs in terms of stabilizing food
productions and prices, a wide variation existed in the reported gains from PIM across
the world (http://www.maff.go.jp/inwepf/documents/inaugural/inpim-note.pdf). Such
variations can naturally be expected, given the diverse socioeconomic and institutional
conditions, including the objectives of PIM, in different cases. Nevertheless, some
premises encompassing PIM are general as outlined below (Peter, 2004;
http://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/aglw/waterinstitutions/default.stm):
¾Traditionally, irrigation sector has largely been managed by centralized agencies
at the federal/state/province level.
¾Most PIM related undertakings have been supported by the major international
development banks and many NGOs, often in a time-bound project mode.
¾Through PIM, the irrigators are expected to assume larger role in irrigation system
management.
¾However, irrigation management responsibilities may be shared differently in
different cases between and the agency and WUAs. For instance in countries such
as France, China, Australia and United States, the regulatory responsibilities rest
with the agency while infrastructure control, O&M, service charge collection, etc
lie with user-represented companies/boards. In countries such as Thailand,
Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Philippines, most of the irrigation management
responsibilities lie with the agency but they need to be undertaken with input from
the WUA representatives. In Andhra Pradesh (India), Turkey and Albania, these
responsibilities are shared between the WUA and the agency with variations in
specificities.
¾Similarly, organization types that assume greater irrigation management
responsibilities through PIM differ. The most common type is WUA, but there are
also the irrigation districts which are semi-municipal governments (USA, Mexico
and Taiwan). In addition, there are mutual companies where water users own
shares in the management company (USA, Mexico and Shandong province in
China). WUAs only act as the governing authority and may arrange for
contractors to provide water delivery and/or maintenance services (USA and
increasingly in China). Self-financing “public” utilities also may take over
management from government agencies (Morocco and China).
These premises may significantly define the desirable institutional conditions for PIM
on the ground, which may vary from one case to another.
IN-DEPTH CASE STUDY OF NEPAL

Nepal’s irrigation policy strongly encourages PIM/IMT in the AMIS and accordingly,
the Department of Irrigation (DOI) from 1992 has been engaged in such activities
mainly in two forms - joint management and full or partial management transfer to
WUAs. The policy embraces both surface and groundwater types of irrigation systems.
Irrigation systems irrigating up to 2,000 hectares in the plains and 500 hectares in the
hills are to be fully management-transferred to WUAs. Larger schemes would go
through a gradual transfer on a priority basis keeping in view the technical requirements
of the systems and the institutional capability of the WUAs. Projects such as Second
Sector Irrigation Project (SISP, Asian Development Bank supported), Nepal Irrigation
Sector Project (NISP, World Bank supported), Irrigation Development Project (IDP,
European Union supported), Community Shallow Tube Well Program (World Bank
supported), Irrigation Management Transfer Project (IMTP, Asian Development Bank
and USAID supported), System Management and Training Program (SMTP) of the DOI
itself, and many others such as Marchawar Lift Irrigation Project, Bagmati Irrigation
Project, Mahakali Irrigation Project and so on, all emphasize on local management of
the irrigation system by the organized irrigators.
By 1998, the DOI had formally transferred the management of three irrigation systems
to the respective WUAs: West Gandak (9,000 ha), Panchkanya (406 ha), and
Marchawar Lift (2,815 ha) Irrigation Systems. Piparpati and Parsauni minors (1,600 ha)
that stand separate from the main West Gandak system, were management-transferred
to the WUAs in early 1990s assisted by USAID-supported Irrigation Management

Project (IMP). In Kankai Irrigation System, the management of some tertiary canals has
been transferred. Similarly, the management of about sixty deep tube wells under
Bhairahwa Lumbini Ground Water Project (BLGWP) has also been transferred. All
these systems were previously being managed by the DOI and now respective WUAs
manage them.
Like most other cases elsewhere, the process of PIM/IMT in Nepal generally
incorporates two components: (i) establishment of sustainable and effective WUAs and
(ii) rehabilitation and improvement of irrigation and drainage facilities. Establishment
of sustainable and effective WUAs also includes the objective strengthening them
through various training and capacity building activities so that organized irrigators can
successfully assume the irrigation management responsibilities of the physically
improved system after the management-transfer. Rehabilitation in generally aimed at
upgrading of physical condition of the system to a level that can be managed by the
WUAs without technical difficulty and a minimal O&M cost is required after the
transfer.
GAINS ACCRUED
Relevant research findings on performance and process of PIM/IMT in Nepal are
summarized below (IWMI, 2000). The elaborations are primarily based on 3-year
research activities undertaken in Nepal by International Water Management Institute
(IWMI) in collaboration with various local partners.
a. Irrigated Agricultural Performance: Agricultural productivity generally showed an
increasing trend at PIM/IMT sites. In some schemes, gains in yields are exceptionally
higher soon after management transfer. This is likely due to rehabilitation and improved
management brought about by PIM/IMT.
b. Resource Mobilization: A comparative performance assessment of resource
mobilization practices suggested that the costs of O&M born by farmers are increasing
in PIM sites while government allocations for O&M are at low levels following
management-transfer. The collections of irrigation services in all PIM sites have
improved but the amounts are less than the required regular O&M costs (Sijapati et al.,
1998). In general, three kinds of resource mobilization practices are prevalent:
x Labor mobilization for canal maintenance works;
x Cash generation through collection of ISF and other sources; and
x Mobilization of necessary tools and equipment needed for O&M activities.
These resources are mobilized from among the beneficiaries of the system, i.e. internal
to the system. The other source of the resources is from outside the system, or external
resource mobilization. External resource mobilization might be a contribution from the
government or other agencies including non-governmental organizations in the form of
a monetary grant for a specific purpose, a regular government contribution for O&M, or
a material contribution by the government such as supplying gabion crate boxes or
cement for repairing the physical infrastructure.
The resources that each beneficiary must contribute are usually in proportion to the
farmer’s irrigated area and/or water allocation. The amount of cash or labor per unit of
water, which is generally measured in terms of irrigated land, is determined by the
general assembly of the irrigators at their annual meetings. Once the contribution rate is
agreed upon and approved, the WUA enforces it strictly.
c. Quality of Irrigation Service: Farmer surveys conducted in various irrigation systems
indicated that a majority of the irrigators perceived that the adequacy of irrigation water
improved with management transfer. Similarly, the timeliness of water delivery became
better and water distribution was fairer. In addition, farmers of transferred units faced
less difficulty in arranging for irrigation water and felt it easier to get assistance of the
WUAs.
c. Maintenance of Irrigation Infrastructure: Surveys indicated that the physical
conditions of the irrigation facilities were better after management transfer. Partly this is
due to the rehabilitation that preceded the management transfer. The positive perception
was more pronounced in the transferred systems than in the non-transferred systems.
The mechanisms of contracting the construction works to farmer representatives had
helped WUAs to become more effective but only where the contractor-farmers were
accountable to the WUA and full transparency was maintained. Also, WUA’s
involvement in design aspects was useful in improving the satisfaction level of the
irrigators.
d. Farmers’ Institution Development: The WUAs formed in course of PIM/IMT are
indeed alive, although they vary in effectiveness. Farmers have assumed several
irrigation management tasks, either partly or fully. In many places elections are
effective in changing leadership when needed. There is evidence that WUAs are
learning and improving. However, the WUAs’ capacity to enforce their own regulations
is questionable in some cases.
Despite these encouraging findings, there remains inconclusive evidence whether the
gains can be sustained afterwards (IWMI, 2000). In few cases, other support agencies
(contributing actors) in the area were not integrated into the PIM efforts. In addition,
some marginal stakeholders such as landless tenants and women were excluded from
the institutional development process that took place in the irrigation systems as part of
PIM/IMT. Among the key factors to success were found to be the timing of and the
importance given to institutional development in the PIM process. Wherever
institutional development preceded the rehabilitation, the functional status of WUAs
was found reasonably well.
Institutional conditions: opportunities and constraints, Nepal

Moving on the evolutionary path of improving governance in the water sector including
irrigation, Nepal has come a long way in decentralizing the related tasks and
responsibilities (Neupane and Neupane, 1997; Sijapati and Prasad, 2005). Particularly,
after the re-advent of multi-party representation in the government structure in 1990, the
process of various stakeholders’ involvement in water sector governance (facilitated by
institutional changes both in terms of rules and tools) has gained a faster pace.
Currently, the organizational structure of water administration in Nepal has three levels:
coordination and policy; implementation and operational; and regulatory. At the level of
coordination and policy, the organizations in place are: a) National Development
Council; b) National Planning Commission; c) National Water Resources Development
Council; d) Water and Energy Commission; and e) Environment Protection Council.
Similarly, at the ministry level, six relevant ministries and the Water and Energy
Commission Secretariat is involved.
At the implementation and operational level, seven government departments and semi
government organizations like Nepal Electricity Authority and Nepal Water Supply
Corporation are involved. The local government bodies such as District Development
Committees (DDCs), Village Development Committees (VDCs) and Municipalities as
well as NGOs like WUAs are also in place at the operational level. The prevalent policy
and regulations have entrusted the governance of water at the local level to the WUAs
formed by the representatives of the beneficiary. This institution of local organizations
with a federation at the central level (e.g. National Federation of WUA, Nepal) is
playing an instrumental role at the operational level.
CONCLUSIONS
Recalling back the previously discussed framework of actors PIM, it is evident that at
national and regional government level, Nepal has promulgated various laws, policies
and organizational structures that are amenable to pursue the policy of PIM/IMT in the
AMIS. Similarly, favorable institutional conditions exist both at irrigation system level
at which both irrigation agencies and WUAs are actively engaged in PIM/IMT-related
activities. Farmers at the field level also are increasingly assuming larger roles in
irrigation management tasks. Thus, the institutional linkages among the three
governance levels of responsible actors are evident. Nevertheless, their linkages and
relationships with the contributing actors with regard to productive and sustainable
management of the irrigation systems remain largely obscure and unclear. The
experiences so far indicate that the experience of transferring management to farmers
has been a giant experiment in Nepal. Overall, the process has been positive, but more
needs to be done to achieve the desired objectives in a way that assures sustainability of
the gains accrued.
An important element in PIM/IMT process is the farmers’ resource mobilization to
contribute to recurrent O&M expenses. In the past several attempts have been made to
introduce a system to collect water fees from the farmers but without much success or
long lasting. Less than 2% of the total O&M expense in the AMIS comes from farmers’
contributions and 98% is born by the government. In PIM and IMT sites fee collection
rates are better but far from the targeted amount (Sijapati et al., 1998). Therefore,
whether gains in irrigated agricultural performance in PIM/IMT sites can be sustained is
questionable. In the past, due to insufficient resource allocation for regular maintenance,
irrigation systems fell into disrepair soon after rehabilitation and needed to be
rehabilitated within a few years. Whether it will be possible to break the cycle of
rehabilitation-decline-rehabilitation through sustainable PIM initiatives remains to be
seen.
With regard to effective functioning of the WUAs, one difficulty is to locate strong
leadership in the community and create an enabling environment for its emergence by
creating favorable linkages with contributing actors. This is particularly relevant to the
cases in which various supports are extended in the name of supporting PIM/ IMT
initiatives through short-lived donor-supported projects such as Irrigation Sector
Project, Irrigation Development Project, Community Shallow Tube Well Program, etc.
It is also recognized that the WUAs are not “formed” just for the purpose of meeting the
condition for implementing rehabilitation without giving much consideration to their
long term effectiveness and sustenance.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Refine Goals and Objectives of PIM/IMT: Broadly speaking PIM/IMT in Nepal
foresees improvement in agricultural performance and reduction in government
expenditure. Though the state has been adopting the policy of PIM/IMT for last several
years, clear and measurable objectives are not yet laid out. Instead, transferring the
irrigation system over to WUAs in itself is perceived as one of the objectives in contrast
to defining the impacts and results that are expected from the management transfer.
Defining clearer objectives of management transfer would give a clearer focus to the
PIM/IMT effort.
Ensure Sustainability of Gains Accrued through PIM/IMT: Positive impacts of
PIM/IMT in Nepal include greater farmer participation in water supply and system
management; increased contribution of farmers’ resources to operate and maintain the
systems; higher agricultural production; and a more positive farmer perception towards
water delivery services. And possibly this all is feasible at reduced recurrent O&M costs
born by the state. However, the main threat to these gains is lack of sustainability. To
ensure a durable positive impact the state needs to give much more attention towards
issues such as:
x Sufficient resource allocation for O&M (be it from farmer contributions or
government subsidies).
x Ways to locate good leadership in the community and create an enabling
environment for its emergence.
x Focus on institutional development of WUA before rehabilitation. Development
milestones, such as WUA registration, certain percentage of service fee collection,
etc. as preconditions before starting technical works.
x Post transfer support: DOI should broaden its role of ‘irrigation system manager’
towards ‘support service provider’ – responsible to contributing actor. Such
services include providing training to WUA in essential O&M tasks, facilitating
access to other services (credit, agricultural extension), and ensuring appropriate
legal framework for WUAs to function smoothly.
x More (human and financial) resources allocated to ensure a functional monitoring
and evaluation (M&E) system to monitor impacts of PIM/IMT.
More generally, IMT should not be taken as PIM. It is more plausible to see IMT as one
of many means for fostering PIM in the management continuum (Fig 2.) aimed at
improving their performances.
An important area which is sometimes overlooked in the design of IMT programs is the
support system for WUAs and irrigated agriculture during and after management
transfer. Clear roles of responsible and contributing actors at state/national, provincial
are often obscure. Planners need to consult with water users about what support services
are most needed by the farming community in order to assume the new responsibilities
and tasks as well to overcome constraints and to explore new income opportunities.
Support services during and after management transfer may include advisory services
about institutional arrangements for the WUA, establishment of organizational and
financial procedures and skills, credit facilities, legal advice, marketing and construction
procedures. Training and extension will be an important tool to develop the knowledge
and skills of farmers and enable WUA officials to undertake management
responsibilities and ensure more profitable irrigated agriculture.
REFERENCES
1- Agrawal, A and J.C. Ribot. 2000. “Analyzing Decentralization: A Framework
with South Asian and West African Environmental Cases.” Working Paper.
World Resource Institute.
2- Groenfeldt, D and Mark Svendsen (eds). 2000, Case studies in participatory
irrigation management. WBI Learning Resources Series: TC812.C37. The World
Bank Institute, Washington DC.
3- IWMI, 2000. Evaluation of Management Transfer Performance and Process,
Nepal. Project Completion Report. (September 1996 – April 2000). May 2000.
International Water Management Institute, P. O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
4- Malano, H. and P. van Hofwegen, 2006. Management of Irrigation and Drainage
Systems: A Service Approach. IHE Monograph 3. UNESCO-IHE, Delft,
Netherlands.
5- Neupane, I. and Neupane, B. 1997. Institutional Framework to Support
Management Transfer. In workshop proceedings: Evaluation of Irrigation
Management Transfer Process and Performance - Workshop held in Kathmandu,
5-6 October 1997. Neupane, I.; Prasad, K. C. (Eds.) 1997. Proceedings of
workshop jointly organized by Research and Technology Development Branch
(RTDB) and IIMI. 139p. + annexes.
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http://www.maff.go.jp/inwepf/documents/iaugural/inpim-note.pdf.
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Management Institute.
BUILDING CAPACITY FOR PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION

MANAGEMENT - EXPERIENCES AND EMERGING ISSUES
Tom Franks1
ABSTRACT
This paper builds on established concepts of capacity-building to look in turn at the key
dimensions of the policy environment, institutional strengthening and individual
development. The importance of a consistent and supportive policy environment for
building capacity for participatory irrigation management (PIM) is emphasised. A range
of approaches to institutional strengthening are put forward, and their focus on the
strengthening and development of Water Users Associations for PIM is discussed.
Individual development is normally undertaken through training, but there is a clear
need for innovatory and non-formal approaches to training, particularly to support PIM.
The paper then goes on to discuss water governance and social learning, as two key
emerging issues of particular relevance to capacity-building for PIM. Water governance
provides a framework for viewing PIM within the wider perspective of the water sector
as a whole, while the current emphasis on social learning is particular relevant to
concepts of participation and PIM, and provides an entry point for capacity-building
through individual development.
Recent experiences collated through ICID workshops and elsewhere are reviewed for
insights into capacity-building for PIM. These include experiences from India, China,
Peru, and transition economies such as Ukraine and Albania, with reflective case studies
from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria and Tanzania.
The paper draws on these experiences to develop some general conclusions in the light
of the theory and concepts of capacity-building, in particular highlighting the need to
take an integrated view of all the resources needed for capacity-building for effective
PIM and the importance of better understanding of participatory processes and of
learning at the local level.
1- Chair, ICID Working Group on Capacity-Building, Training and Education tel 44-1274-235272,
tom.franks@btinternet.com
INTRODUCTION
Capacity-building is now recognised as an essential component of policies, programs
and projects for development. It is realised that scientific and technological advances
must be accompanied by matching increases in the capacity of individuals and
organisations to manage technology if overall improvements are to be made. This is
particularly the case in participatory irrigation management (PIM) and other areas of
agricultural water management, which bring together a complex mix of biophysical,
economic and social factors, encompassing a range of actors.
A range of definitions of capacity-building are available. A useful definition is given by
UNDP, which has done a considerable amount of work in this area:
‘the process by which individuals, groups, organisations and societies increase
their abilities to perform core functions, solve problems, achieve objectives and
to understand and deal with their development needs in a broad context and a
sustainable manner’ (UNDP 1998).
This definition focuses on capacity-building as a process and highlights that it is needed
not only to support individuals and organisations in their day-to-day operations (core
functions) but also in taking a strategic view (developmental needs and objectives). It
therefore encompasses a range of concerns, at the large and local scale and in the long
and short term. There is an extensive literature by a variety of development institutions
and international agencies on approaches to capacity-building which address these range
of concerns (see for example (Fukuda-Parr, C et al. 2002).
A consensus emerges from this body of work on a basic theoretical concept for
capacity-building. This concept has been taken up by ICID in the recent work carried
out through the Working Group on Capacity-Building, Training and Education
(http://www.wg-cbte.icidonline.org/home.html) and forms the framework for this paper
in consideration of capacity-building needs for PIM. The concept identifies capacity-
building needs at three levels, at the level of policy, at the level of the organisation or
institution, and at the level of the individual.
This paper describes the context for PIM and elaborates the conceptual framework
within which to consider capacity-building for PIM. It then addresses in more detail
certain key issues which have arisen recently in this field, before going on to review the
experiences in capacity-building brought together within ICID and other fora over the
past few years.
THE CONTEXT FOR PIM

Over the past two decades dissatisfaction with public sector management of irrigation
has grown as a result of constraints on government effectiveness and financing and of
ideas of ‘rolling back’ the role of the state from that of service provider to that of
regulator. This has particular resonance in the irrigation sector, in which beneficiaries
are often relatively well off compared to others in the agricultural sector. This suggests
that private sector structures may be more appropriate than traditional public
organisations in providing services to irrigation farmers, in turn leading to the idea of
transferring responsibility for management to beneficiaries through some form of
irrigation management transfer (IMT).
IMT requires that there are institutions ready and capable of taking over some of the
management responsibilities. Such may indeed be the situation in richer countries with a
long history of private sector development, in which private sector institutions may have
the capability and experience to take on management roles and where formal legal
relationships are well understood and developed. In many other poorer countries,
including many of those with extensive surface irrigation systems, institutional
structures are not developed in this way, there are few institutions with the management
expertise to take up the new roles under IMT, and formal legal relationships are ill-
defined and difficult to exercise. In such situations it is necessary to build on existing
institutional structures and find innovative ways of bringing farmers together to assume
management responsibilities. Almost inevitably this requires some form of PIM,
implying ‘participation’ between farmers who, in other respects, may not necessarily be
accustomed to participation with one another, or who would prefer for other reasons to
participate in different structures and groups from those reflecting the hydraulic system.
Most often participation is expected to take place through some form of Water User
Association (WUA) which takes over some of the managerial roles and responsibilities
of the public irrigation agency. Inevitably, therefore, much of the focus of capacity-
building for PIM lies in developing or strengthening WUAs and the participatory
processes which underlie them.
THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT

It has long been recognised that a supportive policy environment is essential if efforts to
increase capacity at the local level are to be successful. In the case of PIM, the key
policy measures have been identified above, a policy of transfer of management
responsibility for irrigation (IMT) away from the public sector to an appropriate private
or non-governmental organisation, and, where the private sector is not yet in a position
to take the responsibility, a policy of participation in irrigation management (PIM)
through a WUA. These two form the essential components of a capacity-building
strategy for the sector.
However there is also a clear need in capacity-building to ensure that other subsidiary
policies are in place to support overall policy aims and directions. For example, there
are often regulations concerning the establishment of participatory organisations which
involve heavy transaction costs (visits to central ministries and departments, payment of
significant fees) and which may result in constraints and hindrances to their effective
functioning. Another aspect of supporting policy which must be considered is the
relationship between hydraulic organisations such as WUAs and the structures of local
government, particularly in contexts where hydraulic systems form the dominant
element of the local landscape. In such situations the overall policy environment may
actually be hostile to the establishment of powerful and effective grass-roots irrigation
organisations because of their significant political importance at this level, even if the
avowed policy aim in the agricultural sector is management transfer to participatory
management organisations (Theesfeld 2004).
INSTITUTIONAL STRENGTHENING
Institutional strengthening forms the next level of capacity-building. The concept of
institutions needs some definition here, since it has two distinct but related meanings.
Institutions refer, firstly, to the rules and norms which govern the way people live and
interact with one another. Thus reference is made to the institutions of the law, such as
property rights, and the institutions of personal relationships, such as those set by
marriage or kinship. Such institutions result from a range of formal and socially-
constructed forces in society (politics, legislation, culture, tradition, wealth and so on).
They change and develop over a long periods and, whilst their importance in capacity-
building is widely acknowledged, it is also recognised that it is difficult to make
significant changes over the short-term of development interventions. The second
meaning of institutions is in relation to organisations, deliberately or informally
constructed groupings which may range from bureaucratic structures with established
constitutions and defined roles to loosely-aligned groups of individuals and households.
Institutions in this sense refer to the Law Courts (the arrangement of judges and other
legal officers, together with their buildings and operational systems) or the grouping of
individuals within family household or kinship structures. Much of the challenge of
capacity-building lies at the institutional level.
Part of the challenge arises from the dual nature of ‘institutions’. That element of
institutions relating to rules and norms arises over the long-term as a result of
interactions between individuals in close groups, in the wider environment of
organisations and in the context of society as a whole. Rules and norms are dynamic and
change over time, but they change as a result of the interaction of a range of different
trends, forces and pressures, and they are seldom susceptible to change as a result of a
single development intervention or even a programme. For example, attitudes towards
co-operation and participation will be determined by a range of factors in the local
context and in society as a whole, and they will not change significantly over the long-
term solely as a result of a project designed to foster participation. The other aspect of
institutions, the groupings and organisations which provide roles for the individuals
within them, are more amenable to purposive change through projects and other
interventions. Here again, however, a note of caution must be sounded as organisations
consist of both structure and culture. The structure (the relationship of roles) is possible
to define, develop and modify. The culture (the way of doing things in the organisation)
bears many resemblances to the rules and norms of institutions. It develops slowly over
time and can be changed only incrementally and in a loosely-defined way.
With this note of warning, there are nevertheless some approaches which can be used as
a basis for approaches to institutional strengthening within capacity-building. For
example Ostrom has been working on issues of self-governing institutions for irrigation
over the past 20 years. Whilst her interest lies in governing the resource commons in
general, her focus on irrigation as a case study makes her work particularly relevant for
PIM. Initially postulated as a set of design principles (Ostrom 1991), more recently the
ideas have been recast as a set of questions to be asked when designing or strengthening
institutions for resource management (Ostrom 2005). With specific reference to PIM at
the local level, they can be translated as:
x How can the boundaries of the system and the people using it be defined, so as to
make clear who is authorised to benefit?
x How can the relationship between benefits received and costs contributed be
defined?
x How can the participation of those involved in making key decisions be supported
and encouraged?
x Who is monitoring the operation of the system, and do they have appropriate
incentives for this task?
x What system of sanctions is in place for infringement of rules and are these
appropriate and appropriately graded?
x What mechanisms exist to solve conflicts over water use?
There has been considerable discussion and comment on these design questions, on a
number of counts. For example, it is suggested that they do not sufficiently take into
account the variability and dynamism of the contexts in which they are applied, nor the
socially-constructed understandings that shape peoples’ collective action (Cleaver and
Franks 2005). For example, people have may have a wide range of reasons for
interacting with one another, such as kinship, so that their relationships are not wholly
mediated by the fact that they are members of the same WUA. Thus the simplicity of
the concepts underlying the design questions may mask a range of complex inter-
relationships which will have an important bearing on the way that institutions for PIM
develop. Nevertheless the Ostrom questions provide a useful entry point into thinking
about the necessary conditions for long-lasting institutions for PIM.
A second entry point to institutional strengthening arises from approaches commonly
applied to organisations across the spectrum of management concerns. These have been
codified for development organisations into a number of questions (DFID 2003):
x Is there a strategic plan for the organisation? How does the strategy relate to the
organisation’s mandate and responsibilities?
x What is the formal structure of the organisation? How is decision-making
exercised and what are the mechanisms for accountability?
x What is the organisation’s culture? How are its rules and norms established?
x What inputs and resources are available to the organisation? What systems and
processes are in place to define the organisational system? What outputs and
performance result from this?
Questions arising both from the Ostrom principles and from management approaches
more generally put great emphasis on the formal structures of institutions, and highlight
concepts such as transparency and accountability. They provide much less guidance in
dealing with the informal and unstructured aspects of institutions, the way people do
things in an organisation, and how these rules and norms have developed. In additional
a whole range of issues and questions are raised by the nature of participation, which are
reflected by the wealth of development literature about its problems and pitfalls. These
arise from inter-related strands of debate about the various types of participation. So, for
example Khanya defines participatory relationships ranging from self-mobilisation at
one extreme (in which people participate by taking initiatives independently of external
institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how
resources are used) to manipulative participation at the other extreme (in which
participation is simply pretence, with representation on official boards by people who
are not elected and who have no power) (Khanya 2002). Issues of power and power
relationships underlay key discussions about participation, leading us to ideas about the
‘tyranny’ of participation and about modes, methods and outcomes of participation
within a single group or organisation. This in turn raises questions concerning the
position of individuals within participatory groups such as WUAs. Who participates and
why? What are the outcomes for different people within the group or organisation? How
can we strengthen participatory organisations such as WUAs whilst at the same time
allowing for the important differences that underlay the contribution and commitment of
people within the association.
In considering capacity-building for PIM, it must be recognised that there is no
universal theory underlying institutional strengthening. It is therefore inevitable that any
approach to institution building must work not from theories but from a range of
questions or issues which need to be addressed. The answers to these questions will
vary from location to location, and indeed will change over time. Moreover the process
of answering these questions must emerge through a participatory process, if long-
lasting participative institutions are to result. This process needs to pass through the
stages of:
x diagnosis (assessing the present situation)
x design (proposing changes and improvements for the future)
x implementation (initiating and establishing the proposed changes)
x evaluation (assessing outcomes and identifying the need for further
modifications).
If truly effective participatory structures are to emerge, there will be need for further
consultation and participation at every stage of this process. Overall, therefore, it may
become very lengthy, and required sustained effort and support over considerable time.
The need for such sustained intervention is constantly stressed in the development
literature (Toner and Franks 2006): frequently it requires considerably more time than
that for the development or upgrading of the accompanying physical systems.
INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT
Individual development forms the third level of capacity-building. The capabilities of
individuals are essential to the effective operation of systems and organisations and
there has therefore been considerable emphasis in the past on developing capabilities
through programmes of training and extension. There have been significant successes in
training programmes, both for the personal development of individuals and also in
making them more effective in their organisational roles. However it is also widely
acknowledged that training initiatives are often a default option for capacity-building
programmes, since they are relatively easy to deliver and evaluate. Increases in
individual capabilities can be demonstrated to be value for money, without having to
address the more difficult question of whether they in turn contribute to an overall
increase of capacity at the institutional level. Training and extension to support PIM is
vitally important and the approaches to successful training are now well understood.
A significant feature of modern approaches to individual development is the increasing
emphasis being put on non-formal methods and approaches. Whereas in the past the
most common option was to work through a programme of formal classroom-based
training, it is now recognised that other methods may be more appropriate and effective.
This include ideas such as twinning, where individuals exchange visits with others in
similar organisations to see how problems can be addressed in different ways, and
networking, where individuals share experiences with groups of others to address
common problems. Advances in IT have made possible forms of twinning and
networking which would have been impossible a few years ago because of the
constraints of communication and distance.
EMERGING ISSUES
Whilst ideas of capacity-building have been with us for some considerable time, the
water sector has seen emerging in recent times some new and innovative concepts
which can enrich and broaden the range of available approaches. This paper will focus
on two of these in particular, concepts of water governance and ideas of social learning.
Water governance is gaining increasing attention in the international consensus on water
policy. Defined as “the range of political, social, economic and administrative systems
that are in place to develop and manage water resources, and the delivery of water
services, at different levels of society” (Rogers and Hall 2003), good water governance
implies finding appropriate structures for water management which bring into play the
different sectors and groups in society, such as government, the public sector, the
private sector, together with citizens’ groups and NGOs which will come together
through some form of participation. It thus has particular resonance with the ideas of
PIM, since it suggests the need to look for structures and processes which work
alongside more traditional bureaucratic systems. Recent proposals for a framework for
water governance (figure 1) link available resources to mechanisms for access to water,
leading in turn to outcomes for people and the ecosystem (Franks and Cleaver 2007).
This framework suggests a complementary perspective from which to view capacity-
building needs, by stressing the importance of understanding how people draw on a
diverse range of resources (institutional, social, rights, economic, human, technological
and natural) to support their access to water
Actors and agents

local people, public officials, political leaders, WUAs, traders,
technologists and other stakeholders
Resources for Specific mechanisms Outcomes

water governance of access
For people
Non-material x Local governments
Access to basic supplies
Institutional resources x WUAs
Support for livelihoods
Social structures x Social groups (irrigation, fishing,
livestock, forestry)
Rights and entitlements
x Land and water rights
Structures of social
Human capabilities cohesion and exclusion
x Communal labour for
canal maintenance
Political voice and
Material representation by
x Payments for salaries
and operating costs different groups
Economic resources
For water systems
Technology x Rotations and schedules
Pattern of flows and
Natural environment x Water control structures
levels in the system and
downstream
Processes of management and practice
Figure 1. A Framework for Water Governance
A further development of relevance to capacity-building for PIM has been the recent
focus on ideas of social learning. Social learning refers to individual learning based on
observation of others and their social interactions within a group and has found wide
applicability in a range of social and technical contexts. It has only recently come to be
applied to water management, but finds particular resonance when applied to ideas of
PIM. Specifically it emphasises collaborative and participative learning by individuals
within the institutions responsible for PIM, rather than top-down, hierarchical learning
which will not be fully owned by the farmer and farmer organisations at the local level.
Social learning was the topic for a special session at the Fourth World Water Forum
(www.wg-cbte.icidonline.org/ft4_20_report.pdf). In its findings this session emphasised
the need for broad partnerships among stakeholders to reach out and involve as many
people as possible in the capacity development process, and for mechanisms to allow
these stakeholders to work together and learn from each other.
EXPERIENCES TO DATE
ICID’s Working Group on Capacity-Building, Training and Education has been
researching issues of capacity-building over a considerable period. Most recently this
has been through a series of workshops, mainly co-sponsored and funded through
IPTRID, which have studied the whole cycle of capacity-building. Thus, starting in
2003, there was an opening event which set out the basic concepts of capacity-building,
as presented in the preceding sections, and brought together an initial series of case
studies (ICID and FAO 2004). This was followed in 2004 by a workshop in Moscow
which focussed on the approaches and methods of capacity needs assessment, and then
in 2005 by the Beijing workshop which highlighted the design and implementation of
capacity development strategies. The final workshop in the series, in Kuala Lumpur in
2006, considered approaches to monitoring and evaluation of capacity-building. This
brought together some very interesting case studies but, not surprisingly, it was the area
where there was least experience. This reflects the fact that M&E is more talked about
than practised (very few sponsors or financing institutions are actually willing to put
time and resources into M&E, in spite of the theoretical importance it is given), and also
by the fact that it is intrinsically very difficult to monitor and evaluate the outcomes of
capacity building initiatives, except in relation to the specific output of training
programmes (numbers of people trained, in which topics).
The workshops brought together experiences over the whole spectrum of capacity-
building. These included capacity-building for PIM, and a brief reference is made here
to the key papers and presentations relevant to this field. In the main these experiences
related to capacity building for Water User Associations (WUAs), with the generally
unspoken assumption that WUAs are an essential component of IMT and PIM, since it
is actually WUAs which will need to take up the functions of management transferred
from the public sector.
An important set of experiences arises from the Andhra Pradesh Farmer Management of
Irrigation Systems (APFMIS) legislation of 1997 (Peter 2003). This was a very large
scale undertaking to transfer responsibility for management in the state, involving the
establishment of over 10,000 WUAs. Peter’s main emphasis is on the creation of farmer
networks to support the overall process of capacity building but importance was also
given to exchange visits and study tours, and to an effective communication strategy
using information technology and other media. Throughout the process there was an
emphasis on empowering WUAs and providing continued support after their
establishment. Training formed an important part of the process but more significant
inputs came through other formal and informal means of institutional strengthening and
individual development. Complementary experience of capacity building in the Andhra
Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems project (APFAMGS) is described by
Rao et al (Rao, Das et al. 2006). Capacity building for this large-scale project was
carried out using a variety of methods comprising cultural shows, training, workshops
and visits. A key component of the process in this case was farmer field schools, relying
extensively on non-formal education methodology. (The need for developing non-
formal education methodologies is also explored in the paper by Botha on South
African experience (Botha 2005), though Botha’s paper does not directly deal with
PIM).
Fuqiang and Heping explored issues of large-scale capacity-building for WUAs in their
review of experiences of China (Fuqiang and Heping 2006). This review emphasises the
importance of an appropriate policy environment. They note in particular that the level
of water fees was set so low that most of the fees collected went towards buying bulk
water from the irrigation district agency, thus leaving little for supporting the day-to-day
activities and operation of the WUAs. They also note that developing participatory
systems is difficult in contexts where there was a highly centralised system of control,
resulting in very little autonomy for the newly-formed WUAs and a corresponding lack
of performance incentive for the managers (a point emphasised in the Ostrom design
questions).
Other regions of the world which have also experienced transitions from a centrally-
planned economy have met similar difficulties in building authentic capacity for PIM.
Van Scheltinga and Zovtonog described the approach on the Watermuk project in
Ukraine, involving the setting up of WUAs in a situation where previously there had
been strong centralised control (VanScheltinga and Zovtonog 2004). Here, too, use was
made of the concept of study tours and exchange visits, to complement formal training
and to introduce the officials and participants to contexts in which such organisation can
function effectively. Dedja provides an interesting review of the experience in Albania,
including the transition from village-based to hydraulic-based WUAs (Dedja 2003), to
reflect a more rational boundary for co-operation and participation. Dedja emphasised
the importance of technical assistance and training particularly in financial
management, to ensure the financial sustainability of the associations. This experience
is mirrored in other sectors and in other regions around the world.
Ledesma (Ledesma 2003) described a programme to change long-established
institutional arrangements for irrigation management in Peru. An international NGO
was invited in to lead a comprehensive programme of institutional change, mainly
through a programme of participatory training focussing on changes in knowledge,
skills and attitudes, both for irrigation agency officials and for some 64 user boards. The
training and capacity-building was directed towards encouraging the user boards to take
on full responsibility for local water management, including the collection of fees from
farmers and to encourage private funding for irrigation. ICID engaged with the issues of
social learning, with the paper by Mati presented at the Beijing Workshop. Whilst
emphasising the importance of approaches such as the establishment of farmer networks
and exchange visits, Mati and her colleagues put stress on the value of identifying
farmer innovators who can be supported as champions of change at the local level (Mati
2005).
Ideas of water governance and participation lead to a complementary set of
considerations for institutional strengthening of PIM. In a recent survey practitioners
were invited to develop reflective case studies from their field experience, in which they
reflected on the mechanisms which people use to support or enhance their access to
water, many of which are in context which imply some form of participatory
management. Thus Hill working in Bihar notes the need for sustained support for
newly-formed WUAs and also the crucial importance of financial sustainability and
some form of financial saving or contribution to pay operation costs (Hill 2006). The
need of financial sustainability has been noted by many other commentators, both
within the irrigation sector (for example in Bangladesh by Smith et al (Smith 2005)and
outside it, in Uchira, Tanzania by Toner (2006) and in NWFP, Pakistan by Tod (2004).
Lessons from Africa likewise confirm the potential advantages but also some of the
pitfalls of assuming that PIM will operate effectively. In SW Tanzania, for example, the
costs of collecting water rates from a number of widely-distributed small farmer
organisations far outweighed the revenue collected, thus leaving the Water Office worse
off than if no fees had been collected (Lankford 2005). In Nigeria Bdliya notes the
importance of a wide-ranging stakeholder analysis to correctly identify the locus of
power and influence surrounding irrigation systems (Bdliya 2006). In that particular
case, traditional (non-bureaucratic) structures are far more important than government
agencies and bureaucracies because they lie closer to the system and because they form
part of the daily fabric of peoples’ lives, rather than being connected with only one part
of it, the allocation and use of water. In such a context, any form of PIM must work in
harmony with existing institutional structures if it is to be successful.
CONCLUSION
This paper analysed the need for capacity building for PIM at the level of the policy
environment, institutional strengthening and individual development. It discussed the
importance and relevance of the emerging concepts of water governance and social
learning to capacity-building for PIM. Finally it reviewed the experience of ICID and
others in the field.
From the field experiences a consensus seems to emerge on the need for:
x understanding existing institutional and social structures
x sustaining support for institutional strengthening
x building the financial sustainability of local institutions
x identifying local champions for change
In general, institutional strengthening provides the most significant issues in capacity-
building, and there is no blueprint for success. The article outlined approaches to
institutional strengthening which build on a set of design questions. The appropriate
responses to these questions will vary from location to location.
The emerging concepts of water governance and social learning suggest further key
challenges for capacity-building. These include the need to:
x take a broad and holistic view of institutional strengthening, viewing it not just as
establishing the form and structure of appropriate organisations but rather as
working across the range of resources for water governance.
x understand better how participation works in different situations, and how it can
be supported by individual learning in a social context.
Whilst much has already been learnt from field experiences, there will always be a need
for further learning as the needs for capacity-building change in the constantly evolving
context of PIM.
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PARTICIPATORY TRAINING PROGRAMME IN CANAL IRRIGATION

IN ANDHRA PRADESH, SOUTH INDIA
R. Doraiswamy1
ABSTRACT
This paper deals on the field activity of participatory training programme

(PTP)/capacity building of various stakeholders undertaken by JalaSpandana in large
canal irrigation projects namely Kurnool Cuddapah Canal, Rajolibanda Diversion
Scheme and Priyadharshini Jurala Project in Andhra Pradesh (AP). The objectives are to
strengthen PIM, sustain WUAs, enhance water use efficiency and livelihoods, etc.
JalaSpandana designed Participatory Training Programme (PTP), which build the
confidence of farmers and other stake holders and produced good results in taking over
the responsibility of collecting water tax/rates/charges, exploring alternates for efficient
main system management, sustainable WUAs, tail end deprivation, etc. The design
adopted approach to involve users and other stakeholders in the process of preparation,
implementation and impact assessment of training modules. Further, the trainings were
carried out in an integrated approach to Integrated Water Resources Management with
unlimited time bound programmes that is easy to encompass all the complexities of the
irrigation system, which again could be registered by the participants. In AP, PTP is
supported by Irrigation and Command Area Development, Government of Andhra
Pradesh. PTP is extended to irrigation projects that are undergoing modernisation
programme with huge expenditure. Establishing model farms and WUAs are fetching
good results in developing participatory field channel and other canal structures
design. The representatives who were initially discussing only on physical works
started exploring alternatives for efficient water management. Establishment of
dummy/informal project level committees is yet another technique adopted in PTP.
1- Mr. R. Doraiswamy is working as water resource specialist is with JalaSpandana – South India
Farmers Organisation for Water Management, Bangalore, India. JalaSpandana is a non-governmental
organisation formed by the representatives of water users associations in South India. Contact:
doraiswamyr@vsnl.net, doraiswamyr@rediffmail.com, www.jalaspandana.org, Phone: 91-80-22286161,
09448268401, Address: 72, 7th Cross, Chikkathayappa Street, Vasanthnagar, Bangalore 560052, India.
Mr. R. Doraiswamy is thankful to I & CAD, GOAP and to Mr. S.P. Tucker, Principal Secretary,
I & CAD, GOAP.
1. INTRODUCTION
Worldwide the need for farmers to participate in the management and distribution of
water for irrigation purposes is recognised. As the water for irrigation purposes is
getting scarcer with the passage of time and increase in population the need for optimal
utilisation of the resources is felt throughout the world. One of the methods identified is
to make the irrigator responsible for his act through an institutional structure in which
farmers participate in governance, management and finance of irrigation. Andhra
Pradesh is one of the pioneer to adopt PIM in India (Peter 2001).
The experiences in investment in irrigation infrastructure in India, including Andhra
Pradesh reveals that enormous amount is spent on Hardware component of Irrigation
system like construction of dams, canal network, command area development including
land leveling and crop loans. The software component of Irrigation system like capacity
building exercise, which is essential for the utilization of hardware component of
irrigation systems have not been given adequate attention. Thus leading to under
utilization of water compared to desired results as envisaged in the design
characteristics of the irrigation system (Wade 1982).
The Capacity building exercise and strengthening of farmers’ involvement in water
management in irrigation system is necessary to increase the momentum of water sector
reform. Farmers are generally excluded from the process of preparing training contents,
and are mainly conceived as passive listeners or receivers only and implementers of
skills and expertise imparted during the training programmes designed by others. It is
posited that an explicitly multi-stakeholder training programme process and balanced
representation of the different interest groups in that, including farmers, will enhance
the quality, acceptability and pace of irrigation system improvement (Narwani 2005).
The first section of the paper deals with the Introduction and area profile, section 2 deals
with Participatory Training Programme concept including Micro Plan Preparation,
Participatory Modernisation Programme and Water Users Research Facility. The third
section deals with the Methodology of PTP in which Training Need Assessment,
Training Modules and Impact Assessment is discussed. Fourth section deals with
Lessons learnt, followed by fifth section which lists References1.
Irrigation and CAD, GOAP supported JalaSpandana to carry out capacity building
exercise in three major irrigation projects namely Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme
(RDS), Priyadharshini Jurala Project (PJP) and Kurnool Cuddapah Canal (KCC)2 in
Krishna Basin in Andhra Pradesh3. The PTP was carried out from January 2005 to mid
2006.
1- The detailed report of PTP in RDS, PJP and KCC can be obtained from writing to
jalaspandana@yahoo.co. in or visit www.jalaspandana.org.
2- Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme is fifty year old project, PJP is new project in which the notification
and area delineation is yet to be taken up across the command area and KCC is about 130 year old
project, which is undergoing modernisation programme with the financial loan from Japanese Bank of
International Cooperation (JBIC).
3- Irrigation and CAD, GOAP empanelled NGOs and assigned the task of carrying out PTP in other
irrigation projects in Andhra Pradesh (I&CAD forth coming publication on Sustainable Water Resource
Development in AP).
1.1. AREA PROFILE OF THREE PROJECTS IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Table 1. shows JalaSpandana engagement in PTP in AP
Name of NGO Irrigation Project No. of No. of WUA area Villages

WUA DCs (ha)
Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme 34 6 35425.00 79
Priyadharshini Jurala Project 5 - 4500.00 ha* 27

JalaSpandana
Kurnool Cuddapah Canal** 86 14 1,60,000 ha 346
* In addition, PJP provides water for 12,145 ha to the RDS tail end command area.
** JalaSpandana with other two NGOs namely APARD and WCUSS carried out PTP in KCC.
2. CONCEPT PTP
The experiences during the field work in irrigation systems reveals that there are
number of problems inbuilt in the training programmes imparted in the capital and
district centers. These trainings have limited time bound programmes, which are never
easy to encompass all the complexities of the irrigation system, which again can be
registered by the participants in short duration. The need of the hour is to see the
training programmes as continuous process of capacity building. Most irrigation
systems have huge command area and to reach all these users needs a thorough
investigation while preparing the training module.
It is not enough to merely create users institution to turn and take over the responsibility
of water management in irrigation systems, which is complex and dynamic features in
terms of social, economic, technical and political fronts. The participation of users in
any institutional activities do not make any meaning if it confines to members turning
out to vote during elections only (Inbanathan, Bhagyalakshmi and Doraiswamy 1997).
The task of government and non-government agencies in capacity building exercise is
ever increasing phenomenon particularly as we move towards building users
institutions. Many times it is felt that the task of capacity building is over with the
formation of users’ institution at various levels, but the true fact is that the responsibility
to increase the capacity among users’ increases as we move forward. Thus we need to
explore the viable institutional mechanism to install training centers in each of these
projects on a permanent basis. The attempt will also focus on ‘supply driven and self
driven’ training module.
The concept Participatory Training Programme (PTP) is evolved to enrich farmers with
all the management techniques by involving them in all aspects of the programme. The
PTP gives opportunity for the users to understand the problems and its implications in
the irrigation project and also enables them to realize the mistakes committed by some
farmers. The PTP is more encouraging to clarify apprehensions on different practices
and evolve strategies to manage the system efficiently. One of the major attention is to
simplify the rules, regulations and other day to day business of WUAs, so that the
farmers can manage it like any of their own business. The programme aims to develop
number of farmers field school, which in turn carry out the training programme and
reach many farmers in the region (Doraiswamy and Mollinga 2004). The perceptions of
water users and experts on water policies, Irrigation Act, Rules and Regulations help
modify and design comprehensive policy and move towards contractual agreement
(Mollinga 2004).
This training programme undertakes a new type of activities in three parts in the process
of developing effective training materials and organizing training programmes for
dissemination for efficient water management in irrigation systems in Andhra Pradesh,
South India, which has so far been characterized by government-initiated training
programmes and managed by few professionals. The training the general advocacy of
participatory approaches to its logical conclusion, by initiating multi-stake holders
emphasising farmers’ involvement in preparing and dissemination of the training
module in order to increase and strengthen their role in water sector training programme
formulation and implementation.
2.1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF PTP

The aims and objectives of the training programme are to carry out training needs
assessment in irrigation project area, develop participatory approach in training needs
assessment, assess the capabilities of users in water management at various levels, carry
out capacity building exercise, increase the productivity per unit of water, food and
employment security, reduce brewing water tensions in the region, assess the feasibility
of application of computers and simputers and explore the possibilities of viable and
feasibility of sustainable training centers in project area
3. METHODOLOGY OF PTP
The training programme consists of three parts namely Training need assessment,
Training and Impact assessment, which was carried out in participatory approach with
participatory monitoring and evaluation mechanism, through involving different stake
holders like farmers, department officials, elected representatives in the region at all
levels, NGOs and other institutions.
STEP BY STEP APPROACH
PRE-TRAINING
1. Benchmarking of WUAs
2. Action research on micro and main system/project performance
3. Unstructured meetings with all WUAs at project level
4. Participatory identification and establishment of centre and sub centers for
training
5. Social, Physical and Natural capital documentation
6. Involvement of officials of I & CAD and others right from the beginning
7. Formation of project level informal committees of WUAs

8. Participatory action plan
9. Entry point activity
10. Participatory identification and establishment of model distributary, farm and
WUA
11. Participatory training module preparation in an integrated approach on IWRM
12. Preparation of concept note and subsequent action plan for various issues
13. Facilitating the preparation of video documentation on water issues
3.1. TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

The training need assessment, carried out in participatory action research approach
adopting extensive and intensive facilitating and enabling conditions to elicit
information required for the training module reveals ground realities and ways to
overcome such predicaments (Naik et al 2002). The following are some of the findings
that emerged during the training need assessment.
x Water users, department officials and other stake holders in the command area
have great potential to make PIM success
x Extension services related to water conservation technology and agriculture is
poor.
x Water and crop productivity is below the expected level, for instance, paddy
average yield in the region is about 30 bags per acre, which could be increased up
to 50 bags by adopting different technologies.
x Representatives of WUAs, and department officials do not have holistic picture of
project performance since its inception till date.
x Modernisation programme lay emphasis on physical works.
x WUAs are not involved in modernisation programme, as a result tampering of
structures of canal system continues.
x WUAs not keen on water tax collection due to mechanism deficiency, Revenue
Department is not apportioning the water tax to WUAs. As a result, WUAs are not
getting their due share of money to carry out operation and maintenance of canal
system.
x Sharing of data on the water tax collection by Revenue Department to Irrigation
Department and WUAs is missing and cumbersome process.
x Wide gap in potential created and utilized in RDS project - Tailenders deprivation
x Lack of knowledge on the rules and regulations of APFMIS Act.
x Informal arrangements like community lashkars (water man), patrolling on the
canal system towards managing scarcity.
x None of the WUAs had established WUA offices and only one WUA had records
pertaining to WUA.
x Informal project level WUAs committee formed under FNWSR supported by
INPIM showed great potential to develop as pressure group and lobby for PIM
(JalaSpandana 2004 & 2005).
x No financial support from Government to make WUAs sustainable.
3.2. TRAINING
In each of the irrigation command area, one main training centre and several regional
centers depending on the size of the command area were established to suit the
convenience of the farmers spread across the command area right from head reach to
tail reach. The training components will focus on Social, Political/Institutional,
Economic, Technical and Management issues related to irrigation and development. The
trainings were given to farmers, representatives of WUAs, department officials and
other stake holders.
As the capacity building is carried out in major irrigation projects with large number of
WUAs spread across large canal network, the training programme was strategically
designed in a participatory manner to reach all WUAs and farmers.
1. General training carried out to all WUAs and farmers in project area
2. Intensive training to establish fair representation of model WUAs
3. Too intensive training to establish model farm and farmers field school
4. Participatory approach to modernisation of irrigation project (blending social with
technical)
TRAINING MODULES
MODULE – I (WUA ROLE, RESPONSIBILITIES AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT)

1. Know your project – SRSP project and its modernisation
2. Participatory Irrigation Management and its importance
3. Formation of WUAs and its objectives
4. Andhra Pradesh Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems 1997 Act (APFMIS)
5. Role of Irrigation, Agriculture and Revenue Departments in PIM
6. Functions of Presidents, TC members, sub committees and general body
7. Maintenance of accounts and book keeping
8. Gender issues
9. Sustainability of WUAs
MODULE – II (IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT + PROJECT VISIT)

10. Warabandi – Rotational Water Supply
11. Irrigation Projects – Water distribution system and maintenance of structures
12. Methods of Irrigation – Surface, Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation
13. Water logging – Salinity and drainage
14. Water balance and Conjunctive use of ground water
MODULE III (WATER MANAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT CROPPING SYSTEMS)

15. Systematic land development
16. Soil, water and plant relationship
17. Water Requirement for different crops and critical stages
18. On-farm water management
19. Water management in horticulture crops and fruit crops
20. Water management in ID crops
MODULE – IV (SRI PADDY, FARM MECHANIZATION AND FIELD VISIT)

21. SRI (Paddy) method of cultivation
22. Farm mechanization
MODULE – V (IMPROVED CROPPING SYSTEMS)

23. Soil testing and its importance
24. Fertilisers and Integrated Nutrients Management
25. Integrated Pest Management
26. Bio-pesticides and Bio-fertilisers
27. Organic farming
MODULE – VI DAYS (LIVELIHOODS MANAGEMENT UNDER WUA)

28. Impact of Irrigation Projects on Environment and Environment management plan
29. Livelihoods development – diversification of agriculture, animal husbandry, value
addition services to the products, market linkages.
30. Community health and sanitation with reference to water sector
TRAINING OFFICIALS
The policies and programmes towards decentralization that calls for devolution has
created a fear among the section of the stakeholders that they get displaced in the due
course of accommodating participatory programme. On the day to day activities the

existing staff of I&CAD can become more productive and play important role in
improving water use efficiency, which is very essential during the take off stage of PIM
(Diemer and Huibers 1996). Farmers participation in irrigation do not eliminate the role
and responsibility of the Government organisations and agencies in irrigation. This
perhaps may be true in the long run or calls for redefinition of roles and responsibilities
of different stakeholders in the system. The Government staff can take over the role of
mobilizing, organizing, training and provide technical support in design, operation and
maintenance of the system through which there could be substantial contribution from
their professional background.
WURF
One of the main draw back in the irrigation sector is the wide gap in the knowledge
between the professionals and the users.
Entitlement at
Several research topics undertaken by Water Allocation and withdrawals anicut from
various researchers from various Tungabhadra
professional institutes have not made 20 River (TMC)
sincere attempt in transforming the 15 Drawal at
anicut from
research finding to the users (Pastakia 10
TMC
Tungabhadra
2002). The findings of many research 5 River (TMC)
topics that concern farmers and system Entitlement to
0
managers in their day to day business of AP
1985 -
1988 -
1991 -
1994 -
1997 -
2000 -
2003 -
irrigation management is not shared
with the users from whom the primary Year Drawal by AP
and secondary data is collected. Of late,
in addition to the existing pattern of research both academic and development, concept
like Water Users Research Facility is being propagated. The main proponents of this
concept are Dr. Peter Mollinga1 and Mr. R. Doraiswamy2. Attempts are being made to
facilitate farmers to identify the problem areas that needs to be researched upon for
better understanding and initiate actions accordingly. The graph was prepared and
showed to stakeholders to understand how the RDS project is functioning over the
years.
MICRO-PLAN
PTP helps preparation of micro-plan, which constitute detailing of the activities that is
intended to be taken up during the pre crop season and crop season period at the level of
WUAs. In the past, the micro-plan include budget estimates for the activities like
physical works i.e. the repair of the canal networks and other irrigation structures. These
estimates were prepared exclusively by the staff of irrigation department, which was not
conducive for promoting participatory irrigation management. The threat in the
conventional method is that the water users i.e. farmers would take back seat and
depend on the staff of irrigation department to identify works and even to obtain the
1- Dr. Peter P. Mollinga, Senior Researcher 'Natural Resources and Social Dynamics' ZEF (Centre for
Development Research), Department of Political and Cultural Change, Walter Flex Str. 3, 53113 Bonn
2- Mr. R. Doraiswamy, Water Resource Specialist, JalaSpandana – South India Farmers Organisation for
Water Management, Bangalore - India
basic information about the water tax pricing, demand and collection (Dinar and
Subramanian 1997).
MODERNISATION
PTP enables conceptualize canal modernisation programme that blend socio-economic
and political factors with technical factors of irrigation system will be the central focus
within the overall agenda. On the socio-economic and political front, we emphasise on
the process of design and implementation through participatory and collective decision
making approach. The social engineering, which was one of the missing link is roped in
the process of irrigation development, that includes establishment of new infrastructure
and modernisation of existing infrastructure.
Some of the advantages of this exercise is to improve water delivery service to farm,
improve water use efficiency and irrigation project efficiency, create we feeling among
the users, prevent tampering of canal structures, increased yield, ability to shift to new
crops and methods like System of Rice Intensification (SRI), empower farmers to raise
resources including water tax/charges/rates for the regular operation and maintenance,
improved quality and quantity of work, etc (FAO 2003). In addition, issues like water
conflict between farmers and system managers and among farmers is intended to
reduce.
WUAS AS FARMERS FIELD SCHOOL (FFS)

The trainers of JalaSpandana develop WUA as Farmers Field School also to further up
the training programme in its jurisdiction. This approach enables us to reach all farmers
in the spread out command area. The WUAs as FFS in this approach is felt essential to
make considerable impact on the command area. In other words, the linkages among the
trainers, FFS and general farmers is strengthened to make large scale irrigation system
function effectively. The FFS shall focus on water management, water distribution, SRI
paddy cultivation method, organic manure, vermiculture, less cost/no cost inputs like
panchakavya, herbal decoction, etc. The trainers or extension service people of
JalaSpandana played facilitators role in promoting FFS.
LEAD NGO
The involvement of NGOs in canal irrigation projects for capacity building is negligible
when compared with tanks and watershed programme, especially projects supported by
World Bank. JalaSpandana played a role of lead NGO in K.C.C to promote NGOs
participation in major and medium irrigation projects. In KCC two NGOs namely
APARD and WCUSS were given training on irrigation management in large irrigation
projects and encouraged to carry out PTP.
STUDY TOUR
JalaSpandana organised study tour to representatives of WUAs, department officials
and other stake holders to personally visit their dam site and canal structure to know
their project.
FARMER TO FARMER TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

JalaSpandana has promoted farmers as trainers and deployed experience farmers in SRI
paddy cultivation and organic farming to train the farmers in command area. This
method of ‘Farmer to Farmer Technology Transfer’ has been strength of winning the
hearts of the farmers of command area to adapt changes in the existing practices of
water distribution and crop management. The mass communication like village drum
beats, cable connections, wall paintings, posters, etc will be extensively used in the
programme. JalaSpandana has employed representatives of successful WUAs to train
the representatives of WUAs.
MODEL FARMS
JalaSpandana is engaged in developing Model farms in K.C. Canal in different locations
of the command area. This model farm shall be self illustrative in terms of water and
crop management with special emphasis on livelihoods. The action plan to develop
model farms covers field oriented training programmes with package of practices on
using advanced technologies, free cost and low cost technologies, automated water
regulation and distribution, IPM, Organic farming, etc.
EXIT STRATEGY
JalaSpandana designed PTP with the involvement of officials, farmers and
representatives of WUAs with the objective that at the earliest, the PTP become the
responsibility of the representatives of WUAs and Department officials. The realization
that PTP is the integral part of irrigation management both by department officials and
WUAs is crucial for the sustainable PIM. The study tour organised in these projects
were designed collectively and the responsibility was taken up by Irrigation
Department. The presentation of the progress of PTP carried out by JalaSpandana, after
some training was taken over by Irrigation Department officials, this shows the
involvement of officials in PTP.
3.3. TRAINING IMPACT ASSESSMENT1

The basic objective of the training programme is to produce good output at the end of
the training programme both in terms of quantitative and qualitative. Although, targets
were set to undertake the training programme like the number of trainings to be
imparted to different stake holders, the experience in the field shows that some of the
trainings were required to be conducted more than the days stipulated in the six training
modules prepared and circulated by I&CAD and WALAMTARI. We will discuss these
issues in detail as we take up topic by topic.
x Parameters derived based on bench marking (PIM logistics, tail end deprivation,
water use efficiency, office establishment and record maintenance, democratic
functioning of WUAs, water scheduling and conflict resolution) and inputs
provided in relation to issues identified.
x Participatory situational analysis
1- Please note that this is not an exhaustive list.

The establishment of training centers and sub centers in command area draw good
response from various stakeholders in the irrigation projects. It was relatively easy to
organise meetings as JalaSpandana was based in the command area and was accessible
to farmers 24/7. WUAs who were only complaining against department for not
delivering water in time, after PTP realize their roles and responsibilities and became
pro active to address water issues.
One of the major achievement in PIM domain was the we feeling and sharing of PTP
responsibility by representatives of WUAs and department officials in organizing
trainings, study tours, data sharing, etc. In RDS project 30 out of 34 WUAs established
offices and relevant records including gauge records and water tax. The remaining 4 are
in extreme tail end are in the process of establishing offices. In PJP, all the 5 WUAs
established offices and other details as mentioned above and in KCC, 78 out of 86
WUAs formed offices and other records. In these projects 28 model WUAs were
formed under PTP, which also function as users school. Some of these WUAs are
supported with farm equipments to demonstrate income generating activities for the
WUAs and enhance livelihoods. These WUAs are making good progress in
development of WUAs, participation in water management, water tax collection, etc.
Tampering of canal structures have been reduced to large extent.
Informal project level committee were formed in PJP and KCC and the existing
informal project committee in RDS project formed under FNWSR supported by INPIM
was further strengthened. WUAs participate in the water management at primary and
main system level. Informal practices like community water man are being scaled up to
cover the whole system to ensure efficient use of water. The regular discussions
regarding water management is taking place after PTP between department officials and
WUAs at various level.
The water use efficiency is increasing from 5 acres per MCFT of water to 7 acres per
MCFT of water. PTP established 436 FFS covering an area of 1058 ha on SRI paddy
method, ID crops and organic farming. Paddy yield increased 10 bags in areas where
farmers field schools were established, particularly SRI. In selected distributaries, in
these projects volumetric supply is introduced on pilot basis. In some WUAs, like for
instance, Wadepally mandal in RDS project has made 100 per cent water tax collection,
which is possible only due to WUAs participation.
The representatives of WUAs participate in policy recommendation to the
government. WUAs are demanding government to hand over the water tax collection
responsibility. It is worth mentioning here that prior to PTP, WUAs were not willing to
take over the responsibility of water tax collection due to fear. I & CAD is considering
transferring water tax collection responsibility to WUAs. All the WUAs in RDS, PJP
and KCC prepared micro plan for their WUAs for the year 2005-06 and submitted to
the Irrigation and CAD.
Irrigation and CAD and JalaSpandana prepared draft version of Memorandum of
Understanding to transfer water tax collection to WUAs, which will be signed by the
President of WUAs and Executive Engineer or equivalent representing irrigation
department. The MOU speaks of the water tax rate and incentives and disincentives in
timely collection. This is also translated into Telugu and the same was discussed before
representatives of WUAs.
During PTP, the livelihoods of the tail end farmers were shown and explained to the
farmers in the head reach and the effects on soil that would occur due to excess
irrigation in the long run. At present the head reach farmers in head reach distributaries
of RDS are not facing shortage of water. The issue before the WUAs and Irrigation
Department is to undertake operating of sluices and gates. In RDS, which was facing
severe tail end problem, is being coordinated with informal project level committee and
enforcing rotation system of water distribution called as Warabandhi.
The first computerization of WUA administration perhaps in India was attempted in
RDS by JalaSpandana and succeeded with the cooperation of WUA representatives. The
WUA No. 7, Mandodi of RDS project was selected to experiment computerization of
records pertaining to WUA functioning, list of TC members, voters list, project
information, etc is installed and being successfully. The recent visit by APERP
delegates also took note of this computerized WUA. The computer is being operated in
English and Telugu and the necessary training required to operate the computer is being
provided to the representatives of WUA by the JalaSpandana.
4. LESSON LEARNT
PTP is being carried out for the first time in Andhra Pradesh with commitment by the
officers of I&CAD at all levels and WALAMTARI through NGOs in large canal
irrigation system. PTP is the right way of training programme as different stake holders
realize their roles and responsibilities and in three years period, the project committee of
WUAs or Department officials show the sign of taking over the training as part of water
management. The department officials and WUAs prove great potential to resolve
majority of the issues including tail enders and operation and maintenance issue.
The time frame for PTP in these large irrigation projects given the magnanimity of the
issues and work in large irrigation project is inadequate, the field experience shows that
at least three years is necessary for NGOs to prepare the ground fully and exit. There
are issues at policy, project and micro level that need constant support from external
agencies like NGOs. Thus arise need to institutionalize PTP for minimum of three years
through NGOs and later built into irrigation management by PCs or I&CAD. The
modernisation programme right from the beginning needs to incorporate PTP. As the
distributary committees are formed in the month of December 2006, the training at
mezo level system maintenance should be carried out to the newly elected
representatives of DCs. The intensified PTP in large irrigation projects compounded
with policy reforms certainly make PIM success in AP, particularly in the wake of
policy making WUAs continuous body with every two years election to one third of TC
members.
The visits made by the higher officers of I&CAD, professionals from FAO, JBIC,
INPIM (Hatsuya Azumi), Australian experts, and other field tours boost the morale of
the PTP.
INPIM may commission study on PIM in Andhra Pradesh both from policy perspective
and field situations for the benefit of larger interest of PIM. Further, it would be
5. REFERENCES
1. Diemer G and Huibers PF 1996. Crops, People and Irrigation – Water allocation
practices of farmers and engineers, Intermediate Technology Publications, UK.
2. Doraiswamy R and Mollinga P 2004. “Tailenders and other deprived in Karnataka”.
In Rajagopal A, Doraiswamy R, Mollinga P Peter, Joy KJ and Suhas Paranjape
(eds) Tailenders and other deprived in irrigation in India: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and Maharashtra, CWP Research Series No. 14. Irrigation and Water Engineering,
Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
3. Dinar Ariel and Subramanian Ashok (etal) 1997, Water Pricing Experiences, An
International Perspective, World Bank Technical Paper No. 386, The World Bank,
Washington DC.
4. FAO - 2003, Unlocking the potential of agriculture, www.fao.org.
5. Inbanathan A, Bhagyalakshmi TA and Doraiswamy R, 1997. Democratic Local
Governance: The Case of Panchayat Raj in Karnataka (A State in South India),
paper presented to the USAID.
6. JalaSpandana 2004 & 2005, Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms in South
India, Unpublished project report, JalaSpandana, Bangalore.
7. JalaSpandana 2006, Participatory Training Programme in Rajolibanda Diversion
Scheme, Priyadharshini Jurala Project and Kurnool Cuddapah Canal in Andhra
Pradesh, Unpublished reports, separately for each projects.
8. Jalavani 2005, WUAs as Users School, Jalavani- Farmers Newsletter, AP
JalaSpandana, Hyderabad.
9. Mollinga P, Doraiswamy R and Kim Engbersen 2004. Capture and Transformation:
Participatory Irrigation Management in Andhra Pradesh, India. In Mollinga P and
Bolding A (eds) The Politics of Irrigation Reform - Contested Policy Formulation
and Implementation in Asia, Africa and Latin America, Ashgate Publishers,
England
10. Naik G, Kalro H A, Brewer D J, Samad M and Sakthivadivel R, 2002 Assessing the
Impact of Irrigation Management Transfer – Case studies from Maharashtra,
Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd, New Delhi and Kolkatta.
11. Narwani G.S. 2005, Community Water Management, Rawat Publications, Jaipur
and New Delhi.
12. Pastakia Astad, Kothari Brij and Chand V Sherry 2002, Farmer-led Participatory
Research, Cases from Western India, Books for Change, Bangalore.
13. Peter, J Raymond (2001) Irrigation Reforms in Andhra Pradesh, India, paper
presented at International Email Conference on Irrigation Management Transfer,
June –October 2001, FAO and INPIM.
14. Wade Robert 1982, The System of Administrative and Political Corruption: Canal
Irrigation in South India, The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 18, No 3, April
1982,pp.287-328.
IMPACTS OF FARMERS' NGOs ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT OF QAZVIN AREA
Ali Ghasemi 1
ABSTRACT
Connoisseurs believe that inefficient management in operation and maintenance of

irrigation system is assumed as a key element in weakening irrigation performance.
Based on experiences, removal of existing inconsistencies and challenges will not
realize without people’s participation. Building capacity for enhancing participation and
involving both practitioners and users in water management and in saving of resources
and costs, would greatly help settle the bottlenecks. Along this path, developing local
mechanism and managerial set-up, shall either pave the way for broader saving of water
and optimizing the demands, and/or form the main factor in elimination of local or even
international conflictions.
The author had the chance, to formulate and implement a strategic plan for
establishment and operation of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) in Qazvin
plain mobilized by face to face communication towards further involvement of his staff
(Qazvin Irrigation Management, QIM) and target farmers in the process. Later, based on
a timing schedule, an action plan became operational to gradually shift exploitation and
maintenance of existing irrigation-drainage network to the local community. To this
end, various commitments e.g., selling, inspection, registration, distribution and
delivering water quotas are to be implemented by corporate Water Users Associations.
They are also obligated for maintenance, dredging, and fixing hydro-mechanical
segments (Amil) and turn-out structures. The local leaders, apart from foregoing
services and continued inspection of structures and operational processes, are
responsible for fulfilling the demands, settling the problems on the spot2 and preparing
daily reports on possible offending in the network. Implementing IMT (Irrigation
Management transfer) initiative in Qazvin, has resulted in numerous cultural, social and
economic impacts especially in the area of improvement of irrigation management and
has created structural changes towards the great objective i.e. "Equitable distribution of
water" in the network. In view to dimensions of the transferred liabilities to local
pioneers in Qazvin, and in order to attract supports from national and international
1- M.Sc. in Irrigation Structures, and Managing Director of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM),
& Initiator and Executive of Qazvin Participatory Irrigation Management Project. Address: Shahid
Bahonar Bulvd., Qazvin, Iran. Tel: +98281-2233-187, Email: ghasemi_ali2@yahoo.com
2-The existing WUAs consist of 7 sub- offices scattered over the main villages along the subsidiary
channels.
institutions for development of participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in Iran, the

existing irrigation system was adopted as a national pilot in Qazvin.
Key words: Water Users’ Associations (WUAs), Irrigation Management Transfer
(IMT), Qazvin, Local Irrigation Management (LIM), National Pilot.
1. FOREWORD
IMT initiative in different countries has led to remarkable achievements including:
x Improved economic status and higher income for farmers;
x Enhanced maintenance system;
x Greater irrigation efficacy;
x Lower public staff ;
x Upgraded management system;
x Increased water charge (rate);
x Decreased political elections for managers; and
x Lower farmers' conflictions on water quota.
The initial stage in IMT promotion consists of capacity building and institutionalizing
for upholding new commitments. There are varying processes and efforts required for
empowerment of the target beneficiaries in different cultures and societies. Executive
bodies, if abide themselves with following three issues, will succeed in their operation:
A. Giving signals: Reaction and affection received by socio-economic messages;
B. Balance of interests: Provision of general facilities in favor of beneficiaries’
interests and their promotion; and
C. Fulfillment of commitments: Due liability and accountability against the decisions
taken.
Initially, in 2004, an integrated plan for re–organization and transferring the
incumbencies was proposed together with identification and screening of effective
details and perspectives in participatory development of irrigation management. Further,
the author tried to act as an impetus to mobilize and launch the IMT initiative in Qazvin
and then across the country. The work plan became operational in line with human
resource development, encompassing QIM staff and its counterpart beneficiaries in
Qazvin plain. The first step of the work was documentation of executive methods and
regulations, studying and registration of official hierarchy of governmental structures
and the rate of their effectiveness in irrigation management. Meanwhile, the needed set-
ups for covering the farming groups in lateral channels IV (10 farmers), common–
wealth farmers association in a farming block (200 farmers), local management entity
(union) covering the associations (158 associations), and eventually, their provincial
irrigation Federation with 30,000 farmers were also taken into account. This task has
resulted in incredible gains in the process of management transfer and bureaucratic
reduction at provincial level. Outstanding reduction of operation and maintenance cost,
as well as saving time in both public and community side, shall also be regarded as the
new IMT achievements.
Many experts and clients recognize that the initiative, in particular, when concerns to
improvement of agri–water distribution and promotion of monitoring roles played by
local users, is well-designed with dynamic performance. They mainly praise innovation
of farming–corporative arrangements, institutionalization in local management of
Qazvin water, and its possible impacts on prompt irrigation management at national
scale.
2. INSTITUTIONALIZATION FOR MANAGEMENT TRANSFER
2.1. GENERAL DETAILS OF QAZVIN DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (QDP)

The “Qazvin Development Project-QDP”1 was approved in 1967 and its first phase
composed of deviation checks, main and lateral canals constructed by 1976. The second
phase also covered the remaining channels and structures in 1991 followed by the third
phase which created the Taleghan Dam and its reservoir in 2001. The project now
consists of the dam, reservoir, and deviation dams (Sangban and Ziaran) conveying
tunnel and the extensive irrigation system of Qazvin plain.
The dam receives the Taleghan River (a sub–branch of Sefidrud ) to shift it to the
northern margins of farmlands in the plain, as well as supplying partial drinking water
for Tehran . The network comprises of 94 km. main canal, 220 km. canals II (12
branches), 33 km. lateral channels III (158 branches), and 550 km. subsidiary channels
IV, with 30,000 branches and related outlets.
The operational area covers 80,000 ha. with net 60,000 ha. farm-lands in which, specific
farming patterns and water needs are formulated upon climatic particularities. For
instance, the approved ongoing pattern spells out for fall crops and cereals in 50% of the
total lands, with summer crops allotted in 25% and the rest for fallow and other
frequencies as required.
The operation focuses on mixed exploitation of surface (Taleghan reservoir) and sub-
surface resources (water wells). Following, shows the annual water allocation of 460
mm3 for the network operation.
Diagram1. Macro–allocations of water from Taleghan basin
1- Formerly registered as “Ghazvin Development Project - GDP” by The World Bank

2.2. PLANNING AND TRAINING

A holistic scheme is the ultimate option in preparing an enabling condition for due
thinking, identifying and processing of conceptions and wise application of information
and tools under an overall synergy towards anticipated progression. No doubt, training
conceptions supported by motivation and interaction would also help empower and
involve the public staff and communal clients in constructive handling the new
obligations.
Training and implementing programs have to follow a well-coordinated and group–
oriented context with maximum adaptation to the operational procedures of every
initiative. Forecasting and identifying the possible challenges of the new working
atmosphere and liabilities’ nature have to be well-addressed in advance. Rapid change
and replacement of traditional managements or positions in public or community paces
seem not practical easily, whereby only the management of change deserves the liability
to take action in this regard. Water management strictly stresses on in-dept analysis and
communication in the fields of psychology and sociology to pave the way for training
and up-scaling the mind- sets towards formation of CBOs(Community-Based
Organizations) in agriculture sector.
During IMT process, various training sessions were conducted on how to apply and
exchange technical information, and on finding the way for maintaining the hydraulic
structures. Moreover, it is believed that due capacities were also built to enable people's
involvement into the project. Several meetings launched for briefing the experts, staff
and farmers' representatives via brain-storming method, in which, creativity posed a
high degree of importance. Community–based participatory management incorporates
all stakeholders including the QIM staff, farmers’ community, representatives of
agricultural bodies and water authorities into all stages of designing, planning and
operation with highest viability and feeling towards multilateral collaboration. In the
"IMT" project, there seem remarkable indicators in awareness building with a tangible
manifestation in the areas of knowledge and action, mainly owing to sense of ownership
generated under an overall peer attachment.
2.3. SEARCHING FOR SUSTAINABLE LEGAL SETTING

Calling people's participation stands for retaining and operating the network under the
IMT initiative. Normally, observing principles and concerns of the clientele and their
social interests and tools, is greatly important in the process of public
institutionalization. To this end, neither socio–geographical divisions, nor the scale of
hydraulic structures, communication routs, residential areas, ethnic diversification and
population are, in any way, accounted individually for strategy determination. In Qazvin
project, it is learnt that the best approach shall focus on the canal divisions as the “joint
pivot “for setting up the local management order. This approach recognizes agricultural
groups and associations on the basis of farming- blocks' borders (as in case of the farm–
plots adjacent to inlets linked to chancels III). Similarly, a confidential socio-economic
support would strengthen and sustain the CBOs’ milestone. The next business goes to
consolidation of the water users' associations (WUAs) shaped around the secondary
canals and assuming them under unions and ultimately the Federation of water users’
associations.
Based on by-laws, executive management position and operation completely differ, so

that, Federation managing board is assigned by general assembly followed by picking
up the unions managers and experts, associations' water distributors (in farming blocks),
and the heads of farmers' groups. Besides, all operational affairs in exploitation and
maintenance of the network system are supervised and led by the existing hierarchy.
TOR (Turns Of References) for every layer is also subject to general assembly's
confirmation. In Qazvin, almost all legal and conventional capacities were experienced
for registration and operation of agricultural CBOs. In reality, varying regulations are in
action for operation of special or limited corporate enterprises, agricultural share-
holdings, rural cooperation, water users associations or else under NGOs’ context, but
yet no such entities demonstrated an authentic output in irrigation service management.
Moreover, due to lack of viable sample in Iran, several attempts made to find a "reliable
legal system" though try and error method. It is strictly obvious that despite the failure
of existing organizations, creation of Corporate Associations and their Apex Federation
using the ongoing Labor Law of the Islamic Republic of Iran deserves an efficient
structure in water exploitation management of Iran.
2.4. SEARCHING FOR EFFICIENT OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Soon after legal structuring and institutionalization (bottom-up), an operational
management (top-bottom) was inserted into the agenda with a well–defined and
comprehensive flow-chart. This task, unlike the public structure, denies any idle or
parallel designation and just recommends operational and administrative posts for the
Federation as well as its affiliated unions via carrying out frequent need–assessments.
Along this path, other measures were also taken as follows:
- Formulation of legal operation,
- Creation of maintenance and finance divisions in the executive management of
Federation,
- Forecasting sale officers and water distributors in secondary canals; and
- Assigning focal persons in the water users' associations of lateral channels III.
Consequently, following diagram shows the 5-year records in Qazvin project under two
distinct courses:
A. Planning, designing and implementing the NGOs development
Generation and development of NGOs' activities under the

context of Corporate Association
B. Designing institutional set-up for participatory irrigation management( PIM)
Executive management in operation and maintenance of the

network system under non- government management style
(B)
Structure and (A)
scope of the
management Elective phases
Diagram2. A) Institutionalization & structural setting B) Organization

of executive management for WUAs in Qazvin
3. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF IMT ON THE PROJECT

More than 35 million USD1 was invested for designing and structuring the irrigation
system in Qazvin up to 1978. However, the latest economic reassessment (2006) came
up with 475 million USD2 as total project value excluding land–possession and
designing charges. Presently, the network withstands excessive depreciation and failures
owing to its over-dated segments and requires 15,000 USD for basic renovation and
revival of canals, service roads, hydro-mechanical gates which control water
surface(Amil), CHO and turn-out structures.
3.1. SAVING IN PUBLIC SECTOR
Pertaining to delay in construction of Taleghan Dam, water supply and its conveyance
to Qazvin network had to follow the upstream river regime and has consequently
decreased to 160 mm3 per year. The foregoing constraints together will other
uncertainties, which mainly rose due to centralized and traditional public management,
have led to serious challenges in operation and maintenance of the network system.
High current and personnel costs, in line with inappropriate maintenance procedures,
were the key constraints before the project operation. Comparing the latest
performances realized by 5 Provincial Irrigation Companies, QIM depicts rather
impressive output in squeezing the current operating overburden on government. As
1- Based on the then operation and construction prices ( 1$=70 Rls. in 1978)
2- Based on current costs (1$= 9200 Rls.)
seen in Diagram 2, in absence of PIM initiative, total running cost for QIM operation
could have increased to almost 500,000 USD, whereas, it has noticeably reduced to
250,000 USD which means 50% saving in the same year’s expenditures (2005), just
because of performing successful PIM in Qazvin.
3.2. SAVING IN PRIVATE SECTOR
Attracting consumers' attention for every development intervention normally

accompanies financial incentives, and to this end, the IMT initiative in Qazvin, parallel
to expansion of human communications and saving cost and time, has also adopted
certain economic motivation to mobilize participatory management pace.
In Qazvin, 30,000 farmers enjoy an average land ownership of say, 2 ha while there are
12 large agri-industrial holdings jointly using the irrigation network. Government has
operated the network for 30 years and guided all administrative affairs through the
provincial company (QIM) based in Qazvin.
Prior to the project implementation, farmers were widely suffering of time and cost
imposition in referring their frequent requests to the Company .They used to travel long
distances (average 60 km) to capital city bearing overburden for doing their water
purchase or other affiliated businesses. Soon, these affairs were handed over to 3000
informal agents representing 30,000 farmers, some of them (almost 108,000 p/year),
had to refer for transacting daily requirements.
Agricultural status of Qazvin plain reflects an extensively residential dispersion pattern
encompassing various segments of the network. Therefore, assuming an average 60 km.
as round-trip for every agent, they totally have to bear 6.5 million kilometer per year:
Number of referrals (trip):
400(average, farmer)*30(day)* 9(month) = 108,000
Total distance each year:
60(Km. each round-trip)*108,000(number of referrals) = 6,480,000 km
Total charge for agents’ travel:
108,000 *12.45(USD-minimum salary each day) = 1,344,600 USD
The above overburden is almost equal to 130% of the total water rate which used to be
unnecessarily imposed on rural households' livelihoods. IMT initiative in Qazvin has
come up with remarkable reduction in referral distances (max. 5km.) and times (average
1 hour) for users' in settling their businesses with the local associations.
Million Rials (1000000Rials=108.69USD)
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
Diagram3. Comparison of current and personnel costs transacted by 6 main

irrigation – drainage companies
3.3. DEVOLUTION OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

One of ongoing discussions on IMT initiative links to the network ownership. Certain
countries like Turkey, has successfully experienced the process of networks devolution
to the organized associations mainly due to some crisis in operational management. This
process, however, was assisted by different universities and the World Bank for
smoother implementation.
In Iran and upon the National Law for Equitable Water Distribution ( ratified in 1982),
the Ministry of Energy was responsible for land acquisition, construction and operation
of canals I & II, and the Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture committed in lateral channels
III & IV. However, the Ministry of Energy undertook overall commitments after a Bill
approved last year by the Cabinet.
Devolution process shall never rely on financial incentive alone, whereas it has to stress
also on enhanced leadership and productivity. Leasing is also assumed for viable
mechanism in shifting the network complex to local clients, and in particular, it seems
much applicable in case of lateral channels II & IV.
Though, the idea would eliminate certain farmers' concerns, but in other spots as Tehran
or Qazvin provinces, it may fail mainly for higher land price and possible institutional
destruction of the networks segments to substitute them by other commercial holdings.
Anyhow, the process, as realized in “Qazvin, Pilot” stands for a viable instance for
wisely duplication elsewhere in irrigation schemes.
4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL IMPACTS

Experts have identified the following inconsistencies as the key factors behind failure of
irrigation management:
- Shortage of accessible water at delivery spots:
- Defects in metering devices:
- Poor financial facilities:
- Inefficient mechanism for exploitation and maintenance of the system
- Inequitable distribution of water;
- Misappropriation in agri–water charge; and
- Poor incentive for participation and saving in water issues.
In Qazvin, plus the aforementioned disparities, other issues as allocation of partial
resource for drinking water purpose in Tehran and its political, population, and
consumption burdens have crucial impacts on water management, too.
Therefore, it strictly entails appropriate interaction with key social, economic, cultural and
political perspectives in the process of changing and reforming the operational set- up.
Regulating farmers' relationships and their operation areas with relevant managers in
farming blocks’ associations, as well as adaptation of TOR for water distributors in
secondary canals with codes laid down by unions, and on top of all, prompt linkage with
related public institutions, are all contained in the IMT process. Under this arrangement,
the central Federation acts as a local – based parliament, in which, all representatives of
secondary canals pose as managing board of the apex body. Due to some small scale
unions and their vicinity, they may merge to shape rational sizes. At present, following
irrigation service offices (unions) have been stationed over the network premises in
Qazvin:
L1, L2, L3, L4-A, L5, L6, L7, M3, L8, and MW union which covers western area of the
main canal inducing L9, L10, and L20 together with lateral channels.
Frequent inspection of the establishments, fulfilling the requests, settling disputes, and
preparing daily reports on functions and possible interactions, lie within the unions'
management. To this end, a training course titled "Social Prevention and Control
Mechanisms" was held for WUAs in Qazvin. Various curricula including basic
information on CBOs, general laws, direction to lawful actions, and the best ways for
optimum exploitation of hydraulic structures, were adopted as training materials by
qualified judges and also experts of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co.
4.1. ORGANIZATIONAL PARTICIPATION OF RURAL WOMEN

Paving the way for active participation of local users in water resource development
schemes, logic disposal of sewage–water, and water use management, have so long
been mainstreamed into the planning processes at global scales with merit cases in
certain countries and mainly run via men involvement.
Since 1980, poor participation exposed by woman community in water planning and
management trend, in line with negative consequences on service delivery and quality,
been addressed by decision-makers. General up-scaling of women status and forecasting
especial position for their role in socio–cultural perspectives are assumed as enabling
mechanisms for water loss reduction and agricultural productivity promotion. Now,
much emphasis is given to women's involvement into programming and implementing
processes towards better operational management, and hence, constructive transfer of
diverse network's functions.
Concerning the objective experiences gained in Qazvin project, women community had
outstanding impacts on domestication of water industry as well as improvement of
participatory management of irrigation system particularly for their appreciable
discipline, interest in learning and proper interaction with clients. They greatly shared in
successful commencement of the first IMT initiative conducted by QIM. Therefore, it
seems much employment opportunities have to be provided for women fraction as to
take advantage of potentially creative individuals but practically inactive forces of the
society.
In line with expansion and progression of participatory irrigation management, reliable
conditions shall also be generated for self-sustaining (Home Role) governance of the
WUAs in Qazvin with following positive impacts:
- Reduction or elimination of unwanted bureaucratic cycles in decision-making
process:
- Saving in farmers' time and cost;
- Decreasing current and general costs in network operating ;
- Lowering expenses for maintenance affairs throughout the irrigation system;
- Signifying local people's inspection towards equitable water distribution;
- Enhancing irrigation performance and farming productivity in Qazvin plain.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Studies reveal that when CBOs are involved, even in semi-active situation, they would
improve operation and maintenance of hydraulic structures. Farmers' participation and
development of NGOs remark for prerequisites in productivity assurance and
enhancement. On the other hand, locally–adapted and genius methodologies underlie
development process. Since there existed no local approach in QIM staff or

community–oriented participatory research on irrigation system, the new PIM model in
Qazvin concentrated the experts and researchers on a consensus in IMT methodology.
Implementing structural reforms in operational system of Qazvin plain and substituting
farmers' referrals by their Federation have resulted in numerous impacts with
satisfactory reaction expressed by users.
Many experts and managers who visited the site, always praised the impressive impacts
on comprehensive development trend, and hence, signified dissemination of dynamic
management visions and mechanisms at national scale.
At present, viable interaction and coordination exist in all institutional segments and it
is expected that upon supplementary measures including land consolidation, modern
irrigation systems, and Remote Control and Management tools, the project can rise
productivity indices or fulfill real and equitable water distribution and rapid information
transmission.
Under such circumstances, local irrigation management in Qazvin has achieved
maximum utility and capacity for its sustainability. PIM in Qazvin, as the first
successful experience, deserves capability to create a viable ground for sustainable
development in Qazvin and consequently across Iran. Following are certain
recommendations in this regards:
5.1. EDUCATING THE QUALIFIED MANAGERS

Education process of qualified managers and transferring it from public sector to the
society, incorporate participation of QIM staff and local clients within a transparent and
accountable pace at various operational levels. Existing background on history of
irrigation management and the followed methodologies indicate that problem settlement
is not solely contingent upon physical issues, but rafter relies on various managerial
elements. Hopefully, IMT initiative would encourage more accountability and
productivity as well as rapid return of the costs.
5.2. GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

Rational, economic and sustainable use of water and soil resources deems impossible without
willing for direct involvement of the end users and their direction towards a participatory
management in water and agriculture sectors. In this area, any delay or change, undue
interference or denial of responsibility, might collapse this national action and nullify the rights
of soil and water resources and manpower. Therefore, stakeholders should emphasize on
development of participation and underestimation of marginal issues.
Determination of "types, scales and duration of public support" in favor of agricultural
NGOs, as well as extension of their independence and growth, calls for "structural
reform in administration" (inaction of new regulations) to be addressed by key policy–
makers in water sector. It is expected that upon legal, technical and financial supports
followed by unanimity of the local and national bodies, due strategies will be developed
for rational decision–making and action–planning. Moreover, concurrent to
participation–oriented management, an integrated planning-bed is created to prepare
public system and reorganize operational cycles.
A tangible public support, as specified by the 3rd National Development Plan

(Article 107), is realized by partial refund of water charge to clients for financing
general restoration and maintenance operations. This support would greatly meet the
basic requirements foreseen in a holistic PIM system.
5.3. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL PARTICIPATION

WUAs operational area and their TOR are well-determined, while facing certain
shortcomings and defects, too. Indeed, setting close relationship and cooperation with
national / international GOs and NGOs, shall mobilize the process. Global specialized
agencies as ICDI, IWMI, INPIM and ILO can develop due partnership in monitoring
and evaluation of PIM process as well as forwarding possible assistance to the project
objectives.
Under a poly-dimensional consensus and synergy among all stakeholders concerned, the
PIM approach may underpin the following priorities, inter alia:
- Implication of credit card system for remittance of water rate (charge): and
- Installation of 200 electronic metering devices at main spots.
6. REFERENCES
1. Archives, Provincial Office of Jihad –e-Agriculture.
2. Ghasemi, Ali (2003), New Discipline for QIM and the Status of WUAs.
Proceedings of the 12th Conference of ICID, Tehran
3. Ghasemi, Ali. (2005). Tehran, Iran. Regional center on urban water management –
Tehran. Workshop on Women’s Participation in water Management, (proceedings)
4. Glasser,W . Reality Therapy: A New Approach to Psychiatry. New York: Harper
and Row Publishers, 1965.
5. Habibi. Ali, Translation of "The World Development Report -2002",
Institutionalizing for market. Axford university publication
6. Nouri Esfandiari, Anoush (2006), Women's institutional participation in water use
management, publication of Tarrahan-e-Padideh, Tehran. Iran.
7. QIM Co. Qazvin
8. Researching Institute of Arvin Pajouh (2000), Exposure to participation system as
the base for global and Islamic advanced management, publication of the Iranian
Oil Ministry.
9. Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World: Transforming institutions, growth
and quality of life, The World Bank, 2003
10. Tortajada, Cecila. (2003). Professional Women and Water Management, Case
Study from Morocco, I WRA, Vol 28. No.4
11. Tousi, Mohammad Ali, (2000), "Participation- oriented Management" Publication
of Industrial Management Organisation, Tehran, Iran.
RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
(THE TAFILALET AREA, SOUTH-EAST OF MOROCCO)
Mohamed Bousfoul and Mohammed Bourass1
SUMMARY
1- The research project for improvement of participatory irrigation management is a

concrete follow-up of the Rural Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT). The
Tafilalet is located South-east of Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas
mountains zone and extends over an acreage of 77 250 km2, of which 60 000 ha are
under irrigation. The region encompasses four major river watersheds: the Ziz,
Ghéris, Guir and Maîder. It is divided into three major units: a mountainous slope
on the southern piedmont of the calcareous eastern High Atlas in the north; an
intermediate pre-Saharan region made up of highlands strewn with oases and a
Saharan high plateaus region in the south .The area is renown for its natural
constraints related to an arid climate and flood and desertification threats for the
irrigation infrastructure impacting negatively on the productivity of the cropping
systems in use. However, the area can take advantage of assets such as water
resources development and irrigated crops.
2- During a mission carried out in the area by experts from the International Fund for
upgrade users’ capacities to deal with management of irrigation infrastructure.
Based on the results of the mission, plans of the research project for the
improvement of participatory irrigation management were developed and
implemented. The project, financed through donations from IFAD ($US 490, 000),
aims to set up prerequisites to make it possible for users to upgrade their intrinsic
capacities through: (i) organizing themselves within Water Users Associations
(WUAs) where water resources are available; and (ii) meeting operation and
maintenance costs incurred by irrigation systems.
3- A pilot action plan has been implemented in two small-scale irrigation systems
falling within the scope of action of the Tafilalet Rural Development Project
(PDRT). The project has targeted two localities Jorf and Tinjdad where the problem
of water scarcity is most acute. The plan is based on the following three basic
1- Mohamed Bousfoul is head of the department of irrigation network management and drainage in the
Office for Agricultural Development in the Tafilalet, and Mohammed Bourass is a rural engineer and
IFAD consultant.
actions: (i) promoting adoption of partnership schemes involving various

departments of the Ministry for Agriculture and users as regards the development of
water resources and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure; (ii) increasingly
involve the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet
(ORMVATf) in providing supervision and technical backstopping to the WUAs and
(iii) encouraging use of water-saving irrigation strategies.
4- During the four years of project implementation and while aiming at introducing
new methodology and a new approach to prompt farmers to contribute to ensuring
durability of irrigation infrastructure, the project has been able to reach almost all of
the goals set down: (i) organizing and training farmers within the context of their
WUAs; (ii) enhancing awareness by means of training courses and field trips; (iii)
promoting water-saving irrigation strategies through practical demonstration plots
and acquisition of logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database for follow-up
evaluation of the WUAs’ performance.
I. INTRODUCTION
1- Tapping the full potential of the biophysical environment is impossible without
human resources availability. Indeed human resources do exist in the rural world,
and are characterized by features such as the physical ability to discharge work
properly, their indigenous know-how and resilience in adversity, innovative
capacity and a rich cultural background.
2- Another important basic force factor of the rural world lies in its associative
capacity. The latter is part and parcel of a strong and everlasting social tradition, i.e.
the village-based jmaa (or traditional form of community organization) which has
shouldered among many other things the role of water users associations for
irrigation purposes. Real life experience has clearly demonstrated that as soon as
the forces of associative capacity are pooled and unleashed, surprising results can
be obtained. Today, the wealth of accumulated field experiences is vast and varied.
The associative movement is witnessing an increasingly spiralling development
pattern resulting in the formation of associations which are quite active in
contributing to local development.
3- The various rural development projects carried out in Morocco by the International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) have always focused on achieving the
strategic goal of improving capacity-building of management and enhancing local
development of poverty-stricken populations in mountainous areas, with a view to
increasing their incomes, standards of living and ensuring food security, together
with the overriding preoccupation of sustainable use of natural resources.
4- Indeed, this objective dovetails with the " 2020 rural development strategy ", put in
place by the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Marine Fisheries,
which aims at implementing a participatory approach to involve the population of
the douars (villages) in matters pertaining to soil analysis, stock-taking of assets and
constraints, identifying and prioritizing actions to be performed and managing them
along the lines put forth by a participatory approach.
5- Actually among the projects implemented by IFAD in Morocco is the Rural

Development Project in the Tafilalet (PDRT1). The Tafilalet is located South-east of
Morocco, in the pre Saharan, south-of the Atlas mountains zone and extends over
an area of 77 250 km2, of which 60 000 ha are under irrigation. The region
encompasses four river watersheds: the Ziz, Ghéris, Guir and Maîder. It is divided
into three major units: a mountainous slope on the southern piedmont of the
calcareous eastern High Atlas in the north; an intermediate pre-Saharan region
made up of highlands strewn with oases and a Saharan high plateaus region in the
south .The area is known for its natural constraints particularly with regard to an
arid climate, a flood and desertification prone area with real threats to the irrigation
infrastructure impacting negatively on productivity of the cropping systems in use.
However, the area can take advantage of assets such as water resources
development schemes and irrigated crops.
6- As stated earlier on,the PDRT seeks to achieve the following set goals: i) increasing
crop yields by improving irrigation efficiency; ii) increasing acreage under
irrigation; iii) increasing productivity of collectively-used rangelands, while
contributing to ensure environmental protection; iv) protecting villages and
irrigation networks against sand-dust storms; v) building rural facilities and vi)
promoting gender equity in economic and cultural development .
7- The total project cost is estimated at USD 30,02 million, financed by an IFAD loan
of 11,8 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) (16,45 million USD), an IDB loan
of USD 7,04 million . The Government’s contribution totals approximately USD
5,63 million. Beneficiaries have contributed USD 0,90 million in the form of
labour . The irrigation component represents 69 % of the total cost of the project.
8- During a mission carried out in the area by experts from the International Fund for
upgrade users’ capacities to deal with management of irrigation infrastructure.
Based on the results of the mission, plans of the research project for the
improvement of participatory irrigation management were developed and
implemented.
9- The current document is a progress report on the research project for improvement
of the participatory irrigation management. After a brief overview of the project (in
terms of goals, components and implementation strategies), the results and
achievements are presented. Conclusions and recommendations are put forth.
II. PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PROJECT FOR IMPROVEMENT OF

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT.
A. AIMS.
10- The project which has benefited from an IFAD donation2, aims to put in ballast the
prerequisites to make it possible for users to upgrade their capacities pertaining to:
1- PDRT is financed by the Government of Morocco, The Islamic Bank for Development (IDB) and the
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD
2- The project is jointly financed by ORMVATf, through making staff and facilities available to the
project, and by IFAD through a donation of $US 490.000.
(i) getting organized within the structure of an association to deal with water
resources; and (ii) meeting operation and maintenance costs of irrigation systems.
11- A pilot action plan has been implemented in two small-scale irrigation systems
falling within the scope of action of the Tafilalet Rural Development Project
(PDRT). The project has targeted two localities Jorf and Tinjdad where the
problem of water scarcity is most acute. The plan is based on the following three
basic actions: (i) promoting adoption of partnership schemes involving various
departments of the Ministry of Agriculture and users as regards the development of
water resources and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure; (ii) increasingly
involve the Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet
(ORMVATf)1 in providing supervision and technical backstopping to the WUAs
and (iii) encouraging use of water-saving irrigation strategies.
B. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY.
12- In order to achieve the set goals stated earlier on, the following courses of action
have been followed:
(i) ORMVATf engaged in consultations with irrigation system users in the area to
gauge their predisposition to take part in the program. The consultations were
used as a platform to shed light on the program goals and the criteria
underpinning the participation of grass roots populations. On the basis of results
accruing from these consultations, geographical units were identified in joint
collaboration with IFAD;
(ii) ORMVATf helped to organize users in associations according to the type of
irrigation resource available: khettaras (underground galleries)2 allowing
storage and transport of inflow water from aquifers located several kilometres
away from the irrigation system, also from wells and floodwater for combined
use of these resources;
(iii) The IFAD/ORMVATf working group took part in the workshop hosted by Bari,
Italy from 12-16 June, 2000. It finalized the project action plan and identified
the course of action for its implementation;
(iv) ORMVATf in joint collaboration with IFAD organized a workshop and a study
tour program for staff in charge of the Participatory Irrigation Management
(PIM), the WUAs’ members and farmers with a view : (i) to developing a
common understanding of the goals pursued by the program; (ii) facilitating
training and orientation on regulatory and procedural measures in force; and
(iii) providing assistance to ensure promotion of co-operation and conflict-
management mechanisms in the field of PIM;
1- The Regional Office of Agricultural Development of the Tafilalet (ORMVATf) is a regional structure
of the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Marine Fisheries in the area of Tafilalet.
2- It is a system which has been cleverly engineered and is well- developed in the arid regions of
Morocco and Algeria; it is also known in Central Asia (i.e. Iran...). Khettara, originally from Iran and is
known as “Qanat” is a traditional mechanism for harvesting underground waters and introduced into
Morocco by Arabs in the 12th century.
(v) The study trips abroad were prepared in such a way as to give a chance to all
participants to benefit from the experiences of other countries in the field;
(vi) Reinforcing the unit in charge of PIM through creating a multidisciplinary
team made up of community-based organizations, communication and
management workers as well as agents with expertise in the technical
specificities and in the social magnitude of the irrigation systems peculiar to
the area;
(vii) Implementing an institutional development programme for WUAs and
ORMVATf employees to allow them to upgrade their skills in planning,
assessment and financial management of projects and improvement of irrigation
water efficiency.
(viii) Also implementation of a follow-up evaluation system of the program: (i) to
monitor users’ participation rates in management of irrigation systems ; and (ii)
to study the impact of this integrated approach on irrigation systems efficiency
in the project areas;
C. PROJECT COMPONENTS
13- The major project components are: (i) promoting awareness building, organizing
and establishing associations; (ii) supporting NGOs in their efforts to ensure
operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure; (iii) equipping demonstration
plots with drip irrigation; (iv) organizing study tours and training courses; and (v)
acquiring logistics support
III. PROJECT ACHIEVEMENTS

A. BUILDING AWARENESS, PROMOTING ORGANIZATION AND
ESTABLISHMENT OF ASSOCIATIONS
14- CIHEAM, Bari, Italy, provided technical support for project implementation
through organizing workshops, orientation missions and consensus-building.
ORMVATf ensured project monitoring and implementation by calling upon
national experts when needed: (agreements with the Horticultural Complex of
Agadir of Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Sciences (IAV), the
Office of Co-operation Development (ODCO) and the Office for Vocational
Training and Promotion of Employment (OFPPT)).
15- Awareness-building and training campaigns provided for within the project
framework were carried out totally. On the whole twenty-one training courses were
administered and their breakdowns are as follows:
(i) Two awareness-building sessions involving 31 associations and co-operatives
which fully endorsed the project and agreed to sign a management contract;
(ii) Three follow-up workshop sessions organized in Bari and two training sessions
on accounting;
(iii) Two institutional and organisational training courses aiming at strengthening

capacity building of WUAs’ in institutional and organisational areas to improve
their management skills;
(iv) Seven technical training sessions to promote irrigation water-saving strategies;
and
(v) Six training sessions on computer-based techniques: (Excel, Access and
Autocad).
B. SUPPORT TO NGOS FOR ENHANCING PROTECTION OF IRRIGATION

INFRASTRUCTURE
16- This action aims to support WUAs to protect and take ownership for irrigation
infrastructure. Two agreements were signed and carried out:
(i) The first agreement pertains to digging and equipping a well with a motor pump
for drip irrigation: 700 ml pipe in addition to a network of calibrated hydraulic
nozzles for biological protection against sand dusts of the Guefifat flood water
canal spill;
(ii) The second agreement consists in purchasing two cisterns to the Tinjdad NGO
for irrigating plantations intended for protecting irrigation infrastructure in the
Tinejdad irrigation system;
17- Two other agreements are being implemented. They target the rehabilitation of inlet
gates in Tinjdad and irrigation networks in Jorf. The agreements are scheduled for
implementation within the framework of the budget allowance of IFAD donation.
C. EQUIPPING ON-FARM DEMONSTRATION PLOTS WITH DRIP IRRIGATION

18- Infrastructure deployment and equipment of on-farm demonstration plots has
concerned equipping five farms with drip irrigation using water from pumping
stations (2 in Tinjdad and 3 in Jorf). As regards khettaras, equipment of 2 farms was
performed through construction of a geomembrane storage pond capacity of 2000
m3 and setting up a drip-irrigation network for optimizing water rights from
khettaras.. Within the project framework, the total acrea equipped with drip
irrigation amounts to 10 hectares.
D. ORGANIZING STUDY TOURS AND TRAINING SESSIONS

19- The study tours and training sessions scheduled by the project were intended to help
farmers and technicians to have access to and share experiences with similar
associations operating in irrigated systems using state of the art water-saving
strategies. Thus, 3 in-country field trips (lasting over 12 days) were organized to the
irrigation systems of Moulouya (North-eastern Morocco), Haouz (Center-southern)
and Souss Massa (South-western) involving150 people (WUAs’members and
technicians affiliated with ORMVATf).
20- A trip was also organized to Valence in Spain for 2 presidents of WUAs, 4 farmers
(who were provided with drip irrigation implements by project), 2 directors of the
centres for agricultural development, one coordinator of the subdivision activities of

Goulmima and an officer in charge of WUAs’ follow-up unit.
21- These field trips made it possible for participants to draw benefits from home-
grown experiences as well as from those of foreign countries as regards
participatory irrigation management and water-saving strategies.
22- In addition, during project implementation period, four workshops were organized:
(i) A project start-up workshop to address issues related to creating appropriate
conditions for better participatory irrigation management;
(ii) Three other follow-up workshops were convened to accommodate project
implementation: (i) Tunis from 28/02/04 through 3/03/2004; (ii) Cairo from
15/02/2005 through 17/02/2005; and (iii) Morocco from 30/05/05 through
3/06/2005.
23- During the workshops, previous achievements were surveyed and proposals for
approval of the program for the following year were tabled.
E. FOLLOW-UP EVALUATION SYSTEM:

24- A database for conducting follow-up evaluation of participatory irrigation
management was developed with project support. Setting –up of database was
carried out in the subdivisions of ORMVATF. Data processing is underway.
F. ACQUISITION OF LOGISTICS SUPPORT:

25- To ease implementation of project work, four vehicles in addition to computer and
audio-visual equipment were purchased.
IV. RESULTS AND PROJECT IMPACT

26- Thanks to the efforts made within the framework of the project, a very positive
impact was recorded with regard to three main aspects.
A. ORGANISATIONAL ASPECTS OF FARMERS CLUSTERED IN ASSOCIATION

OR COOPERATIVES:
27- The number of farmers targeted by the project amounts to 13. 200. They are
organized in 20 associations and 10 water pumping co-operatives. The table below
shows the membership of WUAs.
Jorf Tinejdad Total

Number of prospective members 8. 107 5. 080 13. 187
Membership 5. 685 2. 914 8. 599
Membership percentage 70 % 57 % 65 %
28- About half (15) of the 30 WUAs are regularly active. One third (11) of the WUAs
still face some organisational problems- problems which yet are not a major hurdle
to their being operational. 4 WUAs (13%) are confronted with operation
difficulties.
B. NATURE OF USERS’ CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS IRRIGATION

INFRASTRUCTURE REHABILITATION.
29- The most striking impact of the development of WUAs is reflected through their
large-scale contribution towards rehabilitating and maintaining the irrigation
infrastructure initiated by ORMVATF. This is also illustrative of the reorganization
and approval made of 30 WUAs within the two areas targeted by the project. These
have become partly responsible for a variety of maintenance activities and for
settling conflicts for ensuring efficient water management.
30- The users’ contribution towards maintenance of irrigation infrastructure is one of
the aspects worthy of consideration. This contribution is provided through labour.
The table below shows the financial value of WUAs’ contribution in rehabilitating
irrigation infrastructure.
ORMVATaf WUAs
(in 1000 hectare) (1000) Dirhams
Diversion weirs 10 12.8
Main canals1 69.6 152.5

Khettaras 51 145
Pumping stations 135 52.2
Sand control 981.4 386
Aggregate total 1247 784.5
% 62 38
C. NATURE OF IRRIGATION IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

31- Farmers running the demonstration plots expressed their satisfaction regarding the
introduction of this new irrigation technique (i.e. drip irrigation) into the targeted
areas. Irrigation is mainly associated with market gardening crops which is viewed
as a highly beneficial short- term type of farming. The long-term objective is to use
drip irrigation for date palms and other adjoining key cash crops.
32- The water savings made through the newly- introduced irrigation pattern (i.e. drip
irrigation) enabled farmers: (i) to grow two or three crops per year; (ii) to expand
cropping to involve previously insufficiently watered plots using the conventional
1- Users take full charge of maintenance of secondary and tertiary canals.

irrigation system (i.e flow irrigation); (iii) to sell excess water to the khettaras; and
(iv) to decrease water pumping from wells, therefore contributing to ensure stability
of the water table.
33- The total acreage of demonstration plots equipped through project support is 10
hectares. Fully convinced of the benefits accruing from drip irrigation, farmers took
the initiative to equip their farms at their own expenses. Over a two years’ period,
12 additional hectares of acreage currently under equipment with drip irrigation by
farmers will be made available, amounting to a 120 % increase through project
gradual support.
34- The project has impacted positively on the area. The table below shows the
evolution pattern of drip irrigation:
Area currently Expressed

Area outfitted Area outfitted
being outfitted requests
in 2002 (ha) in 2004 (ha)
(ha) (ha)
Total 119 285 412 909
D. A Sample of Achievements Recorded by some Farmers

35- The table below shows a sample of some of the accomplishments performed by
some farmers
Farm n° 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rural commune F.Oulia F.Oulia Fezna Jorf Jorf Hanabou
Cropped acreage (ha)
Total 8 22 8 13 6 4,5
Outfitted by projet 1.8 19 1 .7 1.25 1.16 2.5
Outfitted by farmers 9.5 2.5
Outcomes
Water savings 50% 40% 60% 70% 40% 60%
Labour savings 85% 80% 90% 60% 65%
Imrovement in
60% 50% 80% 75% 65%
productivity
36- Thus, after two years’ training and experimentation, we have noticed the following
features:
(i) Farmer n°1 was able to set up his own nursery to produce good quality plantlets
which he distributed to farmers in the area;
(ii) Farmer n°2: Being persuaded that localised irrigation is advantageous, he
proceeded to gradually outfit 9. 5 ha acreage at his own expenses.
(iii) Farmer n°3 bought and outfitted 2. 5 ha, in addition to producing plantlets. His
aim is to equip and crop a 6 ha acreage with high quality date palms and other
key cash crops.
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

37- After four years of program implementation, and while still focusing on
introduction of a new methodology and an approach for involving farmers in
securing the durability of irrigation infrastructure, the project can boast of
accomplishing the goals set down: (i) organizing and training of farmers within the
framework of their WUAs; (ii) raising their consciousness through training and
study trips; (iii) improving irrigation water management through setting up
demonstration plots and purchasing logistics support; and (iv) setting up a database
to be used in the follow-up evaluation of WUAs’ performances.
38- The experience gained by all partners, i.e. ORMVATF (project team members and
staff), NGOs and WUAs as regards implementation of participatory irrigation
management and water-saving strategies, will be generalized to cover the whole of
ORMVATF area and will certainly have a positive impact on water management
policy at the scale of the region.
39- However, because of some shortcomings in terms of implementation of follow-up
evaluation and in terms of capacity building of the co-operatives and associations, a
consolidation programme in the form of a research-oriented development project is
deemed necessary – a project geared toward:
(i) Pursuing the project action plan related to water- saving strategies, particularly
from khettaras, the pumping stations through use of storage basins.
(ii) Consolidating water demand management (i.e. through technical and
institutional measures and through capacity building of technicians and
farmers);
(iii) Designing effective strategies for the management of the water tables and
khettaras that are subjected to inopportune uses through excessive pumping;
(iv) Seeking more effective ways to keep within an associative framework
management of floodwaters and water from storage dams.
(v) Within water management issues, incorporating a research component on ways
and means to integrate rural gender within association-based groups for
increasing the returns on water in economic terms.
PRDA: A PARTICIPATORY METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING AND

IMPROVING IRRIGATION PERFORMANCE: CONCEPTUALIZATION
AND EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION IN KENYA
Philippe Lemperiere1
ABSTRACT
In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture is the backbone of the economy and employs approx
70% of the active work force. Rain-fed agriculture is largely dominant and agricultural
production is increasingly vulnerable to erratic rainfalls and recurrent droughts.
Although irrigation development is still in its infant stage in most countries and its
performance remains largely below expectations of policy planners, it is believed it has
a strong potential for rural development and economic growth.
The APPIA project is implemented in several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. APPIA
is a French acronym for “Improving Irrigation Performance in Africa”. One of the major
activities of the project was to develop and test in the field a participatory methodology
for analysing and improving the performance of farmer-managed irrigation scheme.
This methodology has been named PRDA for “Participatory Rapid Analysis and Action
Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”. A manual published by IWMI and the
FAO presents the details of the methodology.
The present document aims to illustrate the approach of the project in one of the APPIA
countries. This paper first describes briefly the situation of smallholder irrigation in
Kenya and the numerous questions regarding the performance of such schemes. PRDA
is then presented and a case study of its application in one Kenyan scheme is given. In
conclusion this paper suggests a set of recommendations for effective use of PRDA
based on the lessons learnt in the African countries where it was tested.
This paper discusses the issues at stake at different level: government, Water Users
Association and individual farmers for successful smallholder irrigation. It highlights
the following key principles of the PRDA methodology:
x A systemic approach of irrigation management using a conceptual framework
including irrigation technology; individual and collective farmers’ practices,
institutional and economic issues;
x Adapting Participatory Rapid Rural Appraisal tools to the specific context of
smallholder irrigation;
1- Office for the Nile Basin and Eastern Africa, P.O Box 5689 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
Tel: +251 116 463 215 ; Fax:+ 251 116 461 252, E mail: p.lemperiere@cgiar.org
x Establishing multi-disciplinary partnerships between farmers’ organizations,

engineers, agronomists, extension agents, economists, decision and policy makers;
x Acquiring a shared vision of irrigation management and of a long term
sustainability of irrigation systems, including economic, social and technical
perspectives;
x Promoting information, collective awareness and mutual learning processes
amongst irrigation stakeholders.
Finally and based on the results obtained during the course of the APPIA project, the
present document suggest that PRDA may be one tool to achieve successful
participatory irrigation management that can be used by multi-disciplinary / multi
purpose organization such as National Irrigation and Drainage Committees.
INTRODUCTION
In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture accounts for approximately 70 percent of the
economically active population. In this part of the World, rain-fed agriculture is largely
dominant and its productivity has been stagnating over the past forty years. Volatile
rains, soil degradation together with continuous price depreciation of agricultural
products on the World market explain the stagnation of rain-fed agriculture and the
increase of rural poverty in Sub Saharan Africa.
Irrigation can significantly improve agricultural productivity and is unquestionably one
option for economic development. However in the time of cost recovery, farmer-
managed irrigation and increasing competition over the limited water resources,
irrigation productivity and sustainability must be assessed with care.
It is now widely recognized that irrigation performance depends on managerial and
technical capacities of the concerned communities as well as the nature of relationships
between irrigation technology, institutions and economics. Hence the need for tools to
understand the key factors of irrigation performance and establish partnerships with
irrigating farmers and their organizations to provide them more effective and demand
driven support services.
This paper relates to the experience of the APPIA project. This project was launched in
March 2003. APPIA is a French acronym for Improving Irrigation Performance in
Africa. ARID1 ensures the project coordination for the West Africa component: Burkina
Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal; while IWMI (office for Nile Basin and
Eastern Africa in Addis Ababa) implements the project together with national partners
in Ethiopia and Kenya. The principal objective of APPIA is contributing to the
development of a productive and sustainable farmer-managed irrigation in Sub-Saharan
Africa. An important activity of the project has been developing and testing in all
concerned countries a methodology named PRDA for “Rapid Diagnosis and Action
Planning of Irrigated Agricultural Systems”.
The present document aims to illustrate the approach of the project in one of the APPIA
countries. This paper first describes briefly the situation of smallholder irrigation in
Kenya and the numerous questions regarding the performance of such schemes. PRDA
is then presented and a case study of its application in one Kenyan scheme is given.
Finally this paper suggests a set of recommendations for effective use of PRDA based
on the lessons learnt in the African countries where it was tested.
1- ARID: Association Régionale pour l’Irrigation et le Drainage based in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
1. SMALLHOLDER IRRIGATION IN KENYA: ACHIEVEMENTS AND

CHALLENGES
1.1. PRESENT SITUATION

At present Kenya has 105,000 Ha under irrigation for both smallholder and large
commercial irrigation. As described in table 1, different types of irrigation systems have
evolved in the country. Irrigation consumes approximately 75% of the available water
resource of the country and covers about 2% of the total cultivated area (5.2 million Ha)
and almost 20% of the irrigation potential estimated at 539,000 Ha. The agricultural
sector contributes to 30% of the GDP, 56% if agro-based industries are included.
According to the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, smallholder irrigation schemes cover
62,000 Ha. It mainly consists of group-schemes (total area: 35,000 Ha) with gravity or
pump water supply in which horticulture or rice crops are grown. In smallholder
individual schemes (total: approx 11,000 Ha), the water supply is manual (buckets) or
pump-fed (motorized or treadle pumps) from open water source and the production
concentrates on horticulture crops. Centrally managed schemes (Total area: 16,000 Ha)
are managed by public agencies but the process of management transfer to farmers is
underway, water is abstracted by river diversion or pumping and rice is the predominant
crop. In spite of such a relatively small contribution, it is believed that smallholder
irrigation could play an important role in rural development, since it can potentially
provide food security, income and employment opportunities.
Table 1: A typology of irrigation in Kenya

Commercial
Type of scheme Smallholder schemes
schemes
Individual Group-based Centrally
Sub-type _
schemes schemes managed schemes
Rapidly Rapid development
Period of
increasing since 1970s & 1980s 1950 - 1970 in the 1980s and
development
the 1990s 90s
Number -- About 1,000 10 --
About 11,000
Total area 35,000 Ha 16,000 Ha 43,000 Ha
Ha
Range of scheme
0.1 – 0.5 Ha 10- 900 Ha 350 – 6,000 Ha 4 – 3,000 Ha
size
Average farm
size per As above 0.25 – 1 Ha 1 – 1,5 Ha --
beneficiary
Public agency
Operation and Individual Water Users
(on-going Private enterprise
maintenance farmers Associations
transfer)
Public with tenant
Land tenure Private Private Private
farmers
Government or Kenyan and foreign
Source of funds Farmers Government
NGOs investors.
Currently irrigation development is led by the private sector: smallholders and investors
who supply the domestic market and export horticulture products to the European
Union. Kenya has thus become since 1999 the first flower exporter to the European
Union. Factors identified to have contributed to the success of vegetable, fruits and
flowers production aside from favourable geography and climate are (a) improvements
in transportation infrastructure, (b) Availability of low cost irrigation equipment such as
pumps, (c) rapidly growing urban population, (d) an improved environment for private
and international investment, (e) macroeconomic stability and realistic exchange rates
and (f) development of international commercial links.
1.2. AGRICULTURAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY OF SMALLHOLDER

IRRIGATION.
Yields are generally low when compared to FAO benchmark for Sub-Saharan Africa as
indicated for some crops in table 2. Low yields result from a combination of factors:
difficulty in sourcing inputs, poor access to credit, problems related to insecure
irrigation water distribution, inadequate extension service and marketing risks.
Table 2: Examples of average yields in smallholder irrigation schemes in Kenya
Sweet French
Crops Cabbage Onions Tomatoes Bananas Rice
potatoes beans
Average yield 15 – 20
8 - 11 5-7 10-14 8-10 8 - 12 2-4
(range: t/Ha) Per year
Benchmark 40
15 10 25 25 30 6
(t/Ha) Per year
Gross margin per Ha of smallholder irrigated horticulture (excluding depreciation of

equipment and family labour) varies between 1,700 and 2,800 USD/Ha according to
yields and type of crops grown. Thus irrigated horticulture is an attractive option for
Kenyan farmers if compared to the competing rain-fed cultivation of maize where gross
margins are about 570 USD/Ha. However, labour productivity remains quite low, 2 to 3
USD/family man-day, and quite comparable with labour productivity of rain-fed maize
(2.70 USD/man-day) and daily rate of unskilled labour in rural areas (2 USD/day).
1.3. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE (O & M)

O&M is the weakest link in smallholder irrigation scheme in Kenya. There are generally
four causes to this problem. The fist one is poor feasibility, planning and design
(especially choice of technology) of many irrigation projects. The second is the weak
management structure and low capacity of Irrigation Water Users Associations. The
third is shortage of funds because farmers are unwilling to pay the O&M fee because
the service is poor or they have not seen clear benefits from previous payments. Finally
the fourth problem is associated with siltation of canals due to poor management of
river catchments.
1.4. ISSUES AT STAKE

The above raises a series of questions and demands investigation at three different
levels.
¾Government level
x Policies and measures that accompany irrigation development: Extension
services and research, design of training programmes, legal framework for
water users association, input supply and credit, market information;
x Improvement of preparation, design and construction of irrigation projects with
a view to reduce costs and enhance benefits of irrigation development;
x Irrigation cost recovery / subsidies policy or in other words to which extent can
capital costs be covered by farmers’ contribution;
x Enabling economic environment for marketing agricultural production.
¾Water Users Association (WUA) level
x Formation of representative WUAs for negotiation with external players;
x Capacity of WUAs for managing technical and financial aspects of operation
and maintenance;
x Operation & Maintenance charging system taking into account farmers’
capacity to pay and cost recovery requirements.
¾Farmers’ level
x Increasing productivity of cropping systems to make them compatible with a
cost recovery approach of irrigation management or in other words so that
farmers are able (and willing) to pay O & M fee;
x Improvement of on-farm water management.
2. PRDA: PARTICIPATIVE RAPID DIAGNOSIS AND ACTION PLANNING

OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS.
2.1. PRDA MANUAL

This paper gives only a synthetic presentation of the methodology. A manual (Van der
Schans, Lempérière; IWMI-FAO-IPTRID 2006) explains in details and in a simple way
how to carry out a PRDA. The manual explains the methodology in a practical manner.
Chapter 1 is a general presentation. Chapter 2 summarizes the overall method and the
different steps of its application. In chapter 3 the conceptual framework (the
constituents of irrigation systems) is introduced. Chapters 4 and 5 give information for
organizing a PRDA and some practical advices to conduct a PRDA. The tools to be
used during PRDA are described in annex A. Finally in annex B, a series of Reporting
Sheets are provided to write down and analyze results after fieldwork.
2.2. WHAT IS PRDA?

PRDA is an approach for analyzing and improving irrigation performance together with
farmers. The diagnosis aims to identify the limiting factors of performance: irrigation
productivity and sustainability. Action plan to improve performance can have three
components: (a) increase capital investments and inputs, (b) improve organizations
responsible for O&M, and (c) enhance individual farming skills.
PRDA methodology and tools are an adaptation of several participatory methods to the
situation of irrigated agricultural systems:
¾Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA): rapid assessment according to criteria set by the
researcher
¾Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): facilitating discussion amongst farmers and
sharing of information with and amongst farmers.
¾Participatory Learning and Action (PLA): Farmers and researchers learn
throughout the project cycle and use these lessons to engage in individual or joint
action.
These participatory approaches are combined with existing methodologies for
Benchmarking that have been modified to suit the scale and limited quantitative data
availability of farmer- managed irrigation schemes.
2.3. TARGET PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATIONS

PRDA is primarily meant for extension organizations wanting to improve their services
to irrigating farmers and their organizations. Combined results of several irrigation
schemes can also be used to formulate more general policy recommendations. A PRDA
team consists ideally of four people, but it may be smaller when dealing with small
irrigation system. Team members should have different disciplinary background, for
example: irrigation engineer, agronomist, economist and specialist of farmers’
organizations.
2.4. OBJECTIVES OF PRDA
x Identify the main limiting factors of the productivity and sustainability of

agricultural irrigated systems
x Evaluate extension services and other supporting services provided to farmers
x Identify interventions to improve performance
x Describe the main characteristics of selected systems in order to enable more
extensive monitoring of performance in the future.
2.5. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Irrigation performance results of interplay between irrigation technology, farmers’
practices, institutional arrangements and economics. PRDA uses a conceptual model for
irrigated agricultural systems to help classifying collected information in a structured
manner and process it to make a diagnosis and propose sound solutions to improve
performance. For PRDA four constituents are identified to represent an irrigated
agricultural system.
Plot use
Irrigation Socio-economic
Scheme Environment
Organization
Figure 1: The four constituents of irrigated agricultural systems
2.5.1. Irrigation scheme

It is the physical system to convey and apply water to irrigated lands. For PRDA, it is
assumed that the type of technology strongly determines the manageability of the
scheme by farmers and their organizations. The constituent irrigation scheme can be
seen as a sub-system with six constituents as shown in figure 2. On the left-hand side
are the constituents that refer to the land; they should be consistent with each other. On
the right-hand side are the “water constituents” that should be fitted to the “land
constituents”; at each horizontal there is a close link between each “land constituent”
and “water constituent” that should ensure the cohesion of the irrigation scheme.
Land sub-constituents Water sub-constituents
2. Water resource
1. Site
Nature and availability of resource
Soils, climate, topography
and mean of abstraction
3. Lay-out 4. Water circulation

Shape and size of secondary Water conveyance and
& tertiary units distribution structures
5. Plots 6. Water application

Size and shape, Discharge at plot level
levelling Irrigation depth and intervals
Figure 2: Sub-constituents of irrigation scheme

2.5.2. Plot use

This constituent includes all agricultural practices and production of irrigated plots.
Usually decisions regarding plot use are made at household level in relation with other
farming and not farming activities implemented by household members. Characteristics
of “plot use” are the cropping system (type of crops, crop rotation and use of inputs,
labour and farming equipment), land and labour productivity and farmers’ income.
PRDA does not seek to impose adoption by farmers of recommended practices such as
ready-made “technology package” but rather highlights and explains the actual farmers’
practices and seek opportunities for their improvement considering farmers’ objectives,
knowledge, skills and constraints.
2.5.3. Organization
Group-based irrigation systems imply an organization (e.g. a Water Users Association)
of individual farmers who wish to undertake irrigation management related activities for
their mutual benefit. For PRDA, analysis of organization involves the objectives or
functions (water distribution, maintenance, planning of cropping seasons, etc.), the
structure (members and organizational chart), assets (office, equipment), technical and
managerial capacity to perform its functions and rules of the organization. Owing to the
increasing complexity and dynamics of irrigation organisations, and to the increasing
uncertainty of their economic environment, PRDA does not seek bringing ready-made
solutions and one-way prescriptions or “recipes”, but rather promotes effective and
flexible tools and practices for technical, social and financial management.
2.5.4. The socio-economic environment

This is not exactly a constituent of irrigated agricultural systems but rather a range of
relations between individual farmers and their organization with various organizations
and individual, i.e. irrigation agencies, extension services, inputs providers, credit
institutions, traders or cooperatives, etc.
2.6. PROCEDURE: A THREE STEPS APPROACH.

Figure 3 show details of the three steps of PRDA:
(a) Preparation: review of secondary data and consultation with farmers to seek their
cooperation and with potential partner institutions that may assist in fieldwork,
provide expertise and help implementing solutions);
(b) Diagnosis: collection of primary data using PRDA tools with farmers, assessment
of performance, identification and ranking of constraints of productivity and
sustainability and detailed analysis of constraints (causes and consequences);
(c) Action planning: Identification, assessment of solutions (their impacts, costs and
benefits) and formulation of action plan.
It may not be possible to arrive at a well-structured action plan (including a logical
frame) during PRDA itself, which takes less than one month. The action plan can also
be finalized just before the next irrigation season with other potential partner institutions
that could provide technical or financial assistance.
Table 3: Estimated time required to do PRDA on irrigation schemes of different size
Scheme size 10 ha 100 ha 1000 ha
Preparation 4 days 5 days 8 days
Diagnosis 6 days 8 days 13 days
Action planning 2 days 2 days 4 days
Total per person 12 days 15 days 25 days
Recommended team size 2 persons 2 to 4 persons 4 persons
Preparation
Primary data
collection
Performance Constraint
Diagnosis analysis
assessment
Solution
Constraint
identification
identification &
ranking
Action Impact & cost /

planning benefit assessment
Action plan
Monitoring &
evaluation
Figure 3: PRDA procedure

3. EXAMPLE OF PRDA APPLICATION IN MWEA IRRIGATION SCHEME,

KENYA.
3.1. MWEA IRRIGATION SCHEME

The irrigation scheme is located at the foothills of Mount Kenya, about 100 Km to the
Northeast of Nairobi. The irrigated area of 6,000 Ha supports a population of 4,000
farming households. Mwea is the largest centrally managed irrigation scheme in Kenya.
It gets its water by gravity from two rivers originating from the watershed of Mt Kenya.
Rice is grown for only one season per year. It uses the flooded paddy irrigation method.
The history of Mwea goes back to 1953 when it was developed under the British
colonial government using captive Mau Mau (freedom fighters) labour. Soon after
independence in 1963, the scheme was handed-over to the National Irrigation Board
(NIB) a public irrigation agency. The NIB treated farmers as passive recipients of strict
instructions regarding the management of the scheme and the role of farmers was
limited to labour provision in paddy fields. There were quite a number of areas of
conflict between NIB and farmers regarding cost of irrigation services (agricultural
inputs and O & M fee) and absence of farmers’ voice in the management of the scheme.
These conflicts heightened in 1998 when farmers rebelled against NIB and their
cooperative took over the management of the scheme in 1999. In the following years the
scheme (and the cooperative) almost collapsed and in 2003, farmers and NIB reached an
agreement. Under this agreement, a process of partial irrigation management transfer
was initiated. It redefines the role of NIB to operation and maintenance of the major
irrigation and drainage infrastructure and includes the formation of a Water Users
Association. PRDA was conducted in 2004 to support the process of irrigation
management transfer.
3.2. DIAGNOSIS
PRDA was carried out in Mwea in the fist quarter of 2004 by 2 NIB officers (irrigation
engineers) a specialist of Farmers’ organizations and an agro-economist from the
ministry of agriculture. Inadequate water delivery at farm level was identified as the
main constraint faced by farmers. As a consequence approximately half of the scheme
stopped production and average paddy yield in cultivated area dropped from 5 to 3 tons
/ Ha. The diagnosis allowed making a comprehensive analysis of the causes of water
shortage:
1- The flow of the two rivers supplying the scheme has been decreasing due to
deforestation of the slopes of Mount Kenya (and perhaps climate change affecting
East Africa). The intake work no longer makes it possible to supply the scheme
during the peak irrigation periods. In addition irrigated area has been quickly
increasing in the upper part of the watershed without real control by the
Government authorities. Conflicts between Mwea farmers and water users
upstream seemed inevitable if the Government pursues its “business as usual”
policy or does not make investments aiming to increase the water resource.
2- High conveyance losses resulting of poor (quasi absence of maintenance); neither
the cooperative or NIB was able to collect an O & M fee.
3- Absence of organized water distribution in the scheme

4- Poor on-farm water management: due to insecure water supply and absence of
irrigation schedule, many farmers tended to irrigate their plots with as much water
as possible when water was available and without considering actual crops water
requirements to extent to which that approx 600 Ha were affected by water
logging and salinity problems.
Such a diagnosis could have been made by a team of experts in a few days and without
much consultation with farmers. Value added of PRDA was to favour information
sharing, discussion, learning processes and collective awareness amongst farmers and
between farmers and the evaluation team. Validation of the diagnosis by farmers was of
crucial for the design and implementation of solutions.
3.3. ACTION PLANNING

Based on the diagnosis farmers and the evaluation team designed together an action to
improve irrigation performance in Mwea irrigation scheme. Objective of the action plan
was to improve and secure water availability within all plots by implementing the
process of irrigation management transfer (IMT). Action plan for the IMT process
included the following steps:
1- Formation of a Steering Committee for defining a strategy for IMT, the members
were local government officials, NIB officers, elected farmers, representatives of
the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and Ministry of Agriculture.
2- Organization of farmers meeting to discuss about issues and approve strategy for
IMT.
3- Formation of the Water Users Associations (WUAs) and election of leaders by
farmers: 62 WUAs at block level and an umbrella Association for the entire
scheme.
4- Training of elected WUAs leaders.
5- Establishment of a water charging system for maintenance of main water
infrastructure by NIB.
6- Development of WUA’s By-Laws by all member farmers.
7- Starting of Operation of the WUAs.
8- Capacity Development of WUAs (offices, equipment, management tools, etc.)
9- Consultations between NIB and the WUA to find solutions to the water shortage
problem.
3.4. RESULTS
Following IMT, The National Irrigation Board (NIB) has now been accepted to be a
water service provider. It has improved the canal system through proper maintenance
and collects the O & M fee. Farmers now maintain canals in the tertiary units.
Water shortage has also been alleviated through the implementation of a plan for
staggered cropping: planting dates are now phased in fields / sections of the scheme.
This planning is done by both the NIB and the WUAs.
New crops (soya, peas and maize) have been introduced by the Ministry of agriculture
through demonstration plots belonging to voluntary farmers. They are planted
immediately after rice is harvested. Thus the cropping intensity is increased.
Water shortage has also been alleviated through the construction of a water reservoir by
NIB. This reservoir collects water from canals at night and during off-peak irrigation
season. Stored water is then used for irrigation during peak water requirement periods.
Construction of a second reservoir is planned.
Mwea umbrella Water Users Association has approached the local governmental
authorities for the formation of a river-based Water Users Association to improve water
management at the catchment level. As per today consultations of concerned players
have been initiated.
Average paddy yields in the scheme are now 5.4 tons/Ha and almost all the command
area was cultivated in 2006. The annual O & M fee for NIB service is 80 USD/Ha and
represents 3% of the total value of production for the average yield; a level that seems
quite acceptable to farmers since the recovery rate in 2006 was 95%.
3.5. LESSONS LEARNT

The case of Mwea irrigation scheme is now cited in Kenya as an example of successfull
Irrigation Management Transfer, while a few years back the situation of the schemes
seemed hopeless. However some conflicts remain between the NIB and the cooperative
and between farmers and the cooperative. The main contribution of PRDA approach is
very likely that it has helped a lot re-establishing a dialog and mutual trust between
farmers and the NIB for redefining their respective tasks and responsibilities within the
framework of Irrigation management transfer. Once again, information, discussion,
learning processes and collective awareness are the key words for participatory
irrigation management.
CONCLUSION
When compared to other participatory methodology, practitioners of PRDA in Sub-
Saharan Africa have noted the high level of professionalism and special focus the
method has on irrigation issues. The conceptual framework of the method is easy to
understand. However, some practitioners found it difficult to understand the whole
process. This may require the development of a training curriculum based on the manual
and a greater attention to the educational background and experience of individuals
when constituting PRDA teams.
Within an irrigation scheme, diverse strategies may develop, depending on each
household’s history, composition, objectives, and so on. When doing a PRDA, it is
impossible to take account of each and every household’s characteristics; however, it
may be irrelevant to consider the scheme homogeneous. Hence we recommend adding
to PRDA approach making a typology of farmers that groups households with similar
strategies and characteristics. Such a typology should be of a simple and practical nature
and focus on landholding size, land tenure and production and marketing styles.
Institutional stability is strong factor of success of PRDA. In Ethiopia frequent
institutional change and staff transfer in extension and other supporting services to
irrigating farmers has hampered the process and caused losses of information.
PRDA takes root in the context of smallholder irrigation scheme in Africa. It relies on a
number of background principles, orientations and concepts among which it seems
important to highlight the following:
x Establishing multi-disciplinary partnerships, meaning that farmers’ organizations,
engineers, agronomists, extension agents, economists, decision and policy makers
have been involved in the process.
x Acquiring a shared vision of irrigation management and of a long term
sustainability of irrigation systems, including economic, social and technical
perspectives.
x Promoting information, collective awareness and mutual learning processes
amongst irrigation stakeholders.
In Kenya, the APPIA project and PRDA approach raised a strong and sustained interest
of various stakeholders (farmers, engineers, economists and policy makers) and offered
a unique opportunity to do fieldwork collectively and in a multi-disciplinary manner.
Technicians and policy makers realized that there was no organization in country that
can address all issues related to irrigation management. Hence the Ministry of Water
and Irrigation decided the formation of a professional association to enhance
develop further Research & Development programs. In countries where they exist this
could be one role of the National Irrigation & Drainage Committees.
THE NECESSITY OF FARMERS PARTICIPATION IN

CONSTRUCTION OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION
SYSTEMS FOR PIM SUSTAINABILITY IN IRAN
H. R. Hejazi1
ABSTRACT
As a developing country, Iran has several large-scale irrigation and drainage networks
under study and operation. These networks are often constructed in small-scale
farmlands, and because of water deficit, inappropriate topography and incentive
more complicated, comparing with surface irrigation method. On the other hand,
government policy is to develop private sector and therefore transferring operation of
the networks to farmers organizations is highly considered. Regarding considerable
costs of project execution which is provided by public credits also bank facilities by
farmers commitment establishing a sustainable PIM is highly important.
Nowadays, national policy is often accelerating construction in large-scale pressurized
irrigation projects, as a result all components of pressurized irrigation systems being
performed by government, so farmers do not play such an important role in this process.
This theorem would cause some problems in transferring the irrigation system
management to farmers organization.
In the present paper, the results obtained from performing under pressurized irrigation
systems by government is compared with the one constructed by farmers organization,
also offers some suggestions with regard to changing the present procedures and
participating farmers organizations in project execution.
1- INTRODUCTION
Iran as a developing country has 250 mm precipitation, often with arid and semi-arid
climates. There are irrigation and drainage systems in areas about 2 million hectares
under study, planning and construction. Because of water resources deficit and
inappropriate topography, most of the projects are equipped with pressurized irrigation
systems.
On the other hand, having small-scale farmlands and the necessity of constructing an
independent pump station and pressurized irrigation systems at usual areas of 100-300
1- Msc. In Irrigation and head of irrigation and drainage section of saman-abrah consulting engineers
company Tel: 88681507, 88683975 fax: 88693074 e-mail:hrhejazi@yahoo.com
hectares, will result in an independent irrigation unit which involves more than 100
farmers. With regard to government policy after project execution, operation and
maintenance of pressurized irrigation systems must be done by farmers organizations.
Now, the costs of constructing pressurized irrigation systems are provided by public
credits and bank credit, so that farmers don’t need to cash investment but they only
must undertake to pay their loans. Project construction will be done by contractors
which are selected by government organizations of provinces like agriculturel–jahad
organizations. At the end execution, project will be transferred to farmers organizations.
But some experiences show that if participation is consistently emphasized in all phases
of the project, local people will increasingly become the owners of the changes they
propose (Natasha van dijk1999) and farmers participation in construction can gain
farmers a stronger basis for insisting that construction is done to good quality standards
and using designs which better serve their needs(Bryan Bruns and Helmi 1996).
2- CONSTRUCTING PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN AREAS

WITH PERSONAL OWNERSHIP
Such a project in which farmlands belong to one farmer, if farmland owner tends to
install a pressurized irrigation system, after a necessary examination and consulting
with experienced experts he can choose an appropriate system, then after making a
request to public organizations, they will start to design his farmland .According to
costs of project, bank facilities with the progress of execution will be paid. Therefore,
farmers will be involved in all phases from choosing irrigation system, designing,
providing equipment until project execution.
At the end of project execution and obtaining O&M guideline, due to having enough
information by farmers, he often can operate the system successfully.
3-CONSTRUCTING PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AT LARGE

AREAS WITH SMALL SCALE FARMLANDS
In extended project with about a few thousands hectares areas and small-scale farmlands
to constructing pressurized irrigation system, government organizations select
consultant engineers to study and designing the project, so farmers will not be aware of
the project details. Usually small-scale farmlands with areas about 1-5 ha, and the
necessity of constructing an independent pump station in an area of 100-300 ha, will
result in an independent irrigation unit which involves more than 100 farmers.
On the other hand, pressurized irrigation systems won’t be operated until all canals,
pump stations, main, sub-main and lateral pipelines are installed. Hence, for a prompt
operation of soil and water resources, government undertakes constructing all parts of
projects and farmers only will pay back the loan. In such conditions instead of small
projects in which farmer is directly involved in choosing irrigation system, design,
providing equipments and construction, in large scale projects which may include over
1000 farmers , these farmers wouldn’t have determent role in project and usually these
projects would be constructed uniformly for all of them.
In such projects, during execution, farmer organizations will be established by
cooperation of government organization and consultant engineers. These farmers
organizations, meanwhile settling down opponent farmers at construction phase and
they will learn about irrigation system operation and maintenance, and after project
execution accomplishment, the project will be transferred to farmers organizations.

Thus because of farmers are not involved in construction, the operation phase will face
some problems and may not achieve success.
The advantages and disadvantages of construction without farmers' involvement are:
A- ADVANTAGES:
1- By an intensive management, project execution will be performed rapidly and all
project components including: pump stations, main, sub-main and lateral pipelines
will be installed simultaneously and operation of project after that will be
conceivable.
2- Due to supervision by expert engineers, the quality of equipment and project
execution will be suitable.
3- Project performance is uniform through the farms.
4- In the absence of farmers, decision-making in construction would be easier and
faster.
B- DISADVANTAGES
1- If farmers do not participate in construction they will be disappointed and
inattentive about the system and this, in turn, may lead to some damages to
systems during cultivation.
2- Since farmers don’t have enough knowledge about the irrigation system and are
not involved in construction, in some of projects, they may not be interested in
operation and project probably won't be operated completely.
3- Since the whole project is constructed in limited period, some problems and
disadvantages of system regarding the region conditions and social affairs wont be
identified.
4- Because farmer organizations don’t participate in construction phase, system
maintenance by them will be difficult.
5- Since construction depends on government organizations, it may continue the
dependency during operation phase and as a result it may delay irrigation
management transfer.
4- CONSTRUCTION OF TOBA PROJECT IN SMALL SCALE FARMLANDS BY

FARMERS ORGANIZATION (CASE STUDY)
In recent years, some projects were executed on small scale farmlands by farmers
organization in Iran that one of them is Toba project in Ben town, Chahar mahalo
bakhtiari province, south west of country, and its general specifications are as follow:
Area: 470 hectares
Water resource: Zayandeh rood river
Pumping head: 385 meter with 2 pump stations
Discharge: 188 lit /sec
Conveyance pipeline: 4 km steel pipe with 500 mm diameter
Crops: Almond and Peach trees
Irrigation system: Drip Irrigation

Numbers of farmers: 670 persons
Farmlands area for each farmer: 0.5 to 0.8 hectares
4-1-PROJECT EXECUTION
The project area, before construction belonged to Natural Resources Organization,
which is transferred to Ben town people for job and occupation purposes. The project
execution initiated in 1999 and finished in 2004. Haj Ali Akbar Salimi was involved in
some contractors companies so he has valuable experiences. Hence he undertook the
project construction and irrigation management as managing director of farmers
organization and project is constructed directly by farmers organization.
Agri-bank started to pay the loan to the farmers organization gradually from 1999. and
after 5 years farmers started to refund the loan and this will last for the second 5 years.
In order to get the loan from bank, farmers should first pay 1300 million rails to farmers
organization but just 280 million rials was paid by farmers and the rest were provided
by farmers working on construction activity. Following to receive loan from bank,
farmers began to purchase equipment and project execution. With farmers activity and
their participation in construction also decreasing the costs, parts of money was saved in
bank, so that some of installments were paid by these savings. In addition, for the last 3
years, costs of irrigation system operation are provided by bank interests of that savings.
4-2- OPERATION & MAINTENANCE

The operation of project started from 2004 .Farmers organization is on the basis of 6
parts. Each part includes 2 groups and each group consists of 54 farmers (farmers
organization chart is given in diagram (1)).
Managing director
2 Water-masters Pump station operators

(water distributors) (4 persons)
2 Sardangs 2 Sardangs 2 Sardangs

(head group 1& (Head group 3 & (Head group 11 &
head group 2) head group 4) head group 12)
Head Head Head Head Head Head

group 1 group 2 group 3 group 4 group 11 group 12
54Farmers 54Farmers 54Farmers 54Farmers 54Farmers 54Farmers
Diagram (1): operation chart of Toba

Irrigation is done by 2 water-masters (water distributors). Their job is controlling main

and sub-main pipelines as well as opening and closing valves, but farmers are
responsible for operation and maintenance of manifold and lateral pipes that are in their
farmlands. Watermsters and pump stations operators are responsible for maintaining the
main network, pump stations and filtration equipment. If some technical problems like
electrical problems occur, they will call for active technicians in Ben town. Managing
director and sardangs (the responsible person for each part of six parts is a sardang) will
undertake accounting procedures.
The advantages and disadvantages of construction with participation of farmers
organizations involvement are:
A-ADVANTAGES
1- Construction costs would be economical.
2- Economized construction costs will lead to saving money as farmers organization
support.
3- Since government is not involved in project construction, the dependency of
farmers organizations will decrease in operation phase.
4- If the project doesn’t have a suitable prospect in farmers point of view, it won’t be
constructed. In other words, the presence of farmers in construction is a sign of
PIM sustainability.
5- The presence of farmers at construction phase will increase their knowledge about
operation and maintenance.
6- The cooperation of technicians with farmers organization during construction, will
simplify solving technical problems which occur during operation and
maintenance.
7- Farmers cooperation at project construction will reinforce the relationship
between members and will inspire them to participate in collective activities.
8- The presence of farmers during construction leads to identifying active and
committed people who can play effective roles in operation phase.
9- Farmers participation cause some changes in planning which, in turn, will result in
the project be more adapted to farmers interests and desires.
B-DISADVANTAGES
1- The quality of equipment and construction will decrease because of not having a
contractor and experienced supervisor.
2- The time of construction will be longer because of the necessity of farmers
participation and their full acceptance.
5- CONCLUSION
As mentioned before, usually at pressurized irrigation projects in large areas which are
constructed in small scale farmlands, all of the project execution are done by
government and after accomplishment of project execution, will be transferred to
farmers organizations. This issue will result in farmers irresponsibility, and it will, in
turn cause their dissociation during project operation so that after transferring the
system to farmers organizations, farmers will ascribe the organizations` managers to be
responsible for all the system's problems.
5-1- THE PURPOSE OF CONSTRUCTING THE PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION

SYSTEMS
It is presumed that final purpose is PIM sustainability of project. Whereas in large
projects, often executing in short period of time is now the main goal and project
operation is purpose defined in parallel with main goal also it will become more
important when the project is approaching its final stages of execution. Therefore, these
dilemmas will arise within the project:
- In order to achieve a time schedule and to accomplish the projects timely, there
will be an attempt toward minimizing the need for arrangement with farmers.
- In order to accept project construction by farmers, it is necessary that a
considerable part of construction costs be gratuitous. However in small projects in
which people make the request for construction, financial support is less than the
one in large projects
If farmers organizations are to be involved in executive procedures, some changes as the
following will be necessary in order to achieve sustainable PIM:
1- 1-In order to encourage farmers to accept project construction, they should be well
informed of irrigation system and operation procedures, for this purpose
constructing pilots is inevitable and it is one of the priorities, also promoting
activities as well as informing people will be done comprehensively.
2- 2-If the project be accepted by farmers organizations and if they must participate
in project construction, the system should be accepted by the majority of farmers
that will lead to changing the project layout according to farmers opinion and
characteristics of farmers society.
3- Project execution by farmers organization will result in gradual on-farm system
construction and the experiences achieved from last constructed areas, will
improve the project execution in other areas.
4- 4-If farmers organization are constructing the on-farm irrigation system , it is
necessary to use local contractors or train farmer organizations the necessary
instructions that will lead to localizing the construction knowledge of pressurized
irrigation systems.
5- In order to attract farmers interests and increase their motives to accept the
project, economic sustainability will become more important, so that this will
cause the companies, government organizations and research institutions give a
special consideration to decrease the costs and increase farmers incomes which
results in PIM sustainability.
Therefore farmers' participation will have positive effects in project construction and
sustainability of PIM. There is no doubt that farmers participation should be precisely
studied and the level of such cooperation should be on the basis of project`s conditions
and characteristics of farmers society.
5-2-DIFFERENT LEVELS OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

OF PRESSURIZED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Before changing the execution procedures of pressurized irrigation systems, it will be
useful to identify different levels of operation and maintenance management. At
present, usually a rural producers cooperative company is established in farmlands in
area of 1000-3000 hectares and that company is responsible for the management of
irrigation and cultivation of the farmlands. At higher levels, water users association
(WUA) or government organizations are involved but they are not related to the present
paper. The lower levels of operation and maintenance management of pressurized
irrigation systems are shown in diagram (2). It shows the responsibility of operation and
maintenance in different levels:
Diagram (2). A typical chart of operation organization for pressurized irrigation

projects and different levels of operation and maintenance management
Level 1: irrigation department of the cooperative company is directly responsible for

operation and maintenance of the main pump stations, reservoirs, canals
usually in areas about 1000-3000 hectares.
Level 2: In farmlands areas covered by secondary pump station (usual areas of 150-
300 hectares) a farmers organization will be established in which one
person is responsible for this organization. This organization will be
directly responsible for operation and maintenance of secondary pump
station and main pipelines.
Level 3: It will be necessary to establish a group in covered farmlands with one or

more sub-main pipelines in usual areas of 50-100hectares. And in each
group, one person will be chosen as the group representative. Hence, in
every operation organization covered by an independent pump station,
usually there are 3-5 representatives of a group so that one of them can be
chosen as organization undertaker.
Level 4: farmers will be in the fourth level of operation and maintenance of
pressurized irrigation systems and usually the farmland area for each of
them is 1-5 hectares.
5-3- CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATION SYSTEM AT FIRST AND SECOND LEVELS

Irrigation network in first and second levels includes main pump stations, canals,
reservoirs, secondary pump station and main pipe lines. At present, it Is not possible for
farmers organization to construct this part of system with proper quality, so it is better
to continue the construction in these levels by experienced contractors and consulting
engineers.
In this regard, the construction of main pump station, canals and reservoirs, should be
arranged by producers cooperative company and farmers organization representatives,
so they will be involved in project construction as much as possible.The employer
should also inform them properly. Regarding the construction of secondary pump
stations and main pipelines, in addition to producers cooperative company and the
agents of farmers organization, the representatives of groups should be involved and
contribute to the project as well.
5-4- CONSTRUCTING ON-FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEM IN THE THIRD AND THE

FOURTH LEVEL
Irrigation system components at the third and the fourth levels include sub-main
pipelines, manifold (in micro irrigation) and lateral pipes. In small-scale lands with very
small areas, all of the pipelines even laterals will be constructed jointly and in a few
farmlands, but in large-scale farmlands, only the sub-main pipe is jointly constructed.
Constructing this part of system have less complications, compared with the first and
the second levels, and it will be possible to involve representative groups and farmers in
planning. Diagram (3) offers a flowchart for on-farm pressurized irrigation system
construction.
6- SUGGESTIONS
The participation of farmers in constructing the project may result in PIM sustainability,
for this reason, the necessary laws should be approved, also the extent and method of
participation of farmers organization should be studied in every project by consulting
engineers.
Changing the construction procedures as well as farmers participation in constructing
the pressurized irrigation projects in short term, will slow down the construction and
defer initiating the project operation, however, farmers participation in long term leads
the farmers creativity, attitudes, energy and their machines and equipment, into a
suitable way and use them for developing the project purposes.
The important issue in constructing on-farm irrigation system by farmers organizations,
is observing the standards and qualification measurements in providing the equipment
as well as constructing the project, for this purpose, the necessary guidelines and
supervisions should be available.
To inform the boundaries of the areas covered by each secondary pump station and sub-
main pipelines to farmers
To constitute groups, and choosing groups representatives and organization's

undertaker by farmers
To introduce groups and organization representatives by cooperative company to

government organizations
To announce the farmers readiness for on-farm irrigation system construction
To make necessary arrangement between cooperative company and government

organizations in order to accept construction of the project
To allocate the necessary credit by government organizations
To make decision for project construction method by farmers organization

( construction by farmers, contractor or both)
Providing the necessary equipment and on-farm irrigation system execution
Supervising the executive operation by government organizations and approving the

construction quality
Paying the costs in proportion with equipment provisions and progress of construction by
bank
Testing and starting the system by farmers organization and obtaining the water right
from government organizations if there is not any technical problems in system
Diagram (3): Suggested flowchart of constructing phases for on-farm pressurized

irrigation system by farmers organizations
REFERENCE:
1. Natasha van Dijk. 1999. Interaction for irrigation: how analysis guided a
construction project in Peru. PLA Notes(1999),Issue 34,pp.37-42.
2. Bryan Bruns and Helmi. 1996. Participatory irrigation management in Indonesia:
lessons from experience and issues for future. Electronic learning guidebook for
participatory irrigation management, 1997: 1-24
DRIVING AND RESTRAINING FORCES IN IMPLEMENTING

IN THE LITERATE STATE OF INDIA
George Chackacherry1, K Madhavachandran2
ABSTRACT
Kerala, elongated coastal state of India, lags behind many states in the country in
participating farmers in the management of irrigation, and implementing PIM. It has no
rich tradition in community management of irrigation, may be due to rich water
resources it enjoyed (annual average rainfall 3000 mm). Government manages the
irrigation projects and distribution of water to its 0.3 mha irrigated area, which includes
wetland crops like rice, and garden land crops like coconut. Fragmentation and
subdivision of land and resultant small size of holdings (average 0.3 ha); part-time
cultivation of farmers who are literate (literacy rate 91%); lack of sufficient labour
availability and high labour cost; and lack of coordination among various departments
are the major threats to irrigated agriculture in Kerala. PIM pilot projects being
implemented at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects of the State have shown
that, in spite of all the above issues, farmers are highly motivated and are ready to share
responsibilities of PIM. Since spouses of farmers are also inducted as members of
WUAs, enthusiasm shown by women in managing irrigation is encouraging. Preference
ranking of institutions to manage operation and maintenance (O&M) under different
water availability conditions, carried out at the pilot project area through Trade-Off
Method, shows that majority of the farmers have given preference to WUAs to manage
O&M under both ways, as well as sometimes adequate, timely and equitable water
availability conditions. The pilot project experiences are also encouraging. But the
hesitation of officials to depart from the existing system, the reluctance of operational
staff to involve users in management, and lack of legislative backing, are the main
blocks noted.
1- Scientist & Officer in Charge, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM)
Sub Centre, Trivandrum, Kerala State – 695121, India Tel.& Fax: +91-471-2222319;
Mobile: +91-9446404780; email: g_chakkacherry@eth.net
2- Scientist, Water Management Division, CWRDM, Kozhikode, Kerala State – 673571, India
INTRODUCTION
Kerala State is one of the smallest states of India located at the southernmost tip of the
Country. It lies between 8° 18 ' and 12° 48' North Latitude and between 74° 52 ' and 77°
22 ' East Longitude, with a geographical area of 38,863 km2. The State is a narrow
stretch of land 566 km in length. The settlement pattern is linear along roads and water
ways, and the typical village dwelling is not seen in Kerala. Due to this fact, the State is
called as an ‘elongated village’. Though no distinct urban-rural dichotomy is found,
now urban values have strong hold in the State. Better transportation facilities,
educational status, and income from abroad (Remittances from Keralites working
abroad, mainly in the Middle East, make up over 60% of the state's gross domestic
product) are believed to be the reasons for this situation. The total population of Kerala
is about 318 lakh, with a density of 819 persons per km2 (national level it is 324
persons). Women outnumber men in the State. The sex ratio is 1058 females per 1,000
males. Literacy rate of the State is high compared to all other states of India. When the
national literacy rate is 65%, in Kerala it is 91%. Striking difference is not found with
regard to the literacy rate of male and female in Kerala; it is 94% for male and 88% for
females; whereas it is 76% (male) and 54% (female) in the national level (Census
Report, 2001).
Although Kerala accounts for only 1.18% of the land surface of the country, her water
potential accounts for 5.4%. The State receives an average annual rainfall of 3,000 mm;
it is bestowed with 44 rivers and several lakes and ponds. However, 60% of the rainfall
in this humid tropical region is received during the south-west monsoon (June-August),
25% during the north-east monsoon (September-December) and the rest 15% during the
non-monsoon period (January-May).
The net area irrigated (20% of total farming area) from all irrigation sources in Kerala
works out to 3.81 lakh hectare (ha), out of which the contribution of major/medium
irrigation projects is about 3 lakh ha. Rice is the main crop cultivated in the command
areas of irrigation projects. Except one project, all others are designed for irrigating
wetland crops, mainly rice. However, the area under upland (garden land) cultivation
under irrigation is increasing tremendously in almost all the irrigation projects. For
example, in the Neyyar Irrigation Project, it is estimated that 70% of the irrigated
command area is occupied by upland crops (GoK, 1990). Most of the lands here have
been reclaimed to cultivate coconut. Within a period of 15 years from 1980-81, the
proportion of area under rice declined from 27.79% to 16.51%. During the same period,
the area under coconut increased from 22.58% to the 29.88% (Thomas, 1999). The
average land holding size in Kerala is only 0.33 ha, whereas it is 1.68 ha at the national
level. More than 90% of all the holdings are below half hectare in size. However, the
State is predominantly an agriculture state where more than 60% of the population is
engaged in farming and the processing of agricultural produces. For India, Kerala is the
main producer of perennial crops such as coconut, rubber, black pepper and areca.
COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND PIM

Kerala has no rich tradition in the management of irrigation systems by farmers, though
farmer-managed traditional systems are present in various parts of the country, for
hundreds of years. This may be due to the better availability of water resources in
Kerala in the past, which might not have encouraged community action for irrigation
management (Chackacherry, 1995). Though the command area development (CAD)
programmes started in Kerala during 1980, the activities gained momentum only after
1986. According to the CAD Act 1986 (GOK, 1986), the ‘beneficiary’ farmers of one or
more outlets, ordinarily an extent of about 40 ha of command area, have to form
together a beneficiary farmer association for looking after the operation and
maintenance (O&M) of sluices and field channels, and distribution of water to the
command area. Accordingly a total of 4,011 associations were formed in the 16 project
commands till the end of March 2005 (CADA, 2006).
As reported by several studies, CAD Authorities (CADAs) in various states of the
country, though was envisaged to improve the irrigation and agricultural productivity
through effective farmer participation and system managemen, could not achieve their
targets due to several reasons. Kerala also followed the same line. The major reasons for
the shortfalls of CAD activities in the national level are: (i) inability to achieve
adequate, reliable and equitable distribution of water; (ii) failure to ensure participation
of farmers in the management of the irrigation systems; (iii) inadequacy of existing
organisational set up; (iv) limiting the concept of CADA to a field channel construction
programme; and (v) lack of coordination among the Irrigation Department and CADA,
and also among various disciplines of CADA. The study conducted at Neyyar Irrigation
Project for three years during 1990 – 92 found that though operation plan was made, it
was not followed, thereby the very purpose of irrigation is questioned. As a result, a
cropping pattern based on the irrigation supply, which is the most important prerequisite
for improved productivity could not be adopted in the command areas (Chackacherry,
1993).
Though there have been more than 4000 farmer associations formed in the irrigation
commands, most of them are non-functional. Studies have shown that most of these
organisations are either defunct or mal-functioning. 25-30% of them are only functional
(Chackacherry, 1995; CWRDM, 1999), and they could not play a significant role in the
irrigation management processes. However, the main reasons identified for the non-
functioning of farmer associations are: (i) the associations were organised on a war-
footing through ‘government order’ ignoring the farmer initiatives; (ii) non-availability
of water in their areas at required time; (iii) discontentment of the farmers, as they lost
faith in the officials who promised assured water, and also since they failed in making
profits; (iv) weak farmer-officer relations; (v) lack of incentives; (vi) political
interference; and (vii) insignificant role of the farmer organisations (Chackacherry,
1993). It has been felt that no part of the irrigation system can be handed over to these
organisations, if at all they are functioning, as they are not socially capable of taking
over the tasks assigned to them (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). Either they
should be reorganised/restructured or adequately strengthened. On the other hand, the
government agency concerned with these activities is neither physically nor socially
conducive for taking up a joint management with farmers (CWRDM & CADA, 2001).
Therefore, Kerala lags behind many states in the implementation of PIM. Inclusion of a
Chapter on PIM in the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act 2003, and two
pilot projects on PIM implemented in two irrigation projects of the State are the only
achievements in the history PIM in Kerala.
PILOT PROJECT ON PIM

The pilot projects on PIM which are almost completed in Neyyar (mostly catering
garden land crops) and Malampuzha (mostly catering rice) Irrigation Projects, which are
almost completed, expect to evolve a strategy for the implementation of PIM in all
irrigation projects of Kerala, by demonstrating its possibility and convincing officials,
farmers and other stakeholders concerned. The programme envisaged is to transfer
O&M of one branch canal each at Neyyar Irrigation Project (Olathanni branch canal –
6.41 km length, 501 ha of ayacut area with garden land crops) and at Malampuzha
Irrigation Project (Kuthannur branch canal – 14.63 km length, 1664 ha of ayacut area
with rice crop) to farming community. Since the existing farmer organization structure
and government set up are not congenial for the implementation of PIM, changes are
brought in. Three-tier system with sluice based Water User Associations (WUAs),
branch/distributary level WUAs, and project level Project Management Council are the
structure tried in the farmer organization set up. Land holder and his/her spouse are
members in the sluice WUA, and 1/3rd of the leadership positions at all levels are
reserved for women. Overseer, Assistant Engineer/Assistant Executive Engineer, and
Executive Engineer, respectively, are attached as competent authorities to these
associations to help them in implementing their decisions. Works in the irrigation
systems are identified, prioritized and implemented by the WUAs. The payments are
made from the bank account jointly managed by President of the Branch WUA and
Assistant Engineer of Water Resources Department. The competent authority concerned
renders technical advice and ensure that the works are carried out as per technical
specifications. Encouraging group farming, bringing women to the mainstream of
irrigated agriculture, establishing relations with panchayats, creating opportunities for
coordination among the departments/agencies concerned, mobilizing tie-ups with
marketing establishments, etc. are other allied activities carried out under the project.
The programmes are carried out through five different phases – Preparation,
Organisation, Rehabilitation, Capacity Building and Turn-over. Projects at present are
in the turn-over phase, where the O&M responsibilities are being transferred to the
Branch WUAs.
The experiences of pilot projects so far are encouraging. Impact assessment of PIM
from farmers’ perspective was done initially using the trade-off model (Naik and Karlo,
2000) in the pilot project area. The results show that farmers have high preference for
WUA to manage water allocated to them under PIM. Location of WUA on canals,
which influences water availability, was found to be significantly associated with their
preferences for WUA. The relative importance assigned by farmers was found to be
more for adequate and timely water availability than the agency to manage water under
PIM, which indicated the need for adequate maintenance of canals to be handed over to
WUAs, and delivery of the required quantity of water at the appropriate time. The
farmers attach higher utility to WUA in all the reaches of both the irrigation projects. In
all the reaches in Malampuzha project farmers prefer WUA as the agency, even if water
supply becomes sometimes adequate and timely. However, in Neyyar project,
preference for WUA is seen only when water supply is always adequate and timely. In
Neyyar project, farmers in all the reaches have second preference for Panchayath (local
self government) as the agency, but only under always adequate and timely water
availability condition.
The sluice WUAs have taken over the management of control structures and field
channels in both the pilot project areas. The Branch WUAs are in the process of taking
over the branch canal systems. Interventions made through the pilot projects have
contributed to irrigate an additional area at the rate of 35% and 26% at Neyyar and
Malampuzha, respectively. Other positive responses are, better attendance in WUA
meetings, promptness in meetings, direct involvement of women in matters related to
irrigated agriculture, control over the misuse of canals, improvement in the farmer-
officer relations, etc. Another aspect worth mentioning is that the farmers agreed for
need based fund allocation for rehabilitation works, though they insisted for equal
allocation of the funds initially during prioritization workshops. The allocation ranged
from Rs. 0.3 lakh to Rs. 3.0 lakh. The feeling of sense of belonging created through
community organisation motivated the WUA leaders to circulate leaflets and pamphlets
on the hazards due to the misuse of the canals, and the legal measures taken against that.
At Neyyar, where the misuse of the canals is more, the WUA leaders conduct
inspections and report to the authorities concerned. In some cases they directly give
warning to the violators.
Based on the experiences of the pilot projects on PIM and other studies carried out in
Kerala, the contributing and hindering factors specific to Kerala for the implementation
of PIM are identified and are discussed below:
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
BETTER EDUCATION STATUS OF FARMERS
As mentioned earlier, Kerala is the highest in literacy rate than all the states of the
country (91%). The State was declared as 100% literate in 1991. In the pilot project
areas it was found that less than 2% of the farmers are only illiterates; more than 60% of
the farmers have Secondary School Leaving Certificate and above. This capacitates easy
communication and understanding, which is one of the major contributing factors for
the introduction of PIM.
EXPERIENCE GAINED FROM DECENTRALISATION
Decentralised planning and implementation of development activities is a landmark in

the history of Kerala State. The State has established precedence in institutionalising
decentralisation and democratisation in development programmes. The experiment on
the participatory decentralised planning and implementation started in Kerala during
1997 has obtained tremendous achievement so far. At present, more than 40% of the
State Government funds are made available to the local self governments, where the
development programmes are planned at the grassroots level. Since PIM enunciates user
management at the local level, the existing climate of democratic decentralization could
also stimulate PIM.
EXPERIENCES OF CAD AND IMT IN MINOR IRRIGATION
Though the State does not have a long tradition of farmer management, command area
development programmes started during 1980s, and community irrigation projects
implemented during 1990s, mainly through international funding, have their own
contribution in the history of PIM in Kerala. Though CADA could not yield the
expected outcome, it provided a platform for change in the outlook of farmers and
officials towards a decentralized and democratic system of irrigation management
(Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). Efforts to catalyze farmers will definitely
stimulate their initiatives further.
SCOPE FOR WOMEN INVOLVEMENT
Since majority of the men farmers in the command areas of the irrigation projects in
Kerala are part-time in agriculture, they have limited interest in irrigated agriculture.
Customary gender roles still usually conceive of irrigation management as work for
men. But women have great interest in agriculture. Gender Assessment Study conducted
earlier by the first author in Kerala has pointed out that when only 25% of men are
directly depended on agriculture, as much as 46% of women are involved in it in one
way or other (Chackacherry, 1995). In the PIM model tried in the pilot projects, women
are members of sluice WUAs as land holders and their spouses are members in them.
40 – 45% of the office bearers of sluice WUAs are women. 1/3rd of the positions in the
branch WUAs are women. In most of the training programmes, main participants are
women. They show great interest to know about agronomic practices, fertiliser
application, water management, etc. In the pilot projects, It has been observed that the
men did not have any problem in bringing women to the irrigated agricultural activities.
In fact, Kerala women have more influence over their own lives and those of their
families than many women elsewhere in the Country. Maybe this is because of better
education level of both men and women (Chackacherry & Sudhamony, 1995). All these
have great significance, especially when men tend to neglect farming in their small
pieces of land.
REPLENISHMENT OF OPEN WELLS BY CANALS
About 79% of the households of Kerala depend on open dug wells (average density of
wells is 220 per km2) for their drinking and domestic water demands, though public
piped water supply is there to about 67% of the households (SPB, 2006). Though the
State gets high rainfall, as it is spatially and temporally uneven, many of the dug wells
dries during summer season (February – May). Discharge through the canals during
water distribution often helps to recharge these open wells. Therefore, the people need
the canal system, at least for recharging the groundwater source.
HINDERING FACTORS
PART-TIME FARMING
The problem of fragmentation and subdivision of land, contributed by the high
population pressures combined with the State Land Reforms Act, is a very serious
problem in Kerala (ETS, 1996). As mentioned, the average land holding size is only
0.33 ha, and therefore farming may not be the major income source for many farmers.
Majority of the farmers are part-time in cultivation, and therefore, they have to engage
in some other vocation for their livelihood. Study conducted among the farmers of an
irrigation command in Kerala has found that almost 74 % of farmers in the area are part-
time in cultivation (Chackacherry, et al., 1994). Severe decline is observed in the area of
rice cultivation. It declined from 7.42 lakh ha in 1952-53 to 6.04 lakh ha in 1987-88.
Conversion of rice land (wetland) is occurring in Kerala at an alarming rate (Prakash,
1999). Shortage of labour, and the resulting high labour cost, is another major problem
faced by irrigated agriculture in Kerala. More than 55% of the total investment in
farming is for labour charge alone (CWRDM & CADA, 2001). All these aspects have
led irrigated agriculture to a secondary activity in the State.
LACK OF POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ORIENTATION

It is necessary for the political, administrative and irrigation agency leadership to take
interest in adopting PIM. It has been reported that though the administrative and
technical personnel had satisfactory level of perception regarding participation, attitude
towards the same was below the minimal desirable level. Government staff working
with command area development programmes, community irrigation projects, and even
with the pilot projects on PIM found problems in adapting to the concepts and
requirements of the programmes with a clear social dimension. This difficulty to accept
social dimensions precludes effective coordination among the staff drawn from different
disciplines. There is also considerable reluctance, if not opposition, from the operational
staff of irrigation agencies to involving users in management. Reluctance of irrigation
officials to organize farmers is yet another concern. In general, Non Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) are not accepted either by farmers or officials, mainly because
NGOs are not much appreciated in Kerala, and there are very limited successful NGOs
in the State. With all their shortcomings, farmers prefer government officials to NGO
personnel as ‘Catalysts’ and ‘Facilitators’ (CWRDM & CADA, 2001). That is one of
the reasons why the Competent Authorities of WUAs have been given a key role in the
PIM model evolved for Kerala. Since the local self governments (panchayats) have a
strong hold in the local level water resources development, their involvement also is
expected to fill the gaps.
MOTIVATIONAL GAPS
There is no incentive structure for the officials to go for PIM. Officials in the pilot
project areas tried to ignore the projects and even to delay their implementation. Many
officials felt that if the pilot projects are successful, it might lead to retrenchment of
positions. Another concern is about funds for rehabilitation works before the systems
are handed over to farmers. The impact on agencies depends on whether within their
bureaucratic structure they have incentives for solving problems and improving
performance, or whether revealing the extent of previous problems only creates
difficulties. If agriculture is more profitable, then the farmers will be more interested in
irrigation management and scientific agriculture. Increasing incentives and better
aligning of PIM with farmers’ incentives is essential if participation is to have any hope
of being sustained. Without post-turn over support, the goals of turnover will not be
achieved and the project effort would largely be wasted. Adequate guidelines, resources
and incentives are needed, if guidance and support are to be provided after turnover and
the performance of turnover systems sustained.
PAUCITY OF FUNDS FOR SYSTEM REHABILITATION

The paucity of funds and resultant deferred maintenance has caused serious defects in
the canal system. The financial outlay for irrigation sector has shown severe decline
during the years. When the IXth Five Year Plan (ended during March 2002) outlay for
irrigation sector was 6.8% of the total budget of the State, it is only 3.88% during Xth
Five Year Plan (ending in March 2007). In Kerala, the water rates are very low
compared to the costs of maintenance of major irrigation projects. Though the returns
from the irrigation supply have improved over the years, even then it is only about
1/10th of the maintenance expenses. During 1999 – 2000 the maintenance cost was Rs.
2177 lakh, where as the receipt was Rs. 70 lakh (3.4%). During 2002 – 2003 the cost
was Rs. 1614 lakh and receipt Rs. 102 lakh (6.3%) and during 2003 – 2004, the cost
was Rs. 1401 lakh and receipt was Rs. 157 lakh (11.2%). In fact the water rates
collected are based on the estimates of 1974. There is no Irrigation service fees concept
formulated in Kerala to support O&M. WUAs are not involved in the collection of fees.
In the pilot projects also effort was not taken for it as it may create protests and hinder
the implementation of the projects. The Revenue Department is expected to collect the
water cess, which most of the time is not done systematically. Rehabilitation of the
irrigation systems are important because the average rehabilitation cost of existing
canals is worked out as Rs.0.1 lakh per ha, whereas the investment required for creating
new capacity of irrigation potential is Rs. 1.2 lakh per ha (Anonymous, 2006). For
rehabilitation of canals in the pilot projects the amount spent is only Rs. 3040 per ha.
INSUFFICIENT LEGISLATIVE BACKING

While other states have enacted exclusive PIM Acts with all necessary details for the
implementation of PIM, Kerala has only a chapter on PIM included in the Kerala
Irrigation and Water Conservation Act 2003. Many of the provisions required for the
implementation of PIM are yet to be included in the Act. It appears that the PIM Acts of
other states, guidelines issued by the National Government on PIM, CAD Act of the
State, etc. were not referred when the Act is prepared. The model evolved by CWRDM
and CADA for the implementation of PIM in the State, after a one-year long study, was
also ignored. This, in effect, reflects the lack of interest and/or reluctance of some
corners to accept the concepts of empowerment of farmers and PIM. There is only one
tier organization mentioned in the Act, namely, WUAs at the sluice level. Transfer of
the irrigation system, agreement between Government and WUAs, etc. are not
mentioned. The Act 2003 does not speak about the involvement of women, handing
over of O&M, etc (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). Therefore, PIM can not
be implemented in the State effectively without improvements/changes in the Act, or

bringing out a separate Act for PIM.
CONCLUSION
There are several problems that may hinder the implementation of PIM in Kerala, as
mentioned above. But prospects are not too bad, as there are several contributing
factors. If the irrigation agency supports and nourishes, PIM will nourish in Kerala also.
Almost at all levels, it is accepted that there needs a change. But their apprehensions
regarding job security and loss of mandate compel them to opt for maintaining the status
quo or keep away from the efforts to initiate change. It is expected that the lessons
learnt from the pilot projects on PIM may help to gear up the political and
administrative will to counter this.
ACKNOWLDEGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the encouragement given to by Dr E J James,
Executive Director and Ms V Padmini, Scientist, CWRDM, Kerala, India in conducting
the studies and preparing this paper.
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Production and Productivity of Important Crops in the Commands of the Ten
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Authority, Kerala, India.
3. CADA. 2006. Annual Report 2005 – 2006, Command Area Development
Authority, Thrissur, Kerala, India.
4. Census Report, 2001. Government of India.
5. Chackacherry, George. 1993. Farmer Participation in Irrigation Management, PhD
Thesis, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India.
6. Chackacherry, George. 1995. Trends in Decentralisation in Water Management in
Kerala, Proceedings of the International Conference on Water Management, Tamil
Nadu, India, Confederation of Indian Industry.
7. Chackacherry, George; M Nazimuddin; K M Varadan. 1994. Impact of Command
Area Development Authority: A Case Study from Kerala, Proceedings of the
Southern Regional Workshop on Integrated Development of Irrigated Agriculture,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, India.
8. Chackacherry, George; and K L Sudhamony. 1995. Involvement of Women in
Agriculture: Experiences from Kerala State, India, International Conference on
Agrarian Questions, The Netherlands.
9. Chackacherry, George; and K Madhavachandran. 2006. Improving Irrigation

Efficiency in Kerala through Participatory Irrigation Management: An Analysis,
International Journal of Environment and Development, Vol.3, No.1, p55-63.
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Command Area Development Programmes in Kerala, Final Report submitted to
Indian National Council for Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, India.
11. CWRDM and CADA. 2001. Implementation of Participatory Irrigation
Management in Kerala, Centre for Water Resources Development and
Management, Kerala, India.
12. ETS. 1996. The Policy Review of the Land and Water Sector in Kerala, Report,
Ecotech Services, New Delhi, India.
13. GoK. 1986. The Kerala Command Area Development Act, Government of Kerala,
India.
14. GoK. 1990. National Water Management: Detailed Project Report on Neyyar
Scheme, Department of Irrigation, Government of Kerala, India.
15. GoK, 2004. Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act, 2003, Government of
Kerala, India.
16. Gopal, Naik; and Kalro, A H. 2000. A Methodology for Assessing Impact of
Irrigation Management from Farmers’ Perspective. Water Policy 2, 445-460
17. Madhavachandran, K; and George Chackacherry. 2004. Factors influencing farmer
participation in irrigation management. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 42 (1-2),
77-79.
18. Prakash, B A (ed.). 1999. Kerala’s Economic Development: Issues and Problems,
Sage Publications, New Delhi, India.
19. SPB, 2006. Economic Review 2005, State Planning Board, Kerala, India.
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Delhi, India.
EVALUATION OF PERFORMED NEW IRRIGATION PROJECTS

IN THIRD DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN ZANJAN PROVINCE
AND INTRODUCING THREE SUCCESSFUL SAMPLES
Gholamreza Dawarpanah1
ABSTRACT
Increasing water efficiency in agriculture part is the most important solution to reduce
law water bad effects and it is crises and will be in future too, because by improving
new water sources in all success degrees, wouldn’t meet that part’s different needs
because of wasting 70 percent of using water in agriculture.
So firstly it’s necessary to focus our best tries on programming and performing
irrigation designs and projects. Regarding to the obtained information from evaluation
in irrigation new projects in five years third program in zanjan province performed by
organization in contribution with investors, the results of effect amount have been
ranked in four levels including excellent, good, moderate and weak, that the projects in
zanjan have been evaluated in quantity weak, in quality good, and from these projects, three
successful contribution projects have been elected and we introduce them in this article.
INTRODUCTION
Today’s, evaluation debate is one of basis in designs and projects which seems that they
are measurement and efficiency tools in designs and programs, regarding to aims noted
in that design performed and the degree of projects conformity with aims has been
shown by observation in performing place and the way of doing and we can obtain
result for providing amending acts by strength and weakness points for changing
weakness to strength point in points for changing weakness to strength point in future
projects, and will be performed as pattern for other designs in future. (1,6) since about
93 percent water from provided water is used in agriculture part and in this part we use
only 30 to 35 percent of water efficiency and about 65 to 70 percent water has been
wasted (global output in using water is 40 percent), so using new irrigation approaches
or improving traditional ways, wasting is reduced and its additional water is used in
another parts so that if our country’s mean efficiency will be increased about 1 percent,
about 0.9 milliard mm3 is saved. So any little change in irrigation efficiency increasing
1- Scientific member of Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center of Zanjan Province. Zanjan
km. 28 Transit Road, P.O.45195/474,
Tel: 0098-242585-3361 Fax: 0098-242585-3351
effect very deep on reducing water crises. Any way, evaluation topic and following it in
new irrigation designs is very important.(5, 3)
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Used materials and methods in this evaluation include; using exsiting sources in library
archives and studying reports and experiences in quantity and quality evaluation from
performed new irrigation projects during third deve lopment program in zanjan
province, by con for mity in projects with defined aims, visiting and using expert
experiences, interview with experts and investors, finally it was gathering data and
obtain the result and offer the suggestions.
STUDY AREA
Zanjan province with area about 22164 km3 in north west of Iran plateau is placed on
geographical coordinates between 8, 47 to 35 and 48 east length and 37 and 35 to7 and
36 north width, and in north is restricted to Ardebil east Azarbaijan and in south with
Hamedan and Kordestan is confined.
COLLECTING INFORMATION
For evaluating new irrigation project, first in collecting information by referring
organizations such as region water organization and water and soil management in
agriculture and program, all of activities have been recognized by these institutions and
it was defined that in spite of this fact that many innovational projects in order to
increase irrigation efficiency such as making irrigation canals and drainage and
irrigation net in Mazid Abad and Nor Abad, underground wall projects (cut off-wall) in
Kahrizbeik, transfer project of Kazabar water, Mahneshan pumping, water canals in
Dehbahar village, soil dam in Yengije, Vanisar pumping Chavarzagh pumping by water
organization, but because the aim of evaluation projects in pressured irrigation during
third program in zanjan and these projects have been done only by water and soil
management in agriculture organization, so in two next steps, defining valuation
standards will be noted.
DEFINE INDICATORS AND EVALUATION

In evaluation step, three basic topics were noted:
1- Quantity evaluation; In this evaluation, The province share amount defined for
third years program with performed amount has been compared in this province.
2- 2.Quality evaluation; In this evaluation, comparing static safe projects using
unstable destructive or repair projects and feature were noted which include
technical features, innovations and results design compared with designed basic
aim and little or basic technical deficiencies.
3- Contribution evaluation;
In this evaluation, the degree of exploiters contribution in design, contribution in
performance, financial contribution and exploit contribution have been noted.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Regarding to evaluation approach, the results obtained have been offered as this table.
Table of quantity evaluation in new pressured irrigation projects during third program
in zanjan province
design defined performed success deduction Result Respected Deduct Result
kind share in level relative to from of degree From Of
Number
organization degree organization organization evaluation according Respected Province

during developed develop to the indicator Indicator
third ( percent ) indicator develop
program (ha) ( percent ) indicator
1 study 12500 ha 7750 ha % 62 % -38 good - - -
2 perform 7500 ha 2573 % 34.3 % -65.7 weak 10624 76 weak
sum - 20000 ha 10323 % 51.6 % -48.4 moderate - - -
Based on third development program in agriculture part, it was seemed that water
products under culture land totally 28600 would increase that it needed 307 million
mm3, which in 192.8 mm3 from ground water and 114.9 mm3 from underground water
will be provided.
If only 2 percent of this number and 10 percent of the under culture lands are irrigated
through new irrigated (pressured), expected lands to pressured irrigation would be
10624 that regarding to performed lands amounts 2573 that it’s 24 percent of expected
lands, so effect of irrigation in saving water usage and increasing performance from
quantity point is weak and contribution and evaluation of quality has been good. As a
general suggestion, we can note that in order to motivate in investors, it’s necessary to
use encourage policies for using new irrigation approaches comparing to those who
don’t use them. For example we calculate water and power costs in different ways for
two parts.
It must be noted that agriculture share from the underground water sources (by deep and
semi deep wells) that is 324 million mm3 (85 percent of all wells), is from nation mean
for retardation compensation.
Table of perfumed new irrigation (pressure) project’s quality evaluation during third
program in zanjan province.
evaluation evaluation result

number description
positive negative excellent good moderate weak
1 defined aim in performed project * *
2 useful life in performed project * *
3 defined function in project * *
perforce of technical and engineering
4 * *
parameters
Table of contribution degree of exploiters in performed new irrigation (pressured)

project during third program in zanjan province.
Evaluation Evaluation result

number description
positive negative excellent good moderate weak
1 contribution in design * *
2 contribution in execution * *
3 financial Contribution * *
4 Contribution in exploiting * *
GENERAL CONCLUSION
Since the aim of reconstruction project execution in time section aims in development
program and effect degree for exploiters, so when these project can be base of a region
development that in addition to meeting quantity and quality for people acceptance,
contribution will result in better keeping and stable, would be made.
Regarding to performed evaluations from pressured irrigation in third program in
zanjan, it was realized that these projects aren’t conformities in contribution degree
from quality point.
SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICES

1- Improve and equip statistic networks from nation water sources must be provided
accurately from quantity and quality point to continuous evaluation in times.
2- Measurement networks install and improve of water usage in agriculture part.
3- Increasing irrigation efficiency and exploiting water and increasing under culture
lands as successful level in efficiency.
4- Performing the artificial feeding projects in province lands by ground water’s
specially in non culture seasons.
5- Help to farmers unities for correct exploitation from water sources and increasing
irrigation efficiency and attract investors contributions in water designs
investments.
6- 6.Regarding to obtained result from studies about comparing evaluation of
pressured irrigation ways and groove way and difference in irrigation efficiency
(at least 20 percent) it’s necessary in pressure way to use more lands from
irrigated farms.
REFERENCES
1. Evaluation of water projects in sirjan area, Ghaem Maghamian, Shahram

shahvavi, mehdi, first global water conference, water and soil management
ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar university of Kerman, P. 14.
2. Evaluation soil dams in Golestan, Saneii, Mojtaba Ghoraishi zade, Seid Hamid
Reza, science journal in soil and water management, first year, no.1 spring1384,
p21.
3. Technical comparing the rain and groove irrigation. Sohrabi, teimor, Asli manesh,
reza, second nation conference articles, water and soil, Tehran, bahman 1375,
p. 131.
4. 4.water food safety source, Asadi, Mohamad Esmail, global conference and soil
and water management, ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar University, p.73.
5. Water use function and beet root crop performance in two leakage and tip
irrigation system, Ghasemi firoazabadi, Mirzaii Ali, Mohammad Reza, national
water conference and soil and water management, ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar
university, p.77.
6. Using rain irrigation in sand soils, Riahi, Hamid, national water conference and
soil and water management, ordibehesht 1383, Bahonar University, p.83.
MEASURING SUSTAINABILITY: MONITORING & EVALUATION

OF THE PERFORMANCE OF WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS
Ele Jan Saaf1
ABSTRACT
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has been introduced in a large number of

countries worldwide. In many cases much attention was given to establishing or
developing water user associations (WUAs). Many resources have been spent on
analyzing and standardizing an approach to introducing PIM. However few resources
have been allocated to developing indicators for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of
the performance of WUAs. The sustainability of WUAs within the specific socio-
cultural context of the countries in which they have been introduced/developed requires
more consideration.
This paper consists of three consecutive themes. These themes are, (i) international
experience with measuring performance of WUAs, based upon the experience of the
author and other relevant case studies, (ii) common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs,
and (iii) main technical and institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance.
The paper presents concrete and practical indicators for measuring WUA performance,
and links these to the sustainability of WUAs and PIM. The objective of the paper and
the presentation is to share these indicators and to generate discussion on the feasibility
of the indicators in light of the specific socio-cultural circumstances in different
countries.
The paper finally presents institutional arrangements for M&E of WUA performance,
such as Federations of WUAs, the role of national, regional and local authorities in
measuring WUA performance and the maturing of PIM as a process of development.
This paper puts forward a hands-on approach for policy makers, implementation
experts, academics and consultants for ensuring and improving the sustainability of
PIM.
1- Mr. Saaf is General Director of Saafconsult B.V. (Dillenburgerstraat 9a, 5652 AM Eindhoven,
The Netherlands, fax: +92 51 2101167, @: info@saafconsult.com, tel: +92 51 2101151,
url:www.saafconsult.com), senior consultant for water management and a member of the Commission for
Ecosystem Management of the World Conservation Union (IUCN).
INTRODUCTION
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has been introduced in a large number of
countries worldwide, with mixed success. PIM was developed by the World Bank as a
workable concept to introduce community based participatory management of irrigation
infrastructure. However, community based development and management of irrigation
infrastructure has been practiced in many countries of the Middle East and South Asia
region for centuries. One beautiful example is the construction of Khettara’s1 in
Morocco, Syria & Pakistan (Balochistan), which were built and maintained by
communities centuries ago. Families actually attained water rights on the basis of the
comparative effort or resources they invested in the construction and maintenance.
Whereas much time and effort has been invested by a large number of donors and
development organizations in the establishment of Water User Associations (WUAs) as
a manifestation of PIM, less time and effort was attributed to the post-intervention
period, during which continued institutional and technical assistance to WUAs is
required. Furthermore, WUAs are placed within an institutional framework that is
usually dominated by the public sector. Whereas WUAs are non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) they are given an important chunk of tasks and responsibilities
that were initially owned by the public sector. It is therefore important that the
performance of WUAs is monitored periodically. However, monitoring of performance
of NGOs by the public sector can lead to serious complications due to different frames
of reference and modes of operation.
This paper presents three themes: (i) international experience with measuring
performance of WUAs, based upon the experience of the author and other relevant case
studies, (ii) common pitfalls for sustainability of WUAs, and (iii) main technical and
institutional indicators for measuring WUA performance. The paper attempts to make a
case for increased attention to the post-intervention phase of introductory processes of
PIM and for fair and effective monitoring and evaluation of the performance of WUAs.
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE WITH M&E OF WUAs

Performance and sustainability of WUAs can be measured on the basis of two key
determinants; (i) legitimacy, and (ii) relevance. Legitimacy is defined as, “organisations
that are recognised by all third parties with which they interact and are considered the
legitimate organisation for its’ defined purpose.”i Relevance is defined as,
“organisations are accepted by their beneficiaries as the organisations representing their
interests and address issues that are recognised and considered relevant for and by the
beneficiaries (are addressing “actually felt needs”)”ii. Through monitoring of these two
key determinants, many other determinants and parameters can be extrapolated. Some
of these are autonomy, legality and accountability.
In Egypt, the Netherlands Development Cooperation has been funding a series of
projects aimed at developing and institutionalizing concepts of PIM. The Waterboards
Project has developed a complex system of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of
1- A system of vertical wells in the alluvial fans at the foot of the mountains interconnected by a
horizontal underground tunnel that intercepts the water table near the head of the alluvium, and provides a
dependable source of water flowing under gravity to valley alluviums where agriculture is mostly
practiced. They are also known as Karez or Qana’at in Balochistan and the Middle East.
Waterboards on the basis of the two key determinants described above. They are
currently in the process of field-testing the M&E system. Problems have arisen
regarding calibration, as those WUAs established by the project score better than those
established by government or other projects.
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) has financed a four year
programme called, “Action Research Programme on the Identification and Testing of
Methodologies and Approaches for Effective Introduction of Participatory Irrigation
Management”. This programme was implemented by the International Centre for
Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM) in Bari, Italy. The main
objective of the programme was to help member countries (of IFAD) to take advantage
of proven lessons emanating from international experience with PIM to contribute to
sustainable rural development. The four countries in which the programme was
implemented were Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Armenia. In Armenia, special attention
was given to the development of indicators for monitoring of performance of WUAs.
The main constraint identified when measuring the performance of WUAs in Armenia
was that there was a gap in terms of understanding, expectations and feasibility of the
tasks and responsibilities. This gap existed between the monitoring party, i.e.
government, and the object of monitoring, the WUAs. Whereas the WUAs were
established by law within a very short period of time, government divested itself of its
tasks to maintain irrigation infrastructure and simultaneously imposed Value Added tax
on water sales. The WUAs did not have the experience and capacity to generate
sufficient revenue to initiate the necessary O&M, as a result of which the whole process
came to a standstill, especially in the poorer upland regions of the country. Performance
indicators measured unacceptably dismal performances, as a result of which the process
of introducing PIM was questioned. This example illustrates quite nicely how a
government apparatus can be convinced by external donors and consultants to expect
unrealistic benefits of introducing PIM, as a result thereof develops ambitious plans and
finds that after the projects introducing PIM are finished that things are not as expected.
Often the result is that governments subvert WUAs by minimising their legal status and
their options for revenue generation. As a result these WUAs lose their legitimacy and
relevance and become unsustainable.
M&E of WUAs has to take place within a context of mutual understanding and
cooperation between the monitor and the object of monitoring. This in turn pleads the
case for continued institutional support for WUAs after establishment. This institutional
support has to be embedded within the national structures to ensure that the support
provider grows along with the WUAs. This will ensure that support will always be
geared to the needs of the WUAs.
COMMON PITFALLS FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF WUAs

To enable WUAs to be and remain sustainable, legitimacy and relevance are crucial.
Since WUAs are usually membership organisations, their interventions must be credible
and seen to provide a beneficial service to (a large number of) members. Government
policies for maintenance of irrigation infrastructure are often of the “Build – Neglect –
Rebuild” kind. This has caused most users of the irrigation infrastructure to lose faith in
government policies and interventions.
For WUAs to become accepted as the legitimate and relevant organisation within the
community to take charge of O&M of the irrigation infrastructure, which is so crucial to
their daily survival, they must be able to provide better and more timely services than
government did. This means that they must be able to generate sufficient revenue to
sustain these services. To generate this revenue they must be paid for the service that
they provide. Instilling a sense of payment for service in rural communities is often
difficult, as water is seen as a free commodity and often as a gift from God. A second
crucial element of sustainable WUAs to enable them to attain and maintain their
legitimacy and relevance is a conflict resolution mechanism. A common pitfall during
the establishment of WUAs is to limit their revenue generation capacity and their legal
status, whereby the attainment of legitimacy and relevance is much more difficult.
On the other hand, if during establishment of the WUAs the focus is too much on legal
and financial issues, other crucial elements of the functioning of WUAs can be
neglected, such as social mobilisation and conflict resolution.1
Another common pitfall for the introduction of PIM is the, “Rehabilitation –
Dependency – Deterioration Trap”.iii This trap is sprung when selected WUAs are given
financial support by external parties such as donors. Infrastructure is rehabilitated and
the operational basis the WUA is optimised. As a result water provision to beneficiaries
is improved and a process of payment for service is either initiated or re-instituted.
However, peripheral WUAs that were not selected for additional financing still have to
struggle along the traditional ways. As a result government often steps in to help them
solve their immediate problems and a dependency on government continues. Very often
beneficiaries of these systems are disgruntled and pay little or nothing to the WUA. A
situation of perceived inequity arises, whereby the beneficiaries of the operational
systems ask why they have to pay so much for a service that the government is
providing (more or less) free of charge for neighbouring WUAs. As a result they start
reducing payments and the rehabilitated infrastructure deteriorates and the situation is
back to square one after a few years. This trap again shows how important it is to
continue support to WUAs, including awareness and continued assistance.
MAIN TECHNICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL INDICATORS FOR MEASURING

WUA PERFORMANCE
The measuring of performance of WUAs can be sub-divided into three areas: (i)
efficiency of services, (ii) institutional and financial sustainability, and (iii) impact of
services. The first area measures whether the WUA is “doing things right”. The second
area measures whether the WUA is institutionally and financially sustainable. The third
set of indicators measures whether the WUA is “doing the rights things”.
For the development of indicators on efficiency of services a performance variable has
to be compared to the “cost” of the performance. For efficiency the question, “are we
doing things right” in terms of cost (financial, organisational, societal, etc.) is relevant.
The indicators are therefore by nature often compound indicators that associate a
1- A case in point is Egypt, where WUAs at present do not have a legal status that allows them to
generate revenues, but nonetheless they are active in conflict resolution and water use optimization
activities.
number of phenomena. Two of the most common indicators for efficiency of services
are:
1. The actual cost per m3 of irrigation water provided;
2. Labour costs of the WUA vs. irrigated area.
For indicators that measure institutional and financial sustainability, reference is made
to the two key determinants of legitimacy and relevance mentioned above. Two
indicators that can measure institutional and financial sustainability are:
1. An increase in farmers that refer to the WUAs as the relevant organisation for
water management in their area;
2. Increased cash flow (payments for water and/or membership fees) to the WUAs.
Finally, indicators that measure performance of WUAs in terms of impact of services
have to be compared to targets to analyse changes over time. Two indicators for impact
of services of WUAs are:
1. Changes in the ratio of irrigated vs. irrigable area;
2. Changes in water use (m3/crop/ha).
A final note on the validity and relevance of the indicators is essential. It must be kept in
mind that the performance of WUAs is affected by a large number of variables. More
indicators are needed as “checks and balances” and triangulation indicators to ensure
validity and relevance. Furthermore the performance of WUAs should always be seen in
the socio-economic context in which they operate.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR M&E OF WUA PERFORMANCE.

As already indicated in earlier sections, the post-intervention phase following the
introduction of PIM is crucial for sustainability of WUAs and PIM. Whereas PIM can
be a very effective tool for divestment of task and responsibilities, if not followed-up
properly it can fail dismally.
In many developing countries there is a general apprehension of privatization and
commoditization of natural resource management services. This is especially true for
water provision. Once the introductory process of PIM has overcome the initial hurdles
and apprehensions of civil society it has to prove its case. The risk is that if the
introduction fails, adversaries of PIM will be able to prove their case, as can be seen in
Pakistan, where initial introduction was difficult and both donors and the government
more or less abandoned WUAs and Farmer Organisations after the initial introduction.
At present it is likely that the complete process of Irrigation Management Transfer will
be abandoned as a failure and the management of irrigation will revert back to the
centralized provincial system.
To continue providing support to WUAs there are several options that can be followed:
1. Establishment of a “Federation of WUAs” that would pursue the interests of
WUAs and would be a direct “window” for government to address WUAs. Such a
Federation would also provide continued capacity building support and relevant
training.
2. A cell within the relevant regional or national governments that has as its main
task the support and capacity building of WUAs, without being a top-down
control mechanism;
3. Private sector M&E of WUA performance linked to a multi-stakeholder platform
consisting of civil society and government organizations that periodically review
WUA performance and advise the government on capacity building and support
activities for WUAs.
To conclude, M&E of WUAs is crucial for their legitimacy and to provide information
on performance. However, M&E has to take place within a context of joint efforts and
interests to improve irrigation and water management to alleviate poverty in rural areas,
and not as an objective as such.
i- Royal Haskoning, 2002, Waterboards Project.

ii- Royal Haskoning, 2002, Waterboards Project
iii- Vermillion & Sagardoy, 1999, Transfer of Irrigation Management Services, FAO, Irrigation and
Drainage Paper 58: 28.
TACTICS FOR CREATING PARTICIPATORY MANEGEMENT IN

IRRIGATION NETWORKS AND STUDING THE FACTORS
EFFECTIVE ON ITS STABILITY
Mohammad Ali Rahimi Jamnani1, Ehteram Ghelichzadeh2, Hossein Taghipour2,

Hossein Abouali3
ABSTRACT
Participatory management in irrigation is among the issues which were provoked for
discussion in recent decade for exploiting the irrigation and drainage networks of
different countries irrespective of their involving infrastructural facilities.
Considering the competition in consumption of agricultural water and optimum use of
accessible water resources, generally the governmental management faces serious
challenges in meeting the needs of users. On the other hand, the private sector looks at it
doubtfully because of high risk in investment on agricultural water.
In this study the manner of creating participative irrigation management in Foumanat
Irrigation Network (Gilan Province) and Soufichai Irrigation Network (East Azerbaijan
Province) has been studied and discussed.
Foumanat Irrigation Network is a network with an age of more than 30 years and covers
an area approximately 50,000 hectares. The main crop of the area is rice. Soufichai
Irrigation Network is about 8 years old and covers an area about 12,000 hectares. The
main crop of the area are cereals and fruits.
Key Words: Participatory Management, Agricultural Water, Risk Taking,
Governmental Management, Foumanat, Soufichai
1. INTRODUCTION
Participation is one very important issue in developing countries. Participation of the
people in administering the villages and their participation in decision making in macro
level especially in long-term policies, demand the achievement of the aims and stability
of the achievements. In our country, in past two decades participation in its general
1- Expert in Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company E-Mail: rahimi_mali@yahoo.com

Tel.: +98 261 2500208-11 Fax: +98 261 2505600
2- Expert in Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company
3- Expert in Regional Water Organization of East Azerbayejan Province
sense was somehow pale in all socio-economic fields. At post-war period when the
development projects started, the lack of participation culture in people was considered
a vacuum. Gradually the culture grew among the people to some degree. Perhaps the
expansion of apartment dwelling is one of the aspects of promulgation of participation
culture in urban communities. Of course, still the place of a cohesive organization for
promotion of participation level of people in urban problems is felt. Different ministries
and organizations call more participation of people in their projects and aims.
In rural areas, because of poverty and strong agricultural culture and other reasons,
participation culture has developed in lesser degree than urban areas. However, recent
years witness some common activities in villages. Election for Village Council
Members is an example.
Considering the above facts, if the administration manner of villages and its restrictions
be not deeply studied and reconstructed, participating in one constituent of rural life
such as irrigation actually faces problems. In a word, promotion of participation shall be
a process coming down from the top and without making the needed infrastructures it
will be fruitless and instable to expect participation. The relevant infrastructures, for
instance legal issues and necessary laws for respecting the participation council, shall be
institutionalized so strongly that all individuals and organizations have no choice but
comply with that culture and respect it.
This research has studied and appraised the participation in irrigational affairs of
Foumanat and Soufichai Irrigation Networks in a 10-12-year period and compared these
two with each other.
2. FOUMANAT IRRIGATION NETWORK

Foumanat Irrigation Network consists of irrigation networks of Soumesara, Fouman,
Shaft, and Toulam Shahr areas with surface area of about 50,000 hectares in north of the
Iran. The main crop is rice, that is, about 90% of the area is used for rice growing. In
primary plan, the needed water was estimated to be 32 m3/s and it was provided from
Tarik Dam at downstream of Sefidroud Dam through a water tunnel that is stretched to
Foumanat. Increased cultivated area in recent years was so high that produced
difficulties, the difficulties which will be explained later. Figure 1 shows the layout of
Foumanat Irrigation Network. In this network, water distribution is controlled and
regulated by six Irrigation Bureaus.
Figure 1. Layout of Foumanat Irrigation Network
2-1- PARTICIPATION IN FOUMANAT IRRIGATION NETWORK

Studying the participation process of the users of Foumanat Irrigation Network in
present situation and studying the manner of assigning water distribution management
of this network were among the aims of this research made in years 1994 to 1996.
The opinions of the users have been obtained by local interview and filling the
questionnaires. Photograph 1 is a scene of local interview in the area.
Photograph 1. A Scene of Local Interview in the Area Covered by the Research
2-2- PRESENT SITUATION OF PARTICIPATION
At present (at the time the studies were being made), water for agricultural purposes is
distributed by “water distributors” and “assistant water distributors” elected by the
farmers. However, there is no special organization for this election. A person who
intends to be “water distributor” or “assistant water distributor” collects the signatures
of the farmers and submits the signed nomination form to Irrigation Bureau and
Irrigation Bureau confirms his position. The remuneration of “assistant distributors” is

paid by the farmers in proportion to the water they receive and manner of water receipt.
This arrangement has been common since very old time and even it may go back to pre-
land reform era.
As seen above, the farmers are familiar with their role in irrigation participation but
there are some marginal problems related to the degree of participation which are
connected to physical system and management of Foumanat Irrigation Network.
2-3- STUDYING THE FUNCTION OF IRRIGATION NETWORK IN PARTICIPATION

PROCESS
Foumanat Irrigation Network is about 35 years old. During this period of exploitation,
some faults that have been observed by the users have been occurred. The most
important faults are as follows:
A). Non-completion of the irrigation and drainage network so that not all lands are
covered.
B). Increase in cultivated lands especially after Revolution because of dividing land of
the forest area and bodies water which were effective in misbalancing of water
consumption in irrigation network.
C). Cultivation on the limits of main and secondary canals whose solution is a real
problem. Providing water for these plots of land is among the problems facing the
network management. What is seen in Photograph 2 is an example of cultivation
on canal limits.
D). Non-sufficient maintenance of main and secondary canals of the network (The
main canals are concrete and subsidiary canals are semi oval and aerial type).
Obstruction in canals because of accumulated sediments and growing plants in the
canals have been showed in Photograph 3.
E). Increase in cultivated lands and non-provision of a modern irrigation network for
those lands and since supplying water in consumption peak of water is not certain,
the farmers have broken the canals and or have created blockages in sections of
canal entrance to get water for their lands sooner. Photograph 4 shows this reality.
F). One of the network problem is illegal off take that in present is as right for whom
used water in this method.
Photograph 2. Example of Cultivation Photograph 3. Obstruction Created by

on Canal Limits Accumulated Sediments and Growing
Plant in the Canals
Photograph 4. Creating Blockage in Canal Sections for Getting Needed Water
2-4- GETTING RESULTS FROM PARTICIPATION STUDIES IN FOUMANAT

IRRIGATION NETWORK
The main question was that how the management of second class canals and distribution
water up to the fields may be assigned to the farmers.
If the above mentioned points be considered, it is clear that the farmers by no means are
ready to accept participation in exploitation and maintenance of the network. Based on
the questionnaire filled by the farmers, they look at participation as an acceptable and
practicable thing but the situation of the network prevents them from daring to
participate. Also, there are some principal questions whose answers must be provided in
advance.
1. What is given to the farmers and what is expected from them against such grant.
2. Up to what level the management on second class and water distribution is
assigned to the farmers and there is not any legal vacuum for such powers.
3. How the farmers will become certain for solving the water shortage problem.
What is most disturbing for the farmers is that the network management shall not
be able to guarantee water supply for agriculture.
In years of this study none of above questions has been answered convincingly and it
was not clear that which tools should be introduced to the farmers to create the belief
that their needed water would be supplied and distributed by a reliable system. We have
to note that in years of study (1994-1996) none of participative institutions such as
elected city councils and village councils did not exist.
3. SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

The water of Soufichai Irrigation Network is supplied from Alavian Dam. This network
locates at extreme part of the southwest of East Azerbaijan Province and covers the
lands of Maragheh and Bonab areas. The dam and the network started to be used in
1996. The surface area of the project was estimated to be 12,500 hectares. The dominant
agricultural activity of the area is growing vines, fruit trees, and wheat. Figure 2 shows
the layout of Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network
Figure 2. shows the layout of Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network.
3-1- PARTICULARS OF SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

As it is seen in Figure 2, this network consists of four different districts. District I which
Covers a surface measuring 2500 hectares locates at downstream of the dam and at
present is irrigated by traditional irrigation streams. There is no underground water in
this district. In Districts II and III whose surface areas are 3,600 and 2,500 hectares,
respectively, modern irrigation network has been constructed and water in transferred to
the farms through concrete (job-mix concrete) canals. In these two districts underground
water is used extensively. Further, water in district III is supplemented by water of
Varjouchai River too. In district IV which locates at the end of the network area and
covers about 3,900 hectares, the traditional irrigation streams are used for distribution of
water. Among restrictions existing in this area, high level of underground water,
extreme use of underground water, and flow of salty water through Urmia Lake
(existing adjacent to the area), may be mentioned. Underground water provides about
40-50 percent of the needed water. Further, potable water of Maragheh City is supplied
from Alavian Dam.
As it is observed the irrigation particulars are different in four irrigation districts and
there are different interactions between the irrigation exploitation management and
farmers.
3-2- PARTICIPATION IN SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

When exploitation of the network started in 1996-97, participation was seriously
discussed in the country. Though the discussion was running in academic level but
gradually different strata of the population were involved and ordinary people were
getting familiar with concept of participation. Elections of city councils and village
councils and assigning the urban and rural activities to elected persons of same city or
village have arisen in all levels of the society the discussion on participation of people
in decision makings. In line with these developments, formation of Cooperative
Societies of Water Users have been designed by Regional Water Organization of East
Azerbaijan and Ardebil Provinces for Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage Network and its
implementation is followed up.
3-3- PRESENT SITUATION OF PARTICIPATION

At present some 21 cooperative societies of water users have been formed and are active
in the area covered by Soufichai Irrigation Network and 12 other societies are in process
of formation. The area covered by each society spans between 72 and 1,770 hectares.
The members of each society are 32 to 576 persons and each member has about 2.1-3.4
hectares of land. In irrigation districts II and III, are villages have cooperative society of
water users and in districts I and IV, the societies are being formed. Of course, in
district No.IV, four villages have already formed their cooperative societies. The
process of cooperative societies formation in Soufichai Network started in 1995-96 and
is continuing.
3-4- REQUIREMENTS OF PARTICIPATION IN SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK

As it was pointed out, in all areas the creation of participation depends on their
environment and social structures. Based on this approach, in respect of developing
participation in Soufichai Irrigation Network situation is as follows:
1. Being Newly-Founded Network: Since the network is newly-founded the farmers
are not mentally ready to assume responsibility of maintenance and exploitation of
new canals. The maintenance cost of the canals in beginning years is low and so
the farmers and newly-founded cooperative societies have lesser engagement with
each other and with mother exploiting on company.
2. In beginning years of exploitation of the network the social environment was
more suitable for accepting participation and creating capacities of participation
for involving the farmers in exploitation and maintenance of the irrigation
network. Therefore, the two poles of this participation, that is, the main exploiting
company (the mother company) was more ready to assign the responsibility and
the farmers were more willing to assume the responsibility.
3. Increased number of the degree-holders, especially those graduated in agricultural
engineering and irrigation fields, drove them to private sector and many of them
are working as managing director of the cooperative societies of water users.
Since they are familiar with the local situation of water and agricultural activities
they have been effective in enriching the insight of the farmers toward optimum
use of water in agricultural sector.
4. Existence of participation approach in Regional Water Organization of East
Azerbaijan Province and seeking the opinions and proposals of the water users in
implementation of irrigation projects too have played important role in formation
of the cooperative societies of water users.
3-5- STUDYING THE PROBLEMS OF FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN SOUFICHAI

IRRIGATION NETWORK
Participation of the users in exploitation and maintenance of irrigation networks is a
newly established institution and so naturally the problems and difficulties are less
likely to show themselves. The most important problems in continuation of the activities
of the cooperative societies of water users in Soufichai Irrigation Network are as
follows:
1. Lack of sufficient training and conception in the users about the place of these
societies in respect of interaction with mother exploiting company.
2. The fact that the users are not familiar with their roles in the cooperative societies
in respect of attending in general meetings, electing the managing director, and …
3. The members are not familiar with the legal role of these societies in civil
institutions.
4. The users are not familiar with the interactions between the water users
cooperative societies.
5. The users are not sufficiently trained and familiar with system for allocating and
distributing agricultural water.
6. The mother exploiting company has not fulfilled its obligations toward water
users cooperative societies in delivering the allocated water.
As it is evident in above sections, in Soufichai Irrigation Network the allocation and
distribution of agricultural water are among the instances which may originate a lot of
problems in the activities of water users cooperative societies. The issue has been under
discussion in Regional Water Organization of East Azerbaijan Province since 2-3 years
ago and it was tried to find a way for systematizing water allocation and distribution in
such a way that the obligations of mother exploiting company toward the water users
cooperative societies can be fulfilled with minor changes. The mother exploiting
company has also thinking about the possibility of designing a system which makes the
cooperative societies certain about their needed water. It is sure that such certainly will
facilitate the planning and will minimize the problems and disputes between farmers
who are member of water users cooperative societies and these societies.
As it was pointed out earlier same problem was stated by the farmers covered by
Foumanat Irrigation Network too. In other words, the necessity of a tool for estimating
the needed water and manner of distribution exists in both networks under study. For
meeting this necessity, a model has been developed for estimating the needed water and
manner of distribution in Soufichai Network. The model is recommended as a pattern
for other networks too.
4. MODEL FOR ALLOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN

SOUFICHAI IRRIGATION NETWORK
Based on above discussions and for strengthening the stability of water users
cooperative societies, a model has been developed as a tool for allocation and
distribution manner of water in Soufichai Irrigation Network. The model estimates the
flow of Soiufichai River into Alavian Dam and predicts the allocation and distribution
of water in each irrigation area of Soufichai Irrigation Network on monthly base. Figure
3 shows a scheme of the model. Further, Figure 4 shows outflow which is the water
allocated to each product at any time in each irrigation area. By applying this model, the
mother exploiting company will be able to predict the water needs of coming crop year
and determines for each area the maximum surface of land which match with that
amount of water. At present, this model has been used in Soufichai Irrigation Network
and as a primary appraisal aiming to improve the predictions of the model in estimating
the flow of Soufichai River, the results of the model are in process of calibration. The
model may not be operational unless with getting the directors of water users
cooperative societies familiar with the model and showing them the process of the
calculations related to water allocation and distribution.
Figure 3. Scheme of the Main Page of Figure 4. Scheme of the Output of

the Water Allocation Model of the Water Allocation & Distribution
Soufichai Irrigation Network Model of Soufichai Irrigation Network
4-1- ADVANTAGES OF EXPLOITATION MODEL:

1. Simplicity of the model for being applied.
2. Accessibility of the process of the calculations related to allocation and
distribution in the network through observing the outputs of the model in each
calculation step.
3. Creating common look in mother exploiting company and water users cooperative
societies as far as the prediction of water resources in coming water year is
concerned.
4. Becoming aware of the amount of surface and underground water sources
accessible in each irrigation area and thus, for each water users cooperative
society.
5. Preventing non-expert interventions of persons not being responsible in
distribution of network water.
6. Paving the way for participation of the water users cooperative societies for
overcoming the probable water crisis in coming crop year based on identification
of new water sources in the network.
7. Optimum use of agricultural water in the irrigation network
5. CONCLUSIONS
Participation in exploitation and maintenance of irrigation networks is not independent
from ways of participation in rural and urban societies. The ways and degree of
participation in irrigation networks depend on two poles or two arms. The first arm is
the degree of willingness of the mother exploiting company to assigning part of its
responsibilities and the second arm is the users who are going to accept the
responsibility. For explanation of common issues especially the ways of allocation and
distribution of water in irrigation networks, both these poles need a tool. In irrigation
networks, applying a model which is able to demonstrate water allocation to each
product at any time in each irrigation area is among the means that would calm the
tension between the users especially in low-water years and this, in turn would lead to
more activity and stability of water users cooperative societies.
6- SOURCES
1. Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company, 2005, Socio-Economic
Assessment of Water Allocation Policy in Soufichai Irrigation and Drainage
Network, Part 1, Basic Studies,.
2. Tehran Water-Soil Consultant Engineers Company, 2004, Developing the
Dynamic Model of Applied Exploitation of Alavian Dam and Optimum
Allocation of Water to Downstream Consumption.
FORMULATION PROCESS OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

PLAN IN SEMI-ARID AREA
Michimasa Menjo1, Tomoki Hotta2, Takahiro Kato3
ABSTRACT
This paper presents agricultural and rural development policy of the Government of
Morocco in the arid region located at the southeast of the Atlas Mountains. The Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has completed the Master plan study for
irrigation and community development plan in the Tafilalet region, and the author, study
team presents lessons of policy-makers how they have been coordinating rural
development schemes in the region.
The region severely lacks rainfall, with only 50 to 200 mm per annum and agricultural
activities are fully dependent on torrential water and groundwater through subsurface
tunnel structures, which are called "the khettara" in Morocco. A recent inventory study
indicates that the productive khettara has reduced to about 190 khettaras compared to
about 570 khettaras in 1970s because of decrease of water discharge due to consecutive
drought especially since 1997. Decrease of available water has accelerated
desertification and depopulation in the region. Since the region has left behind
development among several regions in Morocco, improvement of farm productivity is
essential to secure living conditions in the rural area, especially for the communities
scattered in the region.
In formulating regional development plan, the Government puts emphasis on
community development through "capacity building" of beneficiaries. Experience,
knowledge will be a strong base for future development. Interdependence system has
been established on the basis of mutual reliance between the Government and
communities. 1) Faithful response to beneficiaries' needs and 2) equal opportunity to
access to the governmental support program, these policy directs farmer's motivation to
self-reliance on irrigation management, consequently it mitigates devastation of social
system and harnesses the solidarity of rural communities.
This paper presents of the Government of Morocco agricultural and rural development
policy in the arid region located at the southeast of the Atlas Mountains. The Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has completed the Master plan study in the
Tafilalet region under the technical cooperation program, and the author, study team
presents lessons of policy-makers on how they have been coordinating rural
1, 2, 3: Nippon Giken Inc. (JICA Study Team) Kokuryu-Shibakoen Bldg., 2-6-15, Shibakoen, Minato-ku,
Tokyo, Japan, Tel. +81-3-3438-1333, Fax. +81-3-3438-1455, E-mail address ta-kato@npgk.co.jp
development schemes in arid region. On the regional level, there are 40 Provincial
Agricultural Directrates (DPAs) and 9 Regional authorities of agricultural development
(ORMVAs) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Sea Fisheries.
The ORMVAs are called upon to promote and implement development schemes for the
improvement of agricultural productivity, supporting service for farmers. The
ORMVA/TF (Tafilalet) has its service area located in the Tafilalet region. The study area
(Tafilalet region) is indicated in Figure 1.
1. INTRODUCTION
In arid regions, water is most essential factor influencing small-holder farming systems.
The study area, Tafilalet region is located southeast of Atlas Mountains and has annual
rainfall of 50 to 200 mm. Comparing to surface water use such as rainwater and
perennial river flow in the west regions of the Atlas Mountains, torrential flow and
subsurface water are solely available for irrigation and potable water use in the region.
Subsurface water is utilized by pumpage or subsurface tunnel structure, which is called
the "khettara", widely recognized as a qanat, karez and foggara in East Asia, Middle
East and North Africa. Typical section of the khettara system is illustrated in Figure 2
The farmers have been maintaining water right for several hundreds years and
established firm operation and maintenance system of the khettara, however it became
difficult to maintain the system as well as the rural community life as such due to water
shortage and depopulation in the region.
A khettara community has been established
based on individual water user group. Recent
inventory study by the JICA study team
indicates that there are about 410 khettaras MOROCCO
with total number of the 241 khettara villages,

17,100 households and 129,500 population in
the study area. The ORMVA/TF has been
implementing several support programs for the
community development considering great Atlas Mountains
account of giving an equal opportunity to
access to the development scheme by the
government, i.e., khettara rehabilitation, flood Study Area
irrigation and communal pump station ALGERIA
construction in the irrigation sector.

Figure 1. Location of the study area
2. HISTORY OF ACCESS TO WATER RESOURCES

There exist several water resources of surface and subsurface water origin. Surface
water is utilized through dams and diversion weirs, and groundwater is exploited by
pumps and gravity system of khettaras. More than 60 diversion weirs have been
constructed in major streams since 1960s to divert flood water into farmland for
irrigation, however its further development potential remains limited since few weir
sites were proposed considering the overall water resources amount in the basins. It is
often observed in surface water use, irrigation water is limitedly utilized in farmlands
located along the rivers (wadi), and other areas far from the rivers have been deprived of
the water resources development as well as social investment. In addition, continuous

drought resulted in decease of farm products for several years since 1970. To cope with
these situation, groundwater use through pumping was accelerated to secure water
supply for irrigation since 1980s, however rapid shifting to pump irrigation further
caused continuous decline of groundwater table due to excessively large extraction.
Drawdown of water table to more than 50 m deep from the ground surface caused high
fuel consumption, consequently many farmers discontinued farming within a few years
after pump irrigation was excessively developed in the beginning of 1990s.
Besides these problems, regional disparity of social investment left many khettara
communities behind the development and severe drought accelerated depopulation and
devastation of social system of the khettara communities. To preserve the social system
as well as the natural environment, such as groundwater, the ORMVA/TF has launched
the khettara rehabilitation program in region-wise. Table 1 shows water volume of
various water sources in the area. It is noticeable point that water through khettaras
provides about 38 percent of total water supply, and whole groundwater use including
pump-up water is beyond dam storage water in recent years. Since surface water
excessively depends on flood occurrence, unstable climate reduces farm production.
This fact advocates for re-appreciated of khettara water use because of its stable flow
condition through the year.
Table 1. Water volume in the study area

Dam1 Diversion weir2 Pumpage3 Khettara4 Total
Water volume (MCM) 80 28 11 73 192
Percentage (%) 42 15 6 38 100
Source: 1 Hassan Addakhil dam (2003/04) Study report, ORMVA/TF
2 3 major diversion weirs (2003/04) Study report, ORMVA/TF
3 Yield of 360 pump stations (2000) Ministry of Equipment and Transports
4 Yield of 191 khettaras (2005), JICA study report
3. PROCESS TO PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
3.1 IRRIGATION BY KHETTARA WATER

Inventory survey indicates that the productive khettaras have decreased to about 190
khettaras at present compared to about 570 khettaras in 1970s because of decrease of
discharge. The average discharge of 190 khettaras is only 5.9 lit/sec, and some
communities have already migrated to urban area because so little water could not
sustain their living.
In the meanwhile, farmers make efforts to effectively use water for irrigation, for
example, the rotation irrigation corresponding to the traditional water right is applied to
water distribution of khettara water for 24 hours. Although some farmers have water
right of only one hour or less in two weeks, they distribute water to their farmlands
under kerosene lamps even in cold midnight in winter. For maintenance works, farmers
periodically remove sediment and protect gallery and vertical shaft wall at their own
expenses. Farmers abide by the local rule agreed on with adjoining khettara groups to
equitably draw water. Local rule restricts extension of gallery, degradation of gallery
bed and pump installation upstream of mother well so as to secure water flow of each
khettara. A little financial support will increase irrigation water by reducing leakage loss,
and lighten financial and laborious task of maintenance works for khettaras and
irrigation canals.
Mother well
Vertical shafts
Ground water
recharge Outlet of gallery
Villages Farmland
Regulating basin
Gallery
Groundwater surface
Aquifer
Rock foundation (impermeable)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of khettara system
3.2 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

In general, Government adopts participatory irrigation management to 1) reduce the
dependence of farmers on government, 2) improve sustainability of irrigation systems,
3) improve efficiency and cost effectiveness of government expenditures, 4) improve
agricultural productivity and so on, and for these purposes, Government would give
higher priority to projects that are economically vital. On contrary to this, the
ORMVA/TF has selected khettara communities without a clear distinction, e.g., water
availability, number of beneficiaries and farm productivity during project
implementation. Budget has been equally allocated for whole communities even though
some khettaras have less water flow and locality have been severely depopulated.
For irrigation and community development, "mutual reliance" between the
Governments and beneficiaries is essential to realize participatory management. The
ORMVA/TF constructed diversion weirs and communal pump stations to equally
distribute water to all beneficiaries, but not to individual beneficiaries. In addition, the
ORMVA/TF has launched khettara rehabilitation works with close communication
between farmers groups. Upon the request of the community, the ORMVA/TF willingly
provides technical support including topographic survey, discharge measurement gratis.
Beneficiaries steadily continue maintenance works so as to provide maximum benefit
for their farmers groups. The emphasis must be on participation of government and
beneficiaries, and a bottom up approach that harnesses the solidarity of rural
communities. Rural development must be local and community- driven within a
coherent framework. Table 2 indicates typical approach by the ORMVA/TF observed
during the study:
Table 2. Activities of the ORMVA/TF and beneficiaries
by ORMVA/TF by Farmers
1) Instruction of irrigation method to the 1) Preparation of water right paper to show

farmers including water saving and present condition of water supply
rotation methods aiming at improving schedule to the engineers of the
water use efficiency ORMVA/TF
2) Consultation of rehabilitation method of 2) Periodical maintenance works such as

khettara and irrigation canal from dredging of sediment and gallery
technical and economical points of views protection by their own expenses
3) Rehabilitation works including material 3) Investigation of the facilities and

supply in emergency procurement of labor force for
maintenance
4) Capacity building of farmers' groups and 4) Actual activities of income generation

dissemination of farming skills and extension of farm skills to neighbors
through farmers' groups
5) Introduction of support programs by local 5) Establishment and strengthening of

and international donors farmers organizations (Associations)
3.3 FORMULATION PROCESS OF THE ORMVA/TF

The ORMVA/TF is composed of five (5) Departments and ten (10) Sub-Divisions, and
closer to beneficiaries, 22 Local development centers that provide extension and support
services to the farmers. In response to the information from Sub-Divisions and Local
development centers, the Departments allocate annual budget for 1) planning and
program service, 2) equipment procurement and management of irrigation and drainage
network, 3) agricultural production service, 4) extension of institutional service, etc.
The ORMVA/TF emphasizes importance of participation of farmers to realize
region-wise community development, thus irrigation and agro-industrial support
programs are extended to all communities. In the small- medium irrigation program for
surface irrigation canals, communal pump installation and khettara rehabilitation, capital
amounts of half to one million US dollar has been equally distributed to the
communities every year since 1990. As for khettara rehabilitation, the work has
extended to most of the khettara systems even though rehabilitation length was limited
to several hundreds meters against overall length of several thousand meters in each
khettara. Almost the same budget was input for agro-industrial schemes such as date
palm and vegetable cultivation, animal production, food processing, etc. Extension
service by mobile team was offered to beneficiary secluded population in remote
mountainous areas. Experience, knowledge of farmers' groups accumulated through
their activities will be a strong base for future community development. 1) Response
to beneficiaries' needs through dialogue between farmers and 2) distribution of benefit
to all communities, this policy enhances farmer's motivation to self-reliance on
irrigation management, consequently it mitigates devastation of social system and
generates a communal society in regional level. Figure 3 indicates flow of formulation
process for khettara rehabilitation scheme.
Annual budget for community development ORMVA/TF "Mutual Reliance"

Dialogue between
Communities
beneficiaries
ORMVA/TF makes effort to secure Departments
financial source:
• Local budget Sub-Divisions
• Budget from International donors
• Subsidy system Local development centers
1) Response to beneficiaries' needs through dialogue between farmers, and

2) Distribution of benefit to all communities
- Surface and subsurface irrigation
- Agricultural extension service
- Crop production
Discussion with farmer group to bring benefits to - Animal production
a large number of communities (Public interests) - Agricultural loans
Equity to access to government support Rehabilitation

records Inventory
Improvement of farm income, poverty reduction
Selection of khettara
Basic survey
ORMVA/TF is responsible for

design and construction planning
Implementation Offer of labor works

by farmers
Maintenance works
Figure 3. Formulation process of khettara rehabilitation scheme
4. ACTIVITIES OF JICA
In line with the development strategy of the ORMVA/TF, the Master plan on khettara
rehabilitation and rural community development was formulated by the technical
assistance program of the JICA. Following studies were conducted to verify relevance,
effectiveness of the proposed components in the Master plan:
1) Technology transfer on khettara and canal rehabilitation method
2) Water saving irrigation (furrow, drip irrigation) to maximize irrigation efficiency
3) Improvement of farming skill to boost agricultural productivity (cultivation of
cash crops, compost production, etc.)
4) Food processing and animal husbandry as income generation activities (date palm
and vegetable processing and rabbit, pigeon breeding)
5) Improvement of rural life (improvement of water quality of khettara, public health
and hygiene)
6) Capacity building of the ORMVA/TF and farmers' groups (Water Users
Associations, women groups, etc.)
Before the study, the farmers scarcely accepted new farming skill and also did not put
their income into irrigation and agricultural investment because benefit obtained from
investment was uncertain. In the course of study, the farmers could directly see visible
impacts, i.e., increase of khettara water, high crop production as well as market value,
then they recognized new farming skill and positively joined to workshops and seminars.
It is lesson learned that giving a trivial motive to farmers is most important to accelerate
their activities, and the Government should prepare certain program that decrease
financial risk on the farmer side, including subsidy scheme.
Through workshops and study tours held by the study team in the field level, farmers
not only learned farming skills but had an opportunity to participate several
governmental supporting programs, which had not been widely prevailed throughout the
region previously. Both Governments and farmers have begun to put in serious efforts to
cope with several constraints for development of oasis agriculture. With strong support
by the ORMVA/TF, the farmers can have many opportunities to receive governmental
assistance and their opinion shall be reflected to the Government's strategy.
Photo 1. Discussion with beneficiaries on Photo 2. Exchange of opinions with

khettara rehabilitation method beneficiaries on water distribution method
5. CONCLUSIONS
Khettara system resembles tertiary canal of a large irrigation system in end water
distribution system. Poor operation and maintenance of the tertiary canal causes lower
water use efficiency as commonly observed in a large irrigation system. Contrastively
khettara system has been well operated for several hundreds years because community
itself was established on the basis of khettara water. Khettara and irrigation canal are
maintained periodically according to the water right. The Government respects their
self-reliance and provides technical and financial support within the extent of his
autonomy. Since khettara flow is indispensable to maintain communities in arid region,
it is desirable to improve present situation through efforts of local people with assistance
of local governments considering the major significance of the khettara rehabilitation,
i.e., 1) less cost and safer water sources, 2) sole water source for stable agricultural
production, 3) source to preserve social system, and 4) heritage for the future.
Since each community is economically weak and vulnerable to climate change,
community is expected to expand his activities to other communities based on their
accumulated trust with local people and ability on managing and coordinating
development works in the community. In the light of these facts, it is expected that the
Government will continuously support communities and unify them into more large
organization such as "communal society" to stabilize and increase farm income of the
rural communities under their initiatives.
SUSTAINABLE PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
Mirshoja Mir Charkhchian1
ABSTRACT
To make proper decision on irrigation management transposition, "sustainability in

irrigation management" and specifically participatory irrigation management, which is
the result of transposition program should be taken into consideration.
In irrigation management transposition process, as the management transposition
mechanism and the assured responsibility delegation method are important, the
sustainability and persistence of activities are the main issue. Specially, since the
stakeholders as the future caretakers for operation and maintenance of irrigation
installations do not have enough experience for the acceptance and performance of the
given responsibilities. Therefore, the persistence of these activities in the form of new
operational system, which is the subject of sustainable management, is focal point of the
transposition program.
The main elements in the sustainable participatory irrigation management are:
1) Strategies;
2) Training and Extension;
3) Monitoring and valuation.
In all the three abovementioned main elements, it is recommended that the rational
- In policymaking, new guidelines with no consideration for administrative caution,
but correspond to requirements of local developing society to be submitted;
- In training and extension, in addition to formal education in agricultural and
irrigation activities, the issues relevant to reconciliation of technical specifications
of the network with social requirements of an operation unit to be clarified for the
stakeholders.
- By the assistance of a specialized support system (e.g. in form of a non-
governmental specialized/advisory organization) a diligent plan for monitoring
and valuation of the performance of modern management to be designed to
1 - Senior Expert in Social, Economical Department, Yekom Co., B.Sc. in Management

Email: shoja.charkhchian@yekom.com
overcome the conditions resulted from establishment of the participatory

operational policy instead of the past one.
In this article, each of the main effective elements of sustainable participatory
management have been analyzed, the limitations and strength points described along
with the required organizational relations
Key Word: Sustainable Participatory Irrigation Management
PREFACE
With implementing irrigation management transposition program from public sector to
private sector and forming participatory irrigation management which the stakeholders
(agriculture stakeholders) are involved in organizing the operational affairs and
maintenance of irrigation network, a significant stage in management is commenced.
Proper forming of participatory management and rational continuation under the
expected efficiency is the sustainable and continuation issue in participatory irrigation
management. Achievement of this issue is a test for the accuracy of decisions made for
the method of management transposition.
In transposition plan, not only the management transfer mechanism and the method for
granting responsibilities and planning for support from transfer process is very
important but also endurance of operation managing from the network in the frame
work of participatory irrigation management has a twofold importance.
The sustaining issue in management by stakeholders depends on 2 general factors and
includes" continuation of activities" and "activities efficiencies". Considering lack of
necessary experiences in the important issue of irrigation network managing by
stakeholders in the past, we must always be aware about unexpected issues or those
which are out of transfer program mechanism. Even, the system may face pause or
recession in its activities.
Every above general events in the process of participatory management is directly
related to "Sustainable Irrigation Management" and therefore to prevent the above
issues and assurance of "Sustainable Irrigation Management" some elements must be
considered to help to be far away from them and help to achieve the sustainability.
These elements which are the base for sustainable irrigation management in
transposition plan include: policymaking, training and extension, monitoring and
evaluation. It is necessary that in each of the above mentioned elements, advisory
intellectual models substitute the common public frameworks; therefore, public
organization should pave the way for the following fundamental steps in order to utilize
the above elements properly:
1- Adopting modern strategies with assurance of advisory method and accepting the
role of mere supervisory, away from administrative expediency
2- Providing a new educational plan (separated from the formal education related to
agricultural activities) in order to make required changes in arranging land
sections in an adoptable framework of network technical specification with social
necessities at irrigation unit.
3- Using specialized support system and assistance of non public specialized and
advisory organization, preparing and executing the required plan for continuous
monitoring from participatory management efficiency. In this way, the
deficiencies will be recognized and solved by the stakeholders. So, it is possible to
confront the probable impacts caused by substituting the participatory operation
policy instead of past traditional system
MODERN STRATEGIES IN POLICYMAKING

The existing experiences in transposition of irrigation management defines that in
making basic decisions related to policy making in design and establishing modern
irrigation network and assign the management to stakeholders, one aspect is just
considered. It means to explain the predestined objectives only one of the multiple
aspects in the complicated issue of making and managing network is considered. For
example, among the financial policies, only "providing share of financial cost for plan
stakeholders" is the focal point or it is possible to consider the fixed and inflexible rates
for water cost.
Regarding organizational policies, it also emphasizes merely the role of public
executors within the system which is apparently private while this role can be assigned
to a non governmental supporting and specialized company or expert consultants.
One-dimensional observation represents not only in financial and organizational
constraints but also in the shape of financial allocation on areas which does not have
efficient role but just supportive one in the system implementation
.The dominated view in providing financial resources in establishing operational
participatory management is out of integrity, but It doesn't mean that no organizational
decision is taken in this regard .It means that these decisions are entitled to change
during the design and implementation period.
In the financial participation of irrigation network for Aidoghmush dam downstream
lands (East Azerbaijan-Miyaneh city), the financial participation share of stakeholders
in ha. has been changed repeatedly to provide minor network costs. This issue left
unsuitable effect in social studies at second stage (design stage) and making ground for
mutual trust with stakeholders in order to specify later steps.
According to organizational view, policy makings depended on short time decisions and
no attention was paid to the suggestions of plan consultant in making future steps for
implementing "Action options" which clearly will cause to make a role "social
supervision" in shaping and making participatory management cores from the
consultant.
Another aspect of one-dimensional observation in policy making is the way to
determine plan regions and prioritizing the regions (agricultural plains). In
determination of irrigation regions, the downstream lands and water right holders are
generally considered. Of course, this measure is right based on agricultural and
technical aspect but, for policy making only one aspect of social issues is paid attention.
For prioritizing to plan regions, is there a need for social study of the neighborhood
plains? Are parameters like income sources, employment groups, population changes,
irrigation crisis and race and regional prejudices considered?
In this way, it is observed that in the policy for determining plan regions; Since it is
possible that priorities may be given to the neighborhood and downstream plains of the
selected plain through more exact studies; considering direct and water right holders'
plains which the studies are not merely focused on them; might not be enough.
Other aspects related to policy restriction and obtaining effective policies are the
policies on network execution (before management transfer). One of these policies'
strength points is to meet the time schedule for network establishment based on what
the project consultant has promised in the social studies with stakeholders.
Implementing networks which are taking a long time from their commencement cause
hopelessness and indifference in the stakeholders' society. Moreover, with social
changes (migrations, access to non agricultural income sources, and changes in the land
use) the required factors to take the network control and utilization by stakeholders will
be faded and it causes disorder in the network proper function by aware elements.
Considering the existing restrictions and weak points in policy of the plan and network
establishment and also preparing plan for irrigation management transposition, the
strong points which through these policies shall be obtained; are completely
distinguished
Table: Some of the main policy makings for plans making and transposition program
One-dimensional and restrictive Overall policies

Policies
policies with strong points
Accepting advisory role in
organization chart of plans and
Without interference of stakeholders organizing planning and
and non public experts in policy strategy committees with
Organization policies
making chart and making decisions participation of all the
by the expedient elements stakeholder agents, including
the pioneer elements in
stakeholders society
Establishing financial policies
Insist on the stakeholders financial based on stakeholders real
participation share based on the participation and considering
dictated rules without considering the regions conditions and
analyze the relationship between
the region condition and analyzing
Financial policies cost and income , also
the results caused from the cost and considering to the role of
income and analyze the subsides subsides especially during the
role in providing financial sources participatory management
for managing the installation period and it's impact on
maintenance cost reduction
Making decisions based on
Taking long time in executing observing the time in plan
Plan policies period and stakeholders no trust to execution and controlling the
(Executing) the plan results due to the changes social changes during the plan
caused from the long period of time making with the goal to attract
stakeholders trust
One-dimensional and restrictive Overall policies

Policies
policies with strong points
Priority to the real and
Lack of recognition the immediate
immediate needs of the regions
needs in the regions without
Regional priority and considering the multi
considering the neighborhood
policies dimension models in specifying
regions impacts and emphasis to the
the plan regions with the aim to
plan technical necessities
prevent social tensions
No fundamental and obligation
Making general policies based
making perception about the
on strong and fundamental
sustainable changes in irrigation
political preparations and
General policies in management and accepting the
attention to the role of pioneer
participatory irrigation management
transposition periods stakeholders to attract the
without attention to the pioneer
cooperation of general
elements and advisors and without
stakeholders during the
their interfere in the continuation of
transposition period and after it.
the management
DIFFERENT ROLE OF EDUCATION AND EXTENSION IN ESTABLISHING

In the area of related issues to education and extension of irrigation participatory plans,
we still involve in normal levels in irrigation and agriculture development which
include educations related to learning new pattern of agricultural products in
development plan with involvement of production modern technology. Also, trainings
about familiarity with equipments and repairs and maintenance of installations are the
other part of education and extension which is common in irrigation and agricultural
development plans.
The main point in this regard and related to development in modern irrigation network
is lack of necessary understanding from congruence of network technical specification
with existing social necessities in traditional irrigation which has been constructed on
the scattered, various and small farming lands. In fact, this case is regarded as one of the
signs of challenge between the modern operational policies and traditional operational
policy from agricultural farming lands. If this conflict will not be solved or be
considered very skin deep and with dominant of technical aspects in the network
construction, consequently the network operation will jeopardize especially in
conditions where the participatory management in the network operation is expected to
be applicable.
Nowadays, engineering design in constructing side canals at irrigation networks will be
paid more attention. Such a design doesn't pass the farming section borders and
inevitably, it separates parts from operation unit under different irrigations. Therefore,
parts movement and change in arrangements of users' farming parts based on
engineering design necessities; will be in the work order which can be referred to as
"Land Integration ".
Also, in any irrigation unit, the parts movement issue and integrating the consumer parts
of any irrigation unit; may be discussed due to in any of the above cases, the borders of
farming units might be ignored.
One of the other related issue for facilitating the operation of irrigation modern network
which is necessary to be trained to the consumer groups for, is "consolidated farming"
which recommends unit cultivation in selected regions. The use of this issue is the
irrigation way and providing required water for plants and also cultivation, husbandry,
harvest and other measures in producing agricultural crops.
It is observed that the educational and promoting methods are very wide scope and will
go beyond the classic trainings related to method of consumer's activity under the new
agricultural pattern and the way to use the irrigation equipments.
Acceptance of above terms from the users needs their familiarity with this issue in the
process of "participatory field operation" by consultants. It is necessary that the project
consultant precedes the work simultaneously with network design and even before that
using the device for field operation including cadastral map and irrigation unit's map
and having dialogue with stakeholders.
Familiarity and acceptance of this issue by stakeholders follows a difficult process.
Also, its practical implementation requires making a separate training and
disseminating process. Meanwhile, if there would be no attention in this regard, we will
face that the stakeholders refuse organizing the participator operation system and during
the existing operation stakeholders do not accept to cooperate for acceptance of the
necessities caused from adopting network technical circumstances and existing
problems to settle scattered lands in the traditional operational policy. In this way,
continuation and endurance of participatory management system will not happen and
network operation deficiencies will happen at any time and causes costs increase
shortage of resources and nullify the activities. Generally, the neglect of this issue is
considered because of existing limitations in understanding and acceptance of
stakeholders with these changes and developments while its implementation is
considered as the strength points of base making in irrigation participatory management.
Required organization relationships in this regard, are defined based on theoretical and
providing executing strategies in the framework of contract consultant in the first and
second stages of irrigation network studies. In the execution stage and in suggested
options, the contract consultant will have social supervision on it too and the most
effective device for achievement is considered devices in participatory field operation.
In transposition plan and in the process of participatory management process, a
mechanism should be designed to include this functional issue into the duties of a "non
governmental supportive specialized and technical company". In other words, it is
related to the role of "consultants".
The required time in first and second stages of project and submitting extension and
training plan for it, will comply the time table offered by the contract consultant. In this
way, at the end of the second stage and providing strategies for "Action options",
training and execution operation titled "Executive strategies for adopting way of
irrigation network technical necessities with social obligations in utilization unit" will
be compiled and implemented under consultant's social supervision.
MONITORING AND EVALUATION AS SUSTAINABLE FACTOR IN

PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT
One of the meaningful definitions for the word "Monitoring" is "to care". This word in
the activities related to irrigation management means to care the affairs related to
utilizing from irrigation installations in a way to achieve the necessary efficiency based
on program goals. By this definition, it is clear that controlling tools must be used to
solve deficiencies and recognize the lack of probable operation on time. It is natural that
this measure is easy by appropriate and updated report and circulation of affairs. So,
observation and reporting are among the effective device in monitoring.
Effective monitoring is along with evaluation, so, evaluation of issues requires use of
other devices such as carrying out " participatory field operation", distributing written
questionnaire and special forms among authorities and stakeholders in utilizing from the
network for informing and evaluating the responsibilities and efficiency of the affairs.
With these explanations, the value and importance of monitoring will be identified in
continuation and effective endeavor of irrigation participatory management. So, without
these measures and in lack of information and without controlling the issues,
The effect of improper activity and deficiencies, participatory management will face
serious danger and in this way it would be without continuation and endurance.
MONITORING AS MAJOR FACTOR IN MANAGEMENT TRANSPOSITION

PROGRAM
Monitoring program, organization and its implementation mechanism must be
considered as parts of strategies for management transposition program. It should not be
considered that after transposition, it is possible to design the mechanisms of a
monitoring program from participatory management activity. The monitoring program
should be considered as part of the preparations for implementing transposition
program.
THE ROLE OF LABOR ORGANIZATION, TIME AND NECESSITIES OF

MONITORING MEASURES
Selecting authorities and elements who are the executors of monitoring program; are
acknowledgeable points. In labor organization of monitoring program, "Network
Designer Consultant" and "Social observer consultant" and stakeholders pioneer agent
must be involved. Also, experts as neutral parties; who directly didn't have a role in
management transposition program can attend as the chief supervisor for monitoring
affairs.
Selecting proper time (regular and irregular) is very important in monitoring. For
example, annually and monthly monitoring can be considered and a special
development in management causes monitoring program.
Also, to select monitoring issues, attentions must be paid to the necessities in
approaching some sensitive aspects in network management and to separate those items
which are in priority and are more important. In this regard, the necessary issues might
be asked from the authorities.
THE CAPACITY TO USE MONITORING RESULTS

In order to use monitoring program design in solving functional defects of irrigation
management and its sustainability, study of effective issues in monitoring must be used
and in this way we can obtain information which are functional and avoid the extra and
unnecessary information. For example, wasting water issue, delay in access to the water
in due time, costs estimation & it's comparison to the past, stakeholders familiarity with
the participatory operational policy and the facilities and irrigation, observing
cultivation pattern and related trainings, the stakeholders general satisfaction sense from
the network function and their familiarity with the responsibilities in water user groups
and etc. can be the principle issues in monitoring and also be effective in evaluating
management work.
EFFECT OF MONITORING INFORMATION IN SOLVING THE DEFECTS

The information obtained from the monitoring measures must guarantee achievement to
the development tools in order to change the procedures, instructions and the current
management activities. If this task is not accomplished, the monitoring has not been
purposeful and will divert to an administrative issue with spending useless costs.
The easiest example in this regard, relates to the maintenance and operation of
equipments. The result of monitoring must show that something like efficiency drop off
in network operation is related to the lack of control by network operator in a
certain division like reservoirs or it is due to using defective parts, so that the problem
can be resolved & fixed.
In more complicated levels, the results of a monitoring program may show that in
participatory policy and stakeholders following the agricultural modern pattern and
using the modern irrigation network, the stakeholders have faced income reduction. So,
obtaining information about the causes of this deficiency can be achieved through an
appropriate monitoring program. For example, the loan installments and water bills
might be high, the network is always repairing and in break down condition, the
sufficient water is not supplied and the crops faced with low artificial irrigation.
Agricultural pattern and production technology are not observed; also the group's
management does not have suitable operation. It is even possible that operational groups
in construction levels or water association influenced by the foreign pressures to issue
procedures and instructions which have affected the natural process of participatory
management operation.
The abovementioned issues show that specific information about the lack of success in
participatory management operation can help the authorities and stakeholders in
problem solving.
THE MAIN TOOLS IN IMPLEMENTING MONITORING PROGRAM

To achieve proper results in monitoring program and using it for overcoming the
deficiencies based on the sustainability of participatory management, applying
necessary and effective tools in monitoring and evaluating the irrigation management
operation must be considered.
One of the suitable tools in team conversations is based on "Participatory Rural
Appraisal (P.R.A)". In this method, the possibility to express the stakeholders' problem
cause to achieve variety of comments, ideas and related characteristics to participatory
management operation provided that we can represent a correct conclusion from
comments and events in our minds. Especially, as the conclusion from the events is in
line with the irrigation management operation, consequently the existing sensitivities in
accuracy or inaccuracy of the achieved assumptions among the stakeholders' comments
and related events of participatory management shall be considered.
It is possible to consider quantity changes and developments in monitoring measures, in
a way to use them in evaluating the irrigation management activity as merely getting
information from one or some issues are noticeable. In this case, an information form
(Field questionnaires) or forms to interview people and authorities must be designed to
obtain the information of system operation. Other considered tools are "Observation"
and "Discovering ambiguous issues"(General method in field studies) in obtaining
special issues.
In each of the above issues, information about the history of irrigation network
establishment, irrigation management shaping and goals, general information about the
region (General method for organizational studies) are important for the monitoring
authorities and is considered as the monitoring tool.
The mentioned issues can be shown in the table below in brief:
Goals, Characteristics and Effects of a Monitoring Program
Objectives of
Characteristics Impacts Tools
monitoring
Monitoring as one of Foresight in operation Monitoring guide in the
Prevent from improper
the transposition of participatory transposition program
operation
program rounds management documents
Recognizing the implementation timing

existing necessities for controls (regular & Increasing management Tangible and intangible
monitoring in irregular) in certain care and attention inspections
management operation cases
Completing
Access to useful questionnaire and
Controlling the Evaluating
information from the information forms and
management operation management operation
management operation conversation with
stakeholders
Perform monitoring to Access to the defects in Implementing

Purposefulness of
be used in solving the the irrigation participatory field
monitoring
management defects management operation operation
REFERENCES:
1- Esmaeel Jabari, Lessons from transposition approach "irrigation networks
management to farmers" Third technical workshop for water user participation in
irrigation networks management, Feb. 2003
2- Iran national drainage and irrigation committee, Translation and compiling
"Monitoring and evaluation guide in transposition of irrigation management" No.
56, 2002
3- Yekom consulting engineers, Results of economical, social studies and operational
policy in downstream lands of Aidoghmush dam, 2003
PARTICIPATORY EXPERIENCES FOR ENHANCING LAND

AND WATER PRODUCTIVITY
Atul Kumar Singh1, A. K. Sikka2, A.Upadhyaya1, P. R. Bhatnagar1
ABSTRACT
This paper shares the experiences of a project having measures to facilitate the
acceptable and broadly replicable. The paper describes the participatory process
developed and adopted for exploring options for better use of water with focus on a
single distributary RPC-V (Right Parallel Channel – V) of Patna Main Canal system
under Sone Command through cost effective participatory mechanism, involving poor
farmers, landless and share croppers. A key difference in our approach has been the
identification and elaboration of possibilities of bringing improvement through
dialogue with poor and marginal stakeholders empowered in relation to the larger-scale
farmers who traditionally dominate the on-farm water management (OFWM) through
self-help groups (SHGs). Dialogues were initiated between experts, local communities,
and other key stakeholders such as the Irrigation Department. Emergence and role of
Outlet Management Groups (OMGs) and Self Help Groups (SHGs) during the project
period provided an interface to explore opportunities for efficient land and water
management. The overwhelming response from the community has clearly
demonstrated that the involvement of wider constituency of stakeholders provided
good opportunities for the adoption of need based OFWM technologies, leading to
more effective participatory irrigation management (PIM). Adoption of need based,
low cost interventions such as raising of bund height for rainwater conservation,
optimization of
Rice transplanting time, multiple water use and productive utilization of seasonally
waterlogged areas, and selection of pumps for lifting ground water by the farmers using
their own resources was a testimony for the success of the participatory process.
Recognizing the need for establishing linkages between the OFWM and main canal
system management, a broader framework between water users and canal managers is
suggested. Strategies for scaling up are also discussed in the paper.
1- Senior Scientist, ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, WALMI Complex, Phulwari Sharif,
Patna – 801505, Bihar, India
2- Director ICAR-RCER
INTRODUCTION
Numbers of innovative approaches to agricultural and rural development have emerged
in recent years. Some of these have developed within the official agricultural research
community having “Top to Bottom” approach, while others have been developed within
non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Each has their own strengths and weaknesses.
It has been observed that where official sector had competence in formal science and
technology developments the NGOs have more concentrated on socio-economic front.
Experiences show that peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major
principles for sustainable development of the critical resources land and water. This
reflects to believe that people who inhabit an environment over time are more
competent to make decisions. Farming Systems Research, Training and Visit systems of
agricultural research, On-Farm Water Management, and Command Area Development
were some of the dominant approaches in the 1970s through the 1990s in India to
enhance land and water productivity (Anonymous. 2002, Joshi. 1997). In the process it
has been realized that these process lack in involving resource poor farming
communities with an assumption that either the technologies did not suits to them or
that the methods of contact and communication were biased against success. These
diagnoses helped in offspring of new approaches which included Farmer Field Schools,
Institute Village Linkage Programme (IVLP), micro-finance and rural livelihoods
initiatives besides gender and environmental aspects. Further recent trends to involve
private sector and NGOs in official development interventions, have opened new
beginnings in inter-institutional partnership for development and growth of resource
poor farmers.
The premises of this study was that there are multiple interlocking obstacles to
development from environmental, socio-economic and institutional factors, but
recently-developed technological and institutional innovations can be brought together
in a way so that not only productivity but also livelihood of the farming community
through new knowledge of land and water management practices. The idea here was
that, given the high potential but low productivity of the project areas, potential
economic gains from increased productivity could offer resources and incentive in
institution building for irrigation and agricultural development process leading to higher
productivity and improved livelihoods.
The study was designed around the ‘on-farm water management’ (OFWM) idiom built
on the diagnosis that irrigation problems lay ‘below the outlet’ with typical top-
end/bottom-end distribution problems leading to inefficiency and inequity in water use
(Sikka et. al., 2004). As the average cost of canal water in India is less than 5% of the
value of the crop it is used to produce. During 1989-90, the average revenue collected
from canal water users was Rs.50/ha whereas the average cost of canal maintenance was
Rs.270/ha. Low irrigation rates and increased establishment charges result in neglect of
canal maintenance leading to infrastructural deterioration, unreliability, excessive water
losses, social conflicts and low agricultural production. Water conflicts are common in
most of the systems, leading to vandalism and disruption of the physical facilities and
degradation of the system. Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has been
proposed as a way to improve water management in canal commands (Vermilion et. al.
1995). However a slow and steady approach towards PIM in India has been
recommended with a caution that it is not the panacea for all the difficulties. Under PIM
the formation of WUAs is governed by the Government of India CADA policy

guidelines on Participatory Irrigation Management. In general these guidelines specify a
two-tier system in the form of a WUA covering a group of outlets or a minor and a
Distributary Level Committee (DLC). In Bihar there are DLCs and Village Level
Committees (VLCs). Typically these committees involve and focus on the interests of
land-owning farmers. Whereas, the key hypothesis of the study was that by including a
wider constituency in decision making related to canal management, agricultural
productivity would be improved. During the process of dialogue it was realized that
interest of water users at out level are not being represented well. This required
formation of some types of groups who can take responsibilities for sharing and
distribution of canal water. After continuous discussions with existing WUAs and other
community members it was decided to form OMGs (Outlet Management Groups) at
every outlet who will not only act as a bridge between the water users and WUAs but
also safeguard the interest of water users for timely availability of canal water. The
awareness amongst the community resulted in formation of OMGs nearly at every outlet
within six months having 5 water users as committee member. Overall under this study
attempts have been taken to identify and work out ways to engage poor and marginal
stakeholders and to empower them to bring improvement in land and water productivity
at wider scale.
STUDY AREA
The study area falls in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains located near Patna, Bihar, India
under Sone Command. The area is hot and humid with a monsoon lasting from early
June to mid October, followed by a long dry season with which is divided into winter
(November-March and summer (April – June) periods. Annual rainfall is in the range of
1000 to 1200 mm, the bulk of which falls in August to September. The soils in the area
are alluvium derived and vary greatly in texture from sandy to silty clay loams; lighter
textured soils are characteristic of elevated areas and of the soils in the northern
piedmont belt of the region. Heavier textured soils often more suited to irrigation, and
yet prone to water logging, are common in low lying areas and along the major
watercourses that run through the area. Surface and sub-surface drainage can be free or
severely impeded; flooding is a problem in many parts of the region but the study area is
partially affected.
The Sone River is an interstate river originating from the Amarkantak plateau in
Madhya Pradesh. The Sone irrigation system was started in the mid 19th century. The
Sone command is spread over five districts in South Bihar: Rohtas, Bhjojpur, Patna,
Gaya and Aurangabad. The study area is fed by RPC (Right Parallel Channel) – V
which is a distributary of Patna main Canal System under Sone command. The RPC-V
was originally built to irrigate in the dry rabi season, but intensive developments were
undertaken in the 1960s including a new barrage, and remodeling of the main canal
system and its distributaries etc. to meet increased water demand. The culturable
command area of RPC-V is around 2200 hectares covering parts of 20 villages in
Naubatpur and Bikram Community Development Blocks. Many of the villages with
land under RPC-V are split by the main canal with some un-irrigated higher land to the
north. Given the general slope of the area to the north-east, RPC-V drains to the south-
east and tail-flows drain into an ahar that runs from around Danara village in a north
easterly direction along the lower end of the CCA before debouching into a large Ahar
nearby village Baiduli which drains immediately into the Punpun river, and then meets
the river Ganges to the west of Patna city. Drainage is hampered at all stages during the
monsoon and even in the rabi season low lying areas near the Ahar that drains RPC-V
can be waterlogged; at the start of the monsoon water backs up from the drainage into
the Punpun and to the low lying areas in the tail villages (Rampur and Bedauli villages)
forcing earlier planting of kharif rice in these areas. The higher land along which the
main canal and RPC-V run has lighter soils commanded by RPC-V have more ready
access to irrigation. The low lying areas towards the Ahar are heavier textured but have
less ready access to irrigation.
PURPOSE
The main focus of the project was to develop, field-test and demonstrate appropriate
strategies of land and water management practices that would lead to improved rural
livelihoods (including livelihoods of poor) and make them available for uptake to target
institutions. The project focuses on the promotion of low cost technologies/practices for
land and water management that have proven potential to improve productivity. It
sought to develop a method for undertaking participatory technology development
(PTD) that could be institutionalized and sustained as part of pro-poor rural services.
This contrasts with the usual use of PTD as a micro-scale on-farm research tool
(Anonymous. 2004).
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS UNDER THE PROJECT

The project also aimed to find an efficient and institutionally sustainable way by which
research professionals can work with farmers on technologies that can improve crop
productivity and, through adoption, improve the livelihoods of poor including socially
disadvantaged men and women.
The group comprises of a wide range of partners in the project. But the key players were
ICAR-RCER (ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region) was formerly known as
Directorate of Water Management Resources (DWMR), an Indian NGO and a group of
visiting scientists of Rothemsted, University of East Anglia Silsoe Research Institute,
CABI biosciences (Farmer field School methods and field diagnosis) and The
International Water Management Institute. Other partners have contributed to the
project mostly by way of specific managerial, consultancy and training inputs.
Scientists from ICAR mainly comprises of multidisciplinary fields such as agricultural
engineering, agronomy, soil science, groundwater modelling, hydrology, statistics, as
well as agricultural economics and extension, whereas the national NGO had expertise
and wide experience in community micro-organisational development. The team
deployed by the NGO comprises of management specialist with experience in
designing, appraising and operating poverty reduction programmes. By the third year,
three more persons, including an agricultural specialist had been added. Several (part
time) community based facilitators had been trained and placed by end of project.
Similarly, visiting scientists from U. K. also comprises of multidisciplinary team had
specialization in the field of soil science, agricultural economics, social science etc.
With this wide range of project partnership the project needs to develop two
institutional arenas a) firstly, that of the project initiators consisting of ICAR scientists,
members of an Indian national NGO, and a varied group of international scientists and
development consultants as described above, and, secondly, that of the recommendation
domain or target groups of rural society in study area. These then can be intersected
through interventions by the project initiators in the target areas. The interactions
within the initiators and the between the local community can be conceptualised as
interfaces where radically different social groups negotiate understandings and transact
resources. The primary interface is between the official institutions of the project and
local society whilst the interaction amongst foreign development consultants, national
NGO development practitioners and ICAR scientists is another interface where
understandings are not necessarily shared because the social structures of these
participating groups differ radically, and what will have the appearance of a joint project
must be negotiated in the course of the project.
The diversity of these interfaces does resulted many times different and sometimes
contending views, amongst project partners and consultants, keeping in view broadly
shared objectives of developing a project within the participatory technology
development agenda with emphasis on livelihoods of the poor, and action through
groups of poor people. Hence the diverse partners brought to the project very different
institutional, locational and theoretical perspectives towards agricultural and irrigation
research development and rural society.
While most of the project participants were concerned with issues of appropriate
agricultural and irrigation technologies and institutions, and how to elaborate a project
to address these issues in a participatory and pro-poor, gender and environmentally-
sensitive manner, perhaps the crucial issue which framed the debates leading to plans
for the project was the issue of institutional scalability especially of the self-help groups
whose formation was to be facilitated. A prime virtue of the participatory interventions
of the type envisaged by the project was to be their self-replicability throughout the
recommendation domain. Past experience suggested that such groups when facilitated
as instruments of other objectives of the project (e.g. for agricultural technology
development, or irrigation participation) would have no capacity for replication or
extension beyond project boundaries in time and space, and indeed were likely to have a
limited life expectancy after project withdrawal, or would become dependent on
continued outside support involving transfers unless a new approach is applied.
PROJECT APPROACH
Initial project negotiations during the inception phase led to a recognition that a key
aspect of the approach proposed involved avoiding incentivisation. Acknowledging this,
no formal commitments were made between users and motivators, beyond those
associated with the initial technology demonstration activities. As was discussed above
the project partners came from very different positions and in the first year or more of
the project activities preceded more or less independently as follows:
x Facilitation of community development activities undertaken,
x Information collection supported by field diagnosis and GIS mapping activities,
x Validation and demonstration of the benefits of early rice transplanting in R7830.
Initially to have feel of the area, basic information were gathered throw published
sources, socio-economic surveys, and informal dialogue with the community members.
These activities helped in identifying constraints and problems that are specific to water
management and raising awareness within the team of scientists (from all partner
organisations) of the field situation. At the same time as these activities were underway,
the NGO partner was involved independently to facilitate community development
activities. Initially these activities were maintained as discrete activities as was required
by the dialectic concept. There were however significant differences amongst the
project partners who wanted to form SHGs to pursue various technical and livelihood
opportunities. Interventions and negotiations between the team members resolved the
differences. The vision for GIS as a tool that would facilitate interaction at various
levels within the project is laid out in the project inception report keeping in view that,
maps are important products to facilitate communication between different stakeholders
such as team members, advisors, planners, executors, and users for strategic planning
and development. Besides this a large scale demonstration and field based promotion of
the benefits of early rice transplanting on rice and subsequent wheat production,
practicing deep summer tillage etc. was undertaken based on previous research
undertaken by ICAR scientists indicating the potential production benefits of these
practices (Sikka et. al. 2004).
Whilst the parallel / independent approach continued in the field, dialogue within the
project team led to an agreement to trial an approach where ideas would be ‘broadcast’
and that the team would respond to expressions of interest.
PARTICIPATORY PROCESS DEVELOPED FOR WATER MANAGEMENT

The participatory process comprising of five major key elements was developed (Singh
et. al.).
1. Identification of technologies and broadcasting ideas,
2. Identification of interest/focus groups/members,
3. Enhancing know-how of interest/focus groups/members through group
discussions supported by quality communication product (leaflets in local
language),
4. Providing technical know-how on technologies to interest/focus groups/members
through on-site discussions and strategic field demonstrations,
5. Slow withdrawal of experts from study area to facilitate increased interactions
amongst interest/focus groups/members with other members of the community
over technologies/interventions adopted for further self dissemination.
In response to information collection and field familiarisation and feedback derived
from analysis of the SHG database a series of communication products (leaflets) were
prepared. The purpose of these was to raise awareness of ideas and technologies. The
leaflets provided basic technical know-how. Group meetings between project staff and
various groups were held in different canal reaches comprising of SHGs / WUAs and
even individual farmers to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
technologies.
The technologies identified for broadcasting (in the form of leaflets) amongst the
community after series of group discussions were:
x Selection of pumps for groundwater exploitation,
x Water management in rice,
Multiple water use,
x Canal water management,
x Efficient use of rainwater,
x Water management in wheat,
x Advantages of irrigation through field channels and the importance of gates on
outlets,
x Optimisation of rice transplanting
Initially promotion was done through NGO volunteers using materials developed and
suggestions provided by ICAR scientists considering that SHGs had proved more
attractive to poorer groups and women who were often landless or sharecroppers. It was
observed that many of the options and technologies, relating to canal and water
management were not of immediate interest and initial response was low incase of
SHGs as they are more interested in technologies/options from which they can fetch
results in shorter duration and needs nominal investment. This made to realize that
though the process of facilitating SHG and community development was important but
involvement of other actors within the community is also important if one envisage for
overall and sustainable development of land and water on the other hand ICAR-RCER
staff had experience in direct communication with representatives of this group they
became more actively involved in promotion.
PARTICIPATORY PROCESS REVISITED AND MODIFIED

Poor responses of SHGs led to revisit the participatory process to modify the strategies
by considering the lessons learnt during previous attempt. Major undertaken were;
1. Participatory process must facilitate the involvement of wider constituency of
members belonging to SHGs, WUAs, OMGs and individual members.
2. Use of leaflet as a communication product,
3. Identifying interest/focused groups/members interested in taking up the improved
interventions voluntarily.
4. Undertaking few need based strategic participatory field demonstrations and
providing technical know-how on member’s demands.
5. Facilitating members for better interface and further linkages with other
stakeholders including financial institutions.
6. No provisions for any financial assistance nor any commitment for future
meetings.
7. Development of a self disseminating mechanism for transfer of technology.
Considering above and by obtaining members ideas through dialogue a participatory

process was formulated which can been implemented for future course of actions. The
basic concept in formulation of the process was to develop a mechanism through which
involvement of wider constituency of community members at one platform can be
facilitated for better interface in land and water management leading to effective
participatory irrigation management (PIM).
The process was initiated with wider communities involving individual members, SHGs
and WUAs in different reaches of the canal command. This facilitated a wide range of
discussions between project team and group members and also among the members of
different communities. Such discussions provided the much-needed sensitisation
amongst members of the community that resulted in further invitations from members
for the scientists/experts to visit their areas and to explain concepts and strengthen their
knowledge through group meetings. This resulted in emergence of newer idea which are
more implementable due to personal stakes of members, emergence of focused
individual members and groups with genuine interest in adoption of improved
technologies and development of a participatory process which follows the bottom-up
process to be more sustainable. Based on discussions some interventions related to crop,
land and water management were identified and communication product in the form of
leaflets were developed for providing awareness and technical know-how to
interest/focused groups/members. These products were distributed amongst the
community in group meetings on their demand. As means of communication strategy
few strategic participatory demonstrations were undertaken on farmer’s field with very
minimal inputs not more than Rs.100-150/- in case of multiple use of land and water in
terms of fingerlings as members were facing difficulties to get genuine fingerlings were
provided. These actions resulted in adoption of various interventions.
IMPACT OF THE PROCESS

The impact of the process has been threefold in terms of;
1. Defining working relation of facilitators/experts when working in partnership
mode,
2. Ways forward to involve wider set of constituencies of community, and
3. Path forward for a cost effective sustainable people driven participatory process
around land and water.
Activities undertaken most importantly resulted in;
1. Innovative ideas that led to increased agricultural production and diversification,
2. Easy implementation of ideas due to higher personal stakes of members in the
outcomes,
3. Self sustaining processes due to emergence of interest/focused group/members
who can play greater role in future for disseminating technologies indicating a
bottom up process.
4. Increased awareness and sense of urgency to bring improvement in existing water
management practices amongst members,
5. Opportunities for increased sources of income,
NEW LEARNING TO PROJECT PARTNERS

Some of the salient learning reflected was;
1. Role and need to involve wider communities in participatory processes,
2. Effective relationships and understanding within the project partners require to
move forward effectively.
3. Quality dialogues, communication products in terms of leaflets and strategic
participatory field demonstrations can be an effective replacement for subsidies to
provide greater sustainability to participatory processes.
4. Emergence of innovative ideas through community involvement in technology
identification and development has chances of wider sustainable adoption.
5. Timing of withdrawal of facilitators is a critical decision which needs to be judged
properly for sustainability and up scaling of ideas broadcasted in future
CONCLUSION
Peoples’ participation has been identified as one of the major principles for sustainable
development of water resources. This reflects to believe that people who inhabit an
environment over time are more competent to make decisions. Dynamic nature of land
and water invites wide range of stakeholders having multiple interests leading to
complex integration amongst them. Establishing dialogue amongst these stakeholders
needs identification of appropriate processes and means through which they can be
brought together for a common goal. The experiences in collaborative project and wide
range of project partnership reflects that participation with community members on land
and water related issues is mainly focused on two general types of situations a). set of
issues focusing immediate and critical concerns leading to short-term emergencies or
gains such as; irrigation needs, eradication of seasonal water logging and falling crop
yields and b). concerns that provide opportunities to different stakeholders to come
together for longer-term, precautionary issues. To achieve these goals the perspective
should be broader which may accommodate members from wider constituency.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous. 2004. Realising Potential: Livelihoods, Poverty and Governance.
Workshop proceedings published during the worshop held at NASC campus, New
Delhi during 3-4 August 2004.
2. Anonymous. 2002. NATIONAL WATER POLICY. Accessed on internet
http://www.angelfire.com/bc/nihhrrc/NWP.html on 27th January 2006.
3. Joshi, L. K. 1997. Irrigation and its Management in India – Need for Paradigm
Shift. Published in the proceedings of Management of Irrigation A New
Paradigm, Participatory Irrigation Management. National conference on
Participatory Irrigation Management held in New Delhi from 20-22 January,
1997, pp.1-84.
4. Vermilion D.L. and Brewer J.D.1995. Irrigation Specialists, International
Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Participatory action
research to improve irrigation operations: Examples from Indonesia and

India. Irrigation Scheduling: From Theory to Practice – Proceedings,
Proceedings of the ICID/FAO Workshop on Irrigation Scheduling, Rome,
Italy, 12-13 September 1995, ISBN 92-5-103968-2. Accessed on internet
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4367E/w4367e00.htm#Contents on 11th January 2006.
5. Sikka A. K., Singh A. K., Upadhyaya A., Bhatnagar P. R., Saha B., Singh R. D.,
Gautam U. S., Palmer Jones P. R and Gaunt J. L., 2004. Theme-2, Practical ways
forward for participatory land and water management in canal command. A report
presented in the workshop on Realizing Potential: Livelihoods, Poverty, and
Governance, 3-4 August, 2004, at NASC, New Delhi.
6. Singh A. K., Sikka A. K., Upadhyaya A. and Bhatnagar P. R. 2005. Exploring
Options For Better Use of Water At RPC-V. Bullettin No.: R-14/PAT-5.
Published by ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar, India.
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN THE

IRRIGATION NETWORKS OF TEHRAN PROVINCE
Abdolreza Ahmadi, Saeid Rafiyee
1- INTRODUCATION:
Participatory Irrigation Management in the section of irrigation and agriculture in the
wide land of Iran with water scarcity has a long history. Such as the Sheikh Bahayee
scroll In Esfahan or in the previous Tehran during Saljooghiyan government and first
Toghrol had a special supervision on the rivers and typical irrigations, drinking water
distribution of the water stores in the city were related to some high social aspects and
Water User Associations relevant to the groynes, Prunes, coal-bins and ploughshares
have been existed from long time ago.
The people establishments have been created voluntarily or by demands for the purpose
of better operation of water resources, land and agricultural products in the majority of
areas. They have continued by political and governmental changes until now.
In the years 1961 to 1971, IRAN performance of some land reformations and ownership
system changes created small pieces of land with the reduction of objectives of political
and economical powers; creation of rural class respects; better system of trade and
demand system in the national level; government invested directly in the field of
management, water supply & distribution and by governmental subsidies without
considering the role of farmers in determination of real prices of water so that farmers
right now think that they are entitled to have free water and providence of that is know a
duty of government.
After the victory of Islamic revolution of Iran government provided a fast development
in water industry in the demand of work in a way that the resource dams which are
under operation and use are more than 170 national dams in provinces and about 83
national resource dams are being built, so in this case the number of them has been
increased and the irrigation networks have covered lands more than 1609 thousands
hectares.
The government of Islamic revolution of Iran for removing some barriers has used of
successful participatory irrigation managements from all the global countries of world
and this increase has been so effective for the role of people in the matter of building
water industries and irrigation network management; reduction of performance time of
development designs of water resources have been considered. Speeding in the mode of
economical affairs of country and change of participatory management is necessary for

construct and sign of water industry which is more than 2100 billion Rials in 4400
thousands hectares from agriculture land that this amount of money has been
investigated for it.
Some steps have been taken in all over Iran for the purpose of management changes of
irrigation in irrigation networks and soaking and wetting that are related to local farmers
and some of these managements are different with each other which most of them are
out of order and some of them their usage is so rare.
In many of considerations the shift of participatory management in the world seems,
some developed countries and knowledgeable countries that are more aware in the
matter of agriculture have used this participatory management such as America, Spain,
Philippine so they have been succeeded to improve this matter by providing some rules
in special areas and expensive facilities and they have controlled the works for the
purpose of better operation also they have provided some new rate of water value, so by
this action they have guaranteed the success of their design.
The process of participatory management shift has been done by voluntarily
establishment of people or it has been done by the application of government , so they
have been able to use this design for being performed. Some other countries that have
not provided the environment for this design include Sri Lanka, Senegal, Pakistan and
Colombia. In fact these countries have not considered the facilities and the right of
water value, but they have set only the design models so that they have been succeeded
to use the participatory management shift from other countries, after a short time they
have faced with failure.
2- FAMILIARITY WITH IRRIGATION NETWORKS OF TEHRAN

PROVINCE OPERATION CO,
Operation company of Tehran province has three irrigation network that include:
1. Varamin irrigation network located in 30 km in the east of Tehran ( 65 % activity
of firm)
2. Karaj irrigation network located in 25 km in the west of Tehran ( 25 % activity of
firm)
3. Hashtgerd irrigation network located in 40 km in the west of Tehran (10 %
activity of firm)
This firm uses more than 250 million cubic meters water from dams name Litan,
Amirkabir, Jajrood rivers, Damavand and Hashtgerd and 40 pits of Tehran channels that
this water will be delivered by more than 13100 farmers so submitting water is
according to the capacity submit and after paying the right of water it will be given to
the applicants.
In 1994 this firm has been registered and it has started its activity by the objective of
providing and distributing right of water which is required to the farmers in the level of
seven cities ( Varamin, Pakdasht, Karaj, Hashtgerd, Robat Karim, Shahriyar and Ray
city).
2-1- Varamin Irrigation Network
In varamin for the purpose of operation from irrigation of Varamin land irrigation
network operation with the capacity of 50,000 hectares( that is able to be increased to
80,000 hectares) the irrigation channels have the length of 630 km so the needed water
to farmers will be submitted in 150 places.
Length of irrigation Degree 1(km) Degree 2(km) Degree 3(km) Degree 4(km)
networks in Varamin
Network 68 113 200 250
2-2- Karaj Irrigation Network is for the purpose of coverage of 15000 hectares of lands
and gardens which is located in the area and by they have been created by the length of
109 kilometers so the needed water to the farmers will be given in 80 places.
Length of irrigation Degree 1(km) Degree 2(km) Degree 3(km) Degree 4(km)
networks in Karaj
Network 53 41 15 ____
2-3. Hashtgerd Irrigation Network is for the purpose of coverage of 10,000 hectares
of lands and gardens with the length of 55 km and the needed water to the farmers will
be submitted in 40 places.
Degree 1(km) Degree 2(km) Degree 3(km) Degree 4(km)

Length of irrigation
networks in
Hashtgerd Network 80 ( traditional
15 25 15
ways)
2-4. Tehran channel ( Rei City): Tehran irrigation channel of Varamin has the length
of 30 km from Rei city, the canal water and 40 pits of Tehran channels will be sent to
Varamin. And after handling and filtering by the amount of 8 m3/s of water will be sent
to Varamin.
3. POLICY OF TEHRAN PROVINCE OPERATION CO,

In the beginning years the activity of Operation company of Tehran province of the 390
farmers of villages was given directly to the administrations of firm, the applicant had
divided them into 380 places according to the gates of submitting water and
geographical location, each place would introduce a representative that be confirmed by
Islamic council and the ministry of Agriculture construct for the purpose of gathering
right of water from farmers and submitting water.
The farmers pay some money for services that water distributors do and in case if the
farmers are not satisfied with their representative they will try to make another election
for electing another representative for this position.
The above classification caused that the number of referrers be changed from 13100
families to 380 persons, so that some voluntarily establishment were chosen by people
for collection right of water that the shift and safety point and distribution of water will
be done by that and this matter would be under the satisfaction of all the farmers.
This company has provided some face to face meetings with farmers, consumers of the
whole water of network and at the moment about 11 establishments of water have been
provided for water and the matter of operation which they have been registered and they
are active in the irrigation network managements which are degree 3 and 4. The
abovementioned establishment will be done by selection of board of directors and
managing director that some manpower will be employed for cleaning the gates and
canals and for prevention of water robbery.
The voluntarily establishments of water will be provided in a section that the farmers
have a high knowledge for this matter and this firm has concluded that at least about 22
other establishments are needed so that the networks will be controlled separately and
independently, for the purpose of this matter Dr. Heidariyan is invited to facilitate and
cooperate so that the firm will follow the mode of farmers activities and some
considerations and evaluations will be done in this field so that the reasonable solutions
on the conditions of each area should be detected and provided.
The counselor of design will perform some meetings with the managers of firm and will
evaluate the mode of shifting participatory management which is needed and the
following priorities will be determined to irrigation network and so much clear
objectives for the purpose of creating new establishments will be provided that include:
FIRST PRIORITY: AVAILABLE PEOPLE ESTABLISHMENTS WHICH ARE

REGISTERED:
- Performance of at least 7 meetings by board of directors and the establishments
will be done separately by the objective of reaching to written agreement which is
necessary and the shift of participatory management and operation responsibilities
and keeping the networks with degree 3 and 4 and their documentations
- Controlling the meetings notes by operation Co until finalization point.
- Providing at least one expert who is interested to this subject in part time or by the
firm for the purpose of local management support as a facilitator.
SECOND PRIORITY: ENCOURAGEMENT OF FARMERS FOR THE PURPOSE OF

PEOPLE ESTABLISHMENTS VOLUNTARILY:
- Establishment of training workshops by presence of local authorities in the
necessary level by the objective of farmers familiarity with advantages and losses
of participatory management shift and creation of establishments
- Consideration and adjustment of necessary agreements by participation of
establishments and local responsible persons.
- Organizing and registering the establishments
- Documentation of establishments
- Performance of at least 7 meetings by presence of counselor of 12 meetings
without counselor for the purpose of strong establishments
- Controlling the notes of meetings with farmers by company
- Providing at least one expert who be interested to this subject and works as part
time as a facilitator from firm for he purpose of using of rules and available
instructions
After registration and handling at least 33 establishment in the level of their irrigation
networks will be acting under the coverage and management of 3 unions in the level of
Varamin-Karaj cities and Hashgerd and this matter will have a participatory
management in the matter of distribution and maintaining irrigation networks of degree
3 and 4 that are about 600 km and it will be done by supervision and policies of
operation firm of Tehran province and in case the successful participatory management
shift be able to submit the canals degree 1 and 2.
Operation Co of Tehran province

Policies
Union of water consumers 3 in numbers

1. Varamin
2. Karaj
3. Hashtgerd
People establishments which are required are at least 33 in numbers
The consumers representatives are 380 persons
Number of villages is 390

Number of farmers is 13100 families
Lands under coverage 75000 ha
Lands able to be increased 120000 ha
4. PROBLEMS AND BARRIERS FOR SHIFTING THE CHANGING

MANAGEMENT IN TEHRAN PROVINCE
Participatory management shift in each area is related to the local and special conditions
of each area and in case no reasonable solution be considered for this matter the success
and lasting point of establishments will be faced with some problems or failures.
4-1. SETTING IRRIGATION NETWORKS NEAR CAPITAL CITY

Setting Irrigation Networks near capital city which is Tehran with the population of 8
million persons will make the distribution of agriculture water under the special political
conditions such as the priority of providing drinking water of Tehran and Karaj from
dams such as Litan and Amir Kabir and the share of agricultural water of dams will be
determined and according to the limitation of saved capacity of provided dams which is
needed for farmers there is not a certain point in no season and this matter causes that
underground waters be used more than legal level and at the moment the falling of 2
meters of underground resources has provided a very great disaster. The farmers are
never confident about their applied water and they have an outlook towards the
establishments with some doubts and they do not show so much interests in this field.
4-2. SEPARATION OF DESCENDING (SNOW AND RAIN) DURING YEARS

The dried climate conditions and half-dried and average climates with the average of
210 millimeters of water per year is ruled to Tehran province. The majority of rains
during winter and spring on the high areas of dams such as Amir Kabir and Litan will
be occurred and this matter has caused that the dams be immediately full of water
during spring and when the snows are being melted and some floodwaters will be
happened till the level of 150 cubic meter per second and from the second month of
spring till the mid of autumn the rains and atmospheric descending will not occur and
during some dried years such as 1998-2000 no water will be allocated for agriculture
and according to the last managements that have been provided for this matter by
completing the dam of Martyrs Ghomi(Mamlo) these floodwaters will be saved by two
times and from other side after handing the refineries in Tehran their hog-wash will
provide a section of farmers water need permanently during year.
4-3. FAILURE OF PAST EXPERIENCES OF FARMERS IN THE MATTER OF

ASSISTANCE
The farmers have provided some assistance establishments by encouragement of
governments in recent years in the matter of agriculture, but many of these
establishments have been cancelled due to some lying promises and such as the equality
level of share and vote in elections and some of them have been inactive. According to
the unsuccessful experiences which have occurred in the past the encouragement of
farmers for providing establishments has been faced with some problems and it has an
activity with by two times of previous times.
4-4. THE LACK OF SUPPORTIVE RULES

In the current rules the limitation of authorities and commissions of establishments and
legal solutions need a support that it has not been determined and or it won’t be
performed and this matter will bring a negative point in the mind of farmers.
4-5. RIGHT OF WATER RULES AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BASED ON

JUSTICE
In the rules that were provided in before creation of irrigation networks the agricultural
lands have the right of water and many of down area lands that have been submitted
after the years of network creation do not have the right of water. So in this case there is
so much arguments between these two groups and at the moment this firm, does not
distribute water based on justice and nor on the right of farmers and it distribute water in
a way that there is no so much satisfaction of operation and farmers.
4-6. DIFFERENT TACT IN GOVERNORSHIPS POLICIES

The location of irrigation networks in at least 8 governorships face with different tact in
the field of activity and local and tribal arguments which will provide some special
problems form management shift in the cities of Tehran province.
4-7. LACK OF REASONABLE MODEL EXISTENCE

At the moment there is no a reasonable and successful model for the purpose of
attracting people participation in the participatory management section.
4-8. LACK OF NEED FEELINGS BY FARMERS TO AUTO-FUNCTIONAL

ESTABLISHMENTS
Until now the establishments have not been provided according to the application of
government nor according to the feeling of farmers needs and this matter has caused
that farmers have more expectations from government and they believe that government
can provide this matter in the demand of work by removing responsibilities and shifting
amendment expenditures and keeping to farmers by people participatory management.
4-9. LACK OF DETERMINATION OF RAPID POINT OF ESTABLISHMENTS

According to the necessity and emphasize of people participation the rapid point of
establishments is not clear and unfortunately there is not coordination between
Agriculture Jihad Ministry and Power Ministry and some other administrations.
4-10. REAL VALUE OF WATER

Determining the level of water value has been done from long time ago and it would be
supported such as a demand of work of governmental loss and the farmers still expect to
have free water from government.
4-11. FAST GROWTH OF HOUSING TISSUE

The fast growth of housing tissue around Tehran and added value of farmers in case if
be changed to housing, industrial and trade causes that farmers to give up the lands
which are located around Tehran and to earn some advantages and they face with the
matter of establishments in a very superficial way.
4-12. LACK OF DETERMINATION OF FACILITIES, ENCOURAGEMENT AND

CHANNEL DAMAGES LEVEL
The level of providing facilities and financial encouragements and or developmental
supports in the matter of keeping and operating has not been considered and according
to the damage point of canals such as Karaj with more than 40 years, the farmers see
themselves against expensive expenditures of amendments and keeping and with not
encouraging support and they do not show any encouragement for providing
establishments themselves.
4-13. SAFE-POINT AND PAYING LOSS MULCT

Due to fast growth of cities and the increase of vehicles falls and people and human
losses and financial losses in the canals and according to the compulsive point of paying
loss mulct to the persons who have been left and or the high expenditures of hand-
railing and safety point around the channels, the farmers ignore accepting the channels
management.
REFERENCE:
1. Consumer establishments- past- Present- Future- Jawad Khorshidi Far, the fourth
technical workshop of farmer’s participatory in irrigation network management,
December 22 ,2005( Spain, Tomar Sheikh Bahayee, America( Colombia Basin);
Mexico; Sri Lanka; Philippine)
2. Record and current situation of consumer establishments of water and scientific
analysis of legal establishments creation in irrigation network of Ghazvin( Ahmad
Pour Zand)
3. Land amendments and economical economic of Iran, Gozideh library, Tehran the
center of scientific documents, 1972 (Mirzadeh Pour Zand)
4. The crisis of irrigation management shift to the operators, 2003 (Seyed Mojtaba
Naboy)
5. Management Shift, methods and barriers and solutions, 2003 (Seyed Ahmad
Heidariyan and cooperators)
6. The collection of articles for the fourth national conference of farmers
participation in irrigation & wetting network management (methods and basis)
(management of water resources), January 2005
7. The first technical workshop for farmer's participation in irrigation networks
management (Ahamad Pour Zand), November 1999.
IS PARTICIPATORY GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT AN OPTION?
Jaime D. Hoogesteger van Dijk and Linden Vincent1
ABSTRACT
In Iran as well as in the rest of the world, a large sector of the irrigated area is totally or
partly dependent on groundwater. As such groundwater has become a cornerstone of
many regional economies and societies. Yet contrary to surface water irrigation, where a
lot of attention has been given to PIM, within the groundwater irrigation sector there has
been very little attention for participatory management of groundwater resources even
though in most places it is a very pressing issue. Dropping groundwater tables and
pumps that run dry in many areas clearly show that often the present use of groundwater
is unsustainable. In irrigation systems where conjunctive water management takes place
combining groundwater and surface water management can offer an option for
participatory groundwater management. This case study analyzes the situation of
groundwater resource use in the Abshar irrigation system in the Zayandeh Rud Basin
Iran and establishes the question if participatory management of groundwater and
conjunctive use is a viable option for irrigation management in the present context.
GROUNDWATER USE IN THE ZAYANDEH RUD BASIN

The Zayandeh Rud basin is situated in the centre of Iran and covers an area of 41,500
km2. The basin originates in the Zagros Mountains at altitudes of around 2300 m, where
rainfall and snow are abundant2, and closes in the Gavkhuni swamp at an altitude of
1466 m. The majority of the basin is a typical arid and semi-arid desert. The city of
Esfahan, with almost two million inhabitants, and its fertile plains3, form the main
socio-economic area of the basin. Esfahan lies at an altitude of around 1800 m and has
an average annual precipitation of 130 mm, concentrated in the November-April period.
Temperatures are hot in the summer, reaching an average of 30oC in July, but are cool
in the winter dropping to an average minimum temperature of 3oC in January. Annual
potential evapo-transpiration is 1500 mm (Molle et al., 2004).
1- Jaime D. Hoogesteger van Dijk (MSc) is presently Junior Researcher and Lecturer at the Irrigation and
Water Engineering Group at Wageningen University in the Netherlands- E-mail: Jaime.hoogesteger@wur.nl
Professor Linden Vincent is presently professor of the Irrigation and Water Engineering Group at
Wageningen University in the Netherlands. E-mail: Linden.vincent@wur.nl
Address: Irrigation and Water Engineering, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen
T: +31 317 48 41 90 F: +31 317 48 47 59
2- In the head of the basin at high altitudes precipitation averages at around 1700 mm a year.
3- The fertile plains are constituted by alluvial deposits flanking the Zayandeh Rud where slopes are
gentle and soils have good soil moisture holding capacities (Salemi et al., 2000).
In the lower and dryer parts of the basin, irrigation is a must for agricultural production.
For centuries, water from the Zayandeh Rud River has been diverted to supply the city
of Esfahan with water and to irrigate its gardens and neighboring areas. The peak flows
from April to June provided the basis for widespread downstream irrigation using
simple diversion structures, called mahdis, to make productive use of floodwaters
(Salemi et al., 2000). Beside surface water, most downstream areas have groundwater
supplies close to the surface. The recharge of these is mostly direct recharge from the
Zayandeh Rud River (idem, 2000).
Beside surface water, groundwater is one of the most reliable water sources in the
Zayandeh Rud Basin. In the basin twenty unconfined and two confined aquifers have
been identified. Presently about 21,200 tube wells, 1,726 qanats and 1,613 springs
exploit a total of 3,619 MCM of groundwater a year. Studies conducted by the Esfahan
Water Authority (EWA) in 2000 reveal that several aquifers are being over-exploited
especially in some of the irrigated areas (Morid, 2004).
On basin level, 72% of total water use is groundwater with a total estimated use of 3500
MCM per year. The bulk of this water is used for agricultural production. In the
irrigation districts groundwater use is high. In Nekuoabad and the areas of the Abshar
and Rudasht irrigation districts that are near the Zayandeh Rud River have shallow
aquifers of between 10-50 m. that are intensively exploited for agriculture. In these
shallow aquifers there is a direct link between river flows, surface water irrigation in the
systems and the level of the groundwater table (pers. com. Saberi). In general it is
observed that the further form the river bed, the deeper the aquifers. These deeper
aquifers respond much less to the fluctuations of surface water flows in the river and
can be considered mainly as fossil water reserves (idem). The deep aquifer water
reserves are used mostly in the Brokhar and Mahyar irrigation systems as well as the
northern most edges of the Abshar Left Bank.
Figure 1: Groundwater levels in the main irrigation systems of the Zayandeh

Rud basin in June 2000 (Droogers and Miranzadeh, 2000)
During the years of drought the shallow aquifers in the irrigation systems had a severe
drop in groundwater levels as groundwater use increased while recharge was almost
absent. Several farmers responded by deepening the existing wells. According to Saberi
(pers. comm. and confirmed by farmers’ interviews) the drop of groundwater levels in
the deep aquifers also increased during the drought although in these deeper aquifers the
drop of water level was less severe than in the shallow ones.
Groundwater resources are being overexploited in several areas of the basin with the
associated water quality degradation (Salemi, 2003). This means that on the long run the
exploitation of deep aquifers that have little direct recharge form surface water
resources will exhaust the groundwater reserves. As control over groundwater,
especially on the use of shallow aquifers, is very hard due to the fact that installing a
shallow well is very easy, the EWA is limited in its management of groundwater to
monitoring groundwater levels and limiting the construction of new deep wells.
GROUNDWATER USE IN THE ABSHAR IRRIGATION SYSTEM

In the Abshar system groundwater is, beside surface water, the most important and
reliable source of water for irrigation. Most of the wells are owned individually or
managed by a small group of farmers compromised by 2-15 users. Historically a couple
of areas that lie within the irrigation system relied on qanats for their irrigation water.
At present because of the large amount of tube wells, all qanats in the area have fallen
dry, being replaced by either surface water irrigation or the use of wells (Hoogesteger
van Dijk, 2005).
Groundwater management knows different forms of management but generally these
are confined to a limited group of users in the field. The most common modes of
groundwater management are:
- Private well for private use: This mode implies little organizational control as it is
one user that has control over the water flows. In some cases the users use the
surface water canals for transporting the water. In these cases it is only necessary
to ensure that the use of these does not affect other users.
- Private well for private use, selling excess water: In some cases when farmers
have a well, which exceeds their personal needs, they sell water to other users. In
this case farmers have to organize to manage the water. In such cases, because of
the high number of users, groundwater gets managed under the same rules as
surface water. The only difference there is that the fees for the use of the water go
to the owner of the well instead of the Mirhab. The fact that the well owner is also
the outlet tender makes the management and regulation easy.
- Private well owned by several users: Often farmers do not have enough resources
to invest in a well by themselves. In these cases, farmers often organize in groups
of two to five users, mostly friends and family and jointly invest in the drilling
and installation of a well. The most common arrangement for these wells is that
farmers pay for the O&M of the well according to the amount of hours they make
use of it. As in most cases it is friends and family that jointly invest in a well.
THE NEED FOR GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

In view of these developments there is a pressing need for groundwater management.
Governmental control seems very difficult all around the world because of:
- The individualized character of groundwater technology (individual pumps)
coupled to easy access to it and low use requirements. This makes it very hard for
institutions to control the development and use of groundwater in areas where
groundwater is readily available in economically exploitable aquifers. Users
operate independently and are therefore hard to control.
- An institutional history based on the development and not the control of
groundwater: throughout the twentieth century most water management
institutions either promoted the development of groundwater use as a way to
promote economic development and alleviate poverty, or left it to an uncontrolled
lassie-faire development. Because of this there is neither a groundwater
management culture nor control over the use and exploitation of this resource.
- A lack of funds and resources to implement a strict control on pumping: this is
coupled mainly to the history of the institutions which have historically spent
most of their resources and personnel on water development; the construction of
infrastructural surface water management projects, subsidies for groundwater
development and their management. Groundwater management has up until now
not been a major priority of water management authorities.
- The social implications of restricting groundwater use. A great part of the
agricultural production has become dependent on groundwater utilization.
Restricting the use of groundwater has great impact on this agricultural sector and
the livelihoods that depend upon it.
In view of this absence of governmental control and the importance of groundwater in
the local economies and the increasing perception that users should become the
managers of their resources participatory groundwater management has been seen in
some places in the world as the key to the groundwater management problem. Mexico
has for almost a decade promoted different projects that are based on participatory
groundwater management with mixed results (Wester ,et al., 1999; Marañon-Pimentel,
2000a, 2000b; , Hoogesteger-van Dijk, 2004).
Participatory groundwater management has proven to be a challenge, which has many
hurdles on the way but some experiences show that with collective action for
groundwater management it is possible to reach better groundwater management. Some
of the key issues in such processes are: user awareness of the problem, its consequences
and available management strategies; commitment on the part of the users; visible
results for the users; strong collective commitment to work together on the management
of groundwater. Whether these elements come together or not depends a lot on the
boundaries of the institutions for groundwater management, the characteristics of the
aquifers and the social and institutional structures existing in place.
IS CONJUNTIVE WATER MANAGEMENT FEASIBLE IN SURFACE

IRRIGATION SYSTEMS?
Surface water irrigation systems, through their infrastructure usually create social
relations of dependence needed to manage the system and get water from the sources, in
this case the Zayandeh River to the fields. At primary and secondary system water
management is agency managed until now. At tertiary level, water management
becomes the responsibility of the users. These organize to manage the water based on
long established customs and rules of water, labor and responsibility division. These
systems have proven to be very effective in the management of water.
A question that arises here is whether these social structures could be used for the
management of groundwater resources. There are no clear cut answers to this, but
conjunctive water management could be a very feasible option for water management.
In California some modeling experiences show that conjunctive water management can
enhance an economically more viable resource management (Harou and Lund, 2006)
especially where the surface-groundwater links are very strong and visible such as in the
Abshar irrigation system. Of course here the challenge remains being how can it be
implemented. Should there be a top down approach in which the state regulates and
dictates, or should the effort and insights come from the water users, or should both
work together? If so how should such a management system be crafted?
This paper does not want to give answers or guidelines, it rather wants to trigger the
thought on whether through participatory groundwater (or conjunctive water)
management it is possible to establish control measures for groundwater management in
a case such as the Abshar Irrigation System or any other area where groundwater
exploitation levels form a threat for the sustainable use of groundwater. So the first
question to be established is:
Is participatory groundwater management within and outside of surface water irrigation

systems a feasible solution?
If so....
- What knowledge is needed?
- What social structures are needed and at what scale?
- How should responsibilities be established and who should be responsible for
what?
o What role should be delegated to the state?
o What role should be delegated to the water management agencies?
o What responsibilities should go to user organizations and how do you organize
these?
- Is there a need for institutional engineering?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Droogers P., Miranzadeh M. 2001. Spatial analysis of groundwater trends: example

for Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran. IAERI-IWMI, Iran.
2. Harou J., and Lund J., 2006. Economic and water management effects of a no
overdraft policy: California’s Tulare Basin. Paper presented at the International
Symposium on Groundwater Sustainability (ISGWAS), January 24-27, 2006,
University of Alicante, Spain.
3. Hoogesteger van Dijk J.D., 2004. “The Underground” Understanding the failure of
institutional responses to reduce groundwater exploitation in Guanajuato. MSc
Thesis Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University, Wageningen,
NL.
4. Hoogesteger van Dijk, J.D. 2005. “Making do with what we have” Understanding
drought management strategies and their effect in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran.
MSc Thesis Irrigation and Water Engineering, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, NL.
5. Marañon-Pimentel B., 2000a. Las fuerzas impulsoras del abatimiento de agua
subteránea en El Bajío. In Transformación productiva en la gran irrigación en El
Bajío, Cuaderno de Investigación No. 3, IMTA, Mexico.
6. Marañon-Pimentel B., 2000b. La viablilidad de la organización de usuarios para el
manejo del agua subterránea en la Cuenca Lerma Chapala, México. In Comités
Técnicos de Aguas Subterráneas: organización, desarrollo y problemática,
Cuaderno de investigación No. 2, IMTA, Mexico.
7. Molle F., Mamanpoush A., Miranzadeh M., 2004. Robbing Yadullah’s water to
irrigate Saeid’s garden: Hydrology and water rights in a village of Central Iran.
IWMI Research Report No. 80..
8. Morid S., 2004. Adaptation to climate change to enhance food security and
environmental quality; Zayandeh Rub Basin, Iran. College of Agriculture, Tarbiat
Modarres University, Teheran, Iran.
9. Salemi H.R., Mamanpoush A., Miranzadeh M., Akbari M., Torabi M., Toomanian
N., Murray-Rust H., Droogers P., Sally H., Gieske A. 2000. Water Management
for Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Esfahan
Province, Iran. IWMI-IAERI, Iran.
10. Salemi H.R., 2003. Irrigation water management in Esfahan, the case of Borkhar
region. Unpublished MSc thesis, Department of Geography, University of
Esfahan, Iran.
11. Wester P., Marañón-Pimentel B. & Scott C., 1999. Institutional Responses to
Groundwater Depletion: The Aquifer Management Councils in the State of
Guanajuato, Mexico. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Integral
Water Management in Agriculture, Gomez-Palacio, México. IWMI, Mexico.
FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION WATER

MANAGEMENT IN NORTHEAST IRAN
Ali Asghar Shahroudi1 and Mohammad Chizari2
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the farmers’ participation in
irrigation networks management with an approach to compare two groups of farmers in
the irrigation networks with Water Users’ Cooperative (WUC) and without it. The
methodological approach was a descriptive-correlational and causal-comparative study
of the survey type. The target population in the study consisted of 2551 farmers of
irrigation networks in Razavi Khorasan Province, Iran. By using stratified random
sampling technique, 335 participants were chosen. Data were collected through a
questionnaire and were analyzed using SPSS, V. 13. Content and face validity of the
instrument obtained by the faculty members of Agricultural Extension and Education,
Agronomy and Irrigation Departments at Tarbiat Modarres University and also
Specialists Board of Agricultural Jihad Organization and Regional Water Joint-stock
Company in Razavi Khorasan Province. The reliability analysis was conducted and
Cronbach’s alpha values for the various sections of instrument were estimated to be
between 0.73 and 0.86. The results of t-test with independent samples showed that there
were significant differences in relation to the averages of the variables of status of
farmers’ participation in irrigation management, annual income, farmers’ perception of
rural irrigation status, social solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the
WUC, extension contacts, social confidence, farmers’ behavior regarding farm water
management, their age, experience in agriculture, communication channels and
education level between two groups of water users, i.e. those who were in irrigation
network with WUC and those who did not, which the magnitude of statistical
differences were arranged for these variables, respectively.
Keywords: Participatory irrigation management, water users’ cooperative, farmer, farm

water management, sustainability

1- Graduate Student (M.Sc.) of Agricultural Extension and Education Department, College of
Agriculture, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. Tel.: 011 (9821) 66906555, Corresponding
author’s e. mail: Shahroudi83@yahoo.com
2- Professor of Agricultural Extension and Education Department, College of Agriculture, Tarbiat
Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. P.O.Box: 4155-4838, Fax: 011 (9821) 88006544, Presenting authors’
e. mail: Mchizari@modares.ac.ir
INTRUDUCTION
Irrigation has played and will continue to play an important role in the provision of the
food supply for the rapidly expanding population of the world (Wijayaratna, 2004). In
this connection, water resources limitation is one of the most serious problems in
Middle Eastern countries, especially in arid and semi-arid countries (Skaggs et al.,
2006). This dazzling benefit encouraged many countries, especially developing
countries, to create more and more irrigation facilities. The results of those irrigation
development projects did not achieve 100% success, as most of them were managed by
the government where farmers’ participation was ignored. During the 1980s and early
1990s, government responsible officials started to realize the significance of farmers’
participation in the management of irrigation systems from the stand point of sharing
the costs and contributing to maintenance. This kind of concept was adopted by many
countries as a “Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)”. The purpose of PIM was to
involve farmers in irrigation management including operation and maintenance. The
merits of PIM are decrease in wasteful use of water, enhanced durability of irrigation
facilities, reduction of government burden, facilitation of cost recovery and equitable
water delivery. Some countries, such as Turkey and Mexico, have made success in
establishing PIM-based projects, while other countries, especially monsoon-Asian
countries, are yet to achieve their goal (Tanaka and Sato, 2005).
Water scarcity is the most limiting factor in agricultural productivity in Iran.
Considering that about 90% of the country is climatologically arid and semi-arid, the
fresh water resources are limited. Iran is an area of 165 million hectares (Mha). The
average amount of precipitation over the country is 252 mm/ year or 413 billion cubic
meters (bcm), which are less than one-third of worldwide average precipitation
(831mm). Based on the studies performed by United Nations (UN) and also
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) experts, the per capita water
resources of Iran are projected to be about 726-860 m3 in 2025, compared with 2200 m3
in 1990 (Ehsani and Khaledi, 2003).
Unfortunately, the lack of proper management, operation, maintenance, system
efficiency, and illegal extraction in the irrigation system have remained major problems
since the existence of the irrigation network that have resulted in inequitable and
unreliable distribution, thus the poor tail-enders are always faced with the shortage of
water. In addition, because of low irrigation efficiency, about 50 to 60 percent of the
renewable water is lost in agriculture, and this has led to agricultural water productivity
(ratio of yield per unit of water) a very low. Therefore, the economic value per cubic
meter is 0.75 kg/ m3 (Keshavarz et al., 2005).
A clear incentive for self-organization among tail and head enders in an irrigation
system was found by Ostrom and Gardner (1993). Statistical evidence on data from
Nepal supports that self-organized irrigation systems work better than those which are
organized by the government. However, success in self-organized groups came about
after a struggle. Initially, self-organization led to conflicts and confusion, but when the
initiative to self-organization was accepted by some villagers, other villagers followed
as well. This ultimately led to a management system for the whole irrigation canal.
WUAs can play an important role in assisting users to adopt new techniques and
technologies for more efficient water use and increased production (Smith and Munoz,
2002). In investigations of studies identified that WUAs could been improved (1)
Human capital: education, knowledge/ understanding, skills (agricultural, technical,
organizational, financial), labour/ time; (2) Social capital: values and norms,
organization, power; (3) Physical capital: access to infrastructure, standards of
maintenance, appropriateness of design; (4) Natural capital: access to water and land,
protection of resources; and (5) Financial capital: income from employment, other
economic activities, ability to contribute resources for management and maintenance
(Howarth et al., 2002).
Transfer of irrigation management responsibilities from government agencies to farmers
is now an important policy in a large number of countries (Howarth et al., 2002). In the
agricultural sector of Kazakstan’s current conditions, there are also clearly identifiable
benefits for governmental agencies from the formation of Water Users’ Associations
including: (1) WUAs provide a single point of contact for negotiations, contracts, and
dispute resolution between water users and local water management authorities, thereby
significantly easing the latter’s increased administrative burden caused by the break-up
of the Soviet farm system; (2) WUAs can ease the introduction of water pricing which
is at present complicated by the lack of measuring devices for water deliveries to
individual farmers. Water deliveries could be measured at the point of delivery to the
WUA, which would then handle deliveries to and fee-collection from its members,
based on an individual’s irrigated acreage, for instance; and (3) Strong WUA can in the
future be made the owners of existing irrigation and drainage systems, which the
government authorities are no longer able to manage and maintain (Burger, 1998).
To sum up, the farmers’ role in development is crucial in enhancing water use
efficiency. The creation of new management mechanisms, which give more
responsibility and more incentives to farmers to improve the condition of water systems
and to economize the use of irrigation water, is an important step (Burger, 1998).
Therefore, The most common and effective tool to encourage Water Users (WUs)
organized participation, which is used in several countries of the world is the formation
of WUCs. The overall aim of this study was to examine and analyze the farmers’
participation in irrigation networks management with an approach to compare of two
groups of farmers in irrigation networks with WUC and without it. To achieve this
purpose, this survey research was performed with the following specific objectives: (1)
determination of the professional and individual characteristics; (2) assessment the level
of water users’ involvement in WUC and non-WUC participatory systems; and (3)
comparison of two groups of farmers in relation to the professional and individual
characteristics (those who were in participatory system with WUC and without WUA,
viceversa).
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study used descriptive-correlative and causal-comparative survey methodology to
investigate the farmers’ participation in irrigation networks management with an
approach to compare two groups of farmers in irrigation networks with WUC and
without it. The methodological approach was a descriptive-correlational and causal-
comparative study of the survey type. The target population for the study consisted of
2551 farmers of irrigation networks during the 2005-2006 that conducted in three
irrigation networks of Razavi Khorasan Province at villages level, including: “Shahid

Yaghubi” Dam of Torbat-Heydarieh with WUC and “Shahid Karde” and “Trogh” Dams
of Mashhad without WUC. Through stratified random sampling technique, a group of
335 participants of irrigation networks (166 farmers for participatory system with WUC
and 214 farmers for participatory systems without WUC) was selected as the sample out
of the above-mentioned population using the method of Krejcie and Morgan (1970) for
the determination of sample size. A questionnaire was prepared to gather the data
needed for this study. The questionnaire consisted of four parts: part one of the
questionnaire was relation to the information about individual characteristics of WUs,
including: age, education level, experience in agriculture, distance from farm to
agricultural services center. Part two of the instrument was designed to gather data on
technical characteristics of WUs, including: farmers’ behavior regarding farm water
management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status. Part three of the
instrument was designed to gather data on the socio-cultural characteristics of the WUs,
including: extension contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social
solidarity, social participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’
participation status concerning irrigation networks management. In this part of the
questionnaire, items consisted of five-point likert type scale with responses ranging
from zero to 4. Also, the information about economic characteristics of WUs was
considered in the third part of the instrument, including: annual income and size of the
irrigated cultivation. Data were collected through a questionnaire and were analyzed
using SPSS, V.13. Content and face validity of the instrument were obtained by the
faculty members of Agricultural Extension and Education, Agronomy and Irrigation
Departments at Tarbiat Modarres University and also by the Specialists Board of
Agricultural Jihad Organization and Regional Water Joint-stock Company in Razavi
Khorasan Province. To assess the reliability of the instrument, a pilot test (N= 30) was
performed, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were computed for each part and were
found in a range from 0.73 to 0.86.
RESULTS AND DISCASION

Objectives 1: The first objective of this study was to describe the characteristics of
farmers. The findings of this part showed that 18.4% of the farmers were of an age
below 30 years. Those that fell within the age of 30 to 49 years accounted for 46.4%,
about 19.5% of the respondents were of the age between 50 to 59 years, while about
15.7% of the respondents were 60 years old or even elder. The findings of this part
showed that the age of respondents ranged from 21 to 80 years with a mean age of
45.23 years (SD = 13.8). It was also evident that 23.6% of the farmers had not taken
part in any formal education. About 37.6% of the respondents attended primary school,
20.6% had attended secondary school education, about 11.8% of the respondent had
high school diploma and the remaining 6.4% attended post-secondary school. The mean
of the size of the irrigated cultivation by farmers was 3.45 ha; the minimum and
maximum land areas were 0.5 and 15 ha, respectively. Farmers were asked to indicate
the number of years they have experienced working on farm. Years of farm experience
ranged farm 3 to 65 years (M= 25.26; SD= 13.9). The average distance from the farm to
agricultural service center was 5.44 Km. Farmers’ annual income ranged from 7 to 90
million rials (M= 3.15; SD= 1.59) (Table 1).
Table 1. Professional and individual characteristics of WUs.

Variables Mean S.D. Max. Min.
Age (year) 45.64 13.98 22 82
Education level (year) 4.37 3.78 0 14
Experience in agriculture (year) 25.26 13.90 3 65
Size of the irrigated cultivation (ha) 3.45 2.18 0.5 15
Distance from farm to agricultural services center (km) 5.44 2.73 1 11
*
Annual income (million Rials ) 3.15 1.59 0.7 9
* 8000 Rials= 1USD.
As shown in Table 2, social characteristics of WUs were categorized three levels

including: low, medium and high. The usage level of extension contacts was low
(50.9%; n= 168) with an overall mean score of 9.00 (SD= 5.08). The usage level of
communication channels by WUs in drainage and irrigation networks was medium
(52.1%; n= 172) with an overall mean score of 20.97 (SD= 9.35). Also, social capital
components among WUs were evident within the confidence (mean= 12.09), solidarity
(mean= 12.27) and participation (mean= 17.49) that each of they were assessed at
medium level (Table 2).
Table 2. Socio-cultural characteristics of WUs.

Low Medium High
Variable Mean S.D. Min. Max. Range
Percent of respondent
Social confidence 28.8 45.5 25.8 12.09 5.87 1 24 0-24
Social solidarity 26.7 48.8 24.5 12.27 5.54 2 24 0-24
Social participation 28.5 49.1 22.4 17.45 7.96 3 34 0-36
Extension contacts 50.9 39.7 9.4 9.00 5.08 1 23 0-24
Communication channels 27.3 52.1 20.6 20.97 9.35 5 41 0-44
Objective 2: In order to assess the rate of WUs’ involvement in irrigation networks

management, 9-item with summated likert-type format was designed in different stages
of planning, decision-making, implementation, operation, maintenance and evaluation
in relation to irrigation water management so that they could expresses their level of
participation by selecting the options. The findings of Table 2 indicates that the
respondents’ participation levels in irrigation networks with WUC was medium with an
overall mean score of 19.92 (S.D. = 6.7). But the level of WUs’ participation in
irrigation networks without WUC was low with an overall mean score of 12.72 (S.D. =
6.6). In general, it was evident that the status of WUs’ participant in participatory
system of WUC was better than those who were not in cooperative. Nevertheless, the
respondents of irrigation networks with WUC were reported that they have a better
status from the view point of in-farm and on-farm water management, solution of
irrigation problems, cooperation with other farmers and irrigation experts, the
prevention of water losses, rehabilitation and reconstruction of canals, giving the water
rights for improvement of operation and maintenance of networks and programming the
water business than those who were in irrigation system without WUC.
Table 3. Status of WUs’ participation regarding irrigation networks management

Very Very
Network type low medium high Mean S.D. Min. Max.
low high
f 2 31 69 37 19
WUC 19.92 6.7 5 35
% 1.3 19.6 43.7 23.4 12
f 47 61 45 16 3
Non-WUC 12.72 6.6 3 30
% 27.3 35.5 26.3 9.3 1.7
f 49 92 114 53 22
Overall 16.16 7.5 3 35
% 14.8 27.9 34.5 16.1 6.7
Objective 3: A t-test with independent-samples was conducted to evaluate the

differences between two groups of water users of irrigation networks with WUC and
without it. As shown in Table 3, statistically significant differences were found among
the individual characteristics investigated in the present study between two groups of
WUs, i.e. those who were in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUC
irrigation networks, with respect to the variables of age, education level, and experience
in agriculture, excluding distance from farm to agricultural services center. Among the
economic characteristics, there was a significant difference (at a 0.05 level) between
two groups of respondents in relation to annual income, except for size of the irrigated
cultivation. Significant differences were found between the two groups of respondents
with the entire socio-cultural characteristics, namely with extension contacts,
communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social participation,
farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status concerning
irrigation networks management. In addition, with technical factors, there was a
significant mean difference between farmers’ behavior regarding farm water
management and farmers’ perception of rural irrigation status in two groups of
respondents.
Table 4. Comparison of the two groups of water users in WUC and non-WUC
irrigation networks in relation to their characteristics.
Non-WUC
Independent variable WUC irrigation Effect
irrigation network
Dependent network (n=158) t P value Size
(n=172)
variable (d)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Age of the farmer 47.85 13.63 43.61 14.04 2.78** 0.006 0.30
Education level 4.86 4.23 4.06 3.57 2.27** 0.024 0.20
Experience in agriculture 27.51 13.93 23.36 13.85 2.71** 0.007 029
Size of the irrigated
3.38 2.42 3.51 1.95 -0.539 0.590 -0.05
cultivation
Distance from farm to
agricultural services 5.58 2.80 5.31 2.67 0.870 0.385 0.09
center
Annual income (million
3.94 1.73 2.43 0.99 9.79** 0.000 1.07
rials)
Extension contacts 10.25 5.18 7.84 4.70 4.43** 0.000 0.48
Communication channels 22.32 9.68 19.73 8.89 2.53* 0.012 0.27
Social confidence 13.50 5.56 10.74 5.84 4.39** 0.000 0.48
Social solidarity 13.92 5.32 10.80 5.35 5.29** 0.000 0.58
Social participation 19.65 7.46 15.44 7.89 4.96** 0.000 0.54
Farmers’ perception of
14.68 4.89 10.80 4.85 7.21** 0.000 0.79
rural irrigation status
Status of farmers’
participation in irrigation 19.92 6.70 12.72 6.60 9.82** 0.000 1.08
management
Farmers’ behavior
regarding farm water 75.27 22.25 65.24 20.51 4.25** 0.000 0.46
management
Farmers’ attitude toward
61.46 16.06 53.27 16.75 4.52** 0.000 0.49
the WUC
* T-test significant at p < 0.05
** T-test significant at p < 0.01
To assess the magnitude of statistical differences, effect sizes were calculated,

interpreted, and reported using Cohen’s procedures (Zhai and Scheer, 2004).
Interpretations for t-tests were based on the Cohen conversion: negligible size; d< 0.20,
small effect size; 0.20 d< 0.50, medium effect size; 0.50 d< 0.80, and large effect
size; d 0.80 calculated through the following formula:
Mean1 Mean2
d
SD12 SD22
2
The analyses revealed that the annual income (Cohen’s d= 1.07) and status of farmers’
participation in irrigation networks management (Cohen’s d= 1.08) had the largest
magnitude of difference than other variables (large effect size). Therefore, WUCs were
of the most abundant influences on these variables. Also, farmers’ perception of rural
irrigation status (Cohen’s d= 0.79), social solidarity (Cohen’s d= 0.58) and social
participation (Cohen’s d= 0.54) were found inside the range of medium magnitude of
statistical differences (medium effect size). Magnitude of the statistical differences of
age, education level, experience in agriculture, extension contacts, communication
channels, social confidence, farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management, and
farmers’ attitude toward the WUC were the lowest (negligible effect size).
CONCLUSION
According to the study findings, it was found that WUCs as the considerable social
capital can improve the level of farmers’ participation in irrigation water management.
Significant differences was statistically found between two groups of WUs, those who
involved in irrigation network with WUC and those in non-WUA networks in relation
to the individual variables of age, education level, and experience in agriculture. Among
the economic characteristics, there was a significant difference between two groups of
respondents in relation to their annual incomes. This finding concurs with that of
Pradhan (2002). Significant differences were found between two groups of respondents
from the stand point of all their cultural and social characteristics, namely extension
contacts, communication channels, social confidence, social solidarity, social
participation, farmers’ attitude toward the WUC, and farmers’ participation status
concerning irrigation networks management. This means that WUAs enhance social
capital components among farmers. This conclusion is consistent with others studies
(Wijayaratna, 2004; Howarth et al., 2002; Pradhan, 2002). In addition, the results
indicated that among technical factors, there was a significant difference between
farmers’ behavior regarding farm water management and farmers’ perception of rural
irrigation status in two groups of respondents. Thus, the establishment of WUCs
provides the most suitable mechanism for the human resource development.
Accordingly, several studies have shown that the WUC plays an important role in the
improvement the WUs’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills regarding farm water
management (Wijayaratna, 2004; Carter et al., 1999). Therefore, in order to improve the
PIM in irrigation networks, decentralization and devolution of water networks
management increase WUs’ participation in decision-making and investment, and
improve management incentives, accountability, agricultural and economic productivity
and cost recovery which is the most effective and promising way toward the
sustainability of the water resources. The development and implementation of improved
water management policies through the formation of WUCs in the irrigated agricultural
sector is an important element to achieve the water management objectives. Hence,
agricultural policies in Iran must aim at raising the potential of water management
technologies through the development of multi-functional WUCs to enhance
agricultural water productivity, promote equitable access to water and to conserve the
natural resource.
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COMMUNITY BASED MICRO-PLANNING IN PIM: ENTRY POINT

ACTIVITIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Dr. Deepak Kumar Das1
ABSTRACT
The necessity of devolution of certain management responsibility of irrigation system to

the farmers' organization is now widely accepted as an effective tool for sustainable
irrigated agriculture. In India during 1990s systematic institutional and organizational
changes have been undertaken to increase farmers’ participation in irrigation
management through formation of Water Users’ Association (WUA) or Pani Panchayats
under different externally assisted economic restructuring and irrigation infrastructure
development programmes of World Bank, European Commission, Japan Bank for
International Cooperation etc. or through Central or State government initiative. Today,
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) or Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) at
various levels is being implemented in different types of irrigation systems. For this
programme, appropriate institutional arrangements and mechanisms to bring about
efficient utilization, equitable distribution and sustainable irrigation service are framed
by different states of India. Further steps are being taken continuously for improvement
in the strategies to achieve the goals of PIM. This paper, apart from highlighting some
lessons from PIM experiences in Orissa, the poorest state in the dominion of republic of
India, narrates a strategic micro level planning along with identified entry point
implementation programme that are undertaken for sustainable irrigated agriculture
simultaneously aiming at upliftment of livelihood of small and marginal poor farmers.
The study concludes that the objective of poverty reduction by way of promoting
schemes for agricultural productivity improvement through irrigation can be achieved by
adopting community based participatory approaches that support agricultural
development like improving irrigation performance, the use of new production
technologies, enhancing access to markets, promoting environmentally sustainable
production activities, having gender perspective, measures to improve income and
livelihood through micro-finance, rural infrastructure up-gradation, participatory
processes to empower the rural poor with core skills to process agri-products for value
addition.
1- Associate Professor in Engineering Faculty, Water and Land Management Institute, Pratapnagari,
Cuttack, Orissa. India - 753051, India; E-mail: deepak_das62@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
India is the second largest populated country in the world with nearly 1.1 billion people.
Out of this around 26.1 per cent are poor, living with less than a dollar a day (ADB
2004; UNDP 2003). The country is thus home to more than one fourth of the world's
poor. Further the degree of poverty varies from state to state, the poverty estimate in
percent of population below poverty line is as high as 47.15% for Orissa and 42.6% for
Bihar to lower percentage of 3.5% for Jammu and Kasmir and 4.4% for Goa during
1999-2000 as reported in National Human Development Report 2001 of Govt. of India
(2002, Planning Commission). Poverty alleviation is the most important objective of
Indian planning through creation of employment opportunities, income generation
activities and growth promotion. However, underdeveloped infrastructure such as
power, transport, irrigation, water supply, sewerage and lack of accessibility to health
facilities have impaired economic growth and the poverty eradication drive. In the 10th
Five-Year Plan (April 2002-March 2007), the Government of India has called for
equitable and sustainable growth, and to achieve this goal, it has designated the
following as the priority development issues: not only eradication of the existing poverty
but long-term poverty reduction through economic growth and environmental
conservation to make these efforts sustainable.
Water resources management and development are central to sustainable agricultural
growth and poverty reduction. Currently, integrated water resources management is
highly emphasized for enhancing food security, poverty eradication, economic growth
and rural upliftment in the developing countries including India. Further, most of the
developing countries have insufficient hydraulic infrastructure and hence, the
governments, international funding agencies need to assist these countries in developing
and maintaining adequate number of well-performing hydraulic structures and in
mobilizing public and private financing, while meeting environmental and social
standards. Moreover, the below-optimal performance of the existing irrigation systems is
of serious concern to farmers who depend on them for their crops and livelihoods and to
governments as well as funding agencies that have made massive investment in their
development. The most severe problems encountered by irrigation systems in the
developing countries are the increasing costs of new schemes, the huge backlog of
incomplete schemes, and the increasing neglect of existing systems. Large-scale canal
irrigation systems, in particular, are in poor condition: they are not properly maintained,
operations are inadequate, water supplies do not reach the tail end of systems, and the
timing of water supply is unreliable. The wide gap between actual and desirable
performance threatens the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. These state of affairs
warrants proper investment strategies with institutional reforms and comprehensive
plans for implementation starting from Micro-level (Grass-root level).
It is established that in democratic and developing countries like India, genuinely
participatory governance of a common property resource like irrigation at the micro
level can yield benefits in terms of both efficiency and equity, by giving the water users
a sense of ownership, by allocating resources according to people’s demand and need
and by utilising their skills and knowledge. The reform or decentralisation of
governance of irrigation infrastructure or Irrigation Management Transfer to Farmers'
Organisatins is now widely accepted and used as an effective tool for improving
management efficiency, accountability, agricultural and economic productivity and cost
recovery and finally sustainable irrigated agriculture. As a result, it is now observed that
an increasing number of governments around the world are adopting programmes to

devolve responsibility for irrigation management to farmers organisations or to Water
Users Associations (WUAs) in their reform process, which is known as Participatory
Irrigation Management (PIM) and is found place in their national policies. Indian
irrigation sector in recent years is also in the same PIM trail where attempts are being
made to increase farmers’ direct participation in decision-making and investment.
Further, conventionally Indian economy is largely based on rural villages, as it draws
most of its inputs from farms and village industries. Consequently, it establishes the fact
that transforming agriculture to effective enterprise or industrialization of agriculture has
potential to provide the rural poor with on-farm and off-farm employment, induce
economic growth and promote food security. On the other hand, studies of De Boer et.
al. (1997), Simons and Supri (1999), White (1999) and Grossmann and Poston (2003)
reveal that India’s agriculture extension system has missing links to secondary or
primary education and is not reaching effectively to the women and the rural poor
including the lower castes. Though India is one of the potential producers of large
number of agricultural researchers and scientists but it lacks in providing basic skills
required to improve farming methods or job opportunities in the rural off- farm sector.
Now high priority should be given to equip the rural poor with appropriate skills by
improving the currently inadequate agriculture extension system. The situation
altogether warrants a comprehensive micro plan with reforms in irrigation governance.
PIM IN INDIA
Participatory Irrigation Management is being implemented in irrigation projects in most
of the countries of world including India. Since 1985 Ministry of Water Resources has
been inspiring farmers' participation in water distribution and management of tertiary
system in the projects covered under the Centrally Sponsored Command Area
Development Programme. The concept of involvement of farmers in management of the
irrigation system has been accepted as a policy of the Government of India and has been
included in the National Water Policy adopted in 1987. Provisions made in the National
Water Policy of 1987 were as follows:
"Efforts should be made to involve farmers progressively in various aspects
of management of irrigation systems, particularly in water distribution and
collection of water rates. Assistance of voluntary agencies should be enlisted in
educating the farmers in efficient water-use and water management."
PROVISION IN NATIONAL WATER POLICY (2002)

Following modifications were made in the National Water Policy (2002) regarding the
participatory approach to water resources management:
"Management of the water resources for diverse uses should incorporate a participatory
approach: by involving not only the various governmental agencies but also the users' and
other stakeholders, in an effective and decisive manner, in various aspects of planning,
design, development and management of the water resources schemes. Necessary legal
and institutional changes should be made at various levels for the purpose, duly ensuring
appropriate role for. women. Water Users' Association and local bodies such as
municipalities and Gram-Panchayats should particularly be involved in the operation,
maintenance and management of water infrastructures/facilities at appropriate levels

progressively, with a view to eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the
user groups/ local bodies."
PROCESS OF IMPLEMENTATION
Different states of India followed different routes for implementation of PIM. While
PIM in Andhra pradesh followed the Big Bang Approach, the state of Orissa
implemented PIM through a gradual approach in phased manner.
PROVISIONS IN PIM ACTS

Recognising the need for sound legal framework for PIM in the country, the Ministry of
Water Resources, Government of India brought out a model act to be adopted by the State
Legislatures for enacting new irrigation acts/amending the existing irrigation acts for
facilitating PIM. In accordance with the model act and as a result of various conferences/
seminars organised by the Ministry, there has been an increased consciousness in
States about the need for actively involving farmers in management of irrigation
systems. Nine State Governments, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, Orissa, Rajsthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharastra have enacted exclusive
legislation for involvement of farmers in irrigation management. Other states are in
the trail of enacting either exclusive legislation for PIM, or are exploring scope to
exercise power for PIM through existing laws like Government of Bihar has issued a
notification "The Bihar Irrigation, Flood Management and Drainage Rules, 2003",
in exercise of the powers conferred by The Bihar Irrigation Act, 1997. Gujarat had
experimented with the idea of farmers' co-operative movement in irrigation
management. The Stale of Gujarat had also a PIM Resolution during the year 1995
based on experiences from its pilot projects. In general the legal framework provides
for creation of farmers organisations at different levels of irrigation system as under
1. Water Users' Association (WUA): will have a delineated command area on

hydraulic basis, which shall be administratively viable. Generally a WUA
would cover a group of outlets or a minor.
2. Distributary Committee: will comprise 5 or more WUAs. All the presidents
of WUAs will comprise general body of the distributary committee.
3. Project Committee: will be an apex committee of an irrigation system and
presidents of the Distributary committees in the project area shall constitute
general body of this committee.
The Associations at different levels are expected to be actively involved in:
i. maintenance of irrigation system in their area of operation;

ii. distribution of irrigation water to the beneficiary farmers as per the warabandi
schedule
iii. assisting the irrigation department in the preparation of water demand and
collection of water charges
iv. resolve disputes among the members and WUA

v. monitoring flow of water in the irrigation system etc.
PIM IN ORISSA
Orissa is a state in the dominion of India. In Orissa PIM approach has been put into
practice through formation of Water Users Association (WUA), which is known as Pani
Panchayat (PP). PP is the primary level farmer organization (Das et.al.2004). The
structural arrangement of farmer organization is three tiers for Medium and four tiers for
Major Irrigation Projects as shown in Fig. 1.
A Pani Panchayat/WUA is an association of all persons owning land within a
hydrologically delineated portion of the command area ranging in size approximately
from 300-600 ha in case of major/medium / minor irrigation project. It may be in respect
of minor or sub-minor or direct outlets from the main or branch distributary of the
project. In case of minor flow or lift irrigation, the area is limited to project command
area when the project command area is less than 300 ha. The WUA/Pani Panchayat is a
part of the farmers’ organisation recognized by Orissa Pani Panchayat Act 2002, also all
farmers organizations are body corporate as defined therein.
(DoWR: Department of Water Resources, DoA: Department of Agriculture, JE: Junior

Engineer, A.E: Assistant Engineer, EE: Executive Engineer, JAO: Junior Agriculture
Officer, DAO: District Agriculture Officer, RI: Revenue Officer)
Fig. 1 Structure of Farmers' Organisation under PIM Programme in Orissa, India

In Orissa the state government is implementing the Pani Panchayat Programme with a
great zeal. The area under PP has expanded rapidly as shown in Table 1. Data on
progress of PIM in Orissa indicate that by June 2006, 13435 PPs have been formed
covering an area of 10.55 lakh ha. Irrigation management has been transferred to 12218
PPs covering 8.60 lakh ha out of total command area of 21.15 lakh ha. Thus, the data
reveal that the PIM programme in Orissa is intensifying and very soon the entire
irrigation command of the state will be farmer managed.
Table 1: Progress of Pani Panchayat Programme in Orissa as on June 2006

Types of Irrigation Potential No. of Pani Area Irrigation management
Irrigation Created* Panchayats transferred
' 000 ha.
Project '000 ha. Formed No. of PPs Area ' 000 ha.
Major and
1234 1426 623 1122 494
Medium
Minor
497 976 189 719 136
(Surface)
Minor
11033 243 10377 230
(Lift) 384
Total 2115 13435 1055 12218 860
* Irrigation potential from other sources are not included
COMMUNITY BASED MICRO PLANNING AND ENTRY POINT ACTIVITIES

Preliminary studies conducted in various irrigation projects in Orissa show that rice-rice
is the dominant cropping pattern followed by the farmers. The main rice crop is raised
from June to December and the summer rice crop is grown from January to May. The
water in canal is supplied accordingly from July to November and January to May to
support this cropping pattern. The present agriculture production system in these
projects has the following shortcomings:
1. Irrigation water is available round the year in reservoirs or from the hydro-power
generation units which can support 3 crop sequences. At present, the rabi season
(November-February) does not exist and is overlapped by kharif and summer season
crops. As a result, the irrigation potentials are not fully utilized.
2. Rice is the dominant crop grown in summer season. Since the outlet size is designed
to provide supplemental irrigation to the kharif rice crop @ 6-7 mm/ha/day, it fails
to irrigate entire command area below each outlet and 30-40% area remains
unirrigated. There is again social inequity in water distribution between head reach
and tail end farmers.
3. Rice-rice cropping pattern over years leads to problems like waterlogging and
reduction in soil productivity of command area.
4. Due to distress sale of paddy in recent years, the present cropping pattern gives low
returns to the farmers.
5. Besides inefficient use of water and land resources, the prospect of present irrigated
agriculture in these projects is limited as the farmer has been facing rising input
costs, declining returns from the inputs, uncertain market, increasing integration of
domestic market with the international market, inadequate storage infrastructure,
exploitation of farmers by middle men and private money lenders, low awareness
level, risk in production due to occurrence of natural calamities, plant disease and
pest attack etc.
In order to increase the performance of the irrigation projects, main thrust under micro-
plan is to undertake software and hardware activities to transform the present rice-rice
mono-culture system to diversified agriculture production system. Technical and socio-
economic constraints experienced for agriculture diversification in these projects will be
removed through establishing proper co-operation among the farmers and line
departments. To meet this challenge the micro plan implementation objectives through
PIM are:
a) To inculcate the feeling of the self-help among the farmers and to develop a
mechanism meeting challenges through group action;
b) To build the capacity of PPs to make use of services from Government and non-
Government agencies;
c) To develop software measures for efficient use of water, land, labor and other
available resources;
d) To diversify the agriculture production system to produce variety of cash and
commercial crops to make agriculture profitable;
e) To identify and promote market linkages for ready availability of inputs/ services
and quick disposal of agricultural and non-agricultural products;
f) To bring out Entry Point Activities (EPAs) through Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) that are required by the members of PPs aiming at improving livelihood and
sustainable irrigated agriculture.
Since December, 2005, in Orissa, a community based micro plan as well as

identification and implementation of Entry Point Activities with the strategy for
overcoming the key problems faced by the farmers has been launched on pilot basis for
the sustainability of irrigated agriculture in Upper Indravati Irrigation Project and Upper
Kolab Irrigation projects and will be replicated in other projects after observing the pilot
studies.
Upper Indravati and Upper Kolab are two multipurpose major irrigation projects situated
in the less developed, tribal and backward caste dominated region of Orissa, where
majority of the farmers are poor and practise subsistence farming. These projects are
funded for not only development of irrigation infrastructure as sole objective, but also it
aims at proper management, operation, maintenance and sustainability irrigation system.
The post evaluation of completed portion of this project shows that the project provides
the farmers in the region an opportunity for dry season farming, enhanced employment
opportunities to landless laborers, tenant farmers and small-scale farmers and arrested
migration. This would not have been possible without irrigation. It has significantly
increased the income and living standards of the farmers of the region, of course
majority of them are Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The coverage of area
under different crop and production of different crops, particularly rice has increased
significantly after the implementation of the scheme. Due to the impact of irrigation the
farm households’ income shows an increasing trend. Increased income has made it
possible for the children to go to school and the family to buy consumer durable (JBIC
2003a). Though the process of formation of WUAs/ PPs, is slow in these projects at the
beginning due to absence of proper policy and act supporting legal and institutional
environment, now gaining momentum due to present PIM policy and appropriate
legislation by the state (Das, 2005a & 2005b).
In these projects, it has been observed that though there is improvement in soci-
economic condition of the farmers in general, inequitable distribution of water and
poverty persists in the project area. The key problems faced by the farmers include
unequal water allocation, inefficient water use, shortage of funds, inadequate
institutional capacity, lack of integrated water resources management, dilapidated
existing irrigation facilities and soil degradation, information gap in agricultural
diversification and technologies, deficient distribution network and market place, low
technological level of food processing and low value addition, rural usury,
inaccessibility to different schemes of government like health, sanitation, input supply
etc.
Particularly for the first time implementation of Micro-plan and EPAs have been
initiated in these two projects assisted by Japan Bank for International Cooperation
(JBIC). In these projects JBIC, Department of Water Resources (DOWR), Government
of Orissa and Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI, Orissa) are working
together for development of Micro Plan and identify Entry Point Activities (EPAs) in
consultation with the local farming community. Whenever required, assistance of NGOs
is being sought. WALMI, Orissa is engaged as implementing agency for a period of two
crop seasons and will gradually withdraw as the community learn and adopt the required
practices for sustainable agriculture. In these pilot irrigation projects Self Help Groups
(SHG)s have been formed within the WUAs or PPs to play vital role in improving
irrigation efficiency, agricultural productivity and improvement of livelihood. One of the
important feature of micro level plan is identification of EPAs. The identified EPAs
consist of a broad array of activities such as facilitation of Micro-credit with revolving
fund for undertaking rural farming, non-farming activities, empowering rural women,
rural micro-enterprise development and facility for farm mechanization. The other
options for micro level plan considered are effective packages of technological and
management practices, adoption of commercial farming using market forces and
mechanism to enhance efficiency, awareness and capacity building of the stakeholders
and other livelihood enhancing measures. Assessment and incorporation of all local
specific characteristics for providing effective service delivery, increased productivity,
protection of environment and improved socio-economic condition for sustainability of
the irrigation projects in the planning process have been considered for implementation.
The structural arrangement for sustainable and productive irrigated agriculture for
Socio-economic development is given in Fig.2. The results of this strategic plan are
under study and proposed to be adopted in other irrigation projects which are being
considered for modernisation. In many irrigation project, Pani Panchayat programme has
already been implemented and in these projects, it is observed that the PPs need more
capacity building, training and guidance to carry out the activities related to their rights
and responsibilities properly (Das 2005a, 2005b).
Irrigated agriculture will be sustainable, if Pani Panchayats orient their agriculture
production towards the market economy and are able to convert their traditional
agriculture to a profitable enterprise (Das et al., 2003 & 2004). It is necessary to identify
and develop marketing network for the farming community, which will provide input
supply and required services and facilitate trading of agricultural products. For
overcoming these foreseeable problems and concurrent difficulties, currently the PPs are
being trained and guided by WALMI, Orissa. As soon as the farmers gain sufficient
experience on the recent technology on agriculture production system and networks for
marketing are developed and established, WALMI will withdraw from the project.
Thereafter the PPs can run independently and can cater to the needs of the farmers.
MICRO PLANNING AND EPA STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY

Currently the following strategic plans are followed for development and
implementation of Micro Plan and identification of EPAs in the Pilot Projects. The same
will be replicated in other irrigation projects as irrigation projects nowadays attract high
priority for sustainable agriculture. This pilot implementation is assisted by JBIC and
being implemented with the help of experienced multidisciplinary faculty members and
action research personnel of WALMI (Orissa). The activities are
PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA)

PRA techniques have been applied by WALMI Faculty Members and Facilitators
(Action Research Personnel) to identify EPAs for the PP/WUA.
PARTICIPATORY WALKTHROUGH (PWT)
i) Participatory walkthrough for testing the hydraulic structures and to know the
canal conveyance, controlling mechanism and water measuring aspects and taking
up necessary steps in restoration or rehabilitation.
ii) Audit of existing micro-distribution system and suggestion of improvement.
MOTIVATION AND FORMATION OF SHG
i) Motivation and Formation of Self Help Group (SHGs) explaining the benefits to
the members of the SHGs. This includes various stages i.e. group formation, group
stabilization etc. For EPAs the chak committees are also taken as a self help group.
ii) Encouraging SHGs for community farming, input supply service, marketing
service, and transport service, service for packaging and value addition.
iii) Encouraging private entrepreneurs/ SHGs for agriculture processing industries and
small warehouses to store produce scientifically.
iv) Farmers training on chak/outlet basis to discuss the soil, climate, canal conveyance
and supply, feasible cropping pattern for the outlet.
SOIL SURVEY
Available soil survey data will be utilized for crop planning and recommending
appropriate package of practice.
IMPORTANT AGRICULTURE PROMOTION ACTIVITIES
i) Conducting exposure visits to advanced areas in practice.

ii) Demonstration on crop diversification and package of practices for irrigated dry
(ID) crops, vegetables, fruits, maize, sugarcane, medicinal plants, spices etc. to be
identified after PRA.
iii) Market mapping, Demand survey for products, identification of Buyers,
Establishing marketing network
iv) Streamlining credit facilities and crop insurance, acquisition of micro-finance
skills such as internal lending, fixation of interest rate and loan recovery schedule
and building of corpus funds.
v) Identified training for Farmers and stakeholders
1. Training on capacity building for office maintenance for PP executive members

and self help groups. Role and responsibilities of PPs/WUAs.
2. Irrigation system, Water Availability, Water Requirement, Irrigation
Scheduling, Canal operation, Irrigation Water Management etc.
3. Crop diversification, package of practices for cash crops
4. Diversification for Kharif Paddy and Water Management including package of
Practices.
5. Farm machinery and implements, and their maintenance
6. Effects of disasters and adverse climatic situation and mitigation plans
7. Assessment of additional training needs during EPA Period
8. Workshop on Government schemes, input supply, incentives, credits, subsidies,

insurance, produce storing, processing, value addition, marketing, education,
health etc.
9. Selection and motivation of large buyers and service providers.
DOCUMENTATION AND VIDEO MODULE PREPARATION

Documentation of all the activities in the process of implementation and video module
production are in process for replication purpose.
MONITORING AND EVALUATION

Periodic Monitoring and Evaluation of implementation of micro-plan and EPAs for
strengthening the Programme are being carried out to ensure that the objectives are
fulfilled. Various indicators based on approved EPAs and income generation activities
as well as indicators like Crop Diversification, Productivity, Water Distribution Indices
etc. are also being monitored constantly.
PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION
a) Structure of programme implementation

The programme is being implemented by implementation teams (IT), comprising multi
disciplinary action research staff of WALMI. A multi disciplinary team consisting of
engineering, agriculture and sociology faculty of WALMI will act as the supervising
expert team (SET).
b) Operation of corpus fund

Shifting from traditional rain-fed rice farming to intensive multiple cropping under
irrigation, requires capital expenditure for various activities. Very often, due to non-
availability of adequate and timely credit from formal financing institutions, the farmers
depend on money lenders and borrow at exorbitant interest rates. Most of the resource
poor farmers fail to apply recommended technology leading to poor production. Easy
access to soft loans through micro-credit finance will help the poor farmers to purchase
good quality inputs for application at right time. The grant component to be used as the
corpus fund for providing micro-credits to SHGs will be utilised as follows.
1. Credit will be provided to SHGs, not to the individuals, for undertaking rural
farming, non-farming activities, rural woman development and rural micro-
enterprise development. The farming system includes manufacturing bio-fertilisers,
vermi compost, commercial crop nursery, seed production, soil testing, crop
protection, horticulture (vegetable production), floriculture etc. The non-farming
activities include dairy, poultry, intermediate processing of fruits and vegetables for
value addition etc. The credit may be extended for self-employment for rural women
and micro enterprise development.
2. Credits may be extended for improving rural living condition, such as sanitation,
cooking gas connection and other activities.
3. The activities will also take care of persons engaged in selling firewood to undertake
micro-enterprise based on minor forest produces and rural enterprises.
For sustainable micro-credit or rural credit delivery, appropriate system has been
designed for micro enterprise development to reduce the finance problem and risk of
small and marginal farmers. This includes multiple dose of credit over a period of time
with second and subsequent dose(s), enabling them to access higher amount of credit.
They should have confidence that so long as they prove their credit worthiness by way
of proper utilization of the asset and prompt repayment, the created corpus fund will
stand by them and will grow to provide additional credit. The SHGs are allowed to
stabilize and improve their credit absorption capacity and to increase their fund as well
as increase their credit intake over the years either for the same activity or a new
activity. The credit system has in-built mechanism for easy installments and incentive to
members making regular repayments etc.
IMPLEMENTATION OF EPAS IN PILOT PANI PANCHAYATS
1. Since December 2005, EPAs have been taken up in Pilot PPs having micro
distribution network or field channels. If a Pilot PP does not have micro-distribution
network then in the Entry Point Activity, it is given priority to develop micro
distribution system, which is necessary for scientific on-farm water management.
2. Entry point activities have been carried out with the maximum limit of Rs.0.6
million per PP. The activities taken up are decided by the farming community based
on PRA carried out by implementing agency. In the presence of competent officers
of DOWR, and in consultation with the implementing agency the PPs have approved
the EPAs.
3. The entry point activities include Community welfare, Micro-credit or Rural credit
disbursement through SHG, development of micro-enterprise to improve livelihood
in command area, input supply, farm mechanisation activity for sustainable
agriculture and income generation activities for improvement of livelihood of
farmers in the command area. An agreement has been signed by PP and the
Executive Engineer on behalf of the Project authority as well as PP with SHGs for
this purpose. The project authority (DOWR) has transferred the entire amount of Rs.
0.6 million to the pilot PPs for taking up approved activities
4. The chak committees are treated as SHGs for crop diversification and other income
generation activities. Scope for additional SHGs are open if needed for taking up
different agricultural support services duly approved by respective PP. The amount
identified for the purpose are earmarked and the pilot PP are sanctioning loan to
SHGs from this amount. The PPs are authorized to utilise this amount along with
accrued interest for the purpose of income generation through Micro Credit
mechanism.
5. SHGs are encouraged for taking up community farming.
6. For community welfare as one of EPA, the PPs are authorized for selection of items
such as procurement of machinery/ farm equipment for farm-mechanization to be
used by the general members of PP. The equipments include tractor, cultivator,
ploughs, threshers, seed drills etc. The running and maintenance are being borne by
farmers by charging rentals.
7. Loans for income generation activities shall be provided to SHGs. Loans to
individuals shall not be encouraged as the recovery pattern from individual
borrowers has been observed very low in other similar projects. As regards, the rate
of interest on loans, PP shall have the discretion to decide the same. However, some
rate of interest necessarily needs to be charged in order to offset the bad debts
(which may occur) and also to increase the corpus fund.
8. In the EPAs, it is taken care of that there will not be any effort to duplicate the
activity that the other departments have already taken up. The convergence of the
activities of various departments is emphasized. In case of inadequacy, the
convergence and co-ordination will be strengthened.
9. The DOWR is facilitating the augmentation of institutional capacity of the PP for
maintaining services, facilities and works undertaken through EPAs. PPs are also
given scope for taking up resources generation activities. For this purpose PPs
would be encouraged to take-up small scale work contracts pertaining to
improvement works in their jurisdiction. As per the provisions of Pani Panchayat
Act, DOWR is also making efforts to mobilize other government departments to
extend their schemes in the project area so as to enhance the developmental works in
these selected area and also maintain the assets created under entry point activities in
the PP area. Such schemes may include health, sanitation, education, Swarna Jayanti
Gramya Swarozargar Yajana (SGSY) and other new schemes.
10. The DOWR shall maintain proper accounts PP wise of all the entry point activities
undertaken in the project area. This will be subjected to audit checks by the state
audit department as per the procedure laid down.
11. A mechanism for monitoring of the implementation of EPAs has been established
under the chairmanship of Engineer in Chief for effective implementation and
providing timely suggestions.
12. Display boards are kept in each Pani Panchayat by the Water Resources Department
clearly specifying the EPAs carried out in that Pani Panchayat along with the
amount spent by the DOWR.
CONCLUSION
In irrigation projects, active participation of the farmers who are the ultimate
beneficiaries is indispensable, with Water Users Associations/Pani Panchayat as the
center of activity. In order to strengthen the Water Users Associations/Pani Panchayats
and promote participation by farmers, first a study should be made to ascertain the social
and economic conditions of the beneficiaries, such as caste/tribes, land ownership of
existing inhabitants, social and cultural institutions and organizations, etc. The study
needs to indicate problems in irrigation, markets, technology, and capital, etc. in detail.
Once the socio-economic survey is done, an action plan clarifying the rights and
responsibilities of different stakeholders should be prepared at a stage sufficiently ahead

of the launching of irrigation water supply.
The executing agency or Government Department of Water Resources needs to promote
early transfer of operation and maintenance of manageable portion of irrigation system
to Water Users Associations/Pani Panchayat. Also it is necessary to build the capacity of
Water Users Associations and provide full support for technological upgradations in
order to promote self-reliance and the realization of sustainability.
It is evident from the study that the objective of providing assistance for alleviation of
poverty and rural upliftment through micro-planning and entry point activities as
adopted in JBIC assisted irrigation projects in Orissa is significantly different from the
strategy of other international funding agencies and quite comprehensive for achieving
the goal of sustainable agriculture. Assisting for poverty reduction by way of promoting
schemes for agricultural productivity improvement through irrigation is not only the
motto but it integrates community based participatory approaches to support agricultural
development like improving access to markets or the use of new production
technologies, promote environmentally sustainable production activities, facilitates
education about alternative routes for employment, gender issues, measures to improve
income and livelihood through micro-finance; rural infrastructure upgradation, to
improve access to markets and product distribution, participatory processes to empower
the rural poor with core skills (such as producing local food products), while helping
them to set up a business plan, obtain market information and comply with health
measures. In fact, external assistance for mega projects also needs more careful
planning at micro level, so that the intended benefits of the projects are realised on
sustainable basis.
REFERENCES:
1. ADB (2004) Country Strategy and Program Update, 2005-2007, India, Asian
Development Bank CSP: Ind 2004-16
2. Das, D.K (2005a) ‘Participatory Irrigation Management - A Perspective from Pani
Panchayat Programme in Orissa’ Proceedings of World Water Day 2005, Central
Water Commission, Bhubaneswar, Govt. of India, pp.126-149.
3. Das, D.K (2005b) ‘Irrigation Management Transfer to Farmers in Orissa:
Experiences and Lessons' Proceedings of conference on Irrigation Management:
Policies and Practices, European Commission and Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneswar,
20-21 June 2005.
4. Das, D.K (2005c) ‘Community Based Socio-Economic Development Planning in
Irrigation Projects in India: Strategic Approaches in JBIC Assisted Projects;
CSIRD Discussion Paper: 5/2005; Center for Studies in International Relations
and Development (CSIRD) Kolkata.
5. Das, D.K (2005d) ‘Decentralised Governance of Irrigation Infrastructure for
Sustainable Agriculture. Seminar Paper Vol. IV; NIRD Foundation Day Seminar'
Rural Development and Social Change; National Institute of Rural Development,
Hyderabad, 9-10 Nov. 2005
6. Das, D.K, Mangaraj, B.K and Acharya, R.C (2003) ‘Multi-Perspective Monitoring
and Evaluation of PIM (Pani Panchayats) in Orissa: An Analytical Approach’
Proceedings of Tenth National Water Convention, Ministry of Water Resources,
Govt. of India,
7. Das, D.K, Mangaraj, B.K and Acharya R.C (2004) 'Performance Monitoring of
Irrigation Management Reform (Pani Panchayat ) in Orissa: A Multi-perspective
Approach', 45th Technical Annual, Institution Of Engineers (India), Orissa State
Centre, pp-425-431.
8. DeBoer, K. and Pandey, A. 1997, 'India's Sleeping Giant: Food', The McKinsey
Quarterly, vol. 1997, no. 1, pp. 82-96.
9. Govt. of India (2002) National Human Development Report 2001, Planning
Commission, New Delhi
10. Grossmann, M. and Poston, M. 2003, 'Skill Needs and Policies for Agriculture-led
Pro-poor Development'; Working Paper Number 112, QEH Working Paper Series
11. JBIC (2003a) Evaluation of ODA Loan Project, Upper Indravati Irrigation Project,
India; Report on web site of. JBIC
12. JBIC (2003b) Ex-post Evaluation IV Follow-up Evaluation of Development
Studies (Agricultural Irrigation) Report; web site of. JBIC
13. JBIC (2003d) Meta Analysis of Ex-Post Evaluation Reports by Country and Sector
Country Review Report India Final Report
14. JBIC (2005a) Supporting Sustainable Economic and Social Development of India,
A Country That Has the Largest Impoverished Population; News Release;
NR/2004-76, March 31, 2005
15. Simmons, C. and Supri, S. 1999, 'Failing Financial and Training Institutions: The
Marginalization of Rural Household Enterprises in the Indian Punjab', Journal of
Economic Issues, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 951-72.
16. UNDP (2003) Human Development Report 2003, 'Millenium Development Goals:
A compact among nations to end human poverty', The Oxford University Press,
New York.
17. White, S. 1999, Women's Employment in the Agro Food Processing Sector: South
Asia and East Africa, Agha Khan Foundation Canada.
VOLUMETRIC PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA:

EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED
S. A. Kulkarni1
ABSTRACT
Volumetric method of pricing irrigation water has always been advocated as the better
approach to induce water savings by farmers. However, owing to seemingly technical
and administrative complexities in adoption of the volumetric method - especially in
large public canal irrigation systems, the area based pricing method is widespread in
most countries. In India, during the last decade, there has been significant development
in adoption of the volumetric supply and pricing through participatory irrigation
management. Present paper provides a brief overview of international practices and the
present status of irrigation water pricing and participatory irrigation management in
India. A case study of volumetric allocation, supply and pricing adopted by a Water
User Association (WUA) in the State of Maharashtra has been presented. The
experiences and lessons learned from the case study and similar other WUAs have
clearly demonstrated that a combination of volumetric supply and pricing at the entry
point of a WUA command area and subsequent distribution and recovery on crop-area-
season basis by the WUA can become successful. Although, the much perceived
objective of achieving water savings due to the volumetric pricing was not directly
realized, there prevails a win-win situation both to the government department staff and
WUAs /farmers. For irrigation staff, this approach has minimized the efforts in area
measurement and vigilance on the area irrigated by farmers, and billing of irrigation
charges has become simpler. From farmers’ side, as there is a full freedom of cropping
pattern and the volumetric water charging system being transparent, they are willing to
pay higher rates and use the available water efficiently by irrigating more area with
same amount of water. Nevertheless, there is a vast scope to refine /upgrade the present
system, especially in respect of increasing the accuracy and reliability of flow
measurement. The concept of volumetric supply can gradually be introduced at
individual farmer’s level by roping in available technology and farmers’ involvement.
There is a particular need to strengthen the role of WUAs to equip them for the
enhanced responsibilities which calls for a major capacity building exercise.
1- Director I, Central Office, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), New Delhi
<icid@icid.org>
INTRODUCTION
There are many methods of assessing irrigation water prices in different countries across
the world; most common being - area based, crop and area based, volumetric, and
market based methods. Charging of water on volumetric basis has been considered as
superior approach to overcome deficiencies of charging by area based method. The
volumetric pricing approach is considered to be conducive to create an incentive for
efficient allocation and use of irrigation water and has been advocated by the World
Bank and other international donors. The countries employing volumetric pricing
approach include Australia, England, France, Israel, Jordan, Mexico, Morocco, Spain,
and USA. In California, about 80 % of the more than 100 irrigation districts have
shifted to volumetric charging system since the past 20 years (Burt, 2006). In these
irrigation districts, the land holdings are large and water is distributed mostly through
pipe network up to farm head. In Philippines volumetric charging is practiced as a
means of achieving simplicity of billing (Cornish et al., 2004).
There is a vast array of literature available on irrigation water pricing. Water pricing
experiences across 22 countries for irrigation purposes have been presented by Dinar
and Subramanian (1997). A literature survey on pricing of irrigation water was brought
out by the World Bank (Johansson, 2000). The overview of worldwide experiences of
water charging in irrigated agriculture is provided by Bosworth et al., (2002), Cornish
and Perry (2003), and by Cornish et al., (2004).
In Morocco, the water charges range from US$ 0.02 to 0.06 / m3 which correspond to
about US$ 100 or more per hectare for typical field crops (Cornish and Perry, 2003).
Perry (2001) reported volumetric water charges in Iran as US$ 0.004 /m3, which
amounted to US$ 30-40/ha for wheat, barley and maize and US$ 90/ha for rice. He
found that if volumetric prices are to be used to induce farmers to invest in improved
on-farm technology (e.g. sprinkler, micro irrigation) to save water, these water charges
would have to exceed US$ 0.08/m3 – a 20 fold increase – for the investment in on-farm
water management to be profitable. It was thus observed that volumetric pricing in any
form, in the absence of much higher water charges, will have very little impact on
farmers’ choice of crop or choice of irrigation technology. As per the recent report of
the Working Group on Financing Water for Agriculture (WWC, 2006), irrigation
charges at a level necessary to cover O & M costs tend to be too low to affect farmer’s
behavior and are useless as tool of water conservation. On the other hand, if the charges
were raised to a level that would influence farmer’s behavior, it would be politically
unacceptable. Paradoxically, raising the price of canal irrigation water could induce
farmers to extract more water from groundwater sources, which is highly subsidized
(notably in India) through free electricity for pumps leading to overexploitation of
aquifers.
Most water pricing literature has indicated that the extra cost of constructing flow
measuring devices and related administration of measuring discharges, compilation and
preparation of bills is often prohibitive, especially in large and spatially spread public
irrigation system serving thousands of smallholders and thus the volumetric based
charging system is not-worth-the-cost of its implementation. As a result, area based

fixed rates are dominant in most irrigation systems.
PRICING OF IRRIGATION WATER IN INDIA
In India, pricing of irrigation water has been debated since long. Various committees
and commissions have examined the issue from time to time and have given their
recommendations. Irrigation commission (1972) recommended that the water rates
should be 5% - 12% of the total value of farms produce, the lower percentage being
applicable to food crops and higher for cash crops.
Vaidyanathan Committee (1992) recommended a two-part tariff comprising a fixed

charge applicable to entire command area as a membership charge, a variable charge
based on area irrigated to recover annual operation and maintenance (O & M) cost, and
1% interest on the capital cost. Full cost recovery was recommended to be the ultimate
goal. To accomplish this goal the needed changes were to be brought out in phases,
eventually leading to pricing on volumetric basis supported by improvement of existing
systems, creations of autonomous, financially self-reliant entities at the system level
with participatory management by users. Eventually, some of the recommendations
have been implemented by a few State Governments. The volumetric pricing of
irrigation water is one among others.
In India, all public irrigation systems are Government administered and there is no
direct link between water charges and O & M cost. The water rates vary widely from
State to State and are decided more as political decision. The water rates presently being
charged are highly subsidized and are much less than even the recurring O & M
expenses (CWC, 2004). In India, owing to its simplicity, charging of irrigation water on
area basis is the most widespread practice. Considerations forming the basis for water
charges on area basis include - source (surface water, groundwater), supply type
(gravity, lift), season (rainy, winter and summer), type of crop (food grain, cash crops),
duration of crop growing season (seasonal, two seasonal, and perennials), method of
irrigation (drip, sprinkler), land classification (like wet and dry lands), and scale of the
project (major, medium, and minor). In some States water charges are combined with
land revenue while in some other electricity to pump groundwater for irrigation is
provided free of cost. In some States there is no charging of water for irrigation
purposes. In general, in India allocation for O & M are typically half or less of real O &
M expenditure needs (CWC, 2004). The prevailing water charges range from about less
than US$ 1 to $ 140 per hectare. Table 1 shows the water rates for paddy, wheat and
sugarcane in canal command (flow irrigation) areas in major irrigating States of India.
Table 1. Water charges range (lowest and highest) for some crops in India
Irrigation water rates (Rs /ha)

Sl. No. State
Paddy Wheat Sugarcane
1 Andhra Pradesh 247 – 494 ---- 247 – 494

2 Assam 281 – 751 ---- 222
3 Bihar 108 – 247 138 – 185 185 – 370
4 Gujarat 701 – 825 200 – 240 280 – 2750

5 Haryana 148 111 – 123 172 – 197
6 Jharkhand 108 – 217 138 – 185 370
7 Karnataka 247 148 988

8 Madhya Pradesh 200 – 494 200 741
9 Maharashtra 238 476 6297
10 Rajasthan 49 – 197 64 – 148 103 – 286
11 Tamil Nadu 37 – 49 ---- 49

12 Uttar Pradesh 40 – 287 128 – 287 99 – 474
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM) IN INDIA

The National Water Policy of India (MOWR, 2002) emphasizes that allocation of
irrigation water should be done with due regard to equity, social justice and that the
supply of water should be made on volumetric basis. Now many States have adopted
Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) approach, where irrigation water is supplied
to the Water User Associations (WUAs). As per the Ministry of Water Resources
(MOWR), the Govt. of India, more than 60,000 WUAs covering about 12 million
hectares have been formed in the country (personal communication). States where PIM
has been adopted on a significant scale are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. However, excepting
the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat, the volumetric allocation and supply is yet to be
adopted in other States.
VOLUMETRIC PRICING IN MAHARASHTRA
Maharashtra State, situated in the south-west of India has semi-arid climate and
irrigation is essential to obtain assured and reasonable crop yields. Of the total
cultivable area of 22.4 million hectares, some 1.26 million ha are irrigated by canal
(surface) water (inclusive of 0.44 million ha by wells in the command area) (WRD,
GOM, 2006a). As a part of water sector reforms, special campaigns were taken up to
promote PIM by formation of WUAs in the public canal irrigation schemes.
The first successful attempt of establishing a WUA in Mula project was made in
Maharashtra in 1989. Since then the PIM movement has been spreading slowly but
steadily in the State. At present, more than 1100 WUAs covering about 0.35 million
hectares are fully functional (Damani et al., 2006). Beside this, more than 1500 WUAs
covering 0.6 million ha were in pipeline. Figure 1 shows the growth of WUAs in
Maharashtra.
1200
1000
800
600
No. of WUAs
400
200
Area, million ha
0
2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Figure 1. The growth of Water User Associations in Maharashtra State
Maharashtra is one of the pioneering States in initiating supply and pricing of irrigation
water on volumetric basis. As per the Maharastra State Water Policy, 2003, Maharashtra
Management of Irrigation Systems by Farmers (MMISF) Act 2005, and Maharashtra
Water Resources Regulatory Authority (MWRRA) Act, 2005, it is mandatory to
allocate water to WUAs on volumetric basis. In the public canal irrigation schemes,
water is supplied to the WUA at the minor (tertiary canal) head (an entry point of the
WUA’s command area) and charged on volumetric basis. The WUA has the freedom to
deliver water to its members either on crop-area or delivery time basis and also to
determine rates to be paid by the members to the WUA. The farmers have freedom to
grow crops of their choice and reuse the return groundwater (through percolation and
seepage) through wells without any extra charge. Farmers generally make conjunctive
use of canal and groundwater for irrigating their crops. Crops like vegetables and
orchards which require irrigation at short intervals are often irrigated by groundwater,
besides surface water made available during rotations. There is a provision that if water
is not availed in a particular rotation or season, it can be saved / reserved and demanded
in the next rotation or season.
In order to promote the concept of volumetric supply and pricing, capacity building and
training of field level functionaries, and farmers is taken up on regular basis. Seminars
and workshops with the active involvement of NGOs and experts are held to orient and
explain the technical and socio-economic aspects of volumetric pricing to engineers as
well as farmers.
FIXING OF VOLUMETRIC PRICING
Allocation of water volume (quota) on seasonal and area basis varies from project to
project and decided on the basis of- (i) Live storage capacity of the reservoir (ii)
Evaporation losses from the reservoir (iii) Commitments /reservations for irrigation and
non-irrigation uses both at upstream and downstream (iv) Cropping pattern in different
seasons, and (v) Conveyance losses in canal and distribution network.
In Maharashtra, the volumetric charges for bulk water supply have been so fixed that
the assessment on the volumetric rate and the prevailing crop-area-season rate almost
matches. The volumetric rates vary as per the season – low in monsoon (kharif) season
and high in summer (hot weather) season. The present volumetric rates in the State are
Rs. 47.6/103 m3 for kharif season (1 July to 14 October), Rs. 71.4/103 m3 for rabi
season (15 October to 28 February), and Rs. 144.8/103 m3 for hot weather season (1
March to 30 June). These volumetric rates are applicable until the next revision of the
crop area rates. A comparison of water rates on crop-area-season and volumetric basis is
shown in table 2.
FLOW MEASURING DEVICES IN CANALS
In India, the tradition of flow measurement in canals is in vogue since more than a
centaury, and the conventional measuring devices like Standing Wave Flume (SWF),
Parshall Flumes, Orifices and V notches are generally used. In some States, the
measuring devices are not constructed separately, but only the gauges .are installed in
the canals. The discharges are then computed by using Manning's or other empirical
formula.
In Maharashtra, in most of the irrigation projects, the discharge measurement data of
main canals, branch canals /distributaries is routinely maintained. A SWF was installed
on Mutha canal in 1928. Since then the SWF is normally provided on all canals and
distribution system having discharging capacity more than 0.15 cumecs. Later in 1970s,
under the World Bank and USAID assisted programmes, Parshall and Cut-Throat
Flumes were introduced for measuring flow below 0.15 cumecs. Manuals and Standards
on design and construction of measuring devices have been prepared by the
Department. Irrigation engineers are trained in the subject at the State’s Water and Land
Management Institute (WALMI) on regular basis. A typical installation of a SWF on a
minor in the Waghad project is shown in figure 2.
Table 2. Comparison of water rates on crop-area-season and volumetric basis

(Adopted from Damani et al., 2006)
Water rates on crop-area basis Water rates on volumetric basis

Season Crops
(Rs./ha) (US$ /ha)* (Rs./103 m3) (US$ /103 m3)*
Millet 238 5.3 47.6 1.06
Sorghum 238 5.3 47.6 1.06
Kharif
Peanut 724 16.0 47.6 1.06
Rice- paddy 724 16.0 47.6 1.06
Wheat 476 10.6 71.4 1.6
Rabi Sorghum 357 8.0 71.4 1.6
Gram 476 10.6 71.4 1.6
Two- Kharif and Rabi

724 16.0 59.5 1.3
seasonal crops (e.g. Cotton)
Hot
Peanut 1438 32.0 144 3.2
weather
Perennial Sugarcane 6297 140 87.7 1.9
* (1 US$ § Rs. 45)
Figure 2. A view of a Standing Wave Flume in operation

(left) and a gauge chamber (right)
VOLUMETRIC PRICING IN JAI JAGDAMBA WATER USER ASSOCIATION

– A CASE STUDY
Waghad dam located in the north Maharashtra is one of the four dams that comprise the
Upper Godavari Project. The dam was constructed in 1979 with a live storage capacity
of its reservoir as 72 million cubic meters. Water is conveyed through two main canals
viz., a 45 km long Right Bank Canal and a 15 km long Left Bank Canal. The culturable
command area of the Waghad irrigation scheme is 9642 ha and the irrigable command
is 6750 hectare. There are 24 WUAs covering the entire command area of the scheme.
Recently, the entire project has been transferred to a Project Level Association (PLA)
by forming a ‘Federation of Water User Associations’ under ‘Maharashtra Management
of Irrigation Systems by Farmers (MMISF) Act 2005’. Water is supplied to the PLA at
the main canal head on volumetric basis, which is further distributed among WUAs as
per their sanctioned quota. The water quota allocation for kharif and rabi season in the
Waghad command has been worked out as 1360 cubic meter/ha and 1648 cubic
meter/ha for kharif and rabi seasons, respectively (Belsare, personal communication).
Jai Jagdamba Water User Association is one of the 24 WUAs of the Waghad Irrigation
scheme and was formed in 1997. The command area of the WUA is 338 ha and receives
water from two minors (minor No. 16 and 17) and three direct outlets (19A, 20 and 21)
of a distributary. There are 162 beneficiary farmers belonging to three near by villages.
Originally, the Waghad system was planned and designed for supplying water only for
two seasons (kharif, and rabi) and mostly for providing supplemental irrigation to cereal
crops. The agreed upper limit of water volume (quota) allocated to the Jai Jagadamba
WUA following the agreed norms is 166 x 103 m3 for kharif season, and 356 x 103 m3
for rabi season. However, the WUA has freedom to use any amount of water within
the total allocated quota (522 x 103 m3) during any season and also to grow crops as per
farmers’ preference. Subsequently, all farmers shifted to cash crops (sugarcane,
grapevines, vegetables, and flowers) with food grain crops grown on small area. As per
the provision, if the WUA saves from the allocated water quota of either kharif and/or
rabi season, it is entitled to get the balance volume of water (after consideration of
evaporation and other losses) for irrigating crops in the hot weather season. Generally,
there is no demand for water in kharif season as rain water and groundwater are
sufficient to satisfy crop water requirement. There are 176 open wells and 64 bore wells
in the command area of the WUA. Conjunctive use of water is extensively practiced,
meaning crops are irrigated both from canal water and groundwater. The WUA receives
bulk water on volumetric basis as per the overall water quota allocation policy of the
Waghad Project and subject to the actual storages in the reservoir. Individual members
receive water as per their sanctioned area and schedule - prepared prior to each
irrigation rotation by the WUA. Internal distribution of water, assessment and recovery
of charges rests with the WUA. Members are charged on crop-area basis while the
WUA pays to the Department on volumetric basis. Table 3 shows an abstract of area
irrigated and water supplied to the WUA in each of the three rotations in the hot weather
season- 2005-06.
Table 3. Crop wise area irrigated and water supplied in hot weather season (2005-06)
Area irrigated in rotation (Hectare)

Crop 1st 2nd 3rd
(3 to 9 April 2006) (11 to 16 May 2006) (28 and 29 May 2006)
Grape Vines 32.7 39 11.6
Vegetables 11.8 11.20 1.3
Others 5.92 6.8 0.8
Sub total 50.42 57.0 13.7

Water supplied to
102.6 113.4 27.1
the WUA (103 m3)
A sample discharge measurement record of the minor 16 for the rotation 2 as

maintained by the Water Resource Department and the WUA is shown in table 4.
Table 4. Record of gauge reading (H) and corresponding flow

(Q) of the SWF at the minor 16 for the rotation 2
Gauge reading at the hour Average Volume

Date
6 9 12 15 18 21 24 3 6 (Day-Cusecs) (103 m3)
(H) - 0.55 0.55 0.52 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47

11/5/2006
(Q) - 7.15 7.15 6.45 5.81 5.81 5.81 5.81 5.62 4.91 12.2
(H) 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.52 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.58
12/5/206
(Q) 5.62 5.62 5.45 5.45 6.45 7.75 7.75 7.75 7.75 6.62 16.2
(H) 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.52
13/5/2006
(Q) 7.15 7.15 7.15 7.15 7.15 7.15 7.15 7.15 6.45 7 17.1
(H) 0.58 0.55 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.55 0.6 0.58 0.58
14/5/2006
(Q) 7.75 7.15 5.45 4.75 4.1 7.15 8.15 7.75 7.75 6.67 16.3
(H) 0.58 0.62 0.48 0.42 0.44 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.42
15/5/2006
(Q) 7.75 8.15 5.91 4.75 5.09 7.15 5.91 4.75 4.75 6.02 14.7
(H) 0.42 0.4 0.34 0.32 0.45 0.2 - - -

16/5/2006
(Q) 4.75 4.45 3.49 3.18 5.27 1.57 - - - 2.26 5.52
Total 33.48 82
The rotation and season wise volume of water supplied to the Jai Jagadamba WUA and
corresponding area irrigated during the last five years (2001 to 2006) is shown in table 5.
Table 5. Season and rotation wise water supplied to the WUA and area irrigated
Irrigation Volume supplied Area Av. water withdrawal

Year Season rotation to the WUA Irrigated at the minor head
No. (103 m3) (ha) (m3/ha)
1 65.1 31.8 2047

2 84 38 2211
Rabi
3 117.8 55.5 2123
2005-06 4 83.5 40.1 2082
1 102.6 50.42 2035
Hot Weather 2 113.4 57 1989
3 27.1 13.7 1978
1 42.29 18.9 2238
Rabi 2 86.1 38.6 2231
3 110.8 52.6 2106
2004-05
1 115.3 56.1 2055
Hot Weather 2 96.5 47.3 2040
3 26.7 11.34 2354
1 92.3 43.1 2142
Rabi
2 112.2 53.7 2089
2003-04
1 97.6 46.9 2081
Hot Weather
2 68.8 33.2 2072
1 136.5 59.1 2310

Rabi 2 142.3 74.2 1918
2002-03
3 87 45.3 1921
Hot Weather 1 120 57.1 2102
1 78.3 35.9 2181

Rabi
2001-02 2 124 66.5 1865
Hot Weather 1 120.4 59 2041
As can be seen from the table 5 that the area irrigated in each rotation varied from 11 ha
to 74 ha during the last five years. On an average about 2000 cubic meter was used to
irrigate a hectare (at minor head). As mentioned elsewhere, conjunctive use of surface
and groundwater is extensively practiced in the command of the Jai Jagadamba WUA
and in the hot weather season about 166 hectares were irrigated by wells, indicating
significant reuse of recharged water. Some farmers have constructed farm ponds to store
rain water and in some cases irrigation water. Grapevines are grown on about 130
hectares and almost all the area is irrigated by drip system. The computation of water
charges for the hot weather season (2005-06) to be paid by the WUA to the Water
Resources Department is shown in table 6.
Table 6. Assessment of water charges by the Water Resources Department

to the WUA for the hot weather season 2005-06
Total water Local cess Total water charges
Water rate Amount
delivered to the (20% of the amount to be paid by the
WUA (103 m3) (Rs./103 m3) (Rs.) WUA (Rs.)
in column 3, Rs.)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
42,241.00
243.1 144.8 35,200.90 7040.2
(US$ 939)
The Water Resources Department gives a rebate of 20% on the total charges to WUAs
as a grant and a further rebate of 5% is given if the WUA pays the water charges by 15
October of that year. The Jai Jagadamba WUA charges Rs. 750 /ha for all crops in the
rabi season and Rs. 1075 /ha /rotation for all crops in hot weather season to its members.
The amount charged for the hot weather season (2005-06) was Rs 130,203 thus leaving
profit of Rs .87,962 (inclusive of the rebates as above) to the WUA.
EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED

The volumetric pricing has been proved as a win-win approach both to Water Resources
Department and WUAs /farmers. Generally, there has been a positive attitudinal shift
towards volumetric pricing among Department personnel –from the top administration
to the lower level field staff. Some experiences and lessons learned in implementation
of the volumetric supply and pricing in Maharashtra state are briefed as follows:
WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT
Initially, engineers had a feeling that the farmers, being illiterate would not understand
the discharge measurement procedure and hence it would be difficult to implement the
volumetric supply. Many field engineers used to complain that the farmers tend to
tamper /break the measuring devices and hence there is no point in constructing
/repairing them. Some field officers had an apprehension that once the volumetric
supply system is introduced they will be fully accountable in delivering the committed
quota and flexibility in supply to the WUAs.
As accounting of water is in-built in the volumetric supply system, assessing water
charges and preparing bills became simple and time /cost saving. As the scheduling of
water, maintenance of the system below the minor head and recovery of water charges
from individual farmers is taken care by the WUAs, there has been a decline in number
of complains from farmers. The tedious task of measurement of irrigated areas of every
farmer in each rotation has been curtailed. Both, the Department and the WUAs jointly
keep record of flow measurement at the minor head. The assessment and billing can be
done quickly without waiting for measurement /verification of actual irrigated areas. As
the measurement of discharges at different points of the canal network become
mandatory, it provides factual information on the extent of conveyance losses in the
system.
WUAS AND FARMERS
WUAs / farmers have incentive to apply water efficiently and water thus saved can be
used to irrigate additional area and /or for the next season. Tail end farmers who were
earlier deprived of getting reliable and adequate water supply are now getting assured
and equitable supply. The WUAs have developed a confidence as they know about the
quantum of water being used by them in a transparent manner. The water charges are
payable for an actual volume received at the minor head. The recharge due to seepage
/percolation of water in the command area of the project is available for reuse, free of
charge.
Some farmers feel that the measuring devices obstruct /reduce the flows due to
constriction /hump and hence they tamper or break the measuring device. When
explained properly with field demonstration that they are required to pay only for actual
quantity of water supplied /received by them, most of the farmers /WUAs were
convinced and accepted the volumetric supply. Once the farmers understand the full
implications of measurement of discharge, they insist on charging water on volumetric
basis, instead of crop-area basis. This has created a sort of competition among WUAs
for irrigating more and more area with the same volume of water.
REGULATORY PROVISIONS
To adopt volumetric supply, a regulatory framework for allocating water among
farmers, acts, rules and procedures defining rights and responsibilities, priorities in case
of shortage or excess supplies, penalties for breach of rules greatly help empower both
irrigation officials and WUAs.
CAPACITY BUILDING AND TRAINING
Capacity building and training of the field staff of the Water Resource Department,
office bearers, farmers and employees of the WUAs in understanding the volumetric
pricing, measurement of discharge, calculation of volumes and preparation of bills,
maintenance of flow measuring devices, crop water requirement, efficient on-farm
irrigation methods, measuring losses in canals and water courses will go a long way in
building confidence and competence among them.
FLOW MEASURING STRUCTURES
Some common deficiencies in construction and maintenance of measuring devices as

observed are as follows:
Construction: The throat width of the flumes is altered during or after the construction
due to application of a cement plaster layer. The gauge chamber is not properly
constructed. The gauge sill levels are not connected to the hump or sills of the
measuring device i.e. the zero level of the gauge does not tally with hump level. The
distance of the gauge from the throat sill is not kept as per design. The pipe connecting
the canal to the gauge chamber is either choked or provided with higher diameter than
the design or at times the pipe is not provided at all. The fluming on upstream and down
streamside is sometime not done with care and as per the geometrics of the device. In
some cases the measuring structure is installed at incorrect location where required
approach conditions do not prevail.
Operation and Maintenance: Measuring devices are not properly calibrated. Most of the
flumes work under submergence condition. Gauge chambers are filled with debris and
are not maintained on regular basis. Gauges are either damaged or not painted regularly.
In case of chambers in deep cutting, the stairs /steps to go down for gauge reading are
damaged. The sills /humps of measuring structures are generally broken or damaged.
The downstream section is rough, filled with debris, which obstructs the formation of a
standing wave or jump.
WAY FORWARD
Volumetric supply and pricing of irrigation water in India is still at experimental stage
and has to go a long way before it becomes a widely accepted and an integral
component of WUA’s operation. The case study has amply demonstrated that farmers
are willing to pay higher water charges provided the supplies are reliable, flexible,
equitable and there is a transparency in the billing system. In the Waghad project, a few
WUAs have gone one step ahead by practicing internal distribution of water on hourly
basis instead of crop-area basis (proxy volumetric approach). Nevertheless, the political
will, quality of service, and leadership are the buzzwords to make it happen. There is a
need to make the flow measurements more accurate, reliable and the structures more
robust. The flow measuring device may be equipped with an automatic water level
recorder /totalizer to account for fluctuating flow rates and convert those into volumes.
Deficiencies in the construction and maintenance of the measuring structures need to be
removed. Some innovative flow measuring devices may be tried. There is a need to
provide water level regulating structures in the canal network to maintain stable flows at
the measuring points. Capacity building and training of all concerned – Department
personnel and farmers should continue. With the given scenario, one can hope of using
volumetric water pricing as a tool to bring about water savings in reality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Author is grateful to Mr. M. Gopalakrishnan, Secretary General, ICID for his
encouragement in preparation of the paper. Thanks are due to Dr. Sanjay Belsare,
Executive Engineer and Er. Avinash Lokhande, Section Officer, Palkhed Irrigation
Division, Nashik, Maharashtra for providing information and data related to Jai
Jagadamba Water User Association.
REFERENCES
1. Bosworth B., G. Cornish, C. Perry, F. van Steenbergen (2002): Water Charging in

Irrigated Agriculture – Lessons from the literature, DFID, HR Wallingford,
Report OD 145
2. Cornish G. B., Bosworth, C. Perry, and J. Burke (2004): Water Charging in

Irrigated Agriculture – An analysis of international experience, FAO Report 28
3. Central Water Commission (2004): Pricing of Water in Public System in India,

Information Systems Organisation, Information Technology Directorate, Water
Planning & Projects Wing, Central Water Commission, New Delhi
4. Belsare S. M., Executive Engineer, Palkhed Irrigation Division, Nashik,

Maharashtra (personal communication)
5. Damani R .L, Purandare P. V., Purandare V. P., and Ingle A. P. (2006):

Volumetric Supply and Pricing of Irrigation water: Scenario in Maharashtra,
Paper presented at the Workshop on Volumetric supply and Pricing of Canal
Water, December 2006, SOPPECOM, Pune, Maharashtra, India
6. Dinar A., and A. Subramanian (1997): Water Pricing Experiences – An

International Perspective, World Bank Technical Paper No. 386
7. Johansson R. C. (2000): Pricing Irrigation Water – A literature Survey, Policy

Research Working Paper 2449, The World Bank
8. Ministry of Water Resources (2002): National Water Policy, Ministry of Water

Resources, Govt. of India, <http://wrmin.nic.in/nwp2002.pdf>.
9. Perry, C. J. (2001): Charging for Irrigation Water: the Issues and Options with a
Case Study from Iran, Research Report 52, IWMI, Colombo
10. Vaidyanathan, A. (1992): Report of the Committee on Pricing of Irrigation Water,

Planning Commission, Govt. of India, New Delhi
11. Water and Land Management Institute (2004): National Workshop on

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and Volumetric Measurement, 2-3
July 2004, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India.
12. Water Resources Department (2006a): Report on Water Audit of Irrigation

Projects in Maharashtra, Government of Maharashtra, India
13. Water Resources Department (2006b): Report on Benchmarking of Irrigation

Projects in Maharashtra, Government of Maharahstra, India
14. World Water Council (2006): Financing Water For Agriculture, Working Group
on Financing Water for Agriculture, Progress Report No. 1,
<www.worldwatercouncil.org>
PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS ON OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE OF THE IRRIGATION NETWORKS SYSTEM IN
CENTRAL JAVA AND WEST NUSA TENGGARA PROVINCES
Mohd. Ali Fulazzaky1 and Slamet Imam Wahyudi2
ABSTRACT
According to the Law No. 7/2004 on water resources, the irrigation networks
management in Indonesia consists: the feasibility, environmental impact and masterplan
studies; construction step; operation and maintenance phase as well as the monitoring
and evaluation. Implementing the irrigation management especially in the paddy field
areas which needed a huge water consumption and request of involving the stakeholders
for each step of the management processes. Therefore, the national policy also as
mentioned in the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 declared that the central and
local governments recognize the role of the water user associations (WUAs) to carry out
the irrigation networks system management based on farmers’ participation approach.
This paper elaborates several researches for analysis and evaluation of the farmers’
participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system in two
provinces in Indonesia: Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara. The methodology of
researches is respectively following the several steps i.e examining the population
survey of the defined sampling locations, distributing the questionnaires and collecting
the feedback responses of the farmers, and collecting the other relevant data as well as
analyzing the validated data and evaluating the farmers’ participation levels. The
research is also conducting the secondary data of the existing studies, including in the
Yogyakarta special province region.
The appreciation of the farmers’ participation assess through the role of WUAs at the
planning, performing, and evaluating processes as the parts of operation and
maintenance of the irrigation networks system management and representing the
presence or absence as well as the aptitude of the farmers in the meetings and
supporting the examination of the records related in the locations of study.
This research giving the general responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning
and performing processes respectively as indicating the scores of 2.77 and 2.80 and
1- Water and Wastewater Senior Expert: Indonesian Ministry of Public Works, Jakarta – Indonesia and
Lecturer at the UTHM Johor – Malaysia, email: fulazzaky@yahoo.com
2- Lecturer and Researcher et the Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang – Indonesia, email:
siwahyudi@yahoo.com
score of 3.2 and classifying the high category. A general remark of the farmers’
response on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management
in two provinces can be summarized as following: 42% of farmers is categorized as
high participation, 16% as moderate participation, 32% as low participation and 10% as
very low participation.
Key words: farmers’ participation, irrigation network system, operation and
maintenance
INTRODUCTION
The irrigation networks system management in Indonesia consists: the feasibility and
environmental assessment impact studies; masterplan and detail plan preparations;
construction step; and monitoring and evaluation phases as well as the operation and
maintenance. Especially, the operation and maintenance phases have to be very close
related to the irrigated agricultural field activities which needed a huge water
consumption and involving the participation of the farmers as an important
stakeholders. As highlighted in the government regulation and other national policies,
one side, the farmer’s participation on the irrigation management is being in order
targeting the reduction of the annual government budget and, the other side, increasing
the sense of belonging of the farmers and with care handling the maintenance of the
irrigation network infrastructures.
One of the oldest farmers’ participation through the WUA’s organization in Indonesia is
known as the “Subak” system in Bali island. The Subak is a traditional irrigation
management institution of the irrigation networks system and founding as a socio-
religious agricultural communities, it has been being more than one thousand year ago.
The institution of the Subak system is a simple organization and corresponding the
irrigated paddy field areas. In general, the system consists: Pekaseh (Chairman),
Petajuh (Vice Chairman), Penyarikan (Secretary), Juru Raksa (Treasurer) and Juru
Arah (Messenger). In general cases, the Subak communities meetings have to be
assigned an agreement of irrigated water allocations and food productivity targets,
especially for increasing the annual rice production (Sutawan, 1995).
According to the Law No. 7/2004 on water resources as highlighted in the Article 84,
that the farmers have to be an equal opportunity taking part in the water resources
management process i.e in the studies, planning, construction, operation and
maintenance steps as well as in the monitoring and evaluation of the water resources
management activities.
In the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 related to realization of the irrigation
management in Indonesia, the government admits the farmer’s participation through the
role of the WUAs as the formal institutions to carry out the irrigation networks system
management, i.e. planning, construction, rehabilitation, and operation and maintenance,
as well as financing the irrigation networks system. It seems that the newly government
policy has a good relevancy with the classic statement: “every body has a tendency to
carry out all of the activities when he has to be participating in each step of management
and decision making processes” (Davies, 1982).
According to the government regulation and policy also as mentioned in the Ministry of
Home Affairs Decree No. 50/2001 and confirming the existing relevant studies such as
the study on water resources management program that has been executed under the
Water Resources Sector Capacity Building Project, the WUA’s participation on
operation and maintenance of the irrigation network system representing by
participating the farmers at the planning, performing and evaluating processes.
OBJECTIVES
This paper synthesizes several studies by exploiting the thesis of the students of civil
engineering master of sciences program from both the Sultan Agung Islamic University
and Gadjah Mada University and mainly based on the researches which have been
carried out for analyzing the operation and maintenance performance of the irrigation
networks system in Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara provinces, with the
objectives of:
x understanding and describing the farmers’ participation for operation and
maintenance of the irrigation networks system management;
x defining the farmers’ participation levels at the planning, performing and
evaluating processes of operation and maintenance performance of the irrigation
networks system; and
x assessing the farmers’ participation impact on the planning, performing and
evaluating processes of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks
system management.
The recommendations of each research have been contributed to the local governments
as well as to the related WUAs as a supporting input for the decision making process at
the policy and operational levels and improving the operation and maintenance
performance of the irrigation networks system – especially in order to increase the
participation of farmers located in two provinces: Central Java and West Nusa
Tenggara, the points of view as operators and also in the same time as investors under
the framework of the national food security program.
SCOPES AND LOCATIONS

The substances of this paper based on the researches in two provinces i.e Central Java
and West Nusa Tenggara are only limited on the farmers’ participation at the planning,
performing and evaluating processes of the operation and maintenance phases of the
irrigation networks system management and also supporting the existing other relevant
researches.
The locations of study consist: the irrigation networks system management in
Purworejo, Banyumas, Kendal and Kudus districts in Central Java province and
irrigation networks system management in Sumbawa Besar and West Lombok districts
in West Nusa Tenggara province, as showing in the map of the Figure 1. For completing
the transcription being supported by the additional information coming from the
researches of the farmers’ participation on irrigation and sustainable infrastructures
management located in Gunung Kidul and Sleman districts – Yogyakarta special
province.
Figure 1. Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara provinces, the locations
of study of the irrigation networks system management
METHODOLOGY
The procedure of the researches was systematically conducting the chronological
experimentation stages i.e defining the locations, surveying the population and
mapping, preparing the questionnaires, distributing the questionnaires and data
collection as well as analyzing the data and evaluation.
Analyzing the farmers’ participation levels at the planning, performing and evaluating
processes of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management,
as following:
x Participating the farmers at the planning process indicated by monitoring the
physical presence of the farmers in the meetings, contributing the ideas in the
discussions, adopting the documents for the operation and maintenance plans,
proposing the water allocation for irrigation purposes, proposing the plantation
pattern proposal, and controlling the irrigation scheme which required for
maintenance;
x Participating the farmers at the performing process indicated by cooperating
between the farmers and the construction service providers, involving the farmers
for the maintenance works, involving the farmer in the projects hand-over process,
implementing the water user payment policy for the farmers, and supporting the
operational of the water gates by the farmers; and
x Participating the farmers on the evaluating process indicated by reporting the
illegal water uses by the farmers, reporting the destruction of irrigation
infrastructures by the farmers, reporting the conflicts of water uses and it solutions
by the farmers, number of farmers as member of WUA and following the
trainings, meetings and socialization programs that initiated both by the
governments or NGOs.
The responses coming from the farmers were collected by the researchers based on
distributed questionnaires for the random sampling areas and sampling clusters.
Wherein, the sampling areas were selected a number locations of the irrigation networks
system i.e four locations in Central Java and two locations in West Nusa Tenggara
provinces and for the sampling clusters, the responses were collected from both the
WUA’s organizers and members.
The data analysis and evaluation resulting the farmers’ participation levels have been
carried out by applying the criteria consist of 5 participation levels as showed in Table I
(Arikunto, 1992 and Sugiono, 2002). The responses of the farmers’ participation were
coming from 1,000 respondents and classified into five categories, as: very high; high;
moderate, low; and very low.
Table I. Criteria of the farmers’ participation level
Score range value based on standard Farmers’

No Category
deviation participation score
1 mean + 1,5 SD to mean + 2,5 SD >4 to 5 very high
2 mean + 0,5 SD to mean + 1,5 SD >3 to 4 high
3 mean - 0,5 SD to mean + 0,5 SD >2 to 3 moderate
4 mean - 1,5 SD to mean - 0,5 SD >1 to 2 low
5 mean - 2,5 SD to mean - 1,5 SD up to1 very low
Note: mean is average score and SD is standard deviation
PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS AT THE PLANNING PROCESS

A number of researches with different variables and points of view concerning the
correlation between farmers’ participation and irrigation management performance has
been studied in several region in Indonesia. The researches of the farmers’ participation
on irrigation and sustainable infrastructures management located in Gunung Kidul and
Playen water district in Sleman – Yogyakarta Special Province have been reported that
the leadership and communication factors as well as the ecological and social-economic
factors affected the farmers’ participation level and influencing the sustainability of the
irrigation networks system management (Sudaryanto, 2006).
The researches giving the general response of the farmers’ participation at the planning
process as indicating the score of 2.77 and classifying the moderate category, with the
detail responses of the farmers are: 43 % of high; 5 % of moderate; 38 % of low; and 14
% of very low categories, as showed in Figure 2. An enthusiasm of the farmers for

participation at the planning process is important taking account to consider and sharing
their aspiration for achieving the rightful and proportional water allocation entire the
river basin catchment area.
participating the farmers in planning
50 3
45
percent of participat
score of participat
40 2.5
35 2 percentage of
30
farmers'participation, %
25 1.5
score of participation
20
15 1
10 0.5
5
0 0
h
te
w
gh
w
g
ra
lo
hi
lo
hi
ry
ry
od
ve
ve
participation level
Figure 2. Profile of participating the farmers at the planning process
PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS AT THE PERFORMING PROCESS

Participating the farmers through the related WUAs for construction of the simple
infrastructures giving a good participative model for maintaining after construction the
public investments both constructed by the local and central governments, whereby the
farmers’ participation is kindly to carry out maintenance of the simple infrastructures.
The important factors were hereby remarked under influence of the role of the technical
assistants and the guidance from the government direction as well as the educational
level of the farmers (Purwadi, 2003).
The general response of the farmers for participation studied at the performing process
of operation and maintenance indicating the score of 2.80 and classifying the moderate
category, with the detail responses of the farmers are: 35 % of high; 15 % of moderate;
45 % of low; and 5 % of very low categories, as showed in Figure 3. By analyzing the
farmers’ response of the studies which was carried out in the starting period of water
resources reform, it could be optimistic predicted that will be increasing for the next
years to come and, relevant with the law and government policies, participating the
stakeholders will be making as an urgent request in the all of irrigation activities in
Indonesia for the next time.
participating the farmers in performing
50 3
2.5
participation
40
percent of
percentage of farmers'
2
30 participation, %
1.5
20 score of participation
1
10 0.5
0 h 0
w
w
gh
g
at
lo
lo
hi
hi
er
ry
ry
od
ve
ve
participation level
Figure 3. Profile of participating the farmers at the performing process
The participation of the WUAs for the routine and periodic maintenances as well as the
operational activities and irrigation financing has been reported as a good image in
Purworejo district – Central Java (Yuliani, 2003) and participating the farmers for
implementation of the water rights, according the Law No. 7/2004, has been analyzed
for the irrigation networks system management that was reported around 80 % of the
farmers agreed with the water right principles and participating the farmers for water
retribution fee was really remarked yield up to 45% (Istianah, 2005).
PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS AT THE EVALUATING PROCESS

The prospects of irrigation management hand-over confirming the national policy as
highlighted in the Law No. 7/2004 and the Government Regulation No. 20/2006 to
carry out taking over the responsibility of the irrigation management from the local
government to the WUA’s authority have been studied at the Mamak irrigation district
in Sumbawa – West Nusa Tenggara. It was reported that the capability of the farmers
for irrigation networks system management mainly depending the WUA’s institution
performance and then following the irrigation services management; agro-business
climate condition; irrigation networks system condition; and conflicts resolution
management (Wirawan, 2003).
The performance of operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system has
been analyzed in Kendal – Central Java. The technical factors i.e the accuracy of
equipments for measuring the stream’s flow; physical condition of the irrigation
networks system; and illegal irrigation water losses as well as the non-technical factors
i.e decentralization autonomous policy; unmatched plantation patterns; lack of the
guidance from the local government; and low level of farmers’ participation on
operation and maintenance activities of the irrigation networks system clearly
influenced to irrigated field management (Sunaryono, 2004).
The general response of the farmers for participation at the evaluating process as
reported in these researches indicating the score 3.20 and classifying the high category,
with the detail responses of the farmers are: 47 % of high; 29 % of moderate; 13 % of
low; and 11 % of very low categories, as showed in Figure 4. As showing by high

appreciation of the farmers, it can be recommended that improving the participation of
the farmers as principal stakeholders at the evaluating process for certain locations of
low interest should be considered in the local government policy for the years to come.
participating the farmers in evaluating
50 3.5
3
participation
40
percent of
2.5 percentage of farmers'

30 2 participation, %
20 1.5 score of participation
1
10
0.5
0 0
h
w
w
gh
g
at
lo
lo
hi
hi
er
ry
ry
od
ve
ve
participation level
Figure 4. Profile of participating the farmers at the evaluating process
PARTICIPATING THE FARMERS ON OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

OF THE IRRIGATION NETWORKS SYSTEM
A research of the farmers’ participation level at the upper Progo river basin in Central
Java has been reported the different characteristics of each steps of operation and
maintenance activities. Participating the farmers for the steps of the decision making
and planning processes was monitored dominating the WUA’s organizers, while the
participation of the members of WUA was being passive. For performing step, it was
observed a nice proportional correlation between the ownership of the land paddy areas
and farmers’ participation level. According to the existing research, the farmers who
have more the land areas participate more active on all of operation and maintenance
activities of the irrigation networks system (Mulyani, 1996).
According to this synthetic research, the total general response of the farmers for
participation on the operation and maintenance activities of the irrigation networks
system management can be optimistic classified by the moderate category, with the
analyzed detail responses of the farmers’ participation at the planning, performing and
evaluating processes are: 41.7 % of high; 16.3 % of moderate; 32 % of low; and 10 % of
very low categories, as showed in Figure 5. A good response of the farmers on
operation and maintenance processes of the irrigation networks system management is
important to consider the participation of them for other activities of water resources
management due to a huge surface water consumption of the irrigated paddy field land,
such as in the water resources conservation program, the river basin water resources
planning, the water quality management and pollution control program, etc.
participating the farmers in operation and

maintenance
50 3.5
3
participation
participation
percent of 40
score of
2.5
30 2
20 1.5 percentage of farmers'
1
10 0.5 participation, %
0 h 0 score of participation
w
w
gh
g
at
lo
lo
hi
hi
er
ry
ry
od
ve
ve
participation level
Figure 5. Profile of participating the farmers on operation and maintenance

of the irrigation networks system
CORRELATION BETWEEN FARMERS’ PARTICIPATION AND OPERATION

AND MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE OF THE IRRIGATION NETWORK
SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
Carrying out the scoring the data of the farmers’ participation at the planning,
performing and evaluating processes. It is possible to be analyzed the performance of
operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system management both in
Central Java and West Nusa Tenggara. And assessing the correlation between the
farmers’ participation and the operation and maintenance performance in this research,
by following the F-test and supporting the SPSS-11’s software. Analyzing the value of
the F-test giving the Fcalculate is 51.56 and Ftheory is 2.71, there for Fcalculate >> Ftheory. It
can be concluded that the farmers’ participation at the planning, performing and
evaluating processes has a positive impact on the operation and maintenance
performance. Regarding this reason, the participation of farmers really increases the
performance of the agricultural management at the irrigated paddy field in Indonesia.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
For ensuring the national food security, the Government of the Republic of Indonesia
desires for increasing the food production to achieve the national rice self-sufficiency
and the efforts are relevant with several literatures as remarked by the popular slogan of:
“more crops per drop” as an international statement for balancing between the food and
the world population growth. Implementing the on going water resources reform policy
remarked by issuing the Law No. 7/2004. Herein, the farmers’ participation becomes
the important issues for improving the performance of the irrigation management –
especially on operation and maintenance of the irrigation networks system.
Several researches have been carried out for different locations in Indonesia for
evaluation the farmers’ participation on operation and maintenance of the irrigation
networks system by different analysis methods and clearly concluding the positive
impact. This synthetic research was carry out at six water districts in two provinces i.e
Central Java and West Nusa tenggara, the results also showing that a good correlation
between the farmers’ participation and the performance of operation and maintenance of
the irrigation networks system in Indonesia.
REFERENCES
1. Sutawan, N., 1995.; Water management in Bali island by Subak system, National
Seminar on Water Resources Management, Udayana University, Denpasar – Bali,
Indonesia
2. Davies, A., 1998.; A model for planning and conducting activities, The training of
adult and community educators, Australian Association of Adult Education,
Canberra, Australia
3. Arikunto, S., 1992.; Prosedur penelitian – Suatu pendekatan praktek, PT. Bina
Aksara, Jakarta, Indonesia
4. Sugiono., 2002.; Statistik untuk penelitian, Affabeta, Bandung, Indonesia
5. Sudaryanto, E., 2006.; Effect of the farmer participatory on the operation and
maintenance performances of the irrigation scheme management, Thesis, Civil
Engineering Magister of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University,
Semarang, Indonesia
6. Purwadi., 2003.; Analysis of role of the construction supervisor and community
officer on the participatory construction method implemented by the water users
associations (WUAs), Thesis, Civil Engineering Master of Sciences Program,
Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia
7. Yuliani, T., 2003.; Kajian parameter operasional dan pemeliharaan partisipatif
untuk Perkumpulan Petani Pemakai Air (P3A) – Studi kasus daerah irigasi Boro
– Kabupaten Purworejo, Thesis, Civil Engineering Master of Sciences Program,
Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia
8. Istianah., 2005.; Kajian pelaksanaan Undang-Undang No 7 Tahun 2004 berkaitan
dengan hak guna air di Kecamatan Undaan – Kabupaten Kudus, Thesis, Civil
Engineering Master of Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University,
Semarang, Indonesia
9. Wirawan., 2003.; Kajian prospek pelaksanaan kebijakan penyerahan kewenangan
pengelolaan irigasi kepada P3A – Studi kasus daerah irigasi Mamak – Kabupaten
Sumbawa, Thesis, Post-graduate Program – Gadjah Mada University –
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
10. Sunaryono, C., 2004.; Faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap kinerja jaringan
irigasi Sojomerto – Kabupaten Kendal, Thesis, Civil Engineering Magister of
Sciences Program, Sultan Agung Islamic University, Semarang, Indonesia
11. Mulyani, S., 1996, Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi derajat partisipasi P3A pada
implementasi program penyerahan irigasi kecil (PIK) pada Cabang Dinas Progo
Hulu – Kabupaten Magelang, Thesis, Post-graduate Program – Gadjah Mada
University – Yogyakarta, Indonesia
TESTING P+PR CONTROL SYSTEM FOR PARTICIPATION OF

WATER USERS IN DELIVERY MANAGEMENT
Mohammad Javad Monem1, Mohammad Sadegh kiapasha2
ABSTRACT
Facing water shortage and increasing water demand, it is necessary to consume limited
water resource in an optimal fashion. In agricultural sector as the biggest consumer of
water, due to low performance of irrigation networks improving, water delivery systems
and its performance with participation of water users and applying improved control
system is a must. For this purpose in recent decades several automatic control Systems
including P+PR system, for flow management in irrigation networks are introduced.
Applications of these techniques provide a situation that water users play a direct role in
water delivery with high flexibility. After introducing any automatic control system,
their application in irrigation canals, requires testing of their performance in relation
with other structures. Considering unsteady behavior of the flow in irrigation canals,
using hydrodynamic models is a regular approach for testing performance of control
systems. For this purpose international test cases including two types of canals, with
specific operational instructions are introduced by American Society of Civil
Engineering (ASCE). In this paper ICSS hydrodynamic model is applied on ASCE
standard canal no. two to test the global performance of P+PR downstream automatic
control system. After calibration of numerical coefficients of control system, the
operational scenarios are applied, and performance indicators such as MAE and IAE
which represent maximum and average depth deviation respectively and SRT which
indicates response time of control system are determined. In addition to the performance
indicators, depth, Flow and gate adjustments variations are depicted and analyzed. The
results show that average depth deviations are in the range of 0.001 to 0.014 % and
maximum depth deviations are in the range of 0.111 to 0.211 %. The response time of
control system shows that the depth is stabilized in the allowable range at the first time
step. Depth variation graph shows appropriate response of control system to flow
variations. Performance indicators and depth variations shows appropriate functioning
of the control system. Relying on the results of this study, application of this control
system in irrigation canal which provide higher flexibility and direct participation of
water users in management of water delivery could be suggested.
1- Assistant Professor, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran. Po.Box: monem_mj@modares.ac.ir

Tel: 44196523-5, Fax: 44196524.
2- M.Sc. Student Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran.
Keywords: Irrigation canals, Automatic control, Management of water delivery, P+PR,

Downstream control.
INTRODUCTION
Most of Irrigation systems due to poor management are performing below expectation.
Poor management in irrigation networks results to inadequate and unjust water delivery
which contributes to unsatisfaction of water users. Management of water delivery and
corresponding control systems has a great impact on performance of irrigation
networks. Considering limited water resources and necessity of optimal con
consumption of water, requires participatory management and increasing the level of
contribution of water users in water delivery. In order to reach to this goal it is
necessary to increase the level of flexibility of water delivery which in turn leads to low
water losses and higher productivity at farm level. Higher flexibility requires
implementation of advanced automatic control system such as regular and specific
downstream control systems. Automatic downstream control systems provide
opportunity for water users to participate in management of water delivery directly and
receive the required amount of water at proper time. P+PR control system is one of
control systems applied in irrigation canal to provide higher flexibility.
In this research the Global performance of P+PR1 control system which provide direct
farmers participation in management of water delivery is evaluated.
INTRODUCING P+PR CONTROL SYSTEM

Several control systems with different characteristics are developed for irrigation canals.
P+PR control system which can be use in both upstream and down stream control
system is introduced by USBR2. In this control system the gate adjustment is calculated
using a proportional and integral relation and is applied by an electromotor installed on
the gate. It is possible to use four different filters such as depth dead band, gate
adjustment tolerance, electromotor speed, and hydraulic filter. Depth dead band is a
depth tolerance around target depth. If water depth remains in this range no action will
be done. Gate adjustment tolerance is minimum limit of gate adjustment. If the
calculated gate adjustment is less than this limit no action will be done. Electromotor
speed filter controls the speed of gate adjustment to be less than allowable range.
Hydraulic filter diminishes gate adjustment due to minor depth variations. Hydraulic
filter is calculated using equation 1 and 2.
C sf (Ywn Ywp ) Y fp (1 C sf )
(1) Y fn
1 C sf
't
(2) C sf
2T f
1- Proportional Plus Reset

2- United States Bureau of Reclamation
Where yf is filtered depth, yw and yt are observed and target depth respectively, Csf is
simulated filters constant, ǻt time step, and Tf is time filter constant. The combined
actions of all the filters lead to stable operation of gate.
In P+PR control system the controlled out put which is gate adjustment is calculated
using equations 3, 4 and 5.
(3) 'G p K p .(Y fn Yt )
(4) 'Gi > @

K i ³ 0k (Yt Y fn ) r 0.5.Z db dt
(5) 'GT ' G p ' Gi
Where: Kp and ki are proportional and integral coefficient respectively. ǻGT, ǻGi, ǻGp
are proportional, integral and total gate adjustment respectively, Zdb is allowable dead
band and n and p subscripts refer to present and past computational time steps.
In automatic operation the downstream depth is observed by sensor. The observed depth
is filtered by equation 1. The filtered depth is compared with target depth and
proportional gate adjustment is calculated by equation 3. The filtered depth is compared
with dead band, if it is out of dead band the integral gate adjustment is calculated by
equation 4. In equation 4 the plus sign for 0.5 Zdb is for the time when filtered depth is
above dead band and minus is for the time when filtered depth is be below dead band.
Finally the total gate adjustment is calculated by equation 5. The total gate adjustment is
compared to gate filter, if it is less than that the gate adjustment is set to zero.
Considering total gate adjustment the required gate speed in operational time step is
calculated and compared to motor speed. If calculated speed is greater than allowable
speed, the gate adjustment is set to the multiple of allowable motor speed and
operational time step.
INTRODUCING THE ICSS1 MODEL

ICSS hydrodynamic model is developed by Manz to simulate hydraulic, hydrology, and
operation of irrigation conveyance system (Monem, 1990). The model is able to
simulate one dimensional, gradually varied steady and unsteady flow under different
operational conditions and control structures in canal with any cross sections. In ICSS
model, hydraulic structures are considered as a boundary condition. For performing the
hydraulic simulation the relations of boundary conditions are computed in four step
such as computation of steady flow (BC2#D), operation (BC#C), unsteady flow
computation (BC#A), and updating the parameters of boundary condition (BC#B).
1- Irrigation Conveyance System Simulation

2- Boundary Condition
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF P+PR CONTROL SYSTEM

This control system is developed for controlling a rectangular flat slide gate as a
boundary condition no.12 (BC12) and combined with ICSS model by Massah
(Massah, 1380). Here short introduction of four step of this model is presented.
STEADY FLOW SIMULATION

Steady flow computation is started from the most downstream structure with a specific
discharge which is determined in input data file. At P+PR boundary condition
considering the specified discharge and hydraulic equation of flat sliding gate, the initial
gate opening is calculated.
SIMULATION OF OPERATION
In flat sliding gate manual and automatic operation is considered which could be
specified in input data file. In automatic operation the options of upstream control or
downstream control is provided. The switches of four filters explained earlier could be
set to on or off. In automatic operation the subprogram type c (BC12C) is called in each
time step and gate opening is calculated using equations 1 to 5.
UNSTEADY FLOW SIMULATION

In order to compute unsteady flow the continuity equation for upstream boundary
condition (Go) and momentum equation for downstream boundary condition (FN) and
their partial derivations with respect to depth and velocity are required. The automatic
flat slide gate With P+PR downstream control system works under submerged condition
and Go and FN equations are derived as equation 6 and 7.
(6) G0 : A1.V1 AN .VN 0
(7) FN : A1.V1 Cd .b.GO . 2 g (YN Y1 ) 0
In which, A is flow cross sectional area, V is flow velocity, Cd is flat slide gate
discharge coefficient, b is gate width, GO is gate opening, y is flow depth, the subscript
1 and N refer to first node of downstream reach and last node of upstream reaches
respectively. In unsteady flow computation at each time step the A subprogram is
called, the equation 6 and 7 and their partial derivations with respect to depth and
velocity are calculated and unsteady flow equations for whole canal reaches are solved
for one time step. After calculating depth and velocity at all nodes along the canal, the B
subprogram is called and flow depth and discharge are updated in boundary condition
matrices.
CONTROL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

For performance evaluation of P+PR control system, 3 indicators introduced by ASCE1
(Clemens et al., 1998) and Monem (Monem et al., 1382) are used. The indicators are as
follows:
Maximum absolute error (MAE). This indicator shows the maximum deviation between
observed and target depth during operational period and is calculated by equation 8.
max yt yt arg et
(8) MAE
yt arg et
In which: Yt is observed depth at time t and Ytarget is target depth.

Integral of absolute magnitude of error (IAE). This indicator shows the average
deviation between observed and target depth during the operational period and is
calculated by equation 9.
't T
¦ yt yt arg et
T t 0
(9) IAE
yt arg et
In which: ǻt is computational time step, T is operational period, and other terms are
defined earlier.
System response time (SRT). System Response time is a time duration from when the
observed depth is getting out of allowable range until when it get back and stabilized in
the allowable range. The allowable rang is a tolerance around target depth as a
percentage of target depth ((1±0.5% X) ×Ytarget) value of X is determind by user
(Monem et al., 1382). The smaller SRT shows the faster system response.
ASCE CANAL NO.2 AND OPERATIONAL SCENARIO

Different control Algorithms are tested and evaluated in different canals with different
specifications. Canals specifications have a significant impact on performance of
control algorithms. Therefore performance evaluation, comparison, and judgment of
proposed control algorithms under this situation is not an easy job. To overcome these
short comings ASCE working group has suggested two standard canals for testing new
control algorithms (Clemmens et al, 1998). In this research ASCE canal no.2 is selected
to test and evaluate the performance of P+PR downstream control system for
participation of water user in water delivery management in irrigation canals. In this
study the numerical coefficient of P+PR control system are also calibrated. The canal
has a trapezoidal cross section with 1.5H: 1V side slope, and manning roughness
coefficient of 0.02. Canal specifications are given in table 1.
1- American Society Civil Engineers

Table1. Specifications of ASCE standard canal no. 2
Length Upstream Downstream Bed Bed Upstream Downstream

Reach
(m) Elva. (m) Elva. (m) slop width Structure Structures
1- turnout 1
1 7000 400.0 399.3 0.0001 7 Reservoir
2 – slide gate 1
1- turnout 2
2 3000 399.1 398.8 0.0001 7 Slide gate 1
2 – slide gate 2
1- turnout 3
3 3000 398.6 398.3 0.0001 7 Slide gate 2
2 – slide gate 3
1- turnout 4
4 4000 398.1 397.5 0.0001 7 Slide gate 3
2 – slide gate 4
1- turnout 5
5 4000 397.5 397.1 0.0001 7 Slide gate 4
2 – slide gate 5
1- turnout 6
6 3000 396.9 396.6 0.0001 7 Slide gate 5
2 – slide gate 6
1- turnout 7
7 2000 396.4 396.2 0.0001 7 Slide gate 6
2 – slide gate 7
1- turnout 8
8 2000 396.0 395.8 0.0001 7 Slide gate 7
2 – slide gate 8
In mathematical model all physical and hydraulic specifications of the canal and
boundary conditions are defined in form of input data file for ICSS model. The flat slide
gate between canal reaches is equipped with P+PR automatic downstream control
system. At the canal inlet, a reservoir with automatic outlet is considered to satisfy the
downstream requirements automatically. At the end of canal a stop log weir with fix
height is considered. The numerical coefficients of the control system are calibrated
under wide rang of discharge variation. In order to evaluate the performance of the
developed P+PR control system for participatory management and operational scenario
with large flow diversion from canal is simulated. In this operational scenario
simulatenious and large flow diversion by water user at turnout no 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 is
taken into account. The response of control system and mutual impacts of check
structures are studied and performance of control system is evaluated. For this study the
dead band and gate tolerance are taken as 1 and 3 millimeters respectively. Target depth
for check structures no. 1, 2 and 3 are 2, 1.9 and 1.8 meter respectively and for check
structures no. 4, 5 and 6 are 1.7 meter. For this study the steady flow of 3 CMS and
simultaneous flow diversion of 0.3 CMS by all turnouts is considered as initial
condition for the first 12 hours. Total operational duration is taken as 36 hours. During
this time the flow diversion of turnout no. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 have been increased and
decrease by about 200% in two steps. Table 2 shows turnout flow diversion variations
during operational period.
Table 2. Flow variation turn out no. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6
Time (hour) 0-12 12-18 18-24 24-30 30-36

Discharge (CMS) 0.300 0.900 1.500 0.900 0.300
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

For performance evaluation of P+PR control system for participatory management the
explained operational scenario is simulated in ASCE standard canal no.2 and
performance indicators are calculated for check structures which are give in table 3.
Depth, discharge, and gate opening variations downstream of all check structures are
depicted in figure 1 to 6.
The performance indicators given in table 3 shows that the maximum amounts of MAE
and IAE for check structures are 0.211 and 0.014% respectively.
Table3. Performance indicators for P+PR control system
Maximum deviation Average deviation

Check SRT
MAE (%) IAE (%) of depth from target of depth from target
no. (1%)
level (cm) level (cm)
1 0.200 0.010 0.000 0.400 0.019
2 0.211 0.014 0.000 0.400 0.026

3 0.111 0.007 0.000 0.200 0.012
4 0.118 0.003 0.000 0.200 0.006
5 0.177 0.004 0.000 0.300 0.007
6 0.119 0.001 0.000 0.200 0.002
The maximum depth deviation from target depth downstream of check structures is
about 0.4 cm and the maximum average of depth deviation during delivery period is
0.026 cm. The value of SRT within %1 range for all check structures is zero. This states
that depth was within the allowable range during delivery period. Considering practical
accuracy required in irrigation networks for control structures the value of the indicators
is completely acceptable.
Comparing the performance of check structures show that the value of indicators for
mid-canal structures are in the same range, how ever for the upstream structures the
indicators have higher values. This result shows that mid-canal structures have
performed better than upstream structures. This result might be due to accumulative
impact of diversion variations from downstream moving toward upstream. Since the
control system is P+PR downstream control, moving toward upstream the amount of
discharge delivery variation is accumulated. At the canal upstream the discharge
variation is higher than in mid–canal which results to higher depth variation for
upstream structures compared to mid-canal structures during operational period.
Figure 1. Depth and discharge variation downstream of check no. 1

and its gate opening





Figures of depth variation downstream of structures show that for each structure after
controlling the initial variations due to diversion change, the depth is maintained at
target depth and is stabilized in short time.
As a conclusion it could be states that the performance of developed P+PR automatic
downstream control system for simultaneous and significant diversion variations of
outlets is quite suitable and it could be used for direct participation of water users in
management of water delivery.
REFRENCES
1. Clemmens, A. J., Kacerek, T. F., Grawitz, B., and Schuurmans, W. 1998. Test case
for canal control algorithms. Journal of irrigation and drainage engineering. ASCE,
124:23-30
2. Massah, A., 1380. Development of mathematical Model of AMIL, AVIS, and P+PR
control systems in irrigation Canals. A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of
Science in Irrigation Structure. Faculty of agriculture, Trabiat Modares University
(In Persian).
3. Monem, M. J., 1375. Introducing simulation model of irrigation networks and their
performance optimization. 8th seminar of Iranian national committee of irrigation
and drainage (In Persian).
4. Monem, M. J., Massah, A., 1382. Development of mathematical Model of AMIL
hydraulic structure. 4th iran hydraulic conference, SHIRAZ (In Persian).
THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF THE PUBLIC'S

INTERACTION IN THE SUFICHAY NETWORK
Farnaz Joulazadeh, Nafise Paknia, Zahra Pouryaghoub1
ABSTRACT
According to the experienced cases in the past, the experience of the locals'
participation in using water resources like the other forms of public interactions are
influenced by modern management trends in a way that the concept of resource
management and the relevant actions are changed for the most part. Although the
establishment of up – to – date forms of management appears unavoidable because of
the growing population and industrialization of the cities and urgent need for water
energy, and also changing the public form of management into the governmental form
is viable and the financial support by the governments plays a great role in the
completion of this kind of projects, the absence of the public in these projects can be a
remarkable weak point.
When establishing new irrigation and drainage networks, which is one of the effective
ways in water resource development, we can benefit the participation of the public in
scheduling, construction, completion and maintaining the projects, and of course the
participation of the public in completion and maintenance is more tangible and therefore
we got the idea to start our Water - Supplying Cooperative Companies (WSCCs).
The WSCCs is clear picture of the public's participation in economical and social affairs
management and accordingly the members who benefit the water resource projects have
had a close interaction with the authorities based on the framework of the WSCCs and
therefore the effective life of the projects has been increased and a better use of water,
soil resources and investment offerings has been achievable and as a result, the project
of the Sufichay WSCCs in the East Azerbaijan can considered as a successful model of
this kind, but of course, like any other project, it has its own possible weaknesses which
we are going to analyze in the following article:
Key word: public's interaction, Water - Supplying Cooperative Companies, evaluation
1- MSc. Students of urmia university

Email: farjulazadeh@yahoo.com Fax: 03352573497
INTRODUCTION
Over the past one hundred years, villagers in the East Azerbaijan Province have
employed various methods including: making infiltration tunnel, digging wells, making
diversion weirs (which initiates side – flowing streams) across rivers, conducting water
to reservoirs for long – term storage. To manage water - supply affairs based on
seasonal changes, monitoring taking turns in water resource using and distributing water
resource shares among individuals, villagers invented some methods and formed special
groups.
After the advent of technology and industries in villages and development in
communication facilities between cities and villages, traditional regulations began to
suffer. In response to villagers' new requirements, WSCC were established in villages
which were totally or partially located in each dam's downstream to supply water for
agricultural uses.
Around 76 WSCCs were established in the East Azerbaijan Province by financing
50,000,000,000 Rials (about 5,600,000 $) from 1992 to 1998.The first WSCC was
started in Maragheh district (1992 – 1994) and later there was the second one in Bonab
district (1994 – 1996).
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE SUFICHAY NETWORK:

The Sufichay Network is located in the southeast of the Urumia Lake. It is a 120 kms
drive from Tabriz City to this area in the southwest direction. The area neighbors with
the southern sides of the Sahand Mountains in the north, with the western sides the
Sahand Mountains and the Mardogh Valley in the east, with the sides of the Gharah
Gheshlagh Mountains in the south and with the southeastern coastal salt marshes of the
Urumia Lake in the south.
THE LANDS COVERED BY THE NETWORK:

The lands covered by the Sufichay irrigation and drainage n network are mainly divided
and nominated as the following:
District one (the lands around Maragheh City): this area is composed of the gardens and
farms just above the Maragheh Diversion weir and also those around Maragheh City
extending for approximately 2500 hectares.
District Two (The right - hand bank): This area is composed of the farming lands and
gardens of The Maragheh – Bonab Plain and those around the Sufichay River and is
irrigated by the canal initiated from the Maragheh Diversion weir located in the right –
hand bank of the river.
District Three (the left – hand bank): This area also extends as a wide plain in the left –
hand bank of the Sufichay River. The water needed is supplied by Maragheh and
Khanghah Diversion weirs. Whenever there is more rainfall, the extra water from the
Maragheh Divrsion weir is directed to the Khanghah Diversion weir for more irrigation
purposes.
District Four (Bonab): this area is composed of the gardens and farms of the villages
under the Sufichay River and the Bonab Plain and also some parts of the gardens and
farmlands of the villages Zavaregh and Chelghaie.
Note: Since the WSCCs of district one are not included in this statistics project, the
related information is not available in this article.
THE RESEARCH METHOD

In this research for statistically evaluation of the WSCCs we benefited from
measurement method. It is apparent that for estimating the research variables we
employed two different types of questionnaires (one for the WSCCs and one for the
managers) and possible variables include: the weak points and the problems relating to
the activities carried on by the WSCCs which cosist of from irrigation problems,
improvement in water use, collecting water charges, volunteering quality of the
members and so on.
THE OUTCOME OF THE EVALUATION

A: An evaluation of the general features of the WSCCs:
x The number of the members: the studied WSCCs can be divided into three
categories.
1. The WSCCs with 32 to 100 members (7 cases)
2. The WSCCs with 110 to 182 members (5 cases)
3. and the WSCCs with230 to 575 members (5 cases).
x The average age of the members: the minimum and maximum age of the members
the the mentioned WSCCs is respectively 20 and 95 years old. The members of
the WSCC in the group 3 are the oldest of all groups.
x Literacy rate: more than 60 % of participants are literate. The literacy average of
the members of the district 4 is the highest of all districts.
x The managers' occupation: the majority of the WSCC managers (a total of 10
people) are farmers.
x The extension of under farming lands of each member: the most extension of the
cultivated lands belongs to the members of the district 2 (4.3 hectares) and the
least extension goes to the district 4 members (1.2 hectares).
x The extension of under farming lands of each WSCC: the most extension of under
farming lands belongs to the Big Russet in the district 2 (1774 hectares) and the
least extension goes to the Ghal'eh Khaleseh WSCC in the district 2 (72 hectares).
x Earning statistics: the most income is for the WSCCs in the district 3 and the least
amount is for the district 4. The last but not the least, even in the district 3 only
5.25 percent of the members approved a large increase in their income.
B: An evaluation of general issues of the WSCCs:

These issues have been evaluated in two categories. Firstly internal problems which
relate to the system and performance of the WSCCs and secondly the external problems
which do not initiate from the performance of the system but is imposed by different
external factors.
1. THE INTERNAL ISSUES:
x Holding general meetings: the highest percentage of sessions is for the district 2
WSCCs (8.77 percent) and the lowest is for the district 3 WSCCs (3.33 percent).
x Attending the general meetings: 50% of the members of the most of the WSCCs
approved that they didn't attend the meetings.
x Paying membership fees: for the most part the members of the WSCCs of the
network (80 percent) paid the fees.
x Holding elections for management committee in peace and freely: in the most of
the districts the elections for the management committee have been held in peace
and freely and of course in the district 4 we have the highest approval.
x Possible disputes among the members: our findings show that there have been just
a few disputes among the members and the district 4 has had the least number.
x Possible disputes between the members and the managers: in this part we can also
see the least number disputes and the district 2 has had the least number.
x Possible disputes among the WSCCs: this kind of disputes are also very rare to
happen and the highest number is for the district 4 because 3.33 percent of the
managers have reported that there have been some WSCCs that have not
cooperated with the other WSCCs because of their own benefits.
x The references for settling the disputes among the WSCCs and their success in
doing that: the findings show that the members have referred to the Water Affairs
Offices of Bonab and Maragheh cities, the management committees and the
managers, the Taavon offices and the judicial centers respectively to settle their
disagreements.
x The percentage of approval and fee – paying to the managers: most of the
members in the three districts approved paying fees to the managers and even
have emphasized that they will approve this idea if it is posed in the annual
general meeting.
2. THE EXTERNAL ISSUES:

A: The common issues of all of the districts:
The common issues can be categorized as the following:
x The members do not perform the obligations they agreed on in the contracts.
x Water supply is not safe and dependable.
x Water shares are not distributed equally.

x There are a few number of expert supervisors for the network.
x The members have to pay water share charges even if there are some natural
disasters or pests or there is no crop to be harvested.
x There is no schedule for maintaining the equipment and tools.
B: The common issues of each district:

These problems include:
x The water flow gates are not shut adequately.
x The mangers make no request from the judicial officials to ban the illegal use of
water resources.
A SET OF USEFUL MANUALS

In order to improve the network of the WSCCs, we offered the following suggestion in
three categories:
A: The short – term manuals:
1. Creating a steady formula for water share charges.
2. Scheduling a dependable repairing and maintaining method for measurement tools
and devices and providing up - to - date information for the members all the time.
3. The Water Affairs offices of Maragheh and Bonab should coordinate with the
WSCCs of the region when attracting new members.
4. The view points of the general managers should be considered of much value
when signing new contracts.
5. The water share tariff be delivered on time.
6. The canals should be cleaned and maintained regularly.
7. The network should benefit a judicial expert to defend the rights of their society.
B: The average – term manuals:

1. Scheduling for distributing water shares equally, sufficiently and on time.
2. A supervision and evaluation unit should be established.
3. The WSCCs should be supported to found an office of affairs.
4. Performing cleaning and maintaining operations at the beginning of every farming
season can have many benefits such as: cooperation among the members, creating
a working relationship between the WSCCs and the water Organization of the
region, reporting the changes and improvements and so on.
5. Identifying the model WSCCs and introducing them in public and offering
rewards to the members and managers.
C: The long – term manuals:

1. Encouraging the different units of the Water Organization to accelerate the
performance of affairs and duties relating to irrigation and drainage networks
which are going to be used for the first time.
2. Having periodical visits to the networks of other regions to learn more about the
weak points and the strong points of the Sufichay Network and teaching the
managers how to measure the imported water to update their input and regarding
the role of education in the development of the WSCCs.
3. Making a bed for active participation of the members in cooperation affairs.
4. Making an effort to vitalize the necessity of following cropping pattern and water
supply needs and appropriate use of synthetic fertilizers and ... .
REFERENCES
1. Tamanna, S. 2003. The analysis of the public's interaction in the Sufichay network
and the evaluation of these interaction situation. Research report of ministry of
East Azarbaijan regional watercorp
2. Taghavi, N. 2001. The analysis of the public's interaction in solution villages
irrigation issues. Research project of East Azarbaijan cooperation.
FARMERS NETWORK FOR WATER SECTOR REFORMS

IN SOUTH INDIA
R. Doraiswamy1
ABSTRACT
This paper deals with practical experiences of one of the fundamentals of PIM i.e.
Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms (FNWSR) in South India undertaken by
JalaSpandana. The basis to FNWSR is that the farmers are generally excluded from the
process of policy formulation, and are mainly conceived as implementers of policies
designed by others. It is posited that an explicitly multi-stakeholder policy process and
balanced representation of the different interest groups in that, including farmers, will
enhance the quality, acceptability and pace of water sector reform. In order to
strengthen PIM through making PIM a farmers’ baby, FNWSR was initiated in
Karnataka and later extended to States like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and
Pondicherry, which have adopted PIM policy. The main objective of FNWSR is to
facilitate farmers – the major stakeholders in irrigation to participate effectively in the
political process of policy formulation and implementation. INPIM supported
JalaSpandana to carry out FNWSR in 2004 and 2005. The results in terms of regular
interaction with the concerned Ministry and Bureaucracy, pressure group to lobby for
PIM, motivate fellow farmers to function efficiently at various levels of WUAs, etc
seem alarming. In Andhra Pradesh, FNWSR succeeded in building pressure on the
government and ensuring the continuity of WUAs. In Karnataka, the members of
FNWSR succeeded in effective formation and functioning of project level WUAs
institutions in four major irrigation projects. Similarly, in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry,
FNWSR have made significant impact on the structure and functions of WUAs and
PIM.
1- Mr. R. Doraiswamy is working as water resource specialist at JalaSpandana – South India Farmers
Organisation for Water Management, Bangalore, India. JalaSpandana is a non-governmental organisation
formed by the representatives of water users associations in South India. It has head office at Bangalore
and State offices in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Contact:
doraiswamyr@vsnl.net, doraiswamyr@rediffmail.com, www.jalaspandana.org, Phone: 91-80-22286161,
09448268401, Address: 72, 7th Cross, Chikkathayappa Street, Vasanthnagar, Bangalore 560052, India,
www.jalaspandana.org.
1. INTRODUCTION
In South India, states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry
have adopted Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) either through passing an
exclusive Act or enacting its existing Irrigation Act that emphasizes on PIM
(Doraiswamy, 2003). The PIM policy formulation and implementation has been the
business of the government agency in a top down approach. The government agency
enjoy the discretionary powers in implementation of the PIM programme, which often
lead to down play essential elements required for the success of the PIM. Farmers who
occupy the central position in the Participatory Irrigation Management were not given
prime importance in policy formulation and implementation. Moreover, mere enactment
of policies that emphasizes on WUAs in itself is not sufficient to make PIM success,
what matters significant is the successful implementation and periodic review of the
policy.
Participatory Irrigation Management viewed from the larger context of decentralisation
policies of the government suffers more from lack of political will to empower end
users. The regular interventions of the governments as per the wishes of the political
parties hampers the progress of PIM programme. In South India, the field experiences
clearly shows that the interest shown to WUAs vary from Minister to Minister (who
occupies water resources portfolio in the government) and from the government to
government. This approach generates the gap between the government and users and to
a large extent push farmers in to passive receiving end. As the success of PIM lies in
equal and successful participation of all the stakeholders working in water sector, it is
imperative that PIM becomes majority concern. In the process of PIM policy
formulation and implementation, farmers need to take lead role and treat PIM as their
baby and not some thing given from outside. Thus, Farmers Network for Water Sector
Reforms (FNWSR) was conceived to facilitate PIM programme in South India.
In this paper, we discuss the emergence and success of farmers network and way
forward in the context of PIM in South India, especially in states like Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry in South India. The first and second section
deals with area profile, description of farmers network, need in general and in specific
context of PIM policy. The third section illustrates how the FNWSR was carried out in
South India emphasizing on the support received from International Network for
Participatory Irrigation Management (INPIM). Fourth section deals with achievements,
lessons and future perspective of applicability.
1.1. AREA PROFILE

Andhra Pradesh is geographically the fourth largest State in India (67.8 million acres)
and the fifth largest, in terms of population. The population of Andhra Pradesh was
about 75.7 million in 2001 with a population density of 272 inhabitants per square
kilometer (Government of Andhra Pradesh, 2004). The rainfall in the state varies from
568 mm to 1159 mm. Agriculture in Andhra Pradesh is largely dependent on rainfall:
more than 50 per cent of the cultivated area is rainfed. It is estimated that only 42 per
cent of the gross sown area of nearly 11.36 million acres receives irrigation water at
present. The state produced Vision 2020 document emphasizing on holistic approach
towards water resources development (Naidu, 2000).
Karnataka is the eighth largest State in the country and is located in the Deccan
plateau. The geographical area of Karnataka is 1,90,498 sq.km accounting for 5.81% of
the total area of the Country. Up-to the end of March 2000 a total irrigation potential of
36,22,921 ha. (Including ground water is created). The annual normal rainfall is 1138
mm received over 55 rainy days. It varies from as low as 569 mm in the east to as high
as 4029 mm in the west. About 2/3rd of the geographical area of the State receives less
than 750 mm of rainfall (Government of Karnataka, 1995, 2002).
Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry is geographically eleventh largest State in India (130 lakh
hectares) and has 7 per cent population of the country. The net area sown in Tamil Nadu
is about 60 lakh hectares (ha) of which about 30 lakh hectares or 50 per cent get
irrigation facilities from sources like canals (9.50 lakh ha), Tanks (9.00 lakh ha) and
Wells, Tube wells (11.50 lakh ha).
The total area of Pondicherry is 293 Sq kms with a population of 6,08,338 according to
1991 census. In 2000, the net area cultivated is 24,402 ha, gross area cultivated is
42,398 ha and net irrigated area is 21,628 ha and gross irrigated area is 33,643 ha. There
are 84 tanks systems distributed in Pondicherry and Karaikal regions of which 54 are
tank systems and 25 are non tank systems. There are over 8000 tube wells, which
irrigates the net area of about 15000 ha.
2. FNWSR DESCRIPTION
2.1. WHAT IS FARMERS NETWORK

Farmers Network is the powerful way of bringing farmers from different parts of the
political boundaries and various levels of water bodies on to one common platform.
This common platform enable farmers to play constructive role in the politics of water
especially in the process of policy formulation and implementation. In other words,
Farmers network is basically to gain access to water policy details, power politics, new
technology and information relevant to water sector reforms. In this paper, farmers
network refer to farmers using the water in the command area in various sizes of water
bodies like major, medium and minor irrigation projects. This farmers network could
not be called as Network of Water Users Associations as WUAs were not established in
all irrigation projects in these States, either due to lack of policy or the delay in the
process of policy implementation. Thus, the project FNWSR is conceived as a means to
generate political vibration in the Participatory Irrigation Management domain. FNWSR
is established at various levels of water bodies especially at irrigation project level, sub
basin and basin level (JalaSpandana 2004, 2005).
2.2. WHY FARMERS NETWORK IN PIM

Although, there are several benefits accrued out of farmers network, in this section we
focus on farmers network in the context of PIM. The development and management of
irrigation sector in India, especially in South India is highly centralised by the
Government agency. Participatory Irrigation Management or Irrigation Management
Transfer calls for devolution of power, which gives rise to interest conflicting among
various stake holders. As a result, section of the people particularly elected
representatives and officers of Irrigation Department enjoying authority over irrigation
system find all means and ways to evade power transfer to WUAs (Hooja 2006). The
history of decentralisation in India including the local government like Panchayat Raj
Institutions (PRI) clearly shows that the already well established group like Member of
Legislative Assembly (MLA) and Member of Parliament (MP) are not happy in loosing
power over their constituencies especially on water, which is one of the powerful
natural resources (Baumann, 1999).
Farmers are usually on the receiving end and are highly unorganized. To self initiate
and volunteer to form themselves into network becomes rather difficult task as the
farming conditions in South India is more on a subsistence level, the farm size varies
from 1 hectare to 15 hectares per farmer. They lack common platform to negotiate and
contest for rights, responsibilities and powers from their counterpart like Irrigation
Department and other elected representatives. Farmers network enable to provide
necessary and appropriate recommendations to the Government, which otherwise may
not be captured in true and original sense (Alders et. al, 1993).
In South India, there are hardly any NGOs directly working with WUAs in major and
medium irrigation systems. The normal practice adopted by irrigation department in
eliciting information from the water users associations is to pool few WUA
representatives in workshop organised at State level. This approach still becomes the
task of irrigation department and never turns out to be farmers task on a regular
continuous basis. It becomes imperative to establish farmers network to make PIM a
majority farmers concern on a permanent basis (Aw and Diemer 2005).
Farming community in South India, is again not to be viewed as homogenous group.
The farming community is divided in to several groups based on caste, class, region,
location of the irrigation project in a river basin, etc,. In most of the villages in South
India, the village hegemony is based on elite characteristics, which could be social,
economic and political in nature. The past experiences have shown that small group of
people in the WUAs control the entire functioning of WUAs, which is against the
principles of PIM, thus hampering the success of PIM. It is pre requisite for the success
of PIM to bring farmers on one common platform cutting across these boundaries.
FNWSR reduces the damage caused due to varied perceptions and interpretations made
by different stakeholder groups on Participatory Irrigation Management. In South India,
during the initial periods Participatory Irrigation Management and Irrigation
Management Transfer was interpreted by section of the people as transfer of burden
from Government to farmers. In addition, PIM was interpreted as an attempt made by
the Department to divide farming community and further create conflict among water
users. Moreover, the tendency among farmers in South India is that they believe and
come to common understanding when fellow farmers speak positively. This is the better
approach in sharing scarce resources and resolving water conflicts (Doraiswamy 2004).
The field experience shows that farmer to farmer technology transfer is more efficient
than any other agency attempting to convince farmers on several positive aspects of
PIM. In other words, knowledge sharing between and among farmers from different
irrigation projects help boost the success of the PIM programme.
The recent trend in water allocation and demand shows that there is increasing demand
from various sectors like drinking, industries, environment, tourism, etc. It is imperative
to farmers to safeguard the interest of farming community which is dependent on
Agriculture to the extent of 65 to 70 per cent in India.
Farmers network plays constructive role in modernisation programme carried our in

canal irrigation projects. Most of the modernisation programme in canal system focus
on physical works with emphasis on technical aspects of irrigation. The social
component especially involvement of water users is not given prime importance despite
of WUAs existence in the project area.
3. CONTEXT OF PIM
3.1. PIM IN ANDHRA PRADESH

In order to improve irrigation performance, the Government of Andhra Pradesh took a
progressive and innovative step to empower the farmers to manage and operate the
irrigation resources through formation of Water Users Associations in the year 1997.
An exclusive Act called Andhra Pradesh Farmers Managed Irrigation Act of 1997 was
enacted, which provides the legal support for the functioning of these WUAs. At
National and International Level, this is a major reform effort and is the first large scale
exercise at delegation of water management powers to water users (Mollinga et al
2004). The objectives of this reforms are carrying O & M of the irrigation system and
increase in agriculture production. The Act emphasized on formation of water users
organisation at three level namely Water User Associations (WUAs), Distributary
Committee (DC) and Project Committee (PC) for major irrigation projects, two tier
structure (WUA/PC) for medium irrigation projects and single tier structure (WUA) for
minor irrigation.
During 1997, the elections were held democratically and 10,292 WUAs with 46,755
TCs members and 172 DCs formed in the State. Each WUA consisted of 4-10 TC
members and there was direct elections to both TC members and President. Initially, the
tenure of WUA was for five years. Andhra Pradesh Economic Reconstructing Project
(APERP) is taken up to the tune of 962.26 crores, which has Water Users Associations
support component. These organisations have taken up O & M and Minimum
Rehabilitation works.
The APFMIS Act 1997 was further amended by the Congress Government. Some of
these amendments are co-opting the members of other elected bodies like PRI and
MLAs and MPs in to WUAs. One of the positive aspect of these amendments is to make
WUAs as permanent bodies with every two years one third of the Territorial
Constituency (TC) member of WUA go out on rotation system and fresh elections
conducted only in that TC area.
It is reported that there are several benefits accrued after the formation of farmers
WUAs, some of them are bridging the gap ayacut of 10.07 lakh acres1, no water
problem or tension in tail end of the command area, farmers got 5-10 bags extra paddy,
no crop submersion – flood waters quickly drained, the works were executed with speed
and quality and there were no excess in estimated rates.
The water charges were increased more than three folds i.e. from Rs. 60 per acre (paddy
crop) to Rs. 200 per acre. In order to carry out the O&M by WUAs, provision was made
in the Act to re-plough the water charges collected in the WUA area on the basis of
proportion.
1- As reported by I & CAD, GOAP

Table 1. Project/District wise WUAs in Irrigation Projects in Andhra Pradesh

No of WUAs
Name of the Major Medium Minor Total
District
Total WUAs Project Wise WUAs
Adilabad 33 SRSP-8 260 331

Kadam -25 38
Ananthapur 48 TBP HLC -48 22 305 375
Chittoor 0 12 580 592
Cuddapah 78 TBP HLC- 46 217 311
KC Canal 16
Thandava Project-12
East Godavari 208 Godavari Delta System -145 211 436
Yelluru Irrigation System-25 17
Chagalanadu LIS-26
Guntur 398 Nagarjuna Sagar Right Canal-255 0 64 462
Krishna Delta System-143
Karim Nagar 163 SRSP-163 18 495 676
Khammam 79 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-79 38 381 498
Krishna 307 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-100 270 589
Krishna Delta System-207 12
TBP HLC-6
Kurnool 118 TBPLLC-57 12 159 289
KC Canal-55
Mahabubnagar 39 RDS-34 520 564
PJP-5 5
Medak 0 14 550 564
Nalgonda 116 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-86 596 721
Musi Project-30 9
Nellore 92 Pennar Delta System -68 630 765
Somasilla Project-24 43
Nizambad 85 SRSP-8 16 279 380
NizamSagar-77
Prakasam 165 Krishna Delta System-17 300 489
Nagarjuna Sagar Right Canal-148 24
RangaReddy 0 5 184 189
Vamsadara Project-54
Srikakulam 100 Narayanapuram Anicut System25 416 522
Nagavali System -21 6
Visakhapatnam 16 Thandava Project-16 18 331 365
Vizianagaram 4 Nagavali System-4 49 444 497
Warangal 85 SRSP-85 23 658 7566
Krishna Delta System-16
West Godavari 149 Nagarjuna Sagar Left Canal-2 13 226 388
Godavari Delta System-131
Total 2283 410 8076 10769
Table 2. Project / District wise Distributary Committee in Andhra Pradesh

S.No Name of the Project Name of the District No of D.Cs
1 2 3 4
1 Vamsadhara Project 1. Srikakulam 8
1. Srikakulam 4
2 Nagavali 2. Vizianagarma 1
Subtotal 5
3 Narayanapuram 1. Srikakulam 5
1. Visakappattinam 3
4. Tandava Reservoir 2. East Godavari 2
Sub Total 5
1. East Godavari 25
5. Godavari Delta System 2.West Godavari 20
Sub Total 45
6 Yeleru Project 1. East Godavari 5
1. Guntur 30
7 NSRC 2. Prakasam 18
Sub Total 48
1. Nalgonda 10
2. Khammam 9
8 NSLC 3. Krishana 13
4. West Godavari -
Sub Total 32
1. Krishna 29
2. Guntur 20
9 Krishana Delta System 3. Prakasam 2
4. West Godavari 3
Sub Total 54
10 Pennar Delta System 1. Nellore 6
11 Somasila Project 1.Nellore 5
1. Kurnool 8
12 K.C.Canal 2. Cuddapah 6
Sub Total 14
1. Ananthapur 5
2. Cuddapah 6
13 TBP HLC
3. Kurnool 1
Sub Total 12
14 TBPLLC 1. Kurnool 10
15 RDS 1. Mahabubnagar 6
16 Nizamsagar 1. Nizamabad 10
17 Kadam Project 1. Adilabad 5
1. Karimnagar 21
2. Warangal 9
18 SRSP 3. Adilabad 1
4. Nizamabad -
Sub Total 31
19 Musi Project 1. Nalgonda 6
Grand Total 312
3.2. PIM IN KARNATAKA

In order to make the best utilization of available water, the State in June 2000 amended
its Irrigation Act of 1965. The amendments emphasise irrigation management turnover
from the irrigation Department to Water Users Cooperative Society (WUCs) at primary,
distributary, project and State level. At present there are about 3000 WUCs registered
under the Cooperative Act in the State and making progress in forming project level
federations in major irrigation systems (Doraiswamy, 2001, 2005).
The WUCs are empowered to decide on the cropping pattern, fix and collect water
charges based on the volumetric supply and conflict resolution. Further, WUCs are
entrusted the task of carrying out Maintenance work and Water Management through
formal Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between Irrigation Department and
WUCs. In addition, the WUCs were given other rural development works like laying
roads to farm lands called as Our road our farms ‘Namma Holla Namma Rasthe’.
WUCs are also encouraged to take up other income generating activities like fertilizers
and pesticides dealings, and other agriculture inputs. At present, there are four project
level water users institutions in major irrigation systems namely Malaprabha and
Ghataprabha Irrigation systems in Krishna Basin in North Karnataka and Harangi and
Kabini Irrigation Project in Cauvery Basin in South Karnataka.
Table 3. CADA Wuse WUAs Progress in Karnataka as of 31-05-2006 Area: in Ha
Achievement as of 31-05-2006
Sl. Target Registration MOU Handing Over

Name of the Area
(No. of
No CADA Irrigated
WUCs) No. of Corresponding No. of Corresponding No. of Corresponding
WUCs area WUCs area WUCs area
Tungabhadra
1 Project 363000 835 418 238000 147 96500 147 96500
Malaprabha &
2 Ghataprabha 344739 600 552 274700 457 229858 228 229858
Cauvery
3 Basin Project 416768 599 549 228795 228 120539 228 119083
Upper
22943
4 Krishna 259834 530 468 229438 362 177471 362
Project 8
Bhadra
11578
5 Reservoir 118737 298 290 115784 105 42545 105
Project 4
Irrigation
6 Project Zone 36402 79 59 26143 22 8365 26143 22
Total 1539480 2941 2336 1112860 1321 675278 1321 673822

3.3. PIM IN TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY

Tamil Nadu initiated the formation of WUAs in 1980s. Further, in 1994-95 Agriculture
Engineering Department undertook formation of WUAs under World Bank assistance
more seriously by providing financial assistance. Later, in the year 2000, the
Government of Tamil Nadu enacted New Act called Tamil Nadu Farmers Management
Irrigation System (TNFMIS) Act on the same lines as that of Andhra Pradesh.
According to TNFMIA Act WUAs will be formed at three levels of the irrigation
system namely primary, distributary level and project level.
Table 4. District wise details of Elections to WUAs under WRCP in Tamil Nadu
District wise details of coverage of Elections
Name of the
S.No Total No Total No Total No Total
District
of WUAs of Villages of TCs Command
I. Chennai region (ha)
1. Kanchipuram 276 306 1218 47905
2. Tiruvallur 21 39 102 4248
3. Vellore 229 391 1022 33472
4. Dharmapuri 47 159 256 15791
5. Tiruvannamalai 154 387 734 30753
6. Villupuram 80 233 381 22461
7. Cuddalore 78 313 430 25094
Sub Total 885 1828 4143 179724
II. Madurai region
8. Pudukkottai 1 1 4 84
9. Dindigul 17 34 81 4637
10. Madurai 56 433 337 72563
11. Theni 32 65 176 11824
12. Virudhunagar 9 35 53 7197
13. Ramanathapuram 69 218 369 21577
14. Sivagangai 82 246 402 34034
15. Thuthukudi 66 152 317 16401
16. Tirunelveli 162 536 793 65685
17. Kanyakumari 46 158 285 25955
Sub Total 540 1878 2817 259957
III. Pollachi region
18. Erode 49 135 288 49993

19. Coimbatore 101 507 603 119887
Sub Total 150 642 891 169880
Grand Total 1575 4348 7851 609561
T.C: Territorial constituencies.

The government of Pondicherry is carrying out community based tank rehabilitation

programme under the financial assistance of European commission. The NGOs are
engaged extensively to build the capacity of tank users. However, there is no State
policy that emphasizes on PIM and empowerment of tank users associations.
4. IMPLEMENTATION OF PIM IN SOUTH INDIA
4.1. ANDHRA PRADESH

Andhra Pradesh, one of the States in India to enact an exclusive Act called Andhra
Pradesh Farmers Managed Irrigation Systems Act of 1997 did not establish Project
Committees although envisaged in the Act. It confined formation of WUAs to primary
and distributary level of irrigation projects. As a result water users participation at main
system management and its linkages with primary level WUAs, which is a prerequisite
for system performance and water use efficiency did not materialize. The main system
management and the decision making authority rest with the project engineers and
district officers.
The procedures to conduct elections to WUAs is centralised, the decision to hold
elections and its operational logistics was in the discretion of the State Government.
One of the major draw back of such procedures on PIM is the break in the continuity of
WUAs. After the WUAs completion of the first tenure, the State Government did not
conduct elections even to primary and distributary level WUAs across the State and the
management was taken over by Irrigation Department from WUAs. As a result, there
was a gap in the continuity of WUAs.
The revenue collection in irrigation projects constitute central position on the
sustainability of WUAs. In AP, irrigation is provided by Irrigation Department and
revenue collection is carried out by Revenue Department. As a result of multiple
department involvement, the collection rate was below 50 per cent. The sharing of data
regarding the extent of water tax collection by revenue department is not appreciable.
Further, the apportionment of water tax to WUAs, DCs and PCs are not regularly
carried out by revenue department. Thus, WUAs are deprived of their due share of
revenue generated out of water tax and reduces interest in the functioning of WUAs. As
a result, the maintenance of irrigation system is directly affected (Vaidyanathan 1999).
4.2. KARNATAKA
In Karnataka, the registration of WUAs is carried out under State Cooperative Societies
Act with the fixed range of command area for each WUAs. This policy applied to
major, medium and minor irrigation projects. The model adopted in Karnataka was
similar to Maharashtra model of cooperatives1. This created serious problems in minor
irrigation sector in pooling up more than 10 to 15 tank spread in the radius of 10 Kms to
form one society. Initially, in major irrigation projects, the momentum of forming water
users associations did not gear up due to cooperative principles.
1- Maharashtra adopted major reforms in water sector in 2005. It moved away from cooperative model to
ensure total participation of the water users.
The formation of WUAs federation at project level requires high degree support from
department officials. As the WUAs in Karnataka are registered under Cooperatives Act,
the representatives of WUAs had to shuttle between the two departments. In addition,
the absence of model bylaws caused immense delay in the process of formation of
project level users institutions.
Although, PIM policy applies to all irrigation projects in the State, some of the officials
of the irrigation department were not prepared to adhere to the policy contents. The
representatives had to struggle obtaining the information on the implementation of the
policy in some irrigation projects to convince the officers in their project. One such
example is the water tax collection by the WUAs, representatives of federations had to
show to their officers the singed MOU obtained from other irrigation projects.
The volumetric supply of water management in Karnataka over looks the issue of quota
fixation and entitlements. Memorandum of Understanding signed between Irrigation
Department and WUA with regard to water management is one sided. As the quota and
entitlement is not clearly defined, the breach of MOU do not give any hold on the part
of WUAs to make irrigation department accountable. The quota and entitlement is the
pre requisite to achieve equity particularly in irrigation projects that has large tail end
deprivation (Doraiswamy and Mollinga P, 2002).
As per the policy, the operation and maintenance of the canal network lies with the
Irrigation Department. In order to ensure quality and quantity work, WUAs insist that it
should be the responsibility of WUAs.
4.3. TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY

In Tamil Nadu, PIM was not implemented with true spirit as envisaged in the PIM
policy. The formation of WUAs confined to primary level despite of the policy
mentioning about distributary and project level committees. Further, the formation of
WUAs under the World Bank supported project called Water Resources Consolidation
Project (WRCP) was extended to only those irrigation project that was covered under it.
The formation of WUAs as per TNFMIS Act was not taken up in Cauvery River Basin,
one of the major river basins in Tamil Nadu. In rest of the irrigation projects, the WUAs
formed under Command Area Development (CAD) Programme continued. Thus remain
the difference in the structure of WUAs formed under CAD programme and WRCP.
The operation and maintenance work of the canal system is carried out by government
department with little transparency in the process of tendering the works to contractors.
The TNFMIS Act was made uniform to all categories of irrigation projects. This created
problem both in terms of structure and functions of users participation in tank system.
Tank system is usually treated as social institution that belongs to village. The new
policy tried to segment tank users associations on the basis of the fixed range of area to
form the tank users associations. As a result in some cases tank users associations
belonging to particular tank was divided and in most cases it became collection of
several tanks that went against the traditional principles of tank management locally
called as kudimaramath.
Although, farmers participation in tank restoration programme is well appreciated in
Pondicherry, the State Water Policy is yet to be shaped. FNWSR generated good
amount of awareness among the farmers. The State is yet to detail PIM policy, for
which the farmers are rising their voice.
5. INPIM SUPPORT TO FNWSR

JalaSpandana developed concept note to facilitate “Farmers Network for Water Sector
Reform in South India” based on the very positive experience with farmers network
approach, gained particularly in Karnataka through Pragathi a Farmers NGO. Upscaling
and strengthening of farmers networks on water issues is felt necessary to increase the
momentum of water sector reform. The concept note was further developed and
transformed into project proposal with the support of Dr. Peter P Mollinga, Senior
Research Fellow, ZEF, Bonn, Germany and Mr. J. Raymond Peter, the then Executive
Director, INPIM, Washington D.C. JalaSpandana was fortunate enough to get the
financial and other support from INPIM through South Asian Consortium for
Interdisciplinary Water Resources Studies (SaciWATERs) Hyderabad. The project was
successfully implemented in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry.
5.1. OBJECTIVES OF FNWSR
General objectives
x Contribute to a participatory water resource planning process by establishing

Farmers Organization that can actively engage in discussion and decision-making
on water resource policy formulation and implementation at different levels.
x Integrated Water Resource Management on social equality and equity through
Farmers Organisation.
x Overall development of water resource sector and reduce burden on the State
exchequer.
Specific objectives
x Establish and Strengthen a Farmers Organization in four States exclusively to

work on water sector.
x Capacity building of office bearers and farmers in this Farmers Organisation
x Design and implement strategies and activities for effective water management.
x Preparation of Water Policy by Farmer’s Organisation
5.2. MAIN ACTIVITIES

Networking farmers
Establishing communication structure
Undertake capacity building
Define and undertake water sector reform initiatives and strategies
5.3. FNWSR DESIGN

The FNWSR was designed in such a way that the water users network could be
established at various levels of irrigation system. In major and medium irrigation system
depending on the size of the command area and the length of the canal, farmers
workshop were organised to suit the convenience of the farmers. In tank systems, the
workshops primarily focussed at district level. As most of the irrigation projects with in
the sub basin and basin level are getting into conflict due to the centralised decision
making regarding which project should go for irrigation during the season. Farmers
network at sub basin was felt essential to address issues between the irrigation projects
with in sub basin and basin. JalaSpandana organised series of state level workshops that
facilitated farmers to directly interact and place their resolutions to the Ministers,
bureaucracy and policy makers.
The workshops adopted methodology that facilitated farmers to review National and
State Water policy, Participatory Irrigation Management policy and its implementation
bottlenecks, roles and responsibilities of the farmers in making PIM successful
programme and sustainable interaction with system managers. The workshop played
constructive role in bringing farmers from tanks, irrigation projects and officers on a
common platform to find ways and means to carry PIM forward in these States. In the
process, Non Governmental Organisations were roped in to make PIM majority concern
(Rooy 2001).
5.4. FNWSR INTERACTION WITH STATE OFFICERS

FNWSR maintained good relation with concerned stakeholders, especially department
officials were carried out in all the three States. The officers like Secretaries of
Irrigation, Officials of Water and Land and Management and Training and Research
Institute (WALAMTARI), Hyderabad, Irrigation Management Training Institute (IMTI)
Trichy and Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI), Dharwad, Engineer in
Chief for WRO, Chief Engineers, Superintendent Engineers, Executive Engineers and
Assistant Executive Engineers and other officers of Irrigation/Water Resources
Organisation (PWD) and CADA were constantly interacted on issues pertaining to PIM.
5.5. PIM TOUR (YATRA)

JalaSpandana after visiting most of the districts in the respective states and building
rapport with department officials and other professionals assessed the need for state
level workshops of farmers on PIM. The field visits also showed the need to have a
dialogue with the authorities involved in PIM programme in the States. The tour
programme was organised with coordination and cooperation of regional organisations
shown below in the tour plan. Mr. J. Raymond Peter, ED, INPIM participated in one
such PIM Yatra undertaken in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
5.6. INFORMAL PROJECT LEVEL COMMITTEES

JalaSpandana facilitated farmers network to evolve into district/project level informal
committees in irrigation projects. Farmers participation in main system management is
felt essential. Although, the PIM policies in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu have envisaged project level committees, only Karnataka is formally making
progress in formation of project level committees. Thus, JalaSpandana facilitated
formation of informal project level committees to set model and lobby for formation of
project level committees in irrigation projects.
5.7. NATIONAL WATER POLICY

As the National Water Policy is published in English and many farmers in the States,
particularly in South India are unable to read and digest the same. Thus, JalaSpandana
translated the National Water Policy in Kannada, Tamil and Telugu and circulated free
of cost to farmers.
5.8. STATE ORGANISATIONS

One of the significant development under FNWSR is the emergence of Farmers
Organisation to work exclusively on water related issues with special emphasis on PIM.
These State organisations are registered under the State societies Act and have offices in
respective States. Pragathi – Farmers Society for Rural Studies and Development, an
NGO formed by the farmers/ representatives of water users/farmers already existed in
Karnataka. Similar organisation in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu was successfully
formed as follows.
JalaSpandana
FNWSR activity
JalaSpandana
Pragathi in TVNN in PVNN in
Society in Andhra
Karnataka Tamil Nadu Pondicherry
Pradesh
Project/District level, Sub basin and basin level in each State
Diagram 1. State Organizations of Farmers Network
5.9. SOUTH INDIA FARMERS’ WORKSHOPS

Under FNWSR three workshops were organised at South India Level were organised in
January 2004 at Indian Social Institute, Bangalore, December 23rd 2004 at United
Theological College campus, Bangalore and 25th May 2005 at BMP, Urban Health
Centre, Bangalore. Dr. Peter Mollinga, participated in first two workshops and Mr
Raymond Peter participated in third workshop. The agenda of the workshop were to
share the project experiences, best practices, intervention methodology, success of PIM
and lessons learnt from each of these State and strategies for future action.
5.10. PUBLICATION
JalaSpandana has purchased the domain www.jalaspandana.org and the site is a
multilingual website that caters to farmers and other stakeholders with the information
on the water sector reforms including capacity building and other on farm activities.
JalaSpandana is publishing quarterly newsletter in English and regional languages like
Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. In Andhra Pradesh, the title of the newsletter is
JALAVANI, in Karnataka it is called RAITHA PRAGATHI and in Tamil Nadu it is
called NEERVALAM
6. OUTPUTS
6.1. ANDHRA PRADESH

In Andhra Pradesh, as mentioned earlier that the government was not keen on
continuing WUAs after the completion of first term either through holding fresh
elections or continuing the existing body. In 2003, farmers network took initiative and
met the then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, Mr. N. Chandra Babu Naidu and
demanded to continue WUAs in Andhra Pradesh. There was a direct interaction
between the farmers (former representatives of WUAs) and Chief Minister of the State.
Further, the farmers network developed itself into pressure groups and continuously
build pressure on the government through interacting with bureaucracy and other
Ministers. The Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh took a decision to conduct elections to
WUAs in thirteen districts that had water in the reservoir during the year. The elections
to remaining nine districts was not conducted.
The district/project level workshops organised by FNWSR facilitated formation of
district level and project level informal committee of WUAs. This committees
interacted among WUAs and with department officials to boost the success of PIM.
Ground level lobbying for the elections for WUAs in remaining nine districts in Andhra
Pradesh.
In 2005, state level workshop was organised in which the Minister for Major and
Medium Irrigation participated. Farmers presented the policy recommendations and
demanded Minster to conduct elections in remaining nine districts. The resolution copy
of the workshop was prepared and circulated to Minister for Major and Medium
Irrigation, Minor Irrigation, Lift Irrigation, Revenue and Finance Departments. The
Government of Andhra Pradesh took a decision just in three days after submission of
resolution copy of the workshop to conduct elections in nine districts.
The capacity building in irrigation projects was the most neglected part in the irrigation
development. Farmers network further conceptualised Participatory Training
Programme (PTP) to build capacity of WUAs and farmers on various facet of water
management. The concept PTP was shared with Irrigation and CAD, Government of
Andhra Pradesh, which was further developed by the participation of officers. Mr. S.P.
Tucker, Principal Secretary, I&CAD conducted several rounds of workshops to develop
the concept PTP and identify NGOs to carry out capacity building in irrigation projects.
An attempt is also made to revitalize Water and Land Management and Training and
Research Institute (WALAMTARI).
The operation and maintenance is yet another issue that needed attention for the
successful functioning of WUAs. As per the PIM policy, revenue department is to make
apportionment to WUAs, DC and PC out of the water tax amount collected from the
water users. This apportionment was not happening for past few years and WUAs were
unable to carry out operation and maintenance of canal system and also to function as
WUAs. Farmers network had regular meetings with department officials and demanded
for apportionment to carry out regularly.
Farmers network pursued the issue of water tax collection and apportionment. To a
large extent representatives of WUAs were divided over the issue of WUAs taking over
the responsibility of water tax collection. Farmers network highlighted the positive
elements of WUAs taking over water tax collection responsibility. As a result, many
WUAs express willingness to collect water tax collection. The department is
considering to hand over water tax collection on pilot basis in irrigation projects where
WUAs are expressing interest.
6.2. KARNATAKA
In Karnataka, farmers network made significant landmark in the field of PIM. Operation
and maintenance work by the WUAs, appropriate representation of WUAs in Apex
body, Cooperative Act versus Societies registration Act were some of the issues raised
by farmers network.
Informal project level WUAs federation established by FNWSR speed up the process of
formation of WUAs, increase membership and project level federation. The members of
FNWSR was instrumental in forming federations in Ghataprabha irrigation project and
Harangi Irrigation Project. The secretary of JalaSpandana who was spear heading
FNWSR became the president of project WUAs federation in Harangi irrigation project
in Cauvery Basin. She is the first woman to become the president in a federation that
has 86 WUAs with the command area of 54591 hectares. This is an historical
achievement in Gender and PIM.
Karnataka adopted volumetric supply of water distribution. WUAs and Irrigation
Department enter into Memorandum of Understanding to carry out the water
management. The MOU with present model is one sided and do not give any leverage
for the WUAs to make claims due to breach of contract by the government. One of the
significant pre requisite for volumetric supply is fixing the quota and entitlements. This
element is overlooked by the department. Thus, volumetric supply is not being carried
out in true spirit. FNWSR is working out mechanism with the government to move
towards actual volumetric supply. In addition, the issue of water rights and entitlements
is also being taken up by FNWSR.
FNWSR is helping department officials in implementation of PIM policy. The process
adopted elsewhere in forming WUAs, federations, MOU, operation and Maintenance,
etc. are documented and circulated to officers in other parts of the State. In other words,
FNWSR produce documentary evidence to show the progress of PIM in different
irrigation projects in the State, this is one of the strategies for speedy implementation of
PIM. This approach is very helpful in irrigation projects that has some resistance from
the department officials to empower WUAs.
6.3. TAMIL NADU AND PONDICHERRY

Similarly, in Tamil Nadu FNWSR empowered farmers with the contents of State water
policy and PIM programme in the State and elsewhere in the country. The networks
developed at district/project level started interacting with the irrigation and CAD
officials constructively and started demanding the implementation of project level
committees.
The PIM programme with the fixed area for WUA ran into serious problems in tank
systems. FNWSR identified these problems encountered during the elections in terms of
the Structure, functions and other logistics and brought to the notice of PIM experts and
policy makers. This was realized by the policy makers and considered for changing the
area of each WUA under tank systems.
At present FNWSR is constructively involved in the policy discussions on PIM in Tamil
Nadu. It intends to make PIM one of the major component in the forth coming project
taken up by Tamil Nadu under the financial loan from World Bank to the tune of Rs.
3050 crores to take up the project titled Irrigated Agriculture Management of Water
Resources Management.
The members of FNWSR both in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry became pro active in
terms of operation and maintenance of water bodies. WUAs demanded the details of the
works tendered to carry out in the area of WUAs and regularly monitored the works.
FNWSR also promoted establishment of offices for WUAs and records maintenance.
6.4. Women in Networks

A special focus was laid on promoting women in networks, which is found essential to
develop awareness among fellow women and build pressure on the government to
promote women’s role in WUAs through the necessary amendments to PIM policy in
the State. The intensified meetings promoting women participation in WUAs resulted
very positively in Harangi Irrigation Project, one of the major irrigation project in
Cauvery Basin in which the General Secretary of JalaSpandana (member of farmers
network) became president of project level WUCs federation.
Trainings were provided to members of farmers network on leadership qualities and
motivating the elected representatives. One of the main issues is to avoid confrontation
with the other elected representatives in the constituency by way of interacting with
them and briefing the activities undertaken by WUAs and achievements like water use
efficiency, water tax collection, quality and quantity of work, sense of ownership over
canal system by water users and reduction in burden on the State exchequer.
7. FUTURE APPLICABILITY
The FNWSR has immense scope in promoting PIM in South India. It is quite evident
from the field experience that the success of PIM lies with intensive struggle between
the water users, bureaucracy and elected representatives of other bodies. There is
consistent resistance from most of the department officials to empower WUAs. On the
other hand, the culture of change in the government or Minister also creates gap in the
frequency level of interest extended towards PIM. Most of the state governments
express large part of interest in construction of projects and less importance to software
component of irrigation projects like empowerment of WUAs.
In all these states, the implementation of PIM even to the extent envisaged in the state
policy is lagging behind. Under such circumstances, further amendments or
modifications in existing policies become mirage when left to the bureaucracy to carry
PIM forward. There is need for constant pressure or the lobbying group to ensure
successful implementation of PIM and further changes in PIM policy.
8. CONCLUSION
Farmers network is the pre requisite for the success of participatory irrigation
management that warrants devolution of power from department to water users.
FNWSR not only enables negotiate and contest with the government agency but also
facilitate building consensus and cooperation from fellow farmers. The implementation
process becomes smoother through FNWSR. It is evident from the above text that the
FNWSR has created considerable impact on PIM through creating awareness among
farmers, direct interaction with the policy makers, facilitating implementation process,
etc, with limited financial resources. PIM in these states are majority concern,
particularly farmers.
REFERENCE
1. Alders Carine, Haverkort Bertus and Veldhuizen Van Lawrens, (1993): Linking
with Farmers Networking for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture,
Intermediate Technology Publishers, U.K.
2. Aw Djibril and Diemer Geert (2005): Making a Large Irrigation Scheme Work, A
case study from Mali, The World Bank, Washington D.C.
3. Bauman Parri (1999): Democratizing Development? Panchayat Raj Institutions in
Water Shed Development in India in Participatory Watershed Development –
Challenges for twenty-first century, Oxford University Press.
4. Doraiswamy R and Bhavanishankar B.S (2001): Irrigation Policy Reforms –
Peoples perceptions on the amendment bill to irrigation act of 1965 of Karnataka,
Sahayoga, Bangalore
5. Doraiswamy R, et. al, (2003): Farmers Organisation and Water Policy in South
India, edited by Doraiswamy R, Mollinga P and Rajagopal A, published by
Wageningen University, The Netherlands and National Institute of Rural
Development, Hyderabad, India,
6. Doraiswamy R and Mollinga P, (2002): Tailenders and other deprived in irrigation

in India: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra by A. Rajagopal, R. Doraiswamy,
Peter P Mollinga, K.J. Joy and Suhas Paranjape, Irrigation and Water Engineering,
Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
7. Doraiswamy R and Gujja B, (2004): Understanding Water Conflicts - Case Studies
from South India, Pragathi – Farmers Society for Rural Studies and Development,
Bangalore.
8. Doraiswamy R, (2005), Irrigation Policy Reforms in Karnataka, in book Karnataka
Economy: Issues and Concerns, edited by Vishwanatha and Jayasheela, published
by Academic Publishers, Bangalore.
9. Government of Andhra Pradesh (2004): Annual Report of Irrigation and Command
Area Development, Unpublished Report, Hyderabad, India.
10. Government of Karnataka (1995): Brochure on Irrigation Statistics in Karnataka
1993-94, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore.
11. Government of Karnataka (2002): Karnataka at a glance 2000-2001, Directorate of
Economics and Statistics, Bangalore.
12. JalaSpandana, (2004, 2005): Farmers Network for Water Sector Reforms in South
India, Unpublished Report, JalaSpandana, Bangalore.
13. Hooja Rakesh, (2006): Management of Water for Agriculture – Irrigation,
Watersheds and Drainage, Rawat Publications, India.
14. Mollinga P, Doraiswamy R and Engbersen K (2004): Capture and Transformation:
Participatory Irrigation Management in Andhra Pradesh, India in The Politics of
Irrigation Reform, edited by Peter P Mollinga and Alex Bolding, Ashgate
Publishers, London.
15. Naidu Chandra Babu, 2000: Plain Speaking, Viking – Penguin Books India.
16. Vaidyanathan A, (1999): Water Resources Management, Institutions and Irrigation
Development in India, Oxford University Press.
PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT (PIM)

IN MAHARASHTRA STATE, INDIA – A CASE STUDY
Dr. Sanjay Belsare1
ABSTRACT
Maharashtra has long tradition of farmers’ participation in irrigation management in the

form of Phad systems and Malgujari tanks. In the nineties, the first Co-operative Water
Users Association (WUA) was established in the Mula Irrigation Project. With its
success, Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has been promoting PIM in the State.
WUA are responsible for the operation, maintenance and management of the area and
receives the prescribed water quota in the form of bulk volumetric supply along with the
freedom to grow crops of their choice. Over last 10-15 years, there was appreciable
growth in WUAs. There are number of success stories, underlining the importance of
WUAs. On the other hand, there are also some instances of no appreciable improvement
in performance of irrigation projects with WUAs.
To evaluate the actual performance of WUAs a study was conducted, which covers
WUAs from various parts of the State. The paper discusses the outcome of this study,
reasons for good or poor performance, difficulties in functioning, area which needs
attention, challenges in up-scaling etc and steps taken by GOM to solve the difficulties
in progress of PIM. The paper also discusses future course of action to strengthen PIM
initiatives in the State.
1. INTRODUCTION
Maharashtra State is situated in the southwest of India. It is the third largest State (30.8
Mha) with the second largest population (97 million) in the country. Agriculture has
been the prominent occupation to provide food and fiber to the growing population of
the State. The State economy is dependent upon agricultural production. Irrigation
facility is regarded as the key element of irrigated agriculture. The modern agriculture
and irrigation practices play a key role in alleviating rural poverty.
1- Dr. Sanjay Belsare - Executive Engineer , Palkhed Irrigation Division, Water Resources Department
(WRD), Nashik-2 Fax No. 0253 – 2579904, Email: jaltirth@rediffmail.com
2. CLIMATE AND RAINFALL

The State has a tropical climate. The annual rainfall varies from 400 mm to 6000 mm.
The average rainfall of the State is around 1300 mm of which 88% falls during June to
September and remaining between October to December. It has therefore a greater
impact on State’s water resources planning.
3. SURFACE WATER RESOURCES

The geographical area of the State is divided into basins of Krishna, Godavari, Tapi,
Narmada and narrow basins of west flowing rivers of Konkan. The average annual
availability in above basins is anticipated as 163.82 BCM, out of which permissible use
as per interstate tribunal award is 125.94 BCM.
3.1 IRRIGATION POTENTIAL CREATED

Irrigation potential of hardly 0.274 Mha was created in the State during pre-plan period
i.e. prior to 1950. As agriculture is the prominent occupation, the State has concentrated
upon construction of irrigation projects. There was manifold increase in irrigation
potential creation. By 2005, the State has created 4.0Mha irrigation potential using
surface water resources. The State has constructed almost 2700 major, medium and
minor irrigation projects, which is around one half of the country’s total population of
dams. The ultimate irrigation potential, through both surface water and ground water
resources, has been estimated as 12.6 Mha.
4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PIM

Maharashtra has a long tradition of participatory irrigation management. Phad systems
in Northern Maharashtra and Ex-Malgujari tanks in Eastern Vidarbha are living
examples of it.
4.1 PHAD SYSTEM

The Phad system on canals has been implemented since the medieval period on Panzara,
Girna, Mosam & Burai Rivers, which flow through Nasik & Dhule districts. Water was
diverted by constructing bandharas across these rivers. Several beneficiaries belong to a
single Phad. A sole type of crop is used to be harvested in a Phad. They use to
cultivate perennial crops in the first Phad, two seasonals in the second, seasonals in the
third whereas a crop would be grown in the fourth in case water is available. The crops
are rotated in different phads in a 4-year cycle.
4.2 MALGUJARI TANKS

The tenure of Gond kings saw the creation of series of tanks in Vidarbha. It is given to
understand that nearly 10,000 tanks had been constructed nearly 300 to 350 years back
in the districts of Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Bhandara & Nagpur in Wainaganga Basin
through the entirely private enterprise of the Kohali community i.e. by deploying their
own money and efforts.
4.2.1 Development in post-independence period
To encourage participation in irrigation management by farmers, the then Bombay

Province in 1947 had created canal advisory committee, block level water committee
and corporate body of landowners.
In 1976, Maharashtra Irrigation Act-1976 has come into force. The chapter III, section
60, of the act provides for modalities in which water committees are proposed to be
formed and to whom water is to be supplied on volumetric basis.
Considering National Water Policy-1987 and Maharashtra Irrigation Act-1976, the
Government of Maharashtra initiated pilot project of establishing water users’
associations. In 1989, on Mula project Shri. Datta Sahakari Pani Wapar Sanstha has
been established in Nevasa Taluka of Ahmednagar Disrtict. The same year 3 WUAs
were established in Waghad project of Nashik District.
5. STATUS OF PIM IN MAHARASHTRA
The State has broadly divided into six regions viz. Konkan, Western Maharashtra, North
Maharashtra, Marathwada, Nagpur and Amravati. These regions have different
geographical, social, agro-climatic scenario, which certainly has had an impact on PIM
development in the State. The progress of development of WUAs in the State is given
below.
Sr. Region Functioning Agreement is Registered but Proposed Total

No over but yet to yet to sign (Under various
start functioning agreement stages of
formation)
No. CCA (ha) No. CCA (ha) No. CCA (ha) No. CCA (ha) No. CCA (ha)
1 Konkan 8 958 5 604 18 2863 59 12829 90 17254
2 Nagpur 37 12955 112 48403 207 90014 549 275478 905 426850
3 Amravati 178 51361 86 26548 309 86914 589 251356 1162 416179
North
4 190 66492 142 41272 195 64086 73 21460 600 193310
Maharashtra
Western
5 309 73027 30 3600 267 69372 1958 482599 2564 628598
Maharashtra
6 Marathwada 138 63321 87 37965 272 135394 67 20851 564 257531
Total 860 268114 462 158392 1268 448643 3295 1064573 5885 1939722
5.1 SUCCESS STORIES OF PIM

There are many success stories of PIM. Waghad Project, Nashik is a medium project
having CCA 9642 ha. As stated earlier, PIM started with 3 WUAs in tail end, now
WUAs are formed all over the command area. The WUAs have formed project level
federation, which is successfully managing irrigation of the entire project. Similarly,
Katepurna Project, (Akola), Manar Project, (Nanded), Kukadi Project, (Pune) and
Choolband Project, (Gondia) have shown remarkable improvement in project
performance with PIM. The Pimpalnare Project, (Nashik), Tekepar LIS, (Bhandara) and
Bramhanwada Project, (Buldhana) are successful examples, exhibiting improvement in
utilisation and diversification as a result of practicing PIM.
5.2 EVALUATION OF WORKING OF WUAS FUNCTIONING IN THE STATE
Directorate of Irrigation Research and Development (DIRD), Pune is established in

1969. It is a state-level organisation dealing with research in irrigation management and
drainage works. DIRD has field offices throughout the State. This organisation is also
entrusted with work of monitoring and evaluation of WUAs in the State.
In order to know the working of WUAs in the State, GoM has carried out evaluation of
functioning WUAs in the State. Total 439 WUAs throughout the State have been taken
up for the study. The regional breakup of these WUAs is as follows 8 from Konkan, 64
from Marathwada, 139 from Western Maharashtra, 150 from North Maharashtra, 8 from
Nagpur, 70 from Amravati. For this purpose information was collected through
specially designed questionnaires. The DIRD has compiled all the information and
analysed it. The analysis came out with the following findings.
5.3 GENERAL FINDINGS
The general findings of the evaluation study are summerised below. Konkan region is
coastal region having plentiful rainfall. However, it is backward in irrigation and PIM
development is negligible. The Western Maharashtra’s north part is drought prone and
is irrigationally developed. It shows significant development in PIM. It is also worth to
take note of Amravati region where PIM movement is gathering momentum in recent
time due to appreciation of benefits of PIM, by the farmers.
There are WUAs having:
x CCA between 100 to 250 ha 42 %
x Chairman aged above 40 years 77 %
x Chairman working for more than 2 years 79 %
x Irrigation throughout the stretch of the canal 69 %
x Users numbering between 100 to 200 51 %

Evaluation of WUAs brought to the fore following facts:-
x After transfer of management to WUAs, it has shown that there is

x Improvement in irrigation efficiency in 66 % WUAs.
x 34% WUAs have diversified their cropping pattern by growing wheat, sunflower,
cornflower, soybean, sugarcane, banana, gram, orchards and flowers.
x Watercess recovery in 34 % WUAs has increased due to establishment of WUAs.
x The management grants and O & M grants are partially disbursed to 48 % of
WUAs.
x As much as 31% of WUAs have balance amount at their disposal and accounts of
40% WUAs have been audited.
5.4 LEARNINGS
Some important lessons learnt are as follows:
x WUAs are generally formed in tail areas. For success of PIM, it is necessary that
WUAs be formed throughout command area.
x WUAs are still reliant on the Government, for want of management and
maintenance subsidy.
x It has seen that there is no sufficient increase in membership after formation of
WUAs.
x In majority cases, canal systems are transferred without rehabilitation of the
system. Also there is no fixed time schedule for completion of rehabilitation work,
which is generally subject to availability of funds. The condition of canal many
times restricts sustainable development of WUAs.
x The WUAs are registered under the Co-operative Act. As Co-operation
Department is loaded with their own work, least attention is being paid on
sustainable development of WUAs.
x WUAs have apprehension about securing due water quota provided in the
agreements.
5.5 REASONS BEHIND SLOW PROGRESS OF WUAS
Some of the basic reasons for slow progress are given below:
x Canal system needs to be rehabilitated before transfer to a WUA. However,

deferred maintenance due to inadequate O&M funds deteriorated the canal
system, prolonging its transfer to WUAs.
x Farmers had a feeling that Government is completely responsible for supply of

water to them and thus forgo any help in maintaining it.
x Lack of funds caused untimely or sometimes no disbursement of grants to WUAs

slowed down the growth of WUAs.
Inadequate training and capacity building of members of WUAs and lack of
understanding and enthusiastic support from the Department officials causing
meager progress in the objective of spreading the WUAs across the State.
5.5 CHALLENGES
Government of Maharashtra (GoM) has now made mandatory to supply water for
irrigation through WUAs only. So far 2590 WUAs are registered on 875 Thousand ha,
while 3295 WUAs covering 1064 Thousand ha are under various stages of formation.
GoM has prepared Master Plan for formation of another 7500 WUAs on remaining 2.7
Mha area in coming 5 years. The real challenge however lies in making WUAs self-
sustainable.
It is observed that impact of PIM is restricted to few success stories. It is our objective
to upscale it without loosing its quality and impact. There are challenges in upscaling,
some of which are as below.
5.6.1 Challenges in up scaling of PIM
x Simple procedure for formation of WUAs
x Time bound rehabilitation of canal system before transfer to WUAs
x Huge requirement of funds for rehabilitation
x Training and capacity building of members of WUAs as well as field officers
x Re-engineering of lower level management staff
x Political will and commitment of the Department
x Self-sustainable design of WUAs
x Conflict management among WUAs and with canal officers
x Monitoring and evaluation
5. REFORMS INITIATED BY THE GOM
The GoM has been pioneer in implementation of PIM. There are number of successful
examples of PIM. The approach of Maharashtra has been gradual but convincing.
During last 3-4 years, GoM has initiated a number of reform measures supporting PIM.
In July 2001, GoM has taken policy decision to supply water for irrigation through
WUAs only (with a timeframe). The supply of water will be on bulk volumetric basis.
The volumetric measurement of water for irrigation is in vogue in Maharashtra since
10-15 years. The farmers are well aware about volumetric measurement. Farmers have
freedom to grow any crop within the water quota given to WUA.
The charges of water are also increased in 2001 to meet O & M of the canal system. The
increase is almost 1.5 to 2 times of previous water charges. To clear arrears from
farmers, innovative scheme has been launched. The participation of farmers is not only
sought for management but farmers are involved in planning, construction of minors
also. It has been made mandatory to form WUAs before construction of minors.
The GOM has also decided to set up the Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory
Authority (MWRRA) to regulate water resources within the State. It will facilitate and
ensure judicious, equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State.
6.1 MAHARASHTRA MANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM BY

FARMERS
To empower WUAs, the GoM has enacted the Maharashtra Management of Irrigation
Systems by Farmers (MMISF) Act 2005.
6.1.1 Salient Features of MMISF Act
MMISF has various innovative provisions to strengthen the PIM initiative. The MMISF
act lays down simple easy procedure for formation of WUAs. The registration of society
shall be done by the Water Resources Department itself. Salient features of the Act are
as follows :
x Water for irrigation shall be supplied to WUAs only

x Water will be supplied on volumetric basis
x WUAs have freedom of cropping pattern
x Adequate representation to tail enders and women members is provided in the
management committee of WUA
x Time bound programme of completion of rehabilitation works before transfer to
WUAs
x All landholders or leaseholders must be member of WUAs (unlike earlier 51% of
landholders or 51% users).
6.1.2 Process adopted for enactment of the Act
The draft of bill has been prepared taking into consideration the best practices available
in the PIM. The draft is discussed among users, NGOs, experts at various regional
centers before translating it into a bill.
The bill was introduced in assembly for approval. Considering the importance of bill,
joint select committee of legislative members of all major parties from both the houses
is formed. The joint select committee has deliberated clause-by-clause provisions and
suggested suitable changes therein. Any act should reflect the people’s common feeling
which make the act acceptable to masses.
The MMISF Act will go a long way in strengthening the PIM cause. The enactment of
MMISF Act 2005 has cleared the way to go in for PIM in full swing.
6.2 STEPS TAKEN BY GOM TO STRENGTHEN PIM

Maharashtra has a long tradition of co-operative movement in the State. The co-
operative movement has been very successful in finance sector (e.g. banking) as well as
industrial sector (sugar factories). The co-operative movement is a way of life for
everybody in Maharashtra.
There is consensus among all political parties to adopt participatory approach in

irrigation management. The MMISF bill is thoroughly discussed with all party members
of the legislature. Minister for the WRD has headed the committee and taken lead in
forging ahead the PIM movement in the State.
In irrigation management, farmers have already welcomed PIM approach but it has not
so far been adopted on big scale due to limitations discussed earlier. But with assured
flow of funds for rehabilitation, an exclusive act for PIM on scene, there will be no
difficulty in mass implementation of PIM. There are number of good examples of
WUAs promoted and supported by field officers. Top level as well as middle level
officers is convinced about PIM and there will be positive support from the
Department’s side.
GoM has taken a number of initiatives to facilitate effective and speedy implementation
of PIM. Some important initiatives are as follows:
6.2.1 WUAs model
As described earlier, MMISF bill has taken utmost care to provide WUAs model, which
will be self-sustainable and also have adequate authority to discharge functions
smoothly. There will be a legal agreement between WUAs and competent authority,
safeguarding due interest of WUAs with commitment to provide bulk water use
entitlement. The appropriate powers of canal officers (Section Officers, Deputy
Engineers and Executive Engineers) are delegated to WUAs as per provision of the bill.
WUAs will now have to deal with only WRD for day-to-day functioning as well as,
registration, auditing etc. WRD will provide full technical support in initial years to
facilitate working of WUAs.
The adequate representation is being provided in managing committees of WUAs to

members from tail, middle and head alongwith due representation to women. The
WUAs will be allowed to keep certain portion of water charges for management,
operation & maintenance of the canal system. The effort has been made to adopt best
practices in this or other sectors within the State as well as in other states.
The bill provides clear and fair arrangement for conflict resolution among WUAs and
canal officers. Due opportunity is given to aggrieved party to place their grievances
before an impartial forum.
6.2.2 Effective communication with WUAs
An utmost care is taken in developing effective communication with WUAs. The

dialogue between WUA and Department as well as with other WUAs is vital for success
of PIM. Therefore it is planned to have workshop twice a year, wherein difficulties and
possible solutions are discussed vis-a-vis WUAs, field officers and policy makers. The
feedback of the workshop will be used for under taking suitable corrective measures in
implementation of PIM.
It is also planned to publish newsletters fully devoted to PIM to appraise the
developments taking place in PIM in different parts of the State. It will help in
exchanging information as well as sharing experience in order to take this movement
ahead. It is also under active consideration to institute an award for best performing
WUAs to appreciate their effort and motivate others to work better.
6.2.3 Training and Capacity Building
Training and Capacity Building plays crucial role in taking ahead the PIM movement.
Water And Land Management Institute (WALMI) will act as nodal institute in training,
which will impart training to officers, member of WUAs, Trainer of Trainers (TOT) and
will also play role of mother NGO. As WALMI infrastructure may not be sufficient to
conduct training of field officers as well as members simultaneously. It is proposed to
carry out training with trainers’ team consisting of experts from irrigation, agriculture
and social sciences. These trainers’ team will be trained at WALMI, which in turn trains
functionaries and field officers at field level. The training activity is designed as
continuous wherein training will be provided as per needs and with the development of
PIM. It has also been planned to take help of NGOs to nurture the WUAs and facilitate
WUAs in discharging their functions.
6.2.4 Maharashtra Water Sector Improvement Project

To carry out rehabilitation of canal system in time bound manners, the GOM has taken
up Maharashtra Water Sector Improvement Project (MWSIP). The MWSIP envisages
transfer of management to WUAs after adequate rehabilitation. To inculcate ownership
among farmers, farmers have to contribute 500 Rs. /Ha in rehabilitation of the canal
system. The system will be rehabilitated to carry the designed discharge, through the
canal and disnet.
6.2.5 Monitoring and evaluation of WUAs

Last but not of the least importance is, monitoring and evaluation of WUAs in the State.
It is very important in case of any developmental activity, particularly in social
development, wherein timely monitoring evaluation and undertaking corrective action is
necessary. If right action is not taken at right time, there will be a lot of damage to the
development accomplished and sometimes it would be difficult to move ahead.
Therefore, it is proposed to have monitoring and evaluation through third party directly
reporting to decision-making level. The consultant will collect information through
well-designed questionnaire and through Management Information System. The
corrective action will be taken based on timely feedback. A co-ordination committee is
established, consisting of WUAs from different regions, NGOs, policy makers and few
field officers, to facilitate working of WUAs. The coordination committee will meet at
least once in a quarter.
7. WAY AHEAD
The GoM has also enacted Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority Act to
regulate water resources within the State. It will facilitate and ensure judicious,
equitable and sustainable management of water resources of the State. It provides water
use entitlement to individual farmers. Conferring water use entitlements to individual
farmers will be path-breaking development in irrigation sector in India. There is also a
provision of transfer of water use entitlements for maximizing irrigation use efficiency.
Therefore, MMISF Act coupled with MWRRA Act will consolidate PIM and will
ensure the sustainable development and management of water resources in the State.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Maharashtra has long tradition of Participatory Irrigation Management. In nineties,
Water Users Associations (WUAs) are formed in irrigation projects on pilot basis, but
as of now WUAs are formed in length and breadth of the State. A study was conducted
to evaluate performance of WUAs functioning in the State. The aim of the study was to
find out improvement in performance before and after transfer of irrigation management
to WUAs. The study has provided insight into hindrances in functioning of WUAs and
measures to improve its effectiveness, which in turns improves the performance of
irrigation projects. It reveals the reasons behind the slow progress and also highlights
important learning and challenges to upscale PIM in the State. GoM has initiated series
of reforms to strengthen PIM. A stand-alone act (MMISF Act - 2005) has been enacted
to provide legal backing to WUAs. The water for irrigation will be supplied
volumetrically through WUAs only and there will be legal agreement between WUA
and competent authority. The act adequately empowers WUAs to discharge their
functions with delegating appropriate powers of canal officers to WUAs. The State has
gone further in providing water use entitlement to individual farmers and establishment
of independent water resources regulatory authority to ensure judicious, equitable and
sustainable management of water resources of the State.
It is observed that Irrigation management transfer improves the service delivery as well
as financial performance of the Project. It is not time to discuss whether to go in for
PIM or not, but to up-scale it without loosing its quality and impact. There is need to
have committed support from WRD and timely efforts to build WUAs to shoulder the
responsibility. It is also essential to strike harmony between goal and efforts of Govt.,
NGO and Community.
The Maharashtra case study would provide insight into important aspects of PIM and
possible measures to strengthen WUAs movement. Though Maharashtra approach to
PIM is gradual, but with reforms in place and changed mindset of officers of WRD and
farmers, PIM could lead to sustainable irrigation management.
FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF PARTICIPATORY

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN QAZVIN AREA
A. Ghasemi1, S. A. R. Razavi2, A. Yousefi3, A. Lashgari4 & M. M. Rahmani5
ABSTRACT
Since last fifty years, gradual progression in management style of irrigation and
drainage systems supported by promotion of people's participation in management trend
has faced the government-oriented or hindering mechanisms to critical challenges at
global scale. Genesis of this mind-set could largely facilitate evolution of change
management through the four-stage process including: diagnosis, denial, cooperation
and participation.
The largest infra-structural establishment of Qazvin was created during 60s and 70s. It
enjoys 1200 km. concrete canals bearing conveying capacities of 30 m3.
The network imitates a telescopic model in operation with hydro-mechanical diversion
and checks (Amil) installed at its upstream. The Irrigation Management system in
Qazvin (QIM) also follows full public governance as being experienced everywhere
across the country. This traditional management, parallel to over-dated structures has
left nothing but a depreciated and inefficient network in Qazvin.
A holistic plan for capacity building and empowerment of local farmers was founded in
the province to develop a participatory management and promote due changes towards
optimum utilization and maintenance of the network. The initiative is reliant on a tree-
shaped model and consists of: farming groups, water users associations, unions and their
apex Federation at provincial level. Upon direct election of farmers' representatives and
formulation of legal instruments, managerial and maintenance affairs in main and lateral
canals were gradually transferred to the local clients.
Presently, many commitments encompassing structural rehabilitation and water
1- M.Sc. in Irrigation Structures, and Managing Director of Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM), &
Initiator and Executive of Qazvin Participatory Irrigation Management Project. Address: Shahid Bahonar
Bulvd., Qazvin, Iran. Tel: +98281-2233-187, Email: ghasemi_ali2@yahoo.com
2- Director of Planning Affairs in QIM Tel: 09127809890 Email: S-amirrezarazavi@yahoo.com
3- Director of Int'l Affairs - Dept. for Extension and Farming System, Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture
(MOJA) Tel: 09123394834 Email: intyousefi@yahoo.com
4- Director of Engineering Affair in QIM, Tel: 09121825791 Email: Ar_lashgari48@yahoo.com
5- Director of Technical Affairs in QIM, Tel: 09122827745 Email: M_MehdiRahmani@yahoo.com

men and women at managerial and technical levels scattered at WUAs branches or
Federation posts remarks for outstanding aspects of the PIM system in Qazvin. To date,
the mode applied for creation of CBOs (community-based organizations) and legislation
of NGOs in terms of Water Users Association (WUAs) in Qazvin, generates a national
pattern over the state.
Keywords: Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM), Participation, Irrigation
Management Transfer (IMT), Empowerment, WUAs, NGOs, CBOs
1. INTRODUCTION
In addition to professional mind-sets, well-designed policy and a 20-year perspectives
(National Development Horizon in year 2022) supported by National Constitution
(Article 44), have demonstrated a clear horizon for NGOs’ development especially in
the process of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM).
Presumably, fundamental studies would contribute to discover the reasons behind the
poor performance of irrigation operations, as well as, low productivity of agricultural
activities and their barriers. Lots of ongoing challenges and inconsistencies in irrigation
networks are referred to mismanagement of the related systems.
Shedding light on the public bodies’ function, removal of parallel duties, simplifying
operation cycles, developing accountable management system, and generating a
committed management to mobilize peoples’ participation, would greatly create a
spring board for organization and empowerment of farmers’ communities , and
ultimately, for changing the traditional water management at national scale.
The target area intrudes the Taleghan River Basin bearing an extension of 1000 km2,
containing the Qazvin irrigation network with 80,000 (ha) surface areas. Qazvin
Development Project (QDP)1 has foreseen to distribute an average discharge of 460
m.m3/y into 278 (m.m3) for agri-business purpose and 20 m.m3 for artificial recharging
of water- tables in Qazvin plain. The grand and multi-purpose Project has provided
noble opportunities for provincial development, particularly in cultural, social, infra-
structural and occupational dimensions just next to political and economic pole (Tehran)
of the country. To this end, various and large production enterprises been so far
established which reinforce the basic changes in the area.
There emerged also several challenges and disparities during 30–year management
process of the irrigation network in Qazvin, mainly owing to the following reasons:
- Poor utilization of the network’s structures;
- Off–service status frequently reported from hydro-mechanical Checks, C.H.O,
and Turn- out gates;
1 -Formerly registered as "Ghazvin Development Project-GPD" by the World Bank

- Illegal offending in the network witnessed by creating numerous farm outlets as

well as unauthorized wells; and
- Fatal events due to frequent fall of the vehicles or people into the canals.
The overall 5-year plan adopted by Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM) could
organize 30,000 local farmers’ under 158 Irrigation associations and 9 unions
dominated by an apex Federation. Since 2002, organization and transferring network
management to CBOs (Community-Based Organization) deserved central priority and
agenda by QIM, which fortunately, led to successful implementation. This initiative was
basically accepted and supported by the Ministry of Jihad–e–Agriculture, and the
National Water Resource Management followed by assignment of QIM as the national
pilot for PIM commencement.
2- CHANGE AS DRIVING FORCE IN DEVELOPMENT

Organizations require fresh and dynamic thoughts and approaches for their existence
and progression. For improving the living standards in the evolving pace of the current
status, it is inevitable to emphasize on identification of changes in the surrounding
environment, as well as, derivation of adequate responses to new conditions.
Innovation and creativity account for core aspects of competent organizations and
individuals. The initiative seriously stresses on educating potential managers as the core
elements of continued improvement and builders of due capacities for qualified man
powers to undertake new commitments. Meanwhile, certain technical groups have to be
shaped to liaise with public and private sectors .To realize this principle, proper ground
should be paved for shaping specialized groups at public or private sectors. Political and
social forces shall accelerate or hamper development of new organizations. Recent
changes and their sustainability happened in socio-economic and political settings,
relies on governmental efforts bestowed to ongoing institutional and thinking reforms.
Identification and examination of bottlenecks and the factors behind certain
misunderstanding, as follows, assumed for the initial steps to attract the beneficiaries'
confidence:
I. Gaps or inconsistencies in rules,
II. Mispromising of some authorities,
III. Inefficiency of few executive bodies, and
IV. Poor reaction of judicial system against the offenders.
The existing executive or administrative bodies, particularly, setting fresh cooperation
and interaction with farmers, would subject to change through enhanced capacities and
creativities amongst the players and farmers of the same area. Qualitative concept of
"competency–oriented influence" consists of three elements including capability,
accountability and morality represent. If farmers & beneficiaries control the above
mentioned condition, it will be effective in the process of empowerment and it will
develop CBOs.
3- EXECUTIVE PROCESSES OF PIM IN QAZVIN

The Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) initiative started its operation since
2002, using local potentials within a 3-year schedule and three general stages: first
stage: the company's bound, second stage: Qazvin province bound, third stage: national
level. Key characteristics of this idea focus on setting an inter-communication among all
institutional processes, in a sense that, the precedent stages have to be well–established
in the following years.
Organization of the WUAs in Qazvin plain followed on the identified local
requirements and specifications. This task has to get built upon the speed and ease in
detection and meeting the needs of every area, and to wards this target, the initiative
confronted diverse cultures and sub-cultures with varying aspirations raised over the
vast plain in Qazvin.
3.1. FIRST STAGE:
This stage comprised of confidence–building, system–development, planning, data-

banking and processing within the QIM premises (staff and target clients) during 2002-03.
The most significant prerequisites for development of participation in different
activities, spell out for in-depth belief and basic support dedicated by top managers. The
proposed legal management system in the network entails the following key measures:
1- Collecting the beneficiaries’ views and consulting them to reflect the barriers and
inconsistencies;
2- Setting full–coordination in all planning and decision–making processes;
3- Examining the collected views and perspectives followed by offering useful
suggestions;
4- Directing general mind–sets toward improvement of social, cultural and economic
affairs; and
5- Collaborating in the processes of execution and supervision of related techno–
economic plans.
Organization of local irrigation management, as a reliable bed for transferring possible
commitments, relies on general culture and technical background of the individuals
concerned, and will put into practice through attracting the beneficiaries and building
reciprocal confidence. Designing local irrigation management was tracked by
consolidating common hierarchical interactions and ties, followed by election of
managers and practitioners at different levels within the system.
Different tiers of election and representatives are shown in diagram 1.
Head of the Federation
Managing Directors of the Federation (3 persons) Third

stage
Managing Board of the Federation (11 persons)
WUAs Managers (158 persons) Second

stage
WUAs Managing Board (1000 persons)
First
stage
Farming Group heads (3000persons)
Farmers (30,000 persons) Before

operation
Diagram 1. Election and institutionalization for PIM development in Qazvin
Various programs been foreseen and fully implemented in this stage including:
- setting flow–chart cycle;
- formulating IMT model;
- Collection of basic information as statistics on lands, landowners, and water
needs;
- cropping patterns of the area under channels III;
- Derivation of due indicators for information classification;
- Encoding the joint turn–out spots (6 digits);
- planning on due methodologies and matrices for election of farmers’
representatives in neighboring plots (100 & 1000 ha.);
- Water–logging in combined wells; and
- drafting typical agreements for water supply and network exploitation based on
158 turn-out points in channels III
3.2. SECOND STAGE:

This stage encompasses coordination, organization, institutionalization, and
establishment of local irrigation management especially on canals II, completed in
Qazvin during 2003-04? The operational range of the IMT stepped beyond the QIM and
even covered key executive institutions at provincial level. Other important measures,
as follows, were also taken into account and completed during this stage:
- Registration of 30,000 farmers from 88 population centers;
- Assigning the managers in farming blocks;
- Encoding the farmers’ representatives ;

- Filing the related 158 WUAs and dispatching them to the provincial Office of
Cooperation for certification;
- Transacting the file containing Article 5 of the Act on “optimum use of agri–
water for WUAs” to provincial Water and Agriculture Authorities;
- Concluding proper agreements on water supply and utilization; and
- Forwarding financial issues and order registration affairs for WUAs’ operations
on canals II.
Meanwhile, the procedure for structuring the Local Irrigation Management pursued the
following steps:
(i) Planning for viable and comprehensive participation of local users in exploitation
and maintenance of the network, in line with, deserving due entitlements for
CBOs and WUAs.
(ii) Volumetric submission of water to farmers’ representatives at specific points, and
based on approved cropping pattern i.e. cereals 50%, summer crops 25%, and
fallow 25%.
(iii) Formatting and prioritizing certain tasks and operations as indicated in Table 1
below:
Table1. Structural and organizational sequences of PIM in Qazvin
No. Farming unit Farming area (ha.) CBOs' working domain
1 Plots 10-20 Farmers' Representatives

2 Groups 20-100 Group-heads
3 Blocks 100-1000 WUAs
4 Area 1000-10,000 LIM/ Distributors
Agricultural Pole Gross 80,000 ha.

5 Apex Federation
(Qazvin plain) Net 60,000 ha.
Following shows the flowchart of the water users’ arrangement in Qazvin which was
approved and operated by General Assembly in 2005:
"Diagram2". Flow- chart of the Federation and its lower tires in Qazvin plain
3.3. THIRD STAGE:

This stage included activation of provincial Federation, regulation of inter-relationships
between the local offices and unions, rendering technical services, transferring the
shares, and entrusting the ownership with partial failure, during 2004-05? This stage
was partially geared to national level and hence, its completion relies on new policy and
legislation to be reformed and circulated later on.
During this stage, few obligations adopted, as follows, but not yet covered due to certain
legal or administrative obstacles standing far beyond the QIM liabilities:
- land surveys and cartographic operations (Cadastre Mapping ) over the WUAs
domains;
- Supplementing the available documents by precise re-examination of the
network’s segments and status;
- Preparing official minutes on transferring of channels III and IV to the WUAs ;
- Transferring the QIM shares to the new local users;
- Refunding the water rate in favor of network rehabilitation; and

- Official devolution of the canals ownership to the WUAs.
In the third stage, the QIM, as the planner and operator of this initiative, could
implement possible mandates as described below:
- Expansion of water-ordering registration and checking the requests across the
water rights;
- Rendering water sale and services at local irrigation management offices (on
Canals II); and
- Activation of the Federation for practical involvement of the farmers in operation
and maintenance of the network.
4. PIM DEVELOPMENT IN QAZVIN AND ITS IMPSCTS
4.1. TRAINING THE STAFF AND WUAS MEMBERS

Normally, administrational systems together with working cycles and methodologies
always tend to retain the ongoing and daily commitments.
Training and disseminating the new approaches developed by top managers of
executive institutions play a basic role in promotion and change of such passive system.
To this end, appropriate training courses were conducted towards up-scaling knowledge
and potentials of QIM and Federation staffs. The foregoing courses were designed and
practiced at large scale and in cooperation with other organizations. Following are the
courses convened by QIM during the past 4 years:
- Training course on PIM development implemented as group–works for managers,
experts and technicians, followed by weekly meetings participated by QIM,
Federation and unions’ Managers. As a whole, 36 work–groups were formed on
organizing suggestion system.
- Training course on utilization and maintenance of the irrigation system which run
for two weeks and targeted some QIM and Federation staffs to raise their
knowledge and proficiency.
- Training course on social prevention and protection which aimed at prevention of
offending in the network area, and conducted in collaboration with provincial
judicial authority for 170 participants of QIM and local users.
- Training course on IMS (quality, environment, professional hygiene and
immunity), which operated in cooperation with R.W.T.U.V Iran Co1. Of Iran and
focused on promoting internal auditing of IMS for experts and technicians in QIM
and Federation.
- Training course on First Aids which realized to make the staffs and members
prepared against probable events during operation or even beyond the network
1- A German agency responsible in certifying certain standards and qualification in Iran

limits. This course was carried out for 40 hours in cooperation with National Red
Crescent Organization at A and B levels in 2006.
- Training course on machinery operation and maintenance which launched for 40
hours to upgrade the drivers’ competency at Alborz Industrial Complex.
- Training course on fire-extinguishing practices performed at QIM to expose QIM
and Federation staffs to fire suffocation methods in assistance with provincial
techno –vocational organization and Fire- Station in 2006.
It seems convention of successive training courses, as well as, participatory working
cycle for proceeding current and developmental businesses have underlined the PIM
success in Qazvin.
4.2. GENERAL ACTIVITIES AND INFORMATION DISSEMINATION

Active participation at national/international conferences related to management of
irrigation and drainage, and exchanging the findings have always been regarded as
crucial priorities in the QIM.
To this end, the Company developed and activated its web-page in 2005, followed by
another page for the Federation in the next year. This web station now stands for the
first e-news forum of non-governmental irrigation management across the country.
4.3. Roles of the youth and women in the project

Creation and fixing occupational status together with self–confidence would contribute
in rising managerial pace and impacts of the youth and women communities. They are
so qualified and strong that can jointly launch continuous struggle against poverty and
construct their homeland. Many of them shared in development with their intrinsic
motivations and powers.
Simultaneous with the Associations or Federation operation's in Qazvin , and gradual
commitment in the largest irrigation network of the area, numerous empowered men
and women stepped in and undertook crucial functions at medium or high positions.
They occupied key professions as managing directors, accountants and planning
managers in the Federation or the local irrigation offices. Presence of female top
managers next to the male authorities in agricultural CBOs, has generated well–
structured organizations for enhancing the irrigation management system with
appreciable achievements at provincial scale.
To date, the gender ratio governing on employed experts and technicians depicts a
prevalence of the females to males (57%). They also possess a reasonable ratio (40%) in
general occupations distributed at various services in Federation and the local irrigation
offices (Diagram 3)
20 18
18
16
14 12
˼̵̢ ˞̂˱ ˼˟ 12 9
Person
10
8
5 5
6 4 3 3
4 1
2
0
0
̰̮ʵ́˷˼́˽
Under Diploma ̰̮ʵ́˷ post ̰̮ʵ́˷ ̡̣̼Bachelor̵̀˜̭̂͂ Total ̬ʾ ̘̲˭
Diploma Diploma
ˤ̶͂̂˭
Gender: ̳˽
Female Male ˷
Diagram3. Gender comparison on WUAs staff in Qazvin
4.4. Impacts of PIM implementation

The PIM in Qazvin was set into fruit through:
- Planning for balancing or reduction of incompetent man powers;
- Transferring subsidiary functions to external operators; and
- Paving the way for WUAs’ participation in utilization and maintenance of the
network ;
This initiative generated authentic outcomes, as follows, which gradually extended to
target beneficiaries:
1- Facilitation of office works or field operations through narrowing the network
functions;
2- Down-sizing the public interventions and hence, balancing the number of staff at
QIM;
3- Reduction or even stopping the users’ approaches to public offices, and in
particular, to QIM by 95%;
4- Introduction of local irrigation management in channels II, III and IV and
remarkable save in people’s cost and time;
5- Devolution of passable functions to local people and gradual substitution of
public sector by CBOs;
6- Defending of farmers’ rights according to the proposed conical chart of
accountability;
7- Transparency of interactions between the farmers and governmental bodies , and
possibly reduction of organizational offending and corruptions;
8- Separation of responsibilities and equitable distribution of water and expansion of

social justice;
9- Reduction of water losses and seepages in favor of promotion in irrigation
performance;
10- Reflection of useful comments for improved utilization and maintenance of the
network;
11- Planning for controlling and removal of unauthorized or non-standard turn–outs;
12- Saving in water consumption for its subsequent impacts on exploitation and
control of Qazvin water-catchment.
13- Raising productivity through fixing, maintaining and utilizing the network;
14- Setting minutes on submission of the network and its segments followed by
bedding for essential protection of national assets.
15- Confirming the theory on effectiveness of participatory irrigation management
(PIM) or consultation in Iran ; and
16- Creating employments for experts or technicians at Unions and Federation scales.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. TRANSFERRING THE FUNCTIONS TO THE LOCAL CLIENTELE

Regarding the incredible progressions made by PIM in Qazvin, it is strictly
recommended to apply public funds or subsidies in harmonization with the Federation’s
opinions. There seems reliable stand provided to refund the water charges for required
repairs and maintenances to be handled by Federation.
5.2. BASIC STUDIES AND INFORMATION DISSEMINATION

So far, extensive studies made to yield proper strategies for devolution of network’s
functions and leadership to CBOs shaped in Qazvin. Now, its time to disseminate
gradual information on PIM to attract attention and assistance from all players and
practitioners involved. Besides, emphasis should be a attached to disclosing each and
every corner of the initiative, followed by blocking anymore parallel studies and costs
on IMT approaches. Along this trend, certain supplementary field-oriented surveys are
also identified for possible convention and analysis.
5.3. SEPARATION OF MANAGEMENTS IN WATER RESOURCES AND

UTILIZATIONS
Scholars highly stress on distinction of supplying and utilization of commodities owing
to the core differences seen in their natures. The reason strongly stands behind
formation of various production as well as utilization bodies in major fields as oil , gas,
electricity, tele-communication, “water and sewage water” , etc. , whereas , the water
sector still suffers from certain intermingled affairs in managerial fields, and pending
for rational solutions to be outlined by eminent experts or managers. It seems, however,
that the promising scenario adopted by electricity sector (comprising of separated

supply and use divisions) shall be duplicated for water sector, as well.
5.4. FULL DEVOLUTION OF COMMITMENTS TO WUAS

It is suggested that all commitments foreseen in micro–water allocation to agriculture
sector, followed by water resource protection, network and its premises control and
supervision are handed over to provincial water utilization body. Presumably, few
modifications applied to water management system of the M.O.E, shall provide a tailor-
made platform for such switch–over in obligations.
6. REFERENCES
1. Archives, Provincial Office of Jihad-e-Agriculture- Qazvin ;
2. Archives, Qazvin Irrigation Management Co. (QIM)
3. Aivani, Sayeed , Mahdi PH.D. 1995. “General Management”, Nei publication. 408
pages
4. Arvin-Pajouh Research–Cultural Institute 2000. Exposure to Participation System
as Infra-structure for World and Islamic Advanced Management. Publication of Oil
Ministry. 280 pages.
5. Bayani P. Ofrecio. Nov. 2005 Participatory Development and Management: A
Corerstone of Philippine Irrigation Program, Tsukuba Asian Seminar, Japan
6. Central Secretariat of Urban Water Management. 2005. Tehran, Promotion of
Women’s Role in Water Management, 238 pages.
7. Ghasemi, Ali. 2005. Tehran, Iran Regional Center on Urban Water Management -
Tehran Workshop on Women’s Participation in Water Management, (proceeding)
8. Morhead, G. & Griffin, R. 2003 translated by Alvani, Sayeed, Mehdi PH.D . &
Memarzade, G.Reza.PH. D. 2003. Morvarid publication. 571 pages
9. Proceedings of the 11th Conference of the National Committee of Irrigation-
Drainage in Iran. 2003. No. 83
10. Sustainable development in a dynamic world: Transforming institutions, growth and
quality of life. 2003. The World Bank
STAKEHOLDER VIEWS ON THE MIRAAB SYSTEM FOR

PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF MODERN
IRRIGATION SCHEMES IN IRAN
Najaf Hedayat1 and Keith Weatherhead22
ABSTRACT
Rural reforms in Iran have changed the land holding regime, cropping pattern, and
market system. A study of stakeholder views on the modern Dez and Moghan irrigation
schemes has suggested farmers and extensionists agree that the existing canal
management is not sufficiently responsive to the new challenges of agriculture in the
post-reform era, and that a more participatory management structure could help resolve
the problems in water delivery. Iran already has a long-standing and successful model
for participatory farmer management in the millennia-old Miraab system (Shaarebin)
used for managing the Karezes and Qanats in the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran.
This would appear to be a suitable model on which to build.
The survey responses indicated that all three stakeholder groups (farmers, extensionists
and water agency staff) would support the implementation of a management structure
based on the Miraab system. All three groups indicated they thought that the
government would support such a change. Detailed interviews, however, suggested that
farmers and extensionists thought some water agency staff would resist its
implementation as a threat to their existing authority.
The research confirmed the importance of consulting different stakeholder groups, who
might have different attitudes and perceptions of the problems and potential solutions.
Keywords: Stakeholder views, Participatory management, Mirhaab, Iran
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is a vital sector of the Iranian economy contributing about 25% of the GDP.
It employs about one third of the workforce in a country where there is a high rate of
unemployment among the younger generation in rural areas (MoJA 2002). The Third
FYP (1999-2004) aimed at achieving an annual expansion of irrigated land by 3.8%
1- Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran;

2 - Centre for Water Science, Cranfield University, MK43 0AL, UK. Tel +44 1525 750111
k.weatherhead@cranfield.ac.uk
with a corresponding annual increase of 4.4% of water supply for agriculture. However,
water management in many of the schemes is poor. It is mostly conveyed, controlled
and delivered through unlined canals (Anhaareh Sonnati), resulting in its rudimentary
and wasteful use (MoJA 2002). The MoJA estimated the application efficiency of about
30 % in the Dez and 20% in Moghan. This causes of poor farming and adverse
environmental impacts.
The Dez and Moghan are the two largest modern irrigation schemes in Iran. They were
originally designed to be operated by the state agencies and provide services for
predominantly large agribusinesses. A major change in rural Iran after the Revolution in
the late 1970’s was a land reform programme redistributing some of the former
agribusiness’ lands among the small landless farmers. This was followed by a change in
the cropping pattern that ideally necessitated a more flexible and reliable water delivery
schedule than original rigid rotation regime was able to meet.
Problems that have been observed and documented by various sources (e.g. MoJA 2002,
Keshavarz 1993), including those observed by the lead author during his professional
field visits, include:
x Land fragmentation and tenure system in both schemes.
x Uneven irrigation due to poor land levelling.
x Environmental problems such as soil salinity, water logging and drainage
problems (particularly in Moghan) due to poor O&M of the canals and imprudent
on-farm practices.
x Poor water conveyance and control systems, and hence poor delivery at the farm
gates, arising from inappropriate design and inadequate or deferred maintenance
of the hydraulic structures.
x Lack of transparent authority over canal management, causing poor
communication and cooperation between various stakeholders.
Direct management of the water distribution system by the state agencies appeared to
have placed the farmers on a dependency situation and denied them the opportunity to
participate in their O&M.
THE MIRAAB SYSTEM AND PARTICIPATORY FARM MANAGEMENT

The Miraab system is a traditional Iranian water management institution that was used
for operating and maintaining the Karezes and Qanats in arid and semi-arid regions of
the former Persian Empire, including the location of present Iran. Until recently, these
artificial subterranean hydraulic structures were widely used to supply water for
irrigation and domestic use, not only in the central desert regions but also in some semi-
arid parts of Iran such as Dezful, where the Dez irrigation scheme is located (Behnia
1988). The Qanats and Karezes, of various lengths and shapes, were exclusively
operated and maintained by private owners (most of whom were members of the
farming community) through their representatives known locally as the Miraabs,
Aabyaars and Tilmaaj (Malakqasemi 1996).
The Miraab system was basically a bottom-up water management model whose
operational principles were based on the service concept. In other words the needs of
water users (e.g. efficient and reliable service delivery) within a given resource
availability determined the ways in which the Miraabs operated and maintained the
system. Their self-sufficiency in managing all the operation and maintenance (O&M)
duties of the Qanats was assured by direct labour or financial contributions of the water
users. In earlier times, the feudal landlords generally made their contributions in cash or
crops, whereas farmers either offered direct labour or a package including labour, crop
and cash. Certain farmers traded their water rights and devoted themselves full-time to
the O&M duties in return for wages. Still others used the Nizaameh Moshaaee, a land
pooling system for crop sharing with their neighbouring farmers, and rotated the O&M
duties and farm works among themselves.
The Miraabs had responsibility for making decisions on all aspects of O&M, including.
collecting water charges and solving conflicts over water allocation, but were ultimately
accountable to the Showrayeh bahrebardaraan (the supreme Miraabs council), which
represented the whole farming community.
Although the Qanat system is an old civil engineering concept, the Miraabs (as major
operators and users) recognised the importance of introducing modern technology to
meet the water requirements of their beneficiaries. The Qanat operators, through the
Miraab system, have begun to incorporate modern design concepts such as the
construction of concrete dams along the underground conveyance galleries in order to
store water in the pools when the demand was minimal. They have also installed some
heavy-duty pipes and valves in certain Qanat networks for more efficient water control,
conveyance, and distribution. They have recognized the benefits of introducing modern
maintenance techniques and better materials to make the operations simpler and the use
of labour and financial resources more efficient.
The indigenous Miraab system played a key role in sustaining the rural structures and
livelihood of the farming community, for example in the central desert regions of Iran
such as Ardekan and Yazd (Dehqanpoor 1999). This integrated approach to water
management is suggested as a more cost effective and sustainable model for the
management of the surface irrigation network.
STAKEHOLDERS’ VIEWS
Stakeholders’ views were used to investigate the water delivery problems and their
causes on the Dez and Moghan irrigation schemes, and then to investigate their views
on alternative management systems. After preliminary field visits, four workshops were
organised to identify the main issues. A survey was then undertaken of 100 farmers, 50
government agricultural extension officers and 50 water agency staff, augmented by 36
interviews.
The major problems of water delivery relevant to the Dez and Moghan were identified
by the workshops as inequitable allocation, inflexible supply, group conflicts and
adverse environmental impacts.
However, there was a significant difference in perceptions of the stakeholders surveyed
n the nature and sources of the water delivery problems. The farmers and extensionists
perceived inequity and inflexibility due to poor O&M in the main and secondary canals
as the most important water delivery related problems. In contrast, the water agency
staff regarded group conflicts over water allocation and adverse environmental impact,
due to mismanagement of the tertiary and quaternary canals as well as poor on-farm
practices, as the most important. Notably, the farmers and extensionists had similar
views on all issues except on water charges, where the extensionists (agreeing with the
agency staff) thought that it would be impossible to improve the water delivery without
increasing the charges. In contrast, the farmers thought that higher charges alone would
not help, because the problems lie with inadequate design of the hydraulic structures and
the present inappropriate canal management system.
The perceptions of respondents on modernization options varied. The farmers and
extensionists regarded neither purely technical nor purely non-technical changes as
adequate. The perception was that the farmers, extensionists and the agency staff, in that
order, would support an integrated Miraab system as an appropriate management option.
Although the survey responses suggested that all the stakeholder groups would support
the Miraab system, the responses from the interviewees suggested that that the majority
of the farmers and extensionists thought the senior water agency staff would resist it.
The farmers and extensionists alleged that the agencies’ resistance was linked to their
anxiety of losing authority in canal management. The response of the agencies was that
they were willing to support the change but were doubtful of its chances of success,
because the extensionists have not yet prepared the farmers to take up the new
challenges. All three-stakeholder groups regarded the central government’s support for
the change in the present system as crucial, and in their view it would be forthcoming.
CONCLUSIONS
The Miraab system is an indigenous farmer-managed system that offers a viable
alternative to the present state management system. All the stakeholder groups surveyed
indicated they would support its introduction, though some doubts were expressed in
interviews about senior water agency staff.
It is suggested that farmer organizations should take the government’s interest in
irrigation management transfer as a window of opportunity to take up the stewardship of,
initially, the tertiary water distribution system. They should use their indigenous
farming.
The commitment of farmers and support of other stakeholders are both crucial for
REFERENCES
1. Dehqanpoor, M.R (1999). Qanats as the blood shrines of the Yazd croplands. A
report (in Persian text) prepared for Soil and Water Management, Yazd Provincial
Agricultural Department, Iran.
2. MoJA (2002). Managing water in irrigated agriculture. A text in Farsi published by
the Technical and Specialist Training Group, Department of Technical and
Infrastructures Affairs, Ministry of Jihad Agriculture, Iran.
3. Keshavarz, M.A. (1993). Improvement of the farm level infrastructures. A report in
Farsi prepared for the Deputy Ministry for Infrastructure Affairs. Ministry of
Agriculture, Iran.
4. Behnia, A. Sadeqiattaar, M and Kaveh, F. (1993). Irrigation efficiency under the
Dez command area. (An unpublished report in Farsi).
5. Malakqasemi, D. (1996). Water Policy in Iran. A report prepared for the Deputy
Ministry in Technical and Infrastructure Affairs, MOA, Iran.

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The 4th Asian Regional Conference & 10th International Seminar on

Participatory Irrigation Management

PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATIONS ROLE IN WATER RESOURCE

Farhad Paknia1, Seyed Alireza Hosseinzadeh Tabrizi2, Farhad Almaspour3

2-THE ROLE OF PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT:

3- BARRIERS to VILLAGER’S PARTICIPATION:

4-THE SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC BASES TO REACH THE

5- PROCESS OF THE PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION:

6- STRATEGIES AND ORGANIZING PROBLEMS PARTICIPATION:

- To provide a relationship between financial protective groups and to help

8- THE HISTORY OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION AND FORMATION OF

organization, agent of banks in order to define different problems about people’s

8-2 Practical activities:

Table-1: Functionality of People’s participation office in the part of water user's

Diagram 1 : Number of participation plans

Diagram 2: Number of beneficiaries

5000 2428 1956

Diagram 3::Amount of bank facilities (Million rials)

Figure 1: Beneficiaries survey projects

the relationship between the Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Jahad va Keshavarzi

Flowchart-1: Organizational relationship to inform water user's Formations.

WHY BLUE PRINTS ON ACCOUNTABILITY OF WATER USER

BACKGROUND: LAND REFORMS, IRRIGATION AND WATER

ARE WUAS ACCOUNTABLE, AND TO WHAT EXTENT? IS IT A MYTH?

ARE THE WUAS IN SOUTH KAZAKHSTAN ACCOUNTABLE TO THEIR

WAYS FORWARD TO USE GROUNDWATER BY SMALL AND

CASE STUDY: COMMUNITY TUBE WELLS IN VAISHALI

FORMATION OF VASFA AND ITS INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT

INSTALLATION OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELL

MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELLS

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

IMPACT OF COMMUNITY TUBEWELLS

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION POLICY

1.A. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Tertiary Canal Tertiary Canal

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Indonesian Irrigation System Lay Out

Table 1. Policy and strategy of Indonesian Irrigation Development

Category of the Responsibility by Supported by

Within the district/ Farmers, Provincial,

Within the district/

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary within the

1.B. PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT.

2. Participation in financing and providing resources, as obligation as well as

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA

Table 2. Classification of Paddy Fields

1.D. FORMER POLICIES ON PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION

1.E. ADJUSTMENT OF THE 2001 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT POLICY.

EXPERIENCES OF BULK WATER ALLOCATION IN

3.1. STUDY SITES

3.2. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

Total Value of Pr oduction ($)

Standard Gross value of Production (SVGP) is used to measure value of production.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. WATER SUPPLY PERFORMANCE

4.1.2. Percentage of land extent cultivated in dry season

100 Pre BWA Post BWA

Figure 2. Percentage of land extend cultivated in past dry seasons

4.1.3. Cropping intensity

Pre BWA Post BWA

100 y = 1.4213x + 50.788

Figure 3. Changes in cropping intensity in Mahaweli H area

4.2. PERFORMANCE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY